The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha, by 
E. Raymond Hall

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: A Synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha

Author: E. Raymond Hall

Release Date: May 19, 2010 [EBook #32426]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NORTH AMERICAN LAGOMORPHA ***




Produced by Chris Curnow, Simon Gardner, Joseph Cooper and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net

A Synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha

BY

E. RAYMOND HALL

University of Kansas Publications
Museum of Natural History

Volume 5, No. 10, pp. 119-202, 68 figures in text
December 15, 1951

University of Kansas
LAWRENCE
1951

UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS

The University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History, are offered in exchange for the publications of learned societies and institutions, universities and libraries. For exchanges and information, address the Exchange Desk, University of Kansas Library, Lawrence, Kansas, U. S. A.

Museum of Natural History.—E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Editorial Committee.

This series contains contributions from the Museum of Natural History. Cited as Univ. Kans. Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist.

• Vol. 1. (Complete) Nos. 1-26. Pp. 1-638. August 15, 1946-January 20, 1951.
• Vol. 2. (Complete) Mammals of Washington. By Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text. April 9, 1948.
• Vol. 3.
  1. The avifauna of Micronesia its origin, evolution, and distribution. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 1-359, 16 figures in text. June 12, 1951.
  2. A quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds. Pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text. June 29, 1951.
  3. Phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. By M. Dale Arvey. Pp. 473-530, 49 figures in text, 13 tables. October 10, 1951.
  4. Birds from the state of Veracruz, Mexico. By George H. Lowery, Jr., and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 531-649, 7 figures in text, 2 tables. October 10, 1951.
• Vol. 4. In press.
• Vol. 5.
  1. Preliminary survey of a Paleocene faunule from the Angels Peak Area, New Mexico. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 1-11, 1 figure in text. February 24, 1951.
  2. Two new moles (genus Scalopus) from Mexico and Texas. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 17-24. February 28, 1951.
  3. Two new pocket gophers from Wyoming and Colorado. By E. Raymond Hall and H. Gordon Montague. Pp. 25-32. February 28, 1951.
  4. Mammals obtained by Dr. Curt von Wedel from the barrier beach of Tamaulipas, Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 33-47, 1 figure in text. October 1, 1951.
  5. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some North American rabbits. By E. Raymond Hall and Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 49-58. October 1, 1951.
  6. Two new subspecies of Thomomys bottae from New Mexico and Colorado. By Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 59-71, one figure in text. October 1, 1951.
  7. A new subspecies of Microtus montanus from Montana and comments on Microtus canicaudus Miller. By E. Raymond Hall and Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 73-79. October 1, 1951.
  8. A new pocket gopher (genus Thomomys) from Eastern Colorado. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 81-85. October 1, 1951.
  9. Mammals taken along the Alaska highway. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 87-117, 1 figure in text. November 28, 1951.
  10. A synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 110-202, 68 figures in text. December 15, 1951.

A Synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha

BY

E. RAYMOND HALL

University of Kansas Publications
Museum of Natural History

Volume 5, No. 10, pp. 119-202, 68 figures in text
December 15, 1951

University of Kansas
LAWRENCE
1951

University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History

Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor, Robert W. Wilson

Volume 5, No. 10, pp. 119-202, 68 figures in text
December 15, 1951

University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas

PRINTED BY
FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER
TOPEKA, KANSAS
1951
23-7988[Pg 121]

A Synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha

BY

E. RAYMOND HALL

The most popular small game mammal in nearly every part of North America is one or another of the species of rabbits or hares. The rabbit is one of the few species of wild game that still is hunted commercially and sold for food on the open market. The close association and repeated contact of man with these animals has resulted in his contracting such of their diseases as are transmissible to him. Consequently the rabbits and hares have figured in many investigations concerned with public health and medicine. Because the number of such investigations is increasing, there has been an increasing number of specimens of these animals submitted to mammalogists for identification; also, inquiries are received as to the degree of relationship between two or more of the named kinds of rabbits in which identical, or closely related, disease organisms have been found; other inquiries have to do with the degree of relationship of named kinds of rabbits and hares in widely separated parts of the continent.

The monographs to which the investigator could turn to obtain answers to some of these questions are Arthur H. Howell's "Revision of the American Pikas" (1924), and Edward H. Nelson's "The Rabbits of North America" (1909) published 27 and 42 years ago, respectively. These monographs are still excellent sources of detailed information, as, of course, also is Marcus Ward Lyon's "Classification of the Hares and their Allies" (1904). The acquisition of additional study specimens in recent years, however, has provided new data on the geographic occurrence of several species, and study of these specimens has given basis for a different arrangement of several named kinds of the lagomorphs. Two principal aims of the present synopsis, therefore, are to combine in one publication the current taxonomic arrangement and as much as is known of the geographic distribution of the several species and subspecies.

The maps herewith and listings of marginal localities are the means chosen to present the information on geographic distribution. The artificial key is supplemented by line drawings of skulls of certain species and by a minimum of text to aid the user of the key.[Pg 122] The skulls are necessary for the identification of some species of the genus Sylvilagus. The skins, on the contrary, are essential for the identification of the species of the genus Lepus in central Mexico and in the Great Basin of the western United States. Consequently, it has been impossible to construct a key based on external characters only or on cranial features only. Furthermore, the only apparent differences between a given pair of species in one region may not be apparent in another region where the same two species occur together. A case in point is provided by Sylvilagus floridanus and Sylvilagus nuttallii where the Great Plains meet the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains and where the Sonoran desert meets the southwestern flank of these mountains. The details are described by Hall and Kelson (1951:52, 53) and are indicated in the part of the accompanying artificial key that takes out the species Sylvilagus nuttallii. Because of this geographic change in specific characters and because of the slight amount of difference between certain species of leporids, I have frequently resorted to geography, instead of to morphology alone, in constructing the artificial key. Despite this fault of the key to the lagomorphs, it, and the accompanying account, I hope, will aid workers who need to identify kinds of lagomorphs and to know about their geographic distribution.

Another reason for presenting a synopsis of the lagomorphs at this time is that the presentation may bring suggestions for improvement in the arrangement of the kind of information presented here; an account along similar lines for all of the kinds of mammals native to North America is in prospect. Corrections of, and additions to, the material presented here will be welcomed and I shall be especially grateful for suggestions as to a more useful arrangement of the data.

In arranging the families, genera and species the aim has been, in each category, to list the most primitive members first and to list last the one which presents the highest total of specialization. The term total of specialization is used here, as Miller (1924:2) used it, to denote the sum of the physical modifications which any mammal, or taxonomic category of mammals, is supposed by the author to have undergone during the course of its development away from its original or generalized mammalian stock.

Subspecies of any one species are arranged alphabetically. On the maps, of course, the subspecies are shown in their correct geographic positions.

For each subspecies, or species if it has not been divided into subspecies, there is given (1) the accepted scientific name (selected[Pg 123] in accordance with the rules of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature); (2) a citation to the account in which the terminal part of the name was first proposed (the original description of zoological parlance) followed by a statement of the type locality; (3) a citation to the account in which the combination of names (generic, specific and subspecific) used in the present account first was employed unless the name combination used here is the same as that in the original description; (4) synonyms arranged in chronological order, and (5) marginal record stations of occurrence.

These marginal records are arranged in clockwise order beginning with the northernmost locality. If more than one of the marginal localities lies on the line of latitude that is northernmost for a given kind of mammal, the westernmost of these is recorded first. The marginal localities that are represented by symbols on the corresponding distribution map are in Roman type. Italic type is used for those marginal localities that could not be represented by symbols on the map because undue crowding, or overlapping, of the symbols would have occurred. An understanding of how these localities are arranged and knowledge as to which of these localities are shown on the map will permit a person to associate any symbol on a map with its corresponding place name.

Measurements are in millimeters unless otherwise indicated. Capitalized color terms are after Ridgway (Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912), and uncapitalized terms refer to no particular color standard. Several of the drawings of skulls were reproduced originally in the "Mammals of Nevada" (Hall, 1946) and I am grateful to the University of California Press for permission to use them here. Those drawings were made by Miss Viola Memmler. The other drawings are the work of Mrs. Frieda Abernathy, Mrs. Diane (Danley) Sandidge, and Mrs. Virginia (Cassel) Unruh. Initials on the drawings identify the individual's work. The study here reported upon was aided by a contract between the Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy, and the University of Kansas (NR 161-791). Also, assistance with some of the field work was given by the Kansas University Endowment Association and by Dr. Curt von Wedel. For the corrected dates on several publications I am indebted to Dr. A. Remington Kellogg. For assistance with the organization of the data for the present account I am grateful to several persons, especially to my wife, Mary F. Hall, and to Dr. Keith R. Kelson.[Pg 124]

Order LAGOMORPHA—Hares, Rabbits and Pikas

The order Lagomorpha is old in the geological sense; fossilized bones and teeth of both pikas and rabbits are known from deposits of Oligocene age and even at that early time the structural features distinguishing these animals from other orders were well developed.

A noteworthy character of the order is the presence of four upper incisor teeth (instead of only two as in the Rodentia); also, the fibula is ankylosed to the tibia and articulates with the calcaneum. Each of the first upper incisors has a longitudinal groove on its anterior face.

All lagomorphs are herbivorous. They eat principally leaves and non-woody stems although the bark of sprouts and bushes is taken as second choice by rabbits and hares.

Correlation of structure and function is well illustrated among the lagomorphs by the means which the different species employ to detect and escape from their enemies. A gradient series is evident in which the pikas and jack rabbits are the extremes. The black-tailed jack rabbit, for example, in relation to size of the entire animal, has the longest ears and longest hind legs. This kind of lagomorph takes alarm when an enemy, for example, a coyote, is yet a long way off. The jack rabbit seeks safety in running; even when being overtaken by a pursuer that is close behind, the jack rabbit still relies on its running ability instead of entering thick brush or a hole in the ground where its larger-sized pursuer would be unable to follow. A cottontail has shorter ears and shorter hind legs. It allows the enemy to approach more closely than the jack rabbit does before running, and then, although relying in some measure on its running ability for escape, flees to a burrow or thicket for safety from its pursuer. The brush rabbit with ears and hind legs shorter than those of the cottontail seldom if ever ventures farther than 45 feet away from the edge of dense cover. After an enemy is near, the brush rabbit has merely to scamper back into the brush. Still shorter of ear and hind leg is the pigmy rabbit which ventures outside its burrow to feed only among the tall and closely-spaced bushes of sagebrush among which its burrow is dug. Detection of the slightest movement of an enemy on the opposite side of the bush sends the pigmy rabbit, in one or a few jumps, into[Pg 125] the mouth of its burrow and, if need be, below ground. The pika, with the shortest ears and legs of all, lives in the rock slides and has to do little more than drop off the top of a rock into a space between the broken rocks when an enemy is detected near enough to the pika to have a chance of seizing it.

The number of molts in a year, depending on the kind of lagomorph, varies in adults from one (according to Nelson, 1909:31) in the cottontails (genus Sylvilagus) to as many as three (according to Lyman, 1943, and Severaid, 1945) in the varying hare (Lepus americanus). Difficulties that I have experienced in attempting to account for the variations in color and wear of the pelage of the pika, Ochotona princeps, on the basis of two molts per year, make me wonder if it, too, has three molts. Lepus townsendii certainly has at least two molts per year.

Key to Families and Genera of Lagomorpha

• 1. Hind legs scarcely larger than forelegs; hind foot less than 40; nasals widest anteriorly; no supraorbital process on frontal; five cheek teeth on each side above
• Family Ochotonidae, Genus Ochotona, p. 125
• 1´. Hind legs notably larger than forelegs; hind foot more than 40; nasals widest posteriorly; supraorbital process on frontal; six cheek teeth on each side above
• Family Leporidae, p. 134
• 2. Interparietal fused with parietals (see fig. 49); hind foot usually more than 105
• Genus Lepus, p. 170
• 2´. Interparietal not fused with parietals (see fig. 10); hind foot usually less than 105
• Genera Romerolagus and Sylvilagus, pp. 137, 138

Family Ochotonidae—Pikas

Certain characters in which this family differs from the Leporidae (hares and rabbits) are: hind legs scarcely longer than forelegs; ears short, approximately as wide as high; no postorbital process on frontal; rostrum slender; nasals widest anteriorly; maxilla not conspicuously fenestrated; jugal long and projecting far posteriorly to zygomatic arm of squamosal; no pubic symphysis; one less cheek-tooth above, the dental formula being i. 2/1, c. 0/0, p. 3/2, m. 2/3; second upper maxillary tooth unlike third in form; last lower molar simple (not double) or absent (in the extinct genus Oreolagus); cutting edge of first upper incisor V-shaped; mental foramen situated under last lower molar.

Genus Ochotona Link—Pikas

Revised by A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:1-57, August 21, 1924.

Characters.—Five teeth (excluding incisor) in lower jaw; first cheek-tooth (p3) with more than one re-entrant angle; columns of lower molars angular[Pg 126] internally; transverse width of any one column of a lower molariform tooth more than double the width of the neck connecting it to the other column.

Subgenus PIKA Lacépède

Characters.—Skull flattened; interorbital region wide; maxillary orifice roundly triangular; palatal foramina separate from anterior palatine foramina.

All of the living members of the family Ochotonidae belong to this genus. American pikas all belong to the subgenus Pika, which occurs also in Eurasia.

The distribution is boreal and the animals live in talus. This broken rock at the foot of a cliff provides interstices in which the animals live and store grass and herbs. These plant materials are cut for food and stacked in piles to dry in the sun, often beneath slabs of rock which protect the hay-piles from rain. Pikas are diurnal, active throughout the year, and have a characteristic call, "chickck-chickck." Young number two to five per litter.

Figs. 1-4. Ochotona princeps tutelata, Greenmonster Canyon, 8150 feet, No. 38519 MVZ, ♂, × 1.

Key to Nominal Species of Ochotona

• 1. North of 58° N latitude; underparts creamy white, without buffy wash; an indistinct grayish "collar" on shoulders
• collaris, p. 126
• 1´. South of 58° N latitude; underparts washed with buff; no grayish "collar" on shoulders
• princeps, p. 127

Ochotona collaris (Nelson)
Collared Pika

Ochotona princeps
Pika

Total length, 162-216; hind foot, 25-35; weight of O. p. tulelata, 6 ♂ 121 (108-128), 2 ♀ 121 and 129 grams. Upper parts varying from grayish to Cinnamon-Buff depending on the subspecies; underparts with wash of buff. Eight Nevadan females had an average of 3.1 (2-4) embryos. The mode was 3.

Ochotona princeps albata Grinnell.

Ochotona princeps brooksi A. H. Howell.

Ochotona princeps brunnescens A. H. Howell.

[Pg 128]

Fig. 5. Distribution of Ochotona collaris and Ochotona princeps.

1. O. collaris
2. O. p. princeps
3. O. p. lutescens
4. O. p. septentrionalis
5. O. p. brooksi
6. O. p. cuppes
7. O. p. brunnescens
8. O. p. fenisex
9. O. p. fumosa
10. O. p. jewetti
11. O. p. taylori
12. O. p. schisticeps
13. O. p. muiri
14. O. p. albatus
15. O. p. sheltoni
16. O. p. tutelata
17. O. p. nevadensis
18. O. p. uinta
19. O. p. moorei
20. O. p. cinnamomea
21. O. p. fuscipes
22. O. p. utahensis
23. O. p. howelli
24. O. p. lemhi
25. O. p. goldmani
26. O. p. clamosa
27. O. p. ventorum
28. O. p. levis
29. O. p. figginsi
30. O. p. saxatilis
31. O. p. nigrescens
32. O. p. incana

[Pg 129]

Ochotona princeps cinnamomea J. A. Allen.

Ochotona princeps clamosa Hall and Bowlus.

Ochotona princeps cuppes Bangs.

Ochotona princeps fenisex Osgood.

Ochotona princeps figginsi J. A. Allen.

[Pg 130]

Ochotona princeps fumosa A. H. Howell.

Ochotona princeps fuscipes A. H. Howell.

Ochotona princeps goldmani A. H. Howell.

Ochotona princeps howelli Borell.

Ochotona princeps incana A. H. Howell.

Ochotona princeps jewetti A. H. Howell.

[Pg 131]

Ochotona princeps lemhi A. H. Howell.

Ochotona princeps levis Hollister.

Ochotona princeps lutescens A. H. Howell.

Ochotona princeps moorei Gardner.

Ochotona princeps muiri Grinnell and Storer.

Ochotona princeps nevadensis A. H. Howell.

[Pg 132]

Ochotona princeps nigrescens V. Bailey.

Ochotona princeps princeps (Richardson).

Ochotona princeps saxatilis Bangs.

Ochotona princeps schisticeps (Merriam).

Ochotona princeps septentrionalis Cowan and Racey.

Ochotona princeps sheltoni Grinnell.

Ochotona princeps taylori Grinnell.

Ochotona princeps tutelata Hall.

Ochotona princeps uinta Hollister.

Ochotona princeps utahensis Hall and Hayward.

Ochotona princeps ventorum A. H. Howell.

[Pg 134]

Family Leporidae—Rabbits and Hares

Hind legs longer than forelegs; ears longer than wide; frontal bone carrying supraorbital process consisting always of posterior arm and sometimes of anterior arm; rostrum wide; nasals not wider anteriorly than posteriorly; maxillae conspicuously fenestrated; jugal projecting less than half way from zygomatic root of squamosal to external auditory meatus (except in Romerolagus); pubic symphysis well marked; dental formula, i. 2/1, c. 0/0, p. 3/2, m. 3/3 (but m. 2/3 in Pentalagus of Liu Kiu Islands south of Japan); second upper maxillary tooth like third in form; last lower molar double; cutting edge of first upper incisor straight; mental foramen of mandible situated under first lower cheek-tooth. Females average larger than males in all members of this family. (See Orr, 1940:20.) The reverse is true in most other families of mammals.

Hare is a name applied to any lagomorph whose young are born fully haired, with the eyes open, and able to run about a few minutes after birth. The young are born in the open, not in a nest. All of the species of the genus Lepus are hares. The species of leporids of all genera other than Lepus, in North America at least, are rabbits. Their young are born naked, blind, and helpless, in a nest especially built for them and lined with fur. Considering the degree of development of the young at birth, the gestation periods are about what a person would expect: 26 to 30 days in Sylvilagus and 36 to 47 days in Lepus (see Severaid, 1950:356-357). Vernacular names are misleading because the names jack rabbit and snowshoe rabbit are applied to hares; also, Belgian hare is a name applied to a rabbit (genus Oryctolagus) that is commonly bred in captivity. There are many domestic strains and varieties of Oryctolagus and the animals are second only to poultry in some areas as a protein food for man. Also, the pelts are sold as a source of felt and many of the skins are dyed and processed for making fur coats and other fur-pieces that appear on the market under names not readily associated with rabbit.

Rabbits and hares are crepuscular and possibly more nocturnal than diurnal. So far as I know they do not store food as do their diurnal relatives, the pikas. Some leporids, however, have an unusual, and possibly unique, method of processing food: Two types of vegetable pellets are expelled from the anal opening of the digestive tract; the dark brownish pellets, from which the nutriments[Pg 135] have been extracted, are feces, but the greenish pellets seem to be only slightly predigested foods which are re-eaten. Southern (1942:553), among others, has written about this. This system functionally resembles that in the ruminants where a cud of vegetation is returned to the mouth, from one part of the stomach, to be re-chewed and finally swallowed.

Because the causative organism of a disease that decimates dense populations of small mammals, and some other kinds of vertebrates, was isolated first in leporids, this disease, tularemia, is more associated in the popular mind with rabbits than with other kinds of mammals. Actually, many kinds of mammals are quite as likely to have tularemia as are rabbits. Now that streptomycin is available, cases of tularemia in persons are easily cured.

Key to Species of the Genera Sylvilagus and Romerolagus

• 1. Antorbital extension of supraorbital process more than 1/2 length of posterior extension; first upper cheek-tooth with only one re-entrant angle on anterior face; re-entrant angle of second upper cheek-tooth not crenate
• Sylvilagus idahoensis, p. 139
• 1´. Antorbital extension of supraorbital process less than 1/2 of posterior extension or entirely absent; first upper cheek-tooth with more than one (usually 3) re-entrant angles on anterior face; re-entrant angle of second upper cheek-tooth crenate.
• 2. Anterior extension of supraorbital process absent (or if a point is barely indicated, then 5/6 or all of posterior process fused to braincase).
• 3. Tympanic bulla smaller than foramen magnum; hind foot more than 74; geographic range wholly in United States.
• 4. Ear more than 58 from notch in dried skin; basilar length of skull more than 63
• Sylvilagus aquaticus, p. 166
• 4´. Ear less than 58 from notch in dried skin; basilar length of skull less than 63.
• 5. Underside of tail white; posterior extension of supraorbital process tapering to a slender point, this point free of braincase or barely touching it and leaving a slit or long foramen
• Sylvilagus transitionalis, p. 160
• 5´. Underside of tail brown or gray; posterior extension of supraorbital process always fused to skull, usually for entire length but in occasional specimens there is small foramen at middle of posterior extension of supraorbital process
• Sylvilagus palustris, p. 147
• 3´. Tympanic bulla as large as foramen magnum; hind foot less than 74; geographic range limited to southern edge of Mexican tableland at high elevations
• Romerolagus diazi, p. 138
• 2´. Anterior extension of supraorbital process present, and posterior extension free of braincase or leaving a slit between the process and braincase.
• 6. Tympanic bullae large (see fig. 26).
• Sylvilagus audubonii, p. 162
• 6´. Tympanic bullae small (see figs. 23, 25 and 27).
• 7. Restricted to Pacific coastal strip from Columbia River south to tip of Baja California, west of Sierra Nevada-Cascade Mountain Chain; hind foot less than 81.
• Sylvilagus bachmani and S. mansuetus, pp. 143, 147
• 7´. East of the Pacific coastal strip mentioned in 7; hind foot usually more than 81.
• 8. If north of United States-Mexican boundary:
• 9. In Arizona, New Mexico and southern Colorado posterior extension of supraorbital process free of braincase, and supraoccipital shield posteriorly pointed; from central Colorado north into Canada diameter of external auditory meatus more than crown length of last three cheek-teeth
• Sylvilagus nuttallii, p. 161
• 9´. In Arizona, New Mexico and southeastern Colorado posterior extension of supraorbital process of frontal with its tip against, or fused to, braincase, and supraoccipital shield posteriorly truncate or notched; from central Colorado north into Canada, diameter of external auditory meatus less than crown length of last three cheek-teeth
• Sylvilagus floridanus, p. 154
• 8´. If south of United States-Mexican boundary:
• 10. Geographic range restricted to Tres Marias Islands
• Sylvilagus graysoni, p. 169
• 10´. Geographic range not including Tres Marias Islands.
• 11. Underside of tail dingy gray or buffy (not white).
• 12. Tail short (less than 30) and brown like rump; ear from notch (dry) less than 53; interorbital breadth less than 16.
• Sylvilagus brasiliensis, p. 141
• 12´. Tail of moderate length (more than 30) and dingy gray; ear from notch (dry) more than 53; interorbital breadth more than 16
• Sylvilagus insonus, p. 168
• 11´. Underside of tail distinctly white.
• 13. Total length more than 476; ear from notch (dry) more than 64; interorbital breadth usually more than 19.3; geographic range, southwestern Mexico north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
• Sylvilagus cunicularius, p. 169
• 13´. Total length less than 476; ear from notch (dry) less than 64; interorbital breadth usually less than 19.3; geographic range, Canada to Panamá
• Sylvilagus floridanus, p. 154

[Pg 137]

Genus Romerolagus Merriam—Volcano Rabbit

Total length 300 to 311; tail rudimentary; hind foot, 52; ear from notch (dry), 36; upper parts grizzled buffy brown or dull cinnamon brown; underparts dingy gray; anterior projection of supraorbital process absent; jugal projecting posteriorly past squamosal root of zygomatic arch more than half way to external auditory meatus. The two cranial characters mentioned are resemblances to pikas although the skull otherwise resembles that of the true rabbits. The genus contains only the one living species.

Living in well defined runways in the dense sacoton grass, these small rabbits are mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but sometimes are active by day, especially in cloudy weather in the period of mating.

Fig. 6. Distribution of Romerolagus diazi.

[Pg 138]

Romerolagus diazi (Diaz)
Volcano Rabbit

Genus Sylvilagus Gray—Cottontails and Allies

Total length, 291-538; tail, 18-73; hind foot, 71-110; ear from notch (dry) 41-74. Grayish to dark brownish above and lighter below; sutures of interparietal bone distinct throughout life; second to fourth cervical vertebrae broader than long with dorsal surface flattened and without carination.

The delectable flesh of members of this genus, the large numbers that occur on a small area, even in thickly settled rural areas, and the wariness that rabbits soon develop when much hunted, give them top ranking among small game mammals. Tens of thousands of cottontails in Kansas and Missouri (Sylvilagus floridanus and some S. audubonii) are captured alive, transported to the eastern United States and released there to bolster the local supply of game. Considering that certain ectoparasites are limited to certain hosts and that some ectoparasites transmit such diseases as Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever whereas other ectoparasites do not, this transplantation of rabbits is dangerous. Also, expenditure of $100.00 on improving the habitat for Sylvilagus in a given area in the eastern United States would produce more cottontails than the expenditure of the same sum for live animals, from the Middlewest, that are to be released (see Langenbach and Beule, 1942:14, 15 and 30).

Different species venture different distances from cover to feed. The Audubon cottontail of west-central California ventures a hundred feet and more from cover but the brush rabbit was never seen[Pg 139] (Orr, 1940:182) farther than 42 feet from cover. In the thirties, when a gladiolus farmer from the chaparral belt of Santa Clara County, California, visited the University of California seeking advice on how to prevent damage by "cottontails" to his gladioli plantings, we asked the farmer if brush rabbits or cottontails were responsible and suggested to the farmer, who was unable to distinguish between the two, that an animal be killed and submitted for identification. When this was done, the brush rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani) was found to be responsible for the damage. Robert T. Orr's recommendation that the chaparral (brush) be cut back 45 feet from the gladioli plantings was reluctantly followed and proved to be effective. A letter from a Santa Clara County agricultural official a couple of years later expressed thanks for the recommendation made by Orr, and estimated that adoption of his recommendations saved farmers of that one county $40,000 annually. This incident illustrates how detailed knowledge of the life history of a given kind of animal and control of its environment, rather than direct "control" of the animal, is sometimes of value to man.

The genus Sylvilagus is restricted to the New World; the two species Sylvilagus brasiliensis and S. floridanus are the only two which occur in South America and they occur also in North America.

Subgenus BRACHYLAGUS Miller—Pigmy Rabbit

Sylvilagus idahoensis (Merriam)
Pigmy Rabbit

Fig. 7. Distribution of Sylvilagus idahoensis.

[Pg 141]

Subgenus SYLVILAGUS Gray—Cottontails and Allies

Characters of subgeneric worth, in contrast to those of the subgenus Brachylagus, are: First premolar, in upper jaw and in lower jaw, with more than one fold in the enamel; infolded enamel, which divides each molar tooth into two parts, crenate.

The many nominal species of the subgenus Sylvilagus belong to no more than 12 and perhaps to only ten full species. The now more abundant specimens than were available a half century ago reveal also that there are less trenchant differences between some of the species than were supposed to exist when the five names for genera or subgenera listed immediately above were proposed. Some species can be placed in each of two subgenera with almost equal propriety. If used, four of the five subgeneric names mentioned above would contain only one species each. It seems that no useful purpose is served by attempting to fit the several species of the genus Sylvilagus into more than the two subgenera Brachylagus and Sylvilagus; the other names, Tapeti Gray, Microlagus Trouessart, Limnolagus Mearns, and Paludilagus Hershkovitz, are here arranged as synonyms of the subgeneric name Sylvilagus Gray.

Sylvilagus brasiliensis
Forest Rabbit

Total length, 380-420; tail, 20-21; hind foot, 77-80; ear from notch (dry), 39-46. The principal characters of this species are small size, dark color, short tail, and dingy buffy (not white) undersurface of the tail. These rabbits rest in forests or other thick vegetative cover and do not venture far from such cover to feed.

Sylvilagus brasiliensis consobrinus Anthony.

Sylvilagus brasiliensis dicei Harris.

Fig. 8. Distribution of Sylvilagus brasiliensis.

1. S. b. truei
2. S. b. gabbi
3. S. b. dicei
4. S. b. consobrinus
5. S. b. messorius
6. S. b. incitatus

Sylvilagus brasiliensis gabbi (J. A. Allen).

[Pg 143]

Sylvilagus brasiliensis incitatus (Bangs).

Sylvilagus brasiliensis messorius Goldman.

Sylvilagus brasiliensis truei (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus bachmani
Brush Rabbit

Fig. 9. Distribution of Sylvilagus bachmani and Sylvilagus mansuetus.

1. S. b. ubericolor
2. S. b. tehamae
3. S. b. macrorhinus
4. S. b. riparius
5. S. b. mariposae
6. S. b. bachmani
7. S. b. virgulti
8. S. b. cinerascens
9. S. b. rosaphagus
10. S. b. howelli
11. S. b. exiguus
12. S. b. peninsularis
13. S. b. cerrosensis
14. S. mansuetus

Size small. Total length, 300-375; tail, 20-43; hind foot, 64-81; ear from notch (dry), 50-64; weight (topotypes of S. b. macrorhinus) 16 ♂ 679 (561-832), 22 ♀ 707 (517-843) grams. Body uniformly dark brown or brownish gray, but tail whitish beneath; hair on midventral part of body gray at base; only a slight crenulation of ridge of enamel which separates an individual molariform tooth into anterior and posterior sections. From Sylvilagus audubonii, the only other species of Sylvilagus in the same geographic area, S. bachmani differs in smaller size, less white on underparts (the hairs on the midventral part of the body being gray instead of white at base), shorter ears and legs, and a less crenulated ridge of enamel separating the anterior and posterior parts of a molariform tooth.

The brush rabbit is a Pacific Coastal species; as may be seen from figure 9 on the next page, this species occurs from the Columbia River on the north to the tip of Baja California on the south. Nowhere, so far as I can learn, does it occur as far east as the crest of the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Mountain Chain. Throughout its range the brush rabbit is closely associated with—in fact, lives in—the chaparral that is dense enough to afford protection from raptorial birds and the larger carnivorous mammals. The rabbit's[Pg 144] reliance on protective cover is so great that, as pointed out on an earlier page, a person can turn this trait to advantage in protecting cultivated crops from inroads that the rabbits might make on them. The protection is afforded by clearing the brush from a strip forty-five feet wide so that the cleared strip intervenes between the cultivated crops and the brushy shelter. The rabbits will not risk crossing the open strip and hence do not reach the growing crops.

Brush rabbits use simple "forms" in the brush for resting. Only one observer (Orr, 1940: 173) has reported an individual entering a hole. In patches of chaparral in which the rabbits live they make runways that are especially well defined at the edges of the brush. The outer entrance to a runway is tunnellike and one to two feet from the outer entrance there is a special form that serves as a lookout post. A brush rabbit that is about to venture into the open ordinarily pauses in such a form for several minutes, presumably to satisfy itself that no enemy is in the open area whither the rabbit is bound.

The breeding season is from January to June, at least in California. There are 2 to 5 young, averaging 3.5 per litter. They are born in a nest.[Pg 145]

Sylvilagus bachmani bachmani (Waterhouse).

Sylvilagus bachmani cerrosensis (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus bachmani cinerascens (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus bachmani exiguus Nelson.

Sylvilagus bachmani howelli Huey.

Sylvilagus bachmani macrorhinus Orr.

Sylvilagus bachmani mariposae Grinnell and Storer.

[Pg 146]

Sylvilagus bachmani peninsularis (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus bachmani riparius Orr.

Sylvilagus bachmani rosaphagus Huey.

Sylvilagus bachmani tehamae Orr.

Sylvilagus bachmani ubericolor (Miller).

Sylvilagus bachmani virgulti Dice.

[Pg 147]

Sylvilagus mansuetus
Brush Rabbit

This insular species is closely related to Sylvilagus bachmani and is distinguished by paleness, proportionately longer and narrower skull, fusion to skull of anterior arm of supraorbital process, and larger jugal.

Sylvilagus palustris
Marsh Rabbit
(See figure 42)

Total length, 425-440; tail, 33-39; hind foot, 88-91; ear from notch (dry), 45-52. Upper parts blackish brown or reddish brown; underside of tail brownish or dingy gray (not white); ears, tail and hind feet short; posterior and anterior extensions of supraorbital processes joined to skull along most (or all) of their extent. The lack of white on the underside of the tail is a ready means of distinguishing this species from the other species of the genus which occur within its geographic range. The species occurs in the lowlands, possibly not above 500 feet altitude, of the Lower Austral and Tropical life-zones. In Florida, Blair (1936) found that the marsh rabbit ate 29 per cent of its bodily weight in green food each day and that the number of embryos in 3 females was 4, 4 and 3.

Sylvilagus palustris paludicola (Miller and Bangs).

Sylvilagus palustris palustris (Bachman).

[Pg 148]

Figs. 10-14. Dorsal views of skulls of rabbits. All × 1.

• Fig. 10. Romerolagus diazi, 31 km. S Mexico City, D. F. No. 30815 KU, ♀.
• Fig. 11. Sylvilagus idahoensis, Millett P. O., Nevada. No. 37275 MVZ, ♂.
• Fig. 12. Sylvilagus brasiliensis truei, 30 km. SSE Jesus Carranza, Veracruz. No. 32128 KU, ♂.
• Fig. 13. Sylvilagus bachmani macrorhinus, 1700 feet, Alpine Creek Ranch, San Mateo County, California. No. 53382 MVZ, ♀.
• Fig. 14. Sylvilagus palustris palustris, Riceboro, Georgia. No. 45502 USNM, ♀. (After Nelson, 1909: pl. 12, fig. 3.)

[Pg 149]

Figs. 15-19. Dorsal views of skulls of rabbits. All × 1.

• Fig. 15. Sylvilagus nuttallii grangeri, 1/2 mi. E. Jefferson, Nev. No. 58527, ♀.
• Fig. 16. Sylvilagus audubonii minor, 3290 ft., Neville Spring, Grapevine Mts., Big Bend, Brewster Co., Texas. No. 80519 MVZ, ♂.
• Fig. 17. Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi, 4 mi. NE Lawrence, Douglas Co., Kansas. No. 3774 KU, ♂.
• Fig. 18. Sylvilagus a. aquaticus, Crawford Co., Kansas. No. 8544 KU. ♂.
• Fig. 19. Sylvilagus cunicularius cunicularius, 3 km. W Acultzingo, Veracruz. No. 30749 KU, ♂.

[Pg 150]

Figs. 20-24. Ventral views of skulls of rabbits. All × 1. Different views of the first four of these skulls are shown in figs. 10-13.

• Fig. 20. Romerolagus diazi.
• Fig. 21. Sylvilagus idahoensis.
• Fig. 22. Sylvilagus brasiliensis truei.
• Fig. 23. Sylvilagus bachmani macrorhinus.
• Fig. 24. Sylvilagus palustris palustris, Society Hill, South Carolina. No. 2089 USNM (after Lyon, 1904: pl. 76, fig. 6).

[Pg 151]

Figs. 25-29. Ventral views of skulls of rabbits. All × 1. Different views of these skulls are shown in figs. 15-19.

• Fig. 25. Sylvilagus nuttallii grangeri.
• Fig. 26. Sylvilagus audubonii minor.
• Fig. 27. Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi.
• Fig. 28. Sylvilagus aquaticus aquaticus.
• Fig. 29. Sylvilagus cunicularius cunicularius.

[Pg 152]

Figs. 30-34. Lateral views of skulls of rabbits. All × 1. Different views of these skulls are shown in figs. 10-15.

• Fig. 30. Romerolagus diazi.
• Fig. 31. Sylvilagus idahoensis.
• Fig. 32. Sylvilagus brasiliensis truei.
• Fig. 33. Sylvilagus bachmani macrorhinus.
• Fig. 34. Sylvilagus nuttallii grangeri.

[Pg 153]

Figs. 35-38. Lateral views of skulls of rabbits. All × 1. Different views of these skulls are shown in figs. 16-19.

• Fig. 35. Sylvilagus audubonii minor.
• Fig. 36. Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi.
• Fig. 37. Sylvilagus aquaticus aquaticus.
• Fig. 38. Sylvilagus cunicularius cunicularius.

[Pg 154]

Sylvilagus floridanus
Florida Cottontail

Total length, 375-463; tail, 39-65; hind foot, 87-104; ear from notch (dry), 49-68; upper parts brownish or grayish; underside of tail white; skull with transversely thick posterior extension of supraorbital process of frontal. The geographic range is the largest of all of the North American species of the genus Sylvilagus; from Canada the species occurs south at least to Costa Rica and it may occur in Panamá for the species is recorded also from South America.

In the western part of the Great Plains this species is confined to the riparian growth along streams and Sylvilagus audubonii occupies the remainder of the terrain. In New Mexico and southwestern Texas S. floridanus is confined to the boreal life-zones where timber provides denser cover than is found in the lower life-zones. The zonal range is from the Canadian Life-zone into the Tropical Life-zone. It is not surprising, therefore, that there is much geographic variation in the shape and size of the skull. There is so much geographic variation in the skull that it is impossible, at this writing at least, to frame a description that will enable the reader to distinguish the skull from those of all other species of the genus. In any given area, however, it is possible, easily and certainly, to distinguish the skulls of S. floridanus from those of the other species which occur in that area.

Sylvilagus floridanus alacer (Bangs).

Sylvilagus floridanus ammophilus A. H. Howell.

[Pg 155]

Fig. 39. Distribution of Sylvilagus nuttallii, S. floridanus and S. insonus.

Sylvilagus floridanus aztecus (J. A. Allen).

[Pg 156]

Sylvilagus floridanus chapmani (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus floridanus chiapensis (Nelson).

Sylvilagus floridanus cognatus Nelson.

Sylvilagus floridanus connectens (Nelson).

Sylvilagus floridanus costaricensis Harris.

[Pg 157]

Sylvilagus floridanus floridanus (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus floridanus hitchensi Mearns.

Sylvilagus floridanus holzneri (Mearns).

Sylvilagus floridanus hondurensis Goldman.

Sylvilagus floridanus llanensis Blair.

[Pg 158]

Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus (Thomas).

Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus floridanus orizabae (Merriam).

Sylvilagus floridanus restrictus Nelson.

[Pg 159]

Sylvilagus floridanus robustus (V. Bailey).

Sylvilagus floridanus russatus (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus floridanus similis Nelson.

Sylvilagus floridanus subcinctus (Miller).

Sylvilagus floridanus yucatanicus (Miller).

[Pg 160]

Sylvilagus transitionalis (Bangs)
New England Cottontail

Fig. 40. Distribution of Sylvilagus transitionalis.

[Pg 161]

Total length, 388; tail, 39; hind foot, 95; ear from notch (dry), 52. Upper parts almost pinkish buff, varying to almost ochraceous buff; back overlaid by a distinct black wash giving a penciled effect; anterior extension of supraorbital process obsolete or short and closely appressed to orbital rim; tympanic bullae small, smaller than in any subspecies of S. floridanus in the United States. S. transitionalis is a forest-inhabiting species—more so than is S. floridanus.

Sylvilagus nuttallii
Nuttall Cottontail
(See figure 39)

Total length, 350-390; tail, 44-50; hind foot, 88-100; ear from notch (dry), 55-56; weight in Nevada, ♂ 678, 3 ♀ 928 (868-1032) grams. Hind feet densely covered with long hair; ear short; tympanic bulla of moderate size. In the northern part of its range S. nuttallii occurs principally in the sagebrush areas but it occurs also in the timbered areas of the Transition Life-zone and almost exclusively in timbered areas in the southern part of its range. From S. floridanus, S. nuttallii along the eastern margin of its range differs in more slender rostrum, and larger external auditory meatus. In New Mexico and Arizona, S. nuttallii differs from S. floridanus in the posteriorly pointed and un-notched supraoccipital shield and in the posterior extension of the supraorbital process, the tip of which projects free from the braincase or merely lies against the braincase instead of being firmly welded to the side of the skull. From S. audubonii, S. nuttallii differs in shorter ears, smaller tympanic bullae and smaller hind legs; S. nuttallii usually occurs at higher elevations, or where the two occur at approximately the same elevation S. nuttallii occurs in wooded or brushy areas and S. audubonii lives on the plains or in relatively open country. Eight females contained an average of 6.1 (4-8) embryos.

Sylvilagus nuttallii grangeri (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii (Bachman).

Sylvilagus nuttallii pinetis (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus audubonii
Audubon Cottontail

Total length, 350-420; tail, 45-75; hind foot, 75-100; ear from notch (dry), 55-70; weight of S. a. vallicola, 7 ♂ 912 (835-988), 2 ♀ 1096, 1191 grams. Long hind legs, long ears, sparseness of hair on the ears, shortness of hair on the feet, prominent (upturned) supraorbital process of the skull and much inflated tympanic bullae are characters of this wide-spread species. Embryos in 19 Californian females averaged 3.6 (2-6) per female.[Pg 163]

Fig. 41. Distribution of Sylvilagus audubonii.

[Pg 164]

Sylvilagus audubonii arizonae (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus audubonii audubonii (Baird).

Sylvilagus audubonii baileyi (Merriam).

Sylvilagus audubonii cedrophilus Nelson.

[Pg 165]

Sylvilagus audubonii confinis (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus audubonii goldmani (Nelson).

Sylvilagus audubonii minor (Mearns).

Sylvilagus audubonii neomexicanus Nelson.

Sylvilagus audubonii parvulus (J. A. Allen).

[Pg 166]

Sylvilagus audubonii sanctidiegi (Miller).

Sylvilagus audubonii vallicola Nelson.

Sylvilagus audubonii warreni Nelson.

Sylvilagus aquaticus
Swamp Rabbit

Total length, 530-540; tail, 67-71; hind foot, 105-110; length of ear from notch (dry), 63-67. Upper parts blackish brown or reddish brown; underparts with some white; under side of tail white; skull robust; posterior extensions of supraorbital processes joined for their entire length with side of braincase or, in some specimens, with a small foramen between the braincase and the base of the posterior extension of the supraorbital process. This big rabbit is a stronger runner than the smaller marsh rabbit and is easily distinguished from the smaller species by larger size and white, instead of brownish or grayish, underside of the tail.

Sylvilagus aquaticus aquaticus (Bachman).

[Pg 167]

Fig. 42. Distribution of Sylvilagus palustris and Sylvilagus aquaticus.

1. S. p. palustris
2. S. p. paludicola
3. S. a. aquaticus
4. S. a. littoralis

Sylvilagus aquaticus littoralis Nelson.

Sylvilagus insonus (Nelson)
Omilteme Cottontail
(See figure 39)

Total length, 435; tail, 42.5; hind foot, 95; ear from notch (dry), 61. Color grayish brown above and dingy (not white) below; tail dingy buffy below and dull rusty brown above. The collectors thought that the species was restricted to the forested parts of the Sierra Madre del Sur between 7000 and 10,000 feet altitude in the Mexican state of Guerrero.

Fig. 43. Distribution of Sylvilagus cunicularius and Sylvilagus graysoni.

1. Sylvilagus cunicularius insolitas
2. Sylvilagus cunicularius pacificus
3. Sylvilagus cunicularius cunicularius
4. Sylvilagus graysoni

[Pg 169]

Sylvilagus cunicularius
Mexican Cottontail

Total length, 485-515; tail, 54-68; hind foot, 108-111; ear from notch (dry), 60-63. Pelage coarse; upper parts brownish gray; skull massive; posterior extensions of supraorbital processes varying from those that project free to those that have the tips, or tips and a considerable part of the processes, attached to the braincase.

Sylvilagus cunicularius cunicularius (Waterhouse).

Sylvilagus cunicularius insolitus (J. A. Allen).

Sylvilagus cunicularius pacificus (Nelson).

Sylvilagus graysoni (J. A. Allen)
Tres Marias Cottontail

Total length, 480; tail, 51; hind foot, 99; ear from notch (dry), 57. This insular species is closely related to Sylvilagus cunicularius of the adjacent mainland but has notably shorter ears and more reddish on the upper parts, sides and legs; the skull is slenderer, es[Pg 170]pecially in the rostral region. The posterior extensions of the supraorbital process are united to the braincase throughout most of their length as in Sylvilagus palustris. The species seems to have a narrow vertical range, occurring from sea level up to only 200 feet.

Genus Lepus Linnaeus—Hares and Jack Rabbits

Total length, 363-664; tail, 25-112; hind foot, 112-189; ear from notch (dry), 62-144. Upper parts grayish, brownish or black; interparietal bone fused to surrounding bones; cervical vertabrae long, 2nd and 3rd being longer than wide; transverse processes of lumbar vertabrae long, the longest one equal to the length of the centrum to which it is attached plus half of the length of the preceding centrum; free extremity of transverse process of lumbar vertebra considerably expanded; distance from anterior edge of acetabulum to extreme anterior point of ilium less than distance from former point to most distant point of ischium; ulna reduced in size along middle part of shaft, and, excepting the lower extremity, placed almost entirely behind radius.

All members of the genus Lepus are technically hares, as these are defined in the account of the family Leporidae. The largest members of the order Lagomorpha are members of the genus Lepus. No domestic strains have been developed but effort in this direction might be profitable, in as much as the so-called Belgian hares of the related genus, Oryctolagus, have done well in captivity.

In the past it has been customary to recognize two or more subgenera of the genus Lepus. The species are a less diverse lot than[Pg 171] those in some other genera, however, and it seems that no useful purpose is served by recognizing subgenera. Accordingly, the several names proposed for this purpose are arranged here as synonyms of the generic name Lepus Linnaeus.

The introduction of the European Hare (Lepus europaeus) into the eastern part of the North American Continent has been successful in the sense that the animal is multiplying. If it continues to increase, the increase almost certainly will be at the expense of some native species of rabbit. This circumstance and the unfortunate consequences of the introduction of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in New Zealand (see Wodzicki, 1950:107-141) and Australia (see Stead, 1925:355-358) give basis for effort to exterminate the alien species before it spreads more widely.

Key to the Species of the Genus Lepus

• 1. North of 34° N latitude.
• 2. All white pelage (tips of ears sometimes black).
• 3. North of line from Port Simpson, British Columbia, to Halifax, Nova Scotia.
• 4. Basilar length of skull more than 67; ear from notch usually more than 73 dry (77 fresh); first upper incisors inscribing an arch of a circle the radius of which is more than 9.6 mm.
• 5. Geographic range east of Mackenzie River.
• Lepus arcticus, p. 178
• 5´. Geographic range west of Mackenzie River.
• Lepus othus, p. 177
• 4´. Basilar length of skull less than 67; ear from notch usually less than 73 dry (77 fresh); first upper incisors inscribing an arch of a circle the radius of which is less than 9.6 mm.
• Lepus americanus, p. 173
• 3´. South of a line from Port Simpson, British Columbia to Halifax, Nova Scotia.
• 5. Ear from notch more than 82 dry (87 fresh); least interorbital breadth more than 26
• Lepus townsendii, p. 180
• 5´. Ear from notch less than 82 dry (87 fresh); least interorbital breadth less than 26
• Lepus americanus, p. 173
• 2´. Brownish or grayish pelage.
• 6. Tail blackish or brownish all around (in specimens not having completed molt on tail, white winter pelage may be present); basilar length less than 67 mm.
• Lepus americanus, p. 173
• 6´. Tail partly or wholly white.
• 7. Tail black on upper surface.
• 8. Upper sides of hind feet without a trace of white; upper parts tawny.
• Lepus europaeus, p. 189
• 8´. Upper sides of hind feet with more or less white or whitish; upper parts grayish or brownish
• [Pg 172]Lepus californicus, p. 181
• 7´. Tail all white or (in some Lepus townsendii) with faint buffy or dusky median line on top but this line not extending on to rump (as in L. californicus).
• 9. Geographic range north of a line from Port Simpson, British Columbia, to Halifax, Nova Scotia.
• 10. Geographic range east of Mackenzie River
• Lepus arcticus, p. 178
• 10´. Geographic range west of Mackenzie River
• Lepus othus, p. 177
• 9´. Geographic range south of a line from Port Simpson, British Columbia, to Halifax, Nova Scotia
• Lepus townsendii, p. 180
• 1´. South of 34° N latitude.
• 11. In state of Tamaulipas, México.
• Lepus californicus, p. 181
• 11´. Range outside Tamaulipas, México.
• 12. Ears with terminal black patch (on outside).
• Lepus californicus and Lepus insularis, pp. 181, 186
• 12´. Ears without terminal black patch.
• 13. Ear from notch, dry more than 130 (137 fresh),
• Lepus alleni, p. 188
• 13´. Ear from notch, dry less than 130 (137 fresh).
• 14. Nape more or less black.
• 15. Ears yellow; range Pacific Coastal region of Isthmus of Tehuantepec in southern Oaxaca and Chiapas.
• Lepus flavigularis, p. 188
• 15´. Ears dark buff, grayish, white and black; range north of Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
• Lepus callotis, p. 186
• 14´. Nape gray or grayish buff.
• Lepus gaillardi, p. 188

[Pg 173]

Fig. 44. Distribution of Lepus americanus.

Lepus americanus
American Varying Hare

Total length, 363-520; tail, 25-55; hind foot, 112-150; ear from notch (dry), 62-70. Upper parts brownish or dusky grayish; hind feet brownish or white depending on subspecies; winter pelage white except in certain populations along Pacific Coast; basilar length less than 67; first upper incisors inscribing an arc of a circle[Pg 174] the radius of which is less than 9.6 mm. There are two to six young in a litter according to Orr (1940:59).

Lepus americanus americanus Erxleben.

Lepus americanus bairdii Hayden.

Lepus americanus cascadensis Nelson.

[Pg 175]

Lepus americanus columbiensis Rhoads.

Lepus americanus dalli Merriam.

Lepus americanus klamathensis Merriam.

Lepus americanus macfarlani Merriam.

Lepus americanus oregonus Orr.

[Pg 176]

Lepus americanus pallidus Cowan.

Lepus americanus phaeonotus J. A. Allen.

Lepus americanus pineus Dalquest.

Lepus americanus seclusus Baker and Hankins.

Lepus americanus struthopus Bangs.

Lepus americanus tahoensis Orr.

[Pg 177]

Lepus americanus virginianus Harlan.

Lepus americanus washingtonii Baird.

Lepus othus
Alaskan Hare

Total length, 565-690; tail, 53-104; hind foot, 147-189; ear from notch (dry), 75-78. Color brownish in summer; white in winter; but tips of ears always black. General comparisons indicate that this is the species which, in Eurasia, bears the name Lepus timidus.

Lepus othus othus Merriam.

Lepus othus poadromus Merriam.

[Pg 178]

Lepus arcticus
Arctic Hare

Total length, 480-678; tail, 34-80; hind foot, 132-174; ear from notch (dry), 70-84. Upper parts gray in summer in southern subspecies; in others white; in winter white in all subspecies, except black tips of ears. Weights of lean individuals reach 12 pounds. Hopping on the hind feet without touching the forefeet to the ground has repeatedly been recorded for this species. There are four to eight young in a litter.

Fig. 45. Distribution of Lepus othus and Lepus arcticus.

1. L. o. othus
2. L. o. poadromus
3. L. a. groenlandicus
4. L. a. porsildi
5. L. a. monstrabilis
6. L. a. arcticus
7. L. a. andersoni
8. L. a. labradorius
9. L. a. bangsi

Lepus arcticus arcticus Ross.

[Pg 179]

Lepus arcticus andersoni Nelson.

Lepus arcticus bangsii Rhoads.

Lepus arcticus groenlandicus Rhoads.

Lepus arcticus labradorius Miller.

Lepus arcticus monstrabilis Nelson.

[Pg 180]

Lepus arcticus porsildi Nelson.

Lepus townsendii
White-tailed Jack Rabbit

Total length, 565-655; tail, 66-112; hind foot, 145-172; ear from notch (dry), 96-113. Upper parts grayish brown; tail all white or with dusky or buffy mid-dorsal stripe which does not extend onto back; white in winter in northern parts of its range. Two adult males weighed 2945 and 2494 grams (Orr, 1940:43) and there are 3 to 6 young in a litter.

Fig. 46. Distribution of Lepus townsendii.

1. Lepus townsendii townsendii
2. Lepus townsendii campanius

Lepus townsendii campanius Hollister.

[Pg 181]

Lepus townsendii townsendii Bachman.

Lepus californicus
Black-tailed Jack Rabbit

Total length, 465-630; tail, 50-112; hind foot, 112-145; ear from notch (dry), 99-131. Upper parts gray to blackish; tail with black mid-dorsal stripe extending onto back; never all white in winter. On the tableland of Mexico and in the southwestern United States where this species occurs together with the white-sided jack rabbits, L. californicus can be recognized by the terminal black patch on the outside of each ear and by the less extensive area of white on the flank. To the eastward, in Tamaulipas, where only the black-tailed jack rabbit occurs, it too, has extensively white flanks and some individuals lack the terminal black patch on the ear.

A certain means for distinguishing the skulls of the black-tailed jack rabbit from those of all of the white-sided jack rabbits has not yet been found. The same is true of the skulls of the white-tailed jack rabbit and the black-tailed jack rabbit in the Great Basin region of Nevada. The skulls, at least of adults, of these two species, in the[Pg 182] region east of the Rocky Mountains can be readily distinguished by the pattern of infolding of the enamel on the front of the first upper incisor teeth; L. townsendii has a simple groove on the anterior face of the tooth and L. californicus, east of the Rocky Mountains, has a bifurcation, or even trifurcation, of the infold that can readily be seen by examining the occlusal surface of the incisor.

In Arizona, Vorhies and Taylor (1933:478) found the weight of 23 adult males to average 5.1 (4.4-6.1) lbs. In that state, 70 pregnant females averaged 2.24 (1-6) young per litter and the authors (op. cit.) thought that a female had three or four litters each year.

Lepus californicus altamirae Nelson.

Lepus californicus asellus Miller.

Lepus californicus bennettii Gray.

Lepus californicus californicus Gray.

[Pg 183]

Lepus californicus curti Hall.

Fig. 47. Distribution of Lepus californicus and Lepus insularis.

[Pg 184]

Lepus californicus deserticola Mearns.

Lepus californicus eremicus J. A. Allen.

Lepus californicus festinus Nelson.

Lepus californicus magdalenae Nelson.

Lepus californicus martirensis Stowell.

[Pg 185]

Lepus californicus melanotis Mearns.

Lepus californicus merriami Mearns.

Lepus californicus richardsonii Bachman.

Lepus californicus sheldoni Burt.

Lepus californicus texianus Waterhouse.

Lepus californicus wallawalla Merriam.

Lepus californicus xanti Thomas.

Lepus insularis Bryant
Black Jack Rabbit

Total length, 574; tail, 96; hind foot, 121; ear from notch (dry), 105. This insular species, clearly a close relative of Lepus californicus of the adjacent peninsula of Baja California, is mainly glossy black on the upper parts but grizzled and suffused on sides of back and body, and in some specimens on head, with dark buffy or reddish brown; underparts dark cinnamon buffy or dusky brown; ears and sides of head grayish dusky; jugals heavier than in Lepus californicus of the adjacent peninsula of Baja California.

Lepus callotis Wagler
White-sided Jack Rabbit

Total length, 560; tail, 71; length of hind foot, 133; ear from notch (dry), 117. Upper parts dark, slightly pinkish, buff heavily washed with black; backs of ears mainly white without terminal patch of black; flanks white; rump iron gray.

Fig. 48. Distribution of the White-sided Jack Rabbits.

Guide to kinds:

1. Lepus callotis
2. Lepus flavigularis
3. Lepus gaillardi gaillardi
4. Lepus gaillardi battyi
5. Lepus alleni alleni
6. Lepus alleni palitans
7. Lepus alleni tiburonensis

[Pg 188]

Lepus flavigularis Wagner
Tehuantepec Jack Rabbit

Total length, 595; tail, 77; hind foot, 133; ear from notch (dry), 112. Upper parts bright ochraceous buff strongly washed with black; ears entirely buff; nape with black stripe extending back from base of each ear and median stripe of buff; flanks and underparts of body white; rump iron gray; tympanic bullae smaller than in any other Lepus of México.

Lepus gaillardi
Gaillard Jack Rabbit

Total length, 450-536; tail, 59-80; hind foot, 124-133; ear from notch (dry), 110-112. Coloration essentially as in Lepus callotis except that nape is plain buff, without a trace of black, and upper parts paler, more vinaceous buff.

Lepus gaillardi battyi J. A. Allen.

Lepus gaillardi gaillardi Mearns.

Lepus alleni
Antelope Jack Rabbit

Total length, 553-670; tail, 48-76; hind foot, 127-150, ear from notch, in flesh, 138-173. Top and sides of head creamy buff, slightly washed on top with black; tail white except for mid-dorsal line of black extending onto rump; sides of shoulders, flanks, sides of abdomen, rump, and outside of hind legs uniform iron gray. The average weight of 61 adult males from Arizona was 8.2 lbs. In that state 124 pregnant females had an average of 1.93 young (1-5) and Vorhies and Taylor (1933:580) thought that a female had three or four litters per year.[Pg 189]

Lepus alleni alleni Mearns.

Lepus alleni palitans Bangs.

Lepus alleni tiburonensis Townsend.

Lepus europaeus
European Hare

Total length, 640-700; tail, 70-100; hind foot, 130-150; ear from notch (dry), 79-100; weight, 3000 to 5000 grams. Upper parts tawny, mixed with blackish hairs on back; underparts white including underside of tail; upper side of tail and terminal patch at distal end of outside of ears black; upper side of feet tawny like sides (not white or whitish). This is an introduced species.

Lepus europaeus europaeus Pallas.

Lepus europaeus hybridus Desmarest.

[Pg 190]

Figs. 49-51. Dorsal views of skulls of hares. All × 1.

• Fig. 49. Lepus americanus tahoensis, 1/2 mi. S Tahoe Tavern, Lake Tahoe, Placer County, California. No. 37522 MVZ, ♂.
• Fig. 50. Lepus alleni alleni, Santa Rita Mountains, 30 mi. S Tucson, Pima County, Arizona. No. 8621 KU, ♂.
• Fig. 51. Lepus arcticus groenlandicus, Cape Alexander, Greenland. No. 114850 USNM, ♂.

[Pg 191]

Figs. 52-54. Dorsal views of skulls of hares. All × 1.

• Fig. 52. Lepus townsendii townsendii, north end Ruby Valley, east base Ruby Mountains, Elko County, Nevada. No. 4686, coll. of Ralph Ellis, ♀.
• Fig. 53. Lepus callotis, 3-1/2 mi. S Tecolotlán, Jalisco. No. 31842 KU, ♀.
• Fig. 54. Lepus californicus deserticola, 4 mi. W Fallon, Churchill County, Nevada. No. 900061 MVZ, ♂.

[Pg 192]

Figs. 55-57. Ventral views of skulls of hares. All × 1. Different views of these skulls are shown in figs. 49-51.

• Fig. 55. Lepus americanus tahoensis.
• Fig. 56. Lepus alleni alleni.
• Fig. 57. Lepus arcticus groenlandicus.

[Pg 193]

Figs. 58-60. Ventral views of skulls of hares. All × 1. Different views of these skulls are shown in figs. 49-51.

• Fig. 58. Lepus townsendii townsendii.
• Fig. 59. Lepus callotis.
• Fig. 60. Lepus californicus deserticola.

[Pg 194]

Figs. 61-64. Lateral views of skulls (one lower jaw) of hares.
All × 1.
Different views of these skulls are shown in figs. 49-51.

• Fig. 61. Lepus alleni alleni.
• Fig. 62. Lepus americanus tahoensis.
• Figs. 63-64. Lepus arcticus groenlandicus.

[Pg 195]

Figs. 65-68. Lateral views of skulls (one lower jaw) of hares. All × 1. Different views of these skulls are shown in figs. 52-54.

• Fig. 65. Lepus townsendii townsendii.
• Fig. 66. Lepus callotis.
• Figs. 67-68. Lepus californicus deserticola.

[Pg 196]

LITERATURE CITED

Allen, J. A.

Anderson, R. M.

Anderson, R. M., and Rand, A. L.

Bailey, A. M., and Hendee, R. W.

Bailey, V.

Barnes, C. T.

Black, J. D.

Blair, W. F.

Bole, B. P., Jr., and Moulthrop, P. N.

Borell, A. E., and Bryant, M. D.

[Pg 197]

Brown, L.

Burt, W. H.

Burt, W. H., and Hooper, E. T.

Cahalane, V. H.

Cary, M.

Cockrum, E. L.

Cowan, I. McT.

Dalquest, W. W.

Davis, W. B.

Davis, W. B., and Robertson, J. L., Jr.

Dellinger, S. C., and Black, J. D.

[Pg 198]

Dice, L. R.

Durrant, S. D.

Enders, R. K.

Goldman, E. A.

Goodwin, G. G.

Hall, E. R.

Hall, E. R., and Bowlus, H. L.

Hall, E. R., and Kelson, K. R.

Hall, E. R., and Villa R. B.

Hamilton, W. J., Jr.

Handley, C. O., Jr., and Patton, C. P.

[Pg 199]

Harrison, T., and Nickie, P. F.

Hill, J. E.

Hoffmeister, D. F.

Hooper, E. T.

Howell, A. H.

Huey, L. M.

Kellogg, R.

Langenbach, J. R., and Beule, J. D.

Leopold, A. S., and Hall, E. R.

Linsdale, J.

Llewellyn, L. M., and Handley, C. O.

[Pg 200]

Lowery, G. H., Jr.

Lyman, C. P.

Lyon, M. W., Jr.

Manville, R. H.

Martin, K.

Miller, G. S., Jr.

Necker, W. L., and Hatfield, D. M.

Nelson, E. W.

Orr, R. T.

Osgood, F. L., Jr.

Over, W. H., and Churchhill, F. P.

Palmer, R. S.

Peterson, R. L.

Philip, C. B.

Rausch, R.

Rust, H. J.

[Pg 201]

Schantz, V. S.

Severaid, J. H.

Sherman, H. B.

Sherman, F.

Silver, J.

Snyder, L. L., and Logier, E. B. S.

Soper, J. D.

Southern, H. N.

Stead, D. G.

Surber, T.

Swanson, G., Surber, T., and Roberts, T. S.

Taylor, W. P., and Shaw, W. T.

Vorhies, C. T., and Taylor, W. P.

Warren, E. R.

[Pg 202]

Wodzicki, K. A.

Transmitted May 8, 1951. Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.

23-7988

End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Synopsis of the North American
Lagomorpha, by E. Raymond Hall

*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NORTH AMERICAN LAGOMORPHA ***

***** This file should be named 32426-h.htm or 32426-h.zip *****
This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/4/2/32426/

Produced by Chris Curnow, Simon Gardner, Joseph Cooper and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net


Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
will be renamed.

Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
redistribution.



*** START: FULL LICENSE ***

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
http://gutenberg.org/license).


Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works

1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.  See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
States.

1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org

1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
1.E.9.

1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.

1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
that

- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."

- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
     License.  You must require such a user to return or
     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
     Project Gutenberg-tm works.

- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
     of receipt of the work.

- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
your equipment.

1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.


Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.


Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
page at http://pglaf.org

For additional contact information:
     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
     Chief Executive and Director
     gbnewby@pglaf.org


Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
particular state visit http://pglaf.org

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate


Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.

Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.


Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.


Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:

     http://www.gutenberg.org

This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.