Habitation.—In its wild state the kestril falcon may be found throughout Europe, preferring mountainous places, where there are walls of rocks or ruined castles. It is a bird of passage, which departs in October with the larks, and may then be seen hovering over them, or pouncing at mice; it returns in the following March.

In the house, if taken when old, it must be kept in a wire cage; but if caught and trained when young it may be left quite at liberty, provided its wings are kept clipped; in that case it will neither quit the house nor lodging assigned it, especially when become familiar with the dogs and cats.

Food.—In its wild state it preys on small birds and mice, pursues 29sparrows to the house-top, and even attacks birds in their cages; it is nevertheless contented with cockchafers, beetles, and grasshoppers.

In confinement it is fed on birds, mice, and a little raw meat; when given only the fresh offal of pigeons, or the lights and livers of sheep, it becomes so tame, that even if taken when old it never appears to regret the loss of its freedom.

Breeding.—The kestril falcon builds its nest in the fissures of rooks, high towers, old castles, or some aged tree. It lays from four to six eggs of a reddish yellow colour, spotted with red and brown. The young ones, which are at first covered with a simple white down, may be easily reared on fresh mutton.

Mode of Taking.—Lime twigs placed over the nest will easily secure the old ones when they come to feed their young; or a bird of prey’y basket, with a lark or mouse put in it as a lure, may be placed where these birds are most frequently seen. This machine is raised on four stakes, and somewhat resembles a common safe, having a lower shelf as large as a moderate sized table, with four upright posts, to which are fastened the partitions of net or wire; on the top and sides are fixed two iron rods; on these, by means of rings, there runs a net which covers the whole.

Attractive Qualities.—Its fine plumage, its sonorous notes kle, kle, which it sometimes repeats in continued succession, and its amusing actions, must make it a favourite with most amateurs; it cannot, indeed, like other species of falcon, be trained to the chase; but if taken when very young, and fed with the food before mentioned, it may be taught to fly to some distance and then return, even in the midst of the largest cities.

Habitation.—In its wild state this small species of owl frequents old buildings, towers, and church walls, where its nest is also found14.

In the house it must always be kept in a cage, which may be hung in the window, for if permitted to mix with the other birds it would kill them.

Food.—When wild its general food is mice and large insects; I have also found in the indigested remains which this, like other birds of prey, discharges from its stomach, a considerable quantity of the fruit of the red cornel tree (Cornus sanguinea, Linnæus). This proves that it also feeds on berries.

In the cage it may be kept for some time in good health, without having its excrements tainted, if fed on dried mutton: the skin, fat, and bones must be removed, and the meat left to soak in water for two days before it is eaten. Three quarters of an ounce a day of this meat dried will be sufficient, particularly if now and then some mice or birds be given it, which it swallows, feathers and all; it can devour as many as five mice at a meal. It begins to wake up at about two in the afternoon, and then becomes very lively, and soon wants its food.

Breeding.—The female lays two white eggs, which the male takes his turn to sit upon; the young ones may be very easily reared on fresh meat, particularly on pigeons. Before the first moulting the head is of a soft reddish grey clouded with white. The large round spots on the back become gradually more marked, and the reddish white of the under part by degrees acquires long streaks of brown on the breast and sides.

Diseases.—If great care be not taken sometimes to give it mice or birds, the fur and feathers of which cleanse the stomach, it will soon die of decline.

Mode of Taking.—When the place of its retreat during the day is discovered, it cannot fail to be taken if a net in the form of a bag or sack be placed over the mouth of the hole, for the bird will by this means entrap itself when endeavouring to come out for the evening.

Attractive Qualities.—This bird, which is very cleanly, always deposits its dung in one particular spot. Its singular motions are amusing, but its harsh cry, and restlessness, particularly during the season of copulation, are rather disagreeable. It is much used on the continent as a decoy, to entrap small birds.

Habitation.—When wild, this species generally frequents groves, thickets, and the borders of forests; it is also found among brambles, and on lonely trees, always perched on the top. It never quits the abode it has once chosen, either in winter or summer. When caught it must be kept in a large wire cage. Its liveliness and desire for prey prevent its being permitted to mix with the other birds.

Food.—In its wild state, it feeds in summer on grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, and other insects, even lizards, and small adders, and when those 32fail, on mice and small birds; these, with mice, moles, and the like, form its winter food. When pursuing its prey, the shrike makes a particular movement, in order to seize it on the side; but it does not always succeed, as it cannot use its claws like birds of prey, and often only carries off a beakful of feathers.

In the cage, if the bird be taken when old, some mice, birds, or living insects, may be thrown to it, taking care to leave it quite alone, for as long as any one is present it will touch nothing; but as soon as it has once begun to feed freely it will eat fresh meat, and even become accustomed to the universal paste, described in the Introduction. This shrike eats very much for its size, at the least one ounce of meat at a meal. It likes to have a forked branch, or crossed sticks in its cage, across the angles of which it throws the mouse, or any other prey which has been given it, and then darting on it behind from the opposite side of the cage, devours every morsel, let it be ever so large. It bathes freely.

Mode of Taking.—Although it flies very swiftly when pursuing its prey, it may easily be taken if a nest of young birds, crying from hunger, be suspended to some lime twigs. In autumn and winter, it will sometimes dart on birds in cages which are outside the window. It may then be easily caught, if the cage be put into a sort of box, having the lid so placed that the bird by the least touch would cause it to fall upon itself. These means must be employed by those who wish to possess birds which they can let go and come at will.

Attractive Qualities.—Its cry somewhat resembles the guir, guir of the lark; like the nutcracker, it can imitate the different notes, but not the songs, of other birds. Nothing is more agreeable than its own warbling, which much resembles the whistling of the grey parrot; its throat at the time being expanded like that of the green frog. It is a great pity that it only sings during the pairing season, which is from March to May, and even then often spoils the beautiful melody of its song, with some harsh, discordant notes. The female also sings. As some of its tones resemble the human voice, it might probably be taught to speak.

Habitation.—Wild, it is a bird of passage, departing the first of September, and returning the beginning of the following May15. It generally frequents woods, orchards, and the hedges of fields. Always perched on the tops of trees, it rarely descends into the lower bushes. It feeds on insects.

In the house, it must have a large wire cage like the larks, but with three perches. It is not safe to let it mix with the other birds, as it would soon kill them.

Food.—In its wild state it feeds on beetles, cockchafers, crickets, breeze-flies, and other insects; when these fail, in consequence of a long continuance of rain, it sometimes seizes young birds.

In the house, if an old bird and lately taken, as soon as it is put in the cage, some living insects, or a small bird just killed, must be thrown into it. After some time, it will be satisfied with raw or dressed meat; but it is not always an easy task to get it to eat this food, for it will sometimes take eight successive days, during which meal worms and other insects are added; but as soon as it is accustomed to meat, it becomes so tame that it will feed from the hand, and if the cage door be opened it will even perch on the wrist to eat. Notwithstanding all my care, I have only been able to preserve those two years, which have been taken wild, they have all died of decline16; those, on the contrary, which have been reared from the nest, do not require so much attention, being contented with any kind of common food.

Breeding.—This bird generally builds in a tree on the edge of a wood, or in a garden, the nest being rather large and irregular. The young are fed on beetles and grasshoppers. In order to rear them, they must be taken from the nest when the tail begins to grow, and fed at first on ants' eggs, and afterwards on white bread soaked in milk.

Mode of Taking.—When the particular brambles and branches have been observed, on which this bird watches for its prey, it is not difficult to catch it; for notwithstanding its great quickness, it is not the less imprudent, for it allows itself to be caught in the bird-lime in the most stupid manner.

Attractive Qualities.—This species has no particular song: the female has none at all; but the male imitates, with wonderful facility, the songs of other birds, not only the detached parts, but the whole notes, so correctly that it would not be difficult to mistake it. Thus it imitates exactly, and in order, all the variations of the song of the nightingale, though more feebly, and like an echo, its notes not being so full and clear: it imitates equally well the song of the lark, and similar birds. 34This wonderful power of imitation cannot fail to please amateurs, and make them wish to possess this interesting bird. I have observed that it likes best to repeat the call of the quail. One of this species which I had among my collection, always stopped its song, however lively, when it heard that of the quail, for the purpose of imitating it; the latter, before it was accustomed to this, became very jealous, and as soon as it heard it, ran about in every direction, furiously endeavouring to fight its fancied rival.

Habitation.—When wild it is a bird of passage, arriving at the end of April, and departing about the middle of September17. It inhabits mountains, forests, and wooded plains, but prefers enclosed pastures where horses are kept day and night.

In confinement it requires the same treatment as the preceding.

Food.—In its wild state it prefers beetles, the dung of cows and horses, maybugs, grasshoppers, breeze-flies, and other insects; it often also darts upon lizards and young quails.

In a state of confinement it is fed like the preceding; but being more delicate it is better to rear it from the nest, feeding it on raw meat. If an old bird be taken, it is impossible to preserve it unless it be constantly fed on live insects.

Breeding.—The woodchat commonly builds its nest on the thick and bushy branches of large trees, and makes it of small sticks, moss, hogs' bristles, wool and fur. The female breeds twice, laying each time six reddish-white eggs, marked particularly at the large end with distinct red spots, mixed with pale ones of a bluish grey. The young ones are hatched in fifteen days; their colour, before the first moulting, is on the upper part, dirty white, spotted with grey; the under part is also dirty white, 35clouded with pale grey; the wing coverts are bordered with rust colour; the quill feathers and tail are black.

Mode of Taking.—A cruel method, but the surest, is to place bird-lime on its nest, this being the most wary species of shrike; but as it bathes freely it may be taken about the middle of the day at its washing place, if near hedges. It is often found drowned in large ponds.

Attractive Qualities.—Although this species appears endowed with as good a memory as the preceding, its notes are less agreeable, not being so soft, and it introduces some stanzas of its own shrill and harsh warbling into the songs that it imitates, which are those of the nightingale, linnet, redstart, and goldfinch. But this bird is most admired for its beautiful plumage.

Habitation.—When wild it is one of the latest birds of passage, as it does not arrive till May. It is sometimes found in woody valleys where cattle graze, more commonly in hedges, and fields with bushes in them, or in inclosed pastures where horses and cows are kept. It is one of the first migratory birds to depart, which it does in August, in families, even before the young ones have moulted.

In the house, it must be treated like the former, and kept in a wire cage, for it would soon kill its companions, as I experienced some years ago. The bird I refer to had been three days without eating, although I had given him a great variety of dead birds and insects. On the fourth day I set him at liberty in the room, supposing him too weak to hurt the other birds, and thinking that he would become better accustomed to his new food if I left him at liberty. Hardly was he set free than he seized and killed a dunnock before I had time to save it; I let him eat it, and then put him back into the cage. From this time, as if his fury were satisfied, he ate all that was given him.

Food.—In its wild state, it eats large quantities of beetles, maybugs, crickets, and grasshoppers, but it prefers breeze-flies, and other insects which teaze the cattle. It impales as many of these insects as it can catch for its meal on the thorns of bushes. If, during a long continuance of rain, these insects disappear, it then feeds on field-mice, lizards, and young birds, which it also fixes on the thorns.

When confined, its food is the same as the preceding species. Some insects, mixed with the nightingales’ paste, make it more palatable for it. A little raw or dressed meat may also be given it from time to time.

Breeding.—When the season is favourable this species breeds twice, and generally chooses a large hawthorn bush in which to build its nest, roots and coarse stubble forming the base of it, then a layer of moss interwoven with wool, and the finest fibres of roots lining the interior. The female lays from five to six greenish white eggs, spotted all over, especially at the large end, and speckled with red and grey; the male takes his turn with the female to sit during fourteen days. Before moulting, the young ones resemble the female in colour. The back and breast are greenish grey, streaked with several waving brown lines; the belly is dirty white. They can be easily reared by feeding them at first with ants’ eggs, then with dressed meat, and afterwards with white bread soaked in milk: this last food it always likes if early accustomed to it.

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Mode of Taking.—As soon as this bird arrives in May, the bushes on which it most frequently perches must be observed; these are very few, and on them the lime twigs must be placed; it is often entrapped within a quarter of an hour. Success is more certain if a beetle, maybug, or breeze-fly, be fastened near the lime twigs with horse hair, by two feet, so that it can move its wings. As soon as the bird is stuck in the bird-lime it is necessary when taking it to avoid its beak, as it pecks very hard.

Attractive Qualities.—This bird does not rank low among the singers; its song is not only very pleasing but continual. While singing, it is generally perched on a lonely bush, or on the lower branches of a tree, but always near its nest. Its warbling is composed of the songs of the swallow, goldfinch, fauvette, nightingale, red-breast, and lark, with which, indeed, it mixes here and there some of its own harsh notes. It almost exclusively imitates the birds in its immediate neighbourhood; it very rarely repeats the song or call of those which merely fly past it; when it does, it seems only in mockery. There are, however, some songs which it cannot imitate: for instance, that of the chaffinch and yellowhammer, its throat not seeming to be sufficiently flexible for these. In the house, its song is composed of the warbling of those birds whose cages are hung near it. It is very lively, and its plumage is handsome.

If a room is to be cleared of flies, one of these birds set at liberty in it will soon effect it; it catches them flying with great skill and agility. When a thorny branch is given it, it impales all its flies, making at the same time the drollest and most singular movements. This species easily and quickly learns to whistle airs, but it forgets them with the same facility, in order to learn new ones.

Habitation.—This species only inhabits the wooded parts of a country; it there builds its nest on the highest trees. Its eggs, from three to five in number, are of a dirty green, streaked with olive brown. If the young ones be taken in order to instruct them, they must be removed on the 39twelfth day after bursting the shell, when they have only half their feathers. They are fed on meat, snails, worms, and bread soaked in milk; after a little time they will eat bread, meat, and any refuse from the table. In its wild state the raven eats leverets, birds’ eggs, mice, young goslings, chickens, and snails, and even pears, cherries, and other fruit; this shows us that it is rather hurtful as well as useful.

Peculiar Qualities.—The carrion crow is one of the commonest birds; in the groves, which it likes best, it congregates in such numbers that twenty nests have been built on the same tree18; the eggs are spotted with grey or olive brown on a green ground. The young may be taken from the nest in the month of March, or even earlier if the winter be mild they are treated and fed like the former species. The carrion crow is even more easily tamed, for I have seen old ones, which have been taught to go and come, and others in their wild state, which have regularly fed in the yard going in the spring to breed in the woods, and returning at the beginning of the winter to pass that season in a domestic state. Insects, worms, mice, fruit, and grain form its principal food in its wild state.

Mode of Taking.—The easiest and most usual method is with paper cones, at the bottom of which is put a bit of meat, and bird-lime on the inner edges. It may also be caught with lime twigs placed in the yard, or before the house, on horse dung and among scattered grain.

Habitation.—When wild, the jay frequents woods; above all, those in which there are firs mixed with other trees.

In the house it must be kept in a large cage in the form of a tower, or in any other shape; it is too dirty a bird to be let range at liberty.

Food.—In its wild state it prefers worms, insects, and berries, when acorns and beech-mast fail: it makes great havoc among cherries.

In the cage, it soon becomes accustomed to bread soaked in milk, but it will eat almost any thing, bread, soft cheese, baked meat, and all that comes from table; acorns and beech-mast however are its favourite food. It must be kept very clean, otherwise its soiled and dirty plumage would make it look to great disadvantage. It is better to feed it entirely on corn; it becomes by this means less dirty, and its excrements are not so soft or fœtid. It may be preserved for several years on this food. It must always have fresh water given it, as much for drinking as for bathing.

Breeding.—The jay builds in beech-trees, oaks, and firs. Its eggs are grey spotted with brown. The young which are to be taught to speak must be taken from the nest after the fourteenth or fifteenth day, and fed on soft cheese, bread, and meat: it is easily taught and domesticated. Those which are caught when old cannot be tamed; they are always frightened when any one approaches them, hiding and fasting for several hours afterwards rather then reappear.

Mode of Taking.—Should anyone wish to catch these birds, he must seek in autumn for a lonely tree, about five or six paces from the other trees of the wood, which the birds frequent most; on it lime twigs must be placed. In order to effect this, most of the branches are cut off in such a manner as to form a kind of spiral staircase, commencing about ten or twelve feet from the ground, and extending to within six of the top. After having shortened and reduced the branches to five or six spans in length, the lime-twigs are fixed to them; under the tree must be placed a hut, made of green branches, large enough to contain as many persons as wish to conceal themselves; on the top of this hut is placed a live owl, or one made of clay; even the skin of a hare arranged so that it may be moved, will suffice. Nothing is now wanting to attract the jays but a bird-call, which is made of a little stick with a notch cut in it and a little piece of the bark of the cherry-tree inserted, another bit serving for a cover. On this instrument the voice of 42the owl, the great enemy of the jays, may easily be imitated; and as soon as they hear it they come from all sides, while their cries must be repeated by the people in the hut, which makes them assemble in still greater numbers. They are soon entangled in the bird-lime, and fall pell mell into the hut, their weight easily dragging them through the slight covering. Many other birds also collect on hearing the deceitful call, and, wishing to assist their brethren, are themselves entrapped. Thus, in a few hours many jays and a great number of other birds may be caught, such as magpies, thrushes, woodpeckers, red-breasts, and tits. Twilight is the best time for this sport.

In the month of July jays may also be taken in the water-trap, where young ones, with their tails only half grown, are most frequently caught; these may yet be taught and tamed.

Attractive Qualities.—Although it is easy to teach the jay to speak, it will in general only repeat single words; but it imitates passably well little airs on the trumpet and other short tunes. Its beautiful colours are a great attraction. It may also be taught to go and come, if in the country: but in the city it is not so easily taught this as crows and ravens.

Habitation.—In its wild state it inhabits, during summer, the depth of woods, near which there are meadows and springs, and it does not quit this retreat till autumn, when it frequents those places where it can find acorns, beech-mast, and nuts. During hard winters it may sometimes be seen on the high road, seeking its food amongst the horse-dung.

In the house it is kept like a jay.

Food.—In its wild state, having a very strong beak, it can open the cones of the pine and fir, peel the acorns and beech-mast, and break the nut-shells. It also eats different sorts of berries, but prefers animal food and insects, in short, any thing it can get.

In confinement it must be fed like the jay; but it is more easily tamed, and accustomed to use different words. It is so fond of animal food, that if a live jay were thrown into its cage it would kill it and eat it in a quarter of an hour; it will even eat whole squirrels which have been shot, and which other small birds of prey fly from with disgust.

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Breeding.—Its nest, placed in a hollow tree, generally contains five or six eggs, with transverse brown streaks scattered on a dark olive grey ground. The young are reared on meat.

Mode of Taking.—It may be taken in autumn by a noose, hanging service berries to it; success is more sure if some nuts be put near. It may also be taken in the water-trap.

Attractive Qualities.—Its actions are as amusing as those of a shrike; it imitates the voice of many animals, and chatters as much as the jay. To judge from the form of its tongue, it seems possible to teach it to speak, if attempted when young.

Habitation.—The magpie builds its nest on trees which are near towns and villages; its eggs are pale green, speckled with grey and brown. In autumn the young ones assemble together in small parties.

Food.—When wild, the magpie lives on worms, insects, fruits, or roots, and sometimes eats eggs and young birds in their nest.

In the house, it likes bread, meat, and anything that comes from table; in short, when once tamed it does not fail to enter by the window at meal times to take its share. If it obtain too much, it hides what it does not eat for another time. This propensity is seen in young ones as soon as they can feed alone.

Peculiar Qualities.—Although in its wild state the magpie is so suspicious that it is difficult to catch it, it is, however, more easily tamed than any other bird; it will let itself be touched and taken in the hand, which even the most docile of other birds will seldom suffer. When 44reared from the nest it learns to speak even better than the raven, and becomes as domestic as the pigeon. It gets so fond of raw meat, bread, and other refuse of the table, that it does not wish any other food; this is the cause of its frequenting dwelling-houses: if it find any worms or insects it only eats them as dainties.

The time of taking magpies in order to bring them to this point is fourteen or fifteen days after coming out of the shell: this is the principal thing to remember with respect to any bird which is to be taught to go and come. It must be given at first bread soaked in milk or water; by degrees a little chopped meat is added, afterwards it will eat anything from the kitchen, even apples and baked pears, and any refuse. As soon as the young birds begin to fly high enough to rise to a neighbouring tree they may be let do so when they have had a good meal, soon calling them back again to the place fixed for their habitation; this practice may be repeated till they have all their feathers, and can fly well, when some of their wing-feathers must be cut, till the winter, a season in which they may be pulled out. Whilst the feathers are growing again, they become so well accustomed to the house and their master that they may be let go for several hours together without any danger of their wandering or not returning. If they speak they will only be the more agreeable.

Old magpies, which may easily be taken in winter with lime-twigs placed near some bits of meat, can be taught to remain in the yard by keeping the wings cut till the following autumn, when they may be let grow; from this time there is no fear of their not coming with the poultry, and in spring they will not fail to build near the house, and seek food for their young in the kitchen. I must repeat again that nothing shining must be left in the way of these birds, as they will carry it off immediately, and hide it with great care, let them have as much food as they like besides.

I have lately received a letter from one of my friends, in which he expresses himself thus:—“I have reared a magpie which comes like a cat to rub itself against me until I caress it. It has learnt of itself to fly into the country and return. It follows me everywhere, even for more than a league, so that I have much trouble to rid myself of it, and when I do not wish its company in my walks and visits I am obliged to shut it up: though wild with any other person, it marks in my eyes the least change in my temper. It will sometimes fly to a great distance with other magpies, without however connecting itself with them.”

Habitation.—In its wild state the roller may be found in Europe and the northern parts of Africa; it only frequents a few spots in Germany, and prefers forests and sandy plains to high mountains: elsewhere it is only seen during the time of its passage19.

In the house it may be let range at will after the wings are clipt.

Food.—When wild, its principal food is insects and worms; it also eats small frogs, bulbous roots, acorns, and grains of corn.

Breeding.—The nest, placed in the hole of a tree, is made of small twigs, hay, feathers, and bristles. It lays from four to seven white eggs, on which the male takes his turn to sit during eighteen or twenty days. The young ones do not acquire their fine colours till the second year; previous to this period the head, neck, and breast are of a whitish grey.

I had till lately thought that this bird was untamable; but Dr. Meyer of Offenbach has convinced me to the contrary, having himself reared them several times, and kept them in his room. This is his method:

The young ones must be taken from the nest when only half grown, and fed on little bits of cow’s heart, or any other meat which is lean and tender, till they can eat alone; small frogs, worms, and insects may then be added. The means which it takes to kill and swallow these insects are curious enough; it begins by seizing and crushing them with its beak, and then throws them into the air several times, in order to receive them in its throat, which is very capacious. When the piece is too large, or the insect still alive, it strikes it hard against the ground, and begins again to throw it in the air, till falling not across, but so as to thread the throat, it may be easily swallowed.

After having been fed thus long enough, a little barley-meal may be mixed with the meat. I have even brought it to eat bread, vegetables, and softened oatmeal, but it always prefers cow’s heart. I have never seen it drink.

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It knows the person who takes care of it, comes at his call to eat from his hands, without however letting itself be caught: but it never becomes quite tame, and often defends itself with its beak. It makes very few movements unless to seek its food, and generally remains quite still in the same place. If it ever hops about the room it is in an awkward and cramped manner, on account of its short feet; on the other hand, it flies very well; but it must not be left completely at liberty in the room, or quite shut up in the cage, because it is so easily startled, and in its fright gives itself such violent blows on the head as would soon kill it. The best way is to clip one wing, and then let it range the room. These birds quarrel with one another, particularly in the evening, for their places on the perch. I have kept them for some time in a large aviary with small and great birds, and once with my pigeons which I kept shut up; generally I have them in my room, where they mix with several other birds: but whether alone or with companions they appeared equally healthy and active.

Attractive Qualities.—They have few other attractions besides their beautiful plumage, for their voice is only a harsh croaking “crag, crag, craag20.”

Habitation.—When wild, it generally frequents lonely groves, or the skirts of forests, always keeping among the most bushy trees, so that it is rarely seen on a naked branch; it always frequents orchards during the time of cherries. It is a bird of passage, departing in families in August, and not returning till the following May21.

In the house, if it cannot be let range at pleasure, it must be confined in a large wire cage.

Food.—When wild, its food is insects and berries. In confinement, and if an old one be caught by means of the owl, like the jays, it must be kept at first in a quiet and retired place, offering it fresh cherries, then adding by degrees ants’ eggs, and white bread soaked in milk, or the nightingale’s food. But I confess there is great difficulty in keeping it alive, for with every attention and the greatest care, I do not know a single instance of one of this species having been preserved for more than three or four months.

NEST OF THE GOLDEN ORIOLE.

Breeding.—The scarcity of the golden oriole arises from its breeding but once a year. Its nest, hung with great art in the fork of a small bushy branch, is in shape like a purse, or a basket with two handles. The female lays four or five white eggs, marked with a few black streaks and spots. Before the first moulting, the young ones are like their 48mother, and mew like cats. If any one wishes to rear them they must be taken early from the nest; fed on ants’ eggs, chopped meat and white bread soaked in milk, varying these things as their health requires, and as their excrements are too frequent or too soft. In short, they may be accustomed to the nightingale’s food. I must here remark that a very attentive person alone can hope to succeed22.

Attractive Qualities.—I have seen two golden orioles that were reared from the nest, one of which, independent of the natural song, whistled a minuet, and the other imitated a flourish of trumpets. Its full and flute-like tones appeared to me extremely pleasing. Unfortunately the fine colours of its plumage were tarnished, which almost always happens, above all if the bird be kept in a room filled with smoke, either from the stove or from tobacco. One of my neighbours saw two golden orioles at Berlin, both of which whistled different airs.

Its note of call, which in the month of June so well distinguishes the golden oriole from other birds, may be well expressed by “ye, puhlo23.”

Habitation.—In its wild state, the hoopoe remains, during summer, in woods near meadows, and pasture land. In the month of August, after hay-harvest, it goes in flocks into the plains; it departs in September, and does not return till the end of the following April. It is more frequently seen on the ground than perching24.

In the house, it is not kept in a cage, but let range at will; it is very chilly, at least it is so fond of warmth that it is constantly on the stove, and would rather let its beak be dried up than come away from it.

Food.—When wild, it may be continually seen in fields, searching for its favourite insects among cow dung and the excrements of other animals. Some people put it into their granaries to clear them of weevils and spiders; this has succeeded very well, but to say that it also eats mice, is certainly an error.

In the house, it may be easily reared on meat, and white bread soaked in milk, to which meal worms must be added from time to time.

Breeding.—The hoopoe lays from two to four eggs; its nest, placed in the hole of some tree, is a mixture of cow dung and small roots. The young are easily reared on the flesh of young pigeons; but they cannot pick it up well, because their tongue, about the size of half a bean, and heart-shaped, is too short to turn the food into the throat. They are obliged to throw their food in the air, holding the beak open to receive it.

Mode of Taking.—In the month of August, when a field has been observed which the bird frequents most, a small well-limed rod of about eight inches in length must be placed on a mole-hill, having two or three meal worms fastened to it by means of a thread about three inches long. As soon as the hoopoe sees the worms it darts upon them, and thus makes the lime twig fall upon itself, which embarrasses it. But these birds, whether taken young or old, can very rarely be preserved.

Attractive Qualities.—Independently of its beauty, its droll actions are very amusing. For instance, it makes a continual motion with its head, tapping the floor with its beak, so that it seems as if it walks with a stick, at the same time shaking its crest, wings, and tail25. I have had several of them in my house, and have always been diverted by their singular grimaces. When any one looks at them steadily, they immediately begin their droll tricks.

The following is an extract from a letter written by M. von Schauroth on the hoopoe, which I think it is well to insert here:

“With great care and attention, I was able last summer to rear two young hoopoes, taken from a nest which was placed at the top of an oak tree. These little birds followed me everywhere, and when they heard me at a distance showed their joy by a particular chirping, jumped into 50the air, or as soon as I was seated climbed on my clothes, particularly when giving them their food from a pan of milk, the cream of which they swallowed greedily; they climbed higher and higher, till at last they perched on my shoulders, and sometimes on my head, caressing me very affectionately: notwithstanding this, I had only to speak a word to rid myself of their company, they would then immediately retire to the stove. Generally they would observe my eyes to discover what my temper might be, that they might act accordingly. I fed them like the nightingales, or with the universal paste, to which I sometimes added insects; they would never touch earth-worms, but were very fond of beetles and May-bugs, these they first killed, and then beat them with their beak into a kind of oblong ball; when this was done, they threw it into the air, that they might catch it and swallow it lengthways; if it fell across the throat they were obliged to begin again. Instead of bathing, they roll in the sand. I took them one day into a neighbouring field, that they might catch insects for themselves, and had then an opportunity of remarking their innate fear of birds of prey, and their instinct under it. As soon as they perceived a raven, or even a pigeon, they were on their bellies in the twinkling of an eye, their wings stretched out by the side of their head, so that the large quill feathers touched: they were thus surrounded by a sort of crown, formed by the feathers of the tail and wings, the head leaning on the back, with the beak pointing upwards; in this curious posture they might be taken for an old rag. As soon as the bird which frightened them was gone they jumped up immediately, uttering cries of joy. They were very fond of lying in the sun; they showed their content by repeating in a quivering tone, “vec, vec, vec;” when angry their notes are harsh, and the male, which is known by its colour being redder, cries “hoop, hoop.” The female had the trick of dragging its food about the room, by this means it was covered with small feathers and other rubbish, which by degrees formed into an indigestible ball in its stomach, about the size of a nut, of which it died. The male lived through the winter; but not quitting the heated stove, its beak became so dry that the two parts separated, and remained more than an inch apart; thus it died miserably.”

“I once saw,” says Buffon, “one of these birds which had been taken in a net, and being then old, or at least adult, must have had natural habits: its attachment to the person who took care of it was very strong, and even exclusive. It appeared to be happy only when alone with her; if strangers came unexpectedly it raised its crest with surprise and fear, and hid itself on the top of a bed which was in the room. Sometimes it was bold enough to come from its asylum, but it fled directly to its beloved mistress, and seemed to see no one but her. It had two very different tones; one soft, as if from within, and seemed the very seat of sentiment, which it addressed to its mistress; the other sharp, and more piercing, which expressed anger and fear. It was never kept in a cage by day or night, and was permitted to range the house at pleasure: however, though the windows were often open, it never showed the least desire to escape, its wish for liberty not being so strong as its attachment.

“This pretty bird accidentally died of hunger. Its mistress had kept it for four months, feeding it only on bread and cheese.”

Habitation.—When wild, it is a bird of passage, which arrives in April and departs in September, and even much sooner, according to an English observer.

In the house, it may be let run about, or confined in a large wooden cage.

Food.—When wild, it eats all sorts of insects, particularly caterpillars on trees.

When confined, it is fed with meat, insects, and the universal paste made of wheat-meal.

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Breeding and Peculiarities.—Every one knows that the female cuckoo never sits upon her eggs, but intrusts that care to other birds, particularly those which feed on insects, laying one or two eggs in their nest.

In order to tame a cuckoo, it must be taken from the nest: I never tried myself, but several of my friends have. As this is a curious bird, and most bird-fanciers like to have it in their room or aviary, I shall here insert some observations on this subject, by M. von Schauroth, who was before quoted.

“The cuckoo possesses hardly any qualities which would render it fit to be a house bird: if old, it is too obstinate and voracious, generally it is furious, sullen, and melancholy. I have reared several; the last was taken from the nest of a yellowhammer: its eyes were not opened when I took it, yet it darted at me with fury. Before I had had it six days it would swallow in a passion everything that came near it. I fed it on bird’s flesh, and was obliged to continue this food for a long time before it could feed itself. Its motions were so quick in jumping or moving that it would overthrow any cups of food which happened to be in its way. Its tail grew very slowly. It was never entirely tamed; it would dart at my hands and face, attacked every thing which came too near it, and even the other birds. It ate the poultry paste in great quantities, and discharged in proportion, which made it very dirty; I have even seen it, like the ostrich, eat its own excrements. Its short and climbing feet are so awkward that it cannot walk; it makes two or three jumps, but flies very well.”

“Though cunning and solitary,” says Buffon, “the cuckoos may be given some sort of education. Several persons of my acquaintance have reared and tamed them. They feed them on minced meat, either dressed or raw, insects, eggs, soaked bread, and fruit. One of these tamed cuckoos knew its master, came at his call, followed him to the chase, perched on his gun, and if it found a cherry tree in its way it would fly to it, and not return till it had eaten plentifully; sometimes it would not return to its master for the whole day, but followed him at a distance, flying from tree to tree. In the house it might range at will, and passed the night on the roost. The excrement of this bird is white, and in great quantities; this is one of the disagreeables in rearing it. Great care must be taken to keep it from the cold from autumn till winter; this is the critical period for these birds, at least it was at this time that I lost all which I had tried to rear, besides many other birds of a different species.”

Observations.—The minor grakle is found in both the Indies, in Jamaica, as well as in the islands beyond the Ganges, as far as Java. Their food is vegetable: those which are brought to Europe willingly eat cherries and raisins; if these be shown them without being given directly they begin to cry and weep like a child. They become exceedingly tame and confiding; they whistle exceedingly well, and chatter better than any parrot. The Chinese ladies are very fond of them; they are sold very dear in Java. In the inland parts of Germany nothing is so rare as one of these birds.

Habitation.—When wild it inhabits South America, and may be found in Brazil and Guiana, in damp woods, and always in pairs. In the house it may be let range at will, giving it a roost with several rings placed across. Like its fellows, it may be kept in a very large strong wire cage, high and wide enough to let it move with ease, and preserve its handsome tail in all its beauty.

Food.—In its native country the fruit of the palm tree is its principal food; our fruit it also likes, but white bread soaked in milk agrees with it better; biscuit does not hurt it; but meat, sweetmeats, and other niceties are very injurious; and though at first it does not appear to be injured, it becomes unhealthy, its feathers stand up separate, it pecks and tears them, above all those on the first joint of the pinion, and it even makes holes in different parts of its body. It drinks little—this is perhaps occasioned by its eating nothing dry. Many bird-fanciers say that the best food for parrots is simply the crumbs of white bread, well baked, without salt, soaked in water, and then slightly squeezed in the hand. But though this appears to agree with them pretty well, it is however certain that now and then something else ought to be added. I have observed, indeed, that parrots which are thus fed are very thin, have hardly strength to bear moulting, and sometimes even do not moult at all; in that case they become asthmatic, and die of consumption. It is clear that feeding them only on this food, 56which has very little if any moisture in it, is not sufficient to nourish them properly, at least during the moulting season, and while the feathers are growing again. I never saw a parrot in better health than one which belonged to a lady, who fed it on white bread soaked in boiled milk, having more milk than the bread would absorb, which the parrot drank with apparent pleasure; there was also put into the drawer of its cage some sea biscuit, or white bread soaked in boiling water; it was also given fruit when in season. It is necessary to be very careful that the milk is not sour.

Some young maccaws are fed on hemp-seed, which must always be of the year before, as the new would be too warm and dangerous. Yet they must not be fed entirely on this food, but there must be added white bread soaked in milk or water, as has already been mentioned, some fruit and nuts, but never bitter almonds, as they will infallibly kill all young animals. In all cases the excrements of the bird will indicate the state of its health, and whether the food ought to be changed or not.

Although maccaws rarely want to drink, as their food is very moist, yet they must not be left without water, which is generally placed in one of the divisions of their tin drawer. It is also a good thing to entice them to bathe, nothing is more favourable to their health, or better facilitates the painful operation of moulting, or keeps their feathers in better order. A little attention to these favourites, deprived of their liberty, their natural climate, and food, cannot be too much trouble to amiable persons who are fond of them, and to whom these pretty birds become greatly attached.

Breeding.—The red and blue maccaws build their nests in the holes of old decayed trees; they enlarge and make the hole even with their beak, and line it with feathers. The female, like that of the other American parrots, breeds twice in the year, laying two eggs each time, which are exactly like those of the partridge. In Europe the females also lay well, but the eggs are generally unfruitful; when they are not so it is very difficult to make the mother sit; there are, however, a few examples of the female maccaw being so well inclined to perform this office, that she will sit on pigeons’ and hens’ eggs, which are hatched in due time.

The maccaws which we have in this country have generally been reared from the nest, particularly those which speak, for the old ones would be too savage and untractable, and would only stun one with their unbearable cries, the faithful interpreters of their different passions.

Diseases.—Amongst those to which maccaws are particularly subject, declines are the most frequent. Some cures for this are mentioned in the Introduction, which it would be well to employ. During the moulting season attention must be redoubled, not only to keep them in health but to preserve their beautiful plumage.

Attractive Qualities.—As maccaws are very dear they are generally only found in the possession of rich bird-fanciers. In the centre of Germany one costs from fifty to a hundred rix dollars, and in the maritime cities thirty or forty. Their beautiful plumage forms their principal attraction. They also learn to repeat many words, to go and come, and also to obey the least signal from their master. I confess, however, that their 57awkward walk, their heavy movements, and their constant inclination to help themselves along with their beak, added to their great uncleanliness, does not appear very agreeable. They are sometimes very wicked, taking dislike to some people, and may do great injury to children if left alone with them. Owing to their dung being very liquid, abundant, and fœtid, they must be cleaned regularly every day.

Habitation.—Being, like the preceding one, a native of Surinam, Guiana, and Brazil, its way of living and qualities are much the same. It does not, however, learn to speak so easily, and cannot pronounce the word maccaw so distinctly; but it imitates perfectly the bleating of sheep, the mewing of cats, and the barking of dogs. Its custom of only drinking in the evening seems extraordinary.

Habitation.—This parrot is also a native of the hottest parts of South America, frequenting savannas, or any other open places, and building its nest even in the holes of the Termites (Termes fatalis, Linnæus.) These birds are so sociable that they may be seen in flocks of five or six hundred.

In the house, they must always be kept in pairs, and generally in cages. They show the tenderness of their attachment to each other by their continual caresses; this is in fact so great, that if one die the other soon languishes from grief.

Food.—When these birds go forth to steal chestnuts, acorns, peas, and similar fruits, which form their food, they always place a sentinel to warn them of the approach of an enemy: at the least alarm, they fly away, uttering loud cries. When confined, they are fed with nuts, and bread soaked in boiled milk.

Attractive Qualities.—Their handsome plumage, their affectionate and confiding ways, and the tenderness of attachment which these pretty birds have for each other, make them great favourites; but they learn scarcely any thing, and their continual cries are sometimes very annoying.

Observations.—A pair of this beautiful species were sold to his Highness the Duke of Meiningen as coming from Botany Bay, but they are really natives of Amboina. Timid and wild, this bird has a sharp whistle and a cry like “gaick,” but cannot speak. The feathers are so loose that they generally come off in the hand when touched; but they grow again very quickly. It is kept and treated like the others.

Observations.—I have seen several of this superb species, which belonged to his Highness the Duke of Meiningen. It is a great pity that they are so wild, timid, and difficult to teach. Their note is a kind of chirping, which is rarely heard. Their feathers are as loose as the preceding species. They come from Botany Bay, and are very dear. Being more delicate, they require more attention than the other parroquets.

Observations.—This bird is very docile, amiable, and talkative. Its mildness is very pleasing, and it is extremely affectionate and caressing. Its cry is “gaie, gaie, gaie.” It comes from the Islands of the Southern Ocean and Botany Bay.

Observations.—This parrakeet, so easily distinguished by its plumage, is lively, fearful, and its cry is frequent. It learns nothing of itself, and it is with great difficulty that it can be made to repeat a few words. I have seen it, with the preceding and following species, among the beautiful collection of birds belonging to his Highness the Duke of Meiningen.

Observations.—This species, which is very mild, tame, and beautiful, is a native of the Philippines, particularly Manilla; some say that it is also very common in Africa. It is very pleasing, certainly, but rarely learns to speak, and then only a few words. It must be treated like other delicate species.

Observations.—It is a native of Guiana, Cayenne, and the Caribbee Islands. Bird-sellers in Germany are generally provided with them, as they are not delicate or difficult to carry about. They must be treated like the former species.

“This,” says Buffon, “is, of all parrots from the new continent, the most easily taught to speak; nevertheless it is only tractable in this particular, for even after a long captivity it still preserves a native wildness and ferocity, and is sometimes stubborn and ill-humoured. But as it has a lively eye, is neatly and well formed, it is admired for its shape.”

Observations.—A native of Guiana; this pretty parrot also breeds in Carolina, and sometimes even penetrates into Virginia in large flocks during the fruit season, making great ravages among the nuts, of which it only eats almonds, rejecting all others. It is frequently brought to Europe; and in Paris it is the species of parrot which costs the most. It is fed, says Buffon, on hemp seed; but it is better to add white bread soaked in water, or boiled milk which is not sour, wheat, Indian corn, and the like. Its cry is frequent; it is rather wicked, and does not speak; but it well makes up for this by its beauty, the elegance of its form, its graceful movements, and its strong and almost exclusive attachment to its mistress; it likes to hang by the beak, even while sleeping, and will let itself be carried thus every where without moving for a very long time.

Observations.—This species is as social and affectionate as the preceding, but much more rare and dear. It is a native of Brazil, and cannot speak. It must be fed on canary seed, millet, and hemp.

Observations.—This species is very mild, speaks but little, and even seems to be of a melancholy turn. Its call, which is “keirshe,” is loud and sonorous. It is the same species which is mentioned in the Travels of Bougainville, by Pernetty. “We found it,” says he, “at Montevideo, where our sailors bought several at two piastres a-piece. These birds were very tame and harmless; they soon learnt to speak, and became so fond of the men that they were never easy when away from them.” The general opinion is, that they will not live more than a year and a half if 67kept in a cage; this prejudice is completely refuted by the bird from which this description is taken, and which may be seen in the collection of his Highness the Duke of Saxe Meiningen.

Observations.—This parrot is handsome, but does not speak. Although a native of South America, is not very delicate or difficult to preserve. The food as usual.

Observations.—I do not know of what country this parrot is a native. It appears very lively, cries often and very loudly “goeur, goeur,” speaks prettily and distinctly, and appears very healthy. The bird from which the description is taken is certainly a proof that this species will attain a great age, for it is very old.

Observations.—At present, this species is only found in the Moluccas. The general custom in Germany is to give it a spacious cage in the form of a bell, from the top of which is hung a large metal ring, in which it likes to perch.

The food of the cockatoo is the same as that of the other large species of the same family; however, it appears to be very fond of vegetables, farinaceous grains, and pastry. For its qualities, I cannot do better than quote Buffon:

“Cockatoos,” says he, “which may be known by their tuft, are not easily taught to speak; there is one species which does not speak at all; but this is in some measure compensated for by the great facility with which they are tamed; in some parts of India they are even so far domesticated that they will build their nests on the roofs of the houses: this facility of education is owing to their intelligence, which is very superior to that of other parrots. They listen, understand, and obey; but it is in vain that they make the same efforts to repeat what is said to them: they seem to wish to make up for it by other expressions of feeling and by affectionate caresses. There is a mildness and grace in all their movements, which greatly adds to their beauty. In March, 1775, there were two, a male and female, at the fair of St. Germain, in Paris, which obeyed with great docility the orders given them, either to spread out their tuft, or salute people with a bend of the head, or to touch different objects with their beak and tongue, or to reply to questions from their master with a mark of assent which clearly expressed a silent yes: they also showed by repeated signs the number of persons in the room, the hour of day, the colour of clothes, &c.; they kissed one another by touching their beaks, and even caressed each other; this showed a wish to pair, and the master affirms that they often do so even in our climates. Though the cockatoos, like other parrots, use their bill in ascending and descending, yet they have not their heavy disagreeable step; on the contrary, they are very active, and hop about very nimbly.”

Observations.—This beautiful bird has a noble air; and, though often tamed, it is rarely so caressing as the common cockatoo; its cry, like that of the other species, is its own name; it also cries “tertingue” very loud, and like a trumpet, and imitates the voice of several animals, particularly the cackling of fowls and the crowing of cocks. When it cries it flaps its wings.

Though a native of the Moluccas, it is neither delicate nor difficult to rear.

Observations.—It is a native of the Philippines. Its beauty and great docility are its chief merits; for it cannot speak, and it also appears of a jealous nature, being angry when it sees the other parrots caressed, and making the unpleasant cry of “aiai, miai!” but never “cockatoo.”

Observations.—This noble and handsome bird is still rather rare in England, and still more so in Germany. It may be found in many parts of New Holland; its motions resemble those of the common cockatoo and the manner of treating it is the same.

Food.—In its native country it lives on all kinds of fruit and grain; it will also become quite fat on the seed of the safflower, which to man is so violent a purgative. Here it eats any of our food; but white bread soaked in boiled milk, and fruits, are what it likes best. Meat, of which it is very fond, brings on diarrhœa, as in other parrots, and that kind of green sickness which makes it peck itself and tear out its feathers, &c.

There are some instances, when treated with care, of their having lived for sixty years.

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Breeding.—In its native country this species builds in high trees. This is the first of this group of birds which has bred in Europe. “M. de la Pigeonnière,” says Buffon, “had a male and female parrot in the city of Marmanote, in Angenois, which used to breed regularly every spring for five or six years; the young ones of each brood were always reared by the parent birds. The female laid four eggs each time, three of which were fruitful, and the other not so. In order that they may breed at their ease, they must be placed in a room in which there is nothing but a barrel, open at one end, and partly filled with saw-dust; sticks must be placed inside and out of the barrel, that the male may ascend them whenever he likes, and remain near his companion. Before entering this room the precaution must be taken to put on boots, that the legs may be guarded from the attacks of the jealous parrot, which pecks at everything which approaches its female.” The P. Labat also gives an account of two parrots which had “several broods in Paris.”

Diseases.—This parrot becomes more subject to the different diseases in proportion as it is fed on choice food. Gout in the feet is the most general, and the specifics used for the bird are not more certain in their cure than those used for man. It is not difficult to prevent this evil by great cleanliness, and giving it no meat or other niceties.

Attractive Qualities.—This parrot, like the following, learns not only to speak and whistle, but also to make all kinds of gestures; and it even performs some tricks which require skill. It is particularly distinguished by its pleasing and caressing behaviour to its master. As an example of the talents of this species, Buffon gives an account of one which, “being instructed on its voyage by an old sailor, had acquired his harsh, hoarse voice so perfectly that it was often mistaken for him. Though it was afterwards given to a young person, and no longer heard the voice, it never forgot the lessons of its old master; and it was exceedingly amusing to hear it pass from a soft pleasing voice to its old hoarse sea tone. This bird not only has a great facility in imitating the voice of man, but it also seems to have a wish to do so, and this wish is shown in its great attention, the efforts which it makes to repeat the sounds it hears, and its constant repetition of them, for it incessantly repeats any words which it has just learnt, and endeavours to make its voice heard above every other. One is often surprised to hear it say words and make sounds, which no one had taught it, and to which it was not even suspected to have listened. It seemed to practise its lesson every day till night, beginning again on the next morning. It is while young that it shows this great facility in learning; its memory is then better, and the bird is altogether more intelligent and docile. This memory is sometimes very astonishing, as in a parrot which, as Rodiginus tells, a cardinal bought for one hundred crowns of gold, because it could repeat correctly the Apostles’ Creed; and M. de la Borde tells us of another which served as chaplain to the vessel, reciting the prayer to the sailors, and afterwards repeating the rosary.”

Variety.—The lower part of the back and belly, the rump, and the thighs are white and rose colour; the upper and under tail-coverts red and white; the wing-coverts green, with a mixture of light yellow; the beak light yellow; the rest as usual.

Observations.—This species has the same attractions as the other lories, and to judge from the specimen which I have seen among the collection of the Duke of Meiningen, it appeared to be the mildest, most endearing, and 74amiable; in short, the most docile and talkative of all the parrots. It cries lory, and chatters incessantly, but in a hollow voice, something like that of a man who speaks from his chest; it repeats everything whistled to it in a clear tone; it likes to be always caressed and paid attention to; its memory is very good.

This delicate species, being preserved with difficulty during the voyage, is also very rare and dear; it is a native of the Moluccas and of New Guinea; it requires to be taken great care of, to be kept warm; and to have its food changed when necessary.

Observations.—The black-capped lory is still more scarce in Europe than the preceding, therefore it is dearer, but appears to possess all its good qualities.

Observations.—These birds inhabit Guinea, learn very little, and continually cry “guirr, guirr.”

Observations.—This bird is very mild, and sometimes chatters and utters a few dull sounds, but at other times it speaks but little.

Its native country is South America: it is treated like the preceding.

Habitation.—When wild, the green woodpecker, during summer, frequents woods and orchards which are near these, but when the air be79comes cold, and the snow begins to fall, it approaches villages, and flies from one garden to another; it passes the night in the holes of trees; when it finds dead, decayed, or worm-eaten ones, it pierces them on all sides with its strong beak, in order to find the insects they conceal. It never attacks a healthy tree, therefore it is not right to kill it as being mischievous; it only taps the bark of trees to make the insects come out, and its strokes are then so quick that they resemble a humming.

In the house its fierce and impetuous character makes it necessary to keep it in close confinement.

Food.—In its wild state it constantly seeks the insects which live under the bark and in the wood of trees; it also eats ants, and in winter will even take bees from the hive.

In the house it is fed on nuts, ants’ eggs, and meat.

Breeding.—The female lays three or four perfectly white eggs in the hole of a tree; if the young are to be tamed they must be taken from the nest when only half fledged; it is impossible to tame adults or old ones; we cannot even make them eat.

Attractive Qualities.—The beauty of its plumage is all that can be said of it; for it is so fierce, quick, and stubborn, that it can only be kept by means of a chain. I know no instance in which every kind of attention has rendered it more docile and agreeable: it is always untractable. One or two of these chained birds, however, do not look bad as a variety. It is curious to see them crack the nuts.

Habitation and Food.—This woodpecker continually ranges woods and orchards in search of its food, which consists of insects, beech-mast, acorns, nuts, and the seed of pines and firs. In order to crack the nuts, it fixes them in the clefts of the trees. The female builds its nest in the hole of a tree, and lays from four to six white eggs. Before moulting the head of the young ones is red. They must be taken early from the nest if they are to be tamed. They are fed and treated like the green woodpecker.

Habitation and Food.—This rare species inhabits forests of beech and oak, skilfully catching the insects under the bark and moss of these trees; it even flies to the ground to seek the same food among the grass. While rearing the young ones, they must be kept in a cage.

Habitation.—When wild, it is a bird of passage, which departs during the first fortnight of September, and does not return till the end of April, frequenting groves and orchards. In August it goes into gardens and fields planted with cabbages and other vegetables.

In the house it is better to let it run about at will than to keep it in a cage, where it would soil its feathers, particularly those on the belly and breast, while playing.

Food.—In its wild state, the wryneck lives on insects, for catching which it has a very long cylindrical tongue, with a hard point, that can be insinuated into all the chinks and fissures of trees. Ants’ eggs are a very favourite food, and it does not dislike the ants themselves. Towards autumn, when the latter fail, it is contented with elderberries till the time of its departure which never varies.

In the house it must be first given ants’ eggs; and then by degrees the universal paste, to which it soon becomes accustomed; but, as it is delicate, in order to preserve it for some time, the nightingales’ food agrees better with it. It is very amusing to see it search all the cracks and crevices of the room for insects; and if a few ants’ eggs were now and then put there, it would give it the greatest pleasure.

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Breeding.—Its nest, which it places in the hole of a tree, is formed of moss, wool, hair, and straw. It lays eight eggs, which are white, and very smooth. The adults and old ones are difficult to preserve and tame; but the young ones may be easily reared on ants’ eggs, and the universal paste, made of the crumb of white bread.

Mode of Taking.—In general it is caught by putting lime twigs round the nest; but if the weather be stormy, as in spring, when it is busy searching the bushes for insects, it may even be taken by the hand. The one I now have was brought to me by a little boy who had taken it in this manner.

Attractive Qualities.—Independently of its beautiful plumage, it is very amusing to see it make those movements which have given it its name of wryneck. It lengthens its neck, and turns round its head, so that the beak points down the back. Its general position is quite straight; the feathers of the head and throat very smooth, and the tail spread like a fan, at the same time bowing low. If it be irritated, or even if its food be brought, it slowly leans forward, raising the feathers on its head, lengthening and turning its neck, rolling its eyes; it then bows, spreads its tail, and murmurs some harsh sounds in its throat; in short, it puts itself in the most singular attitudes, and makes the most ridiculous grimaces. At other times it seems to have a melancholy disposition. In spring the male often cries in a full tone, gui, gui, gui, gui, to call its female.

M. de Schauroth informs me that two wrynecks which he reared became so tame, that they would hang about his clothes, and begin to warble as soon as they heard him, or saw him even at a distance. One day, being wearied and teazed with its incessant cries, he drove one out of the window; but having called it towards evening, it immediately replied to his voice, and permitted itself to be taken. One of these birds, which he let range about at will, having perched on a neighbouring tree, he had only to hold out and show it the box containing its food, and it returned immediately.

Observations.—The Tourako, which I have seen, belonging to his Highness the Duke of Saxe Meiningen, is one of the most elegant, mildest, and tamest of all foreign birds which I know. Its cry is couc, couc, couc, at first repeated slowly and distinctly, afterwards more quickly, and then in a rapid and continued succession. Notwithstanding the form of its feet it does not climb or hop, but runs as quickly as any partridge across the room, and often, pressing its wings against its body, makes several long leaps of ten feet.

Food.—The tongue is not perceptible on opening its beak, and it swallows every thing whole which is given it. It is fed on fruit and bread cut in small pieces; it has been remarked that it has a crop.

Buffon says, that one of these birds, which came from the Cape, ate rice; but that which I have seen would not touch it; on the contrary, it ate with avidity the stones of grapes, as well as bits of apple and orange; so that it may be concluded that fruit is its natural food. It is brought from Guinea, but may be found in other parts of Africa.

Habitation.—When wild this is a solitary bird, which remains the whole year on the edges of ponds, streams, and rivers. During the winter it may be seen watching for its prey at the holes in the ice, placed on a stone or stick, or perched on the branch of a tree.

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In the house it does not walk or hop, but flies or remains perched. It is very necessary to put some turf or branches in a corner, or it must be kept in a cage with a perch; it constantly remains in the same place.

Food.—In its wild state its food is small fish, leeches, and, indeed, all aquatic worms and insects. In the house it must be given as much as possible the same, accustoming it by degrees to eat meat. It is very rarely that those taken when old can be preserved. I have seen one, however, which ate even dead fish. The meat and small fish for its food must be put into a bowl of fresh water, large enough, or so firmly fixed, that it may not be easily overturned. When taking its food it does not hop to the bottom of the cage, but stretches itself downwards till it can reach the water with its beak, at least if it be not a young one reared in the house.—It will not eat while being looked at.

Mr. Paxton’s method of management.—“Having become possessed,” says Mr. Paxton, “of some young kingfishers last summer, we were very anxious to rear them; this we have accomplished, and, to the best of our information, it is the first time kingfishers were ever reared by hand. To accomplish this object we had a wire cage constructed about ten feet long, and four broad; the back part of the cage was made to imitate, as nearly as possible, the banks of a river;—through this cage a small stream of water was conducted, in which the birds received their food, &c. When the young birds were first taken from the nest, minnows and bullheads were their principal food; they have since been fed on almost every species of fresh-water fish, although they evince a marked preference for trout.

“Immediately on a quantity of small fish being put into the stream of water, they commence killing them, regardless of who may be near; and so surely do they strike, that, although we have repeatedly observed them, we never yet saw them miss their prey. As soon as they have caught a fish they kill it, by knocking its head against anything that may be near them. The quantity of fish consumed by each bird is almost incredible—we should think on the average not less than six ounces a day each; they could not exist twenty-four hours without food, so they quickly digest it. There can be no doubt that the sole reason of the kingfisher migrating to the sea-side on the approach of severe weather, arises from the voracity of its appetite.

“They are quite tame and domesticated, frequently sitting on the head or shoulder of the person who is in the habit of cleaning out their little dwelling. They are also very cleanly. We have observed them dive into the water as many as forty times incessantly, for the purpose of washing—this is generally done in the evening.

“Although they appear satisfied with their confinement, they are far from being friendly with each other; they fight with their wings, something after the manner of the swan; this is rather surprising, as they are very dexterous with their bills when seizing their prey.

“We have tried to rear others in a common cage, feeding them partly on flesh, but never succeeded.”

Breeding.—A hole at the edge of the water is the place in which it builds its nest, which is formed on the outside of small roots, and lined with 85feathers. Its eggs in general are eight in number, and quite white. In the young ones, before the feathers grow, the stubs are so long and straight that they might be taken for so many little bristles. As soon as the young can see clearly, and before the feathers begin to sprout, is the time to take them from the nest; they must be fed first on ants’ eggs, meal worms, and other worms and afterwards accustomed by degrees to meat; they will be preserved in good health for a much longer time, if care be taken always to give them their food in fresh water, rather than let them pick it up from the ground.

Mode of taking.—When the place which one of these birds frequents most, and which is generally near an eddy in the water, is well known, a stake must be fixed to which the snare, called a springe, can be fastened; by this means the bird may be easily taken. Lime-twigs may also be put on a bush or stake near the water’s edge, provided it does not hang so much over the water as to risk the bird’s falling into it when fixed by the lime.

Attractive Qualities.—Its great attractions are its beauty, for it is not well proportioned, and all its motions are sudden.

Habitation.—When wild it generally frequents woods. In the winter it approaches villages, and will even fly into barns and stables.

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In the house it must be kept in a cage made entirely of wire, as wood cannot resist the strength of its beak28.

Food.—In its wild state it lives on insects, which it seeks for in the trees, being able to cling to and run about the branches in any way: it also eats nuts and beech mast, which it skilfully fixes in the chinks of the trees, that it may crack them more easily.

In the house, it may be fed on hemp seed, oats, barley meal, or even bread. The way in which it crushes the hemp seed and oats is very curious; it takes as many as it can in its beak, and ranges them in order in the cracks of the floor, always taking care to put the large end lowest, that it may break them more easily; it then begins to despatch them one after another with the greatest skill and agility.

The lady who has been occasionally mentioned in the introduction, amused herself in the winter, and particularly when the snow was on the ground, with throwing, several times a day, different kinds of seeds on the terrace below the window, in order to feed the birds in the neighbourhood. These soon became accustomed to this distribution, and arrived in crowds when they heard the clapping of hands, which was the signal used to call them. She put some hemp seed and cracked nuts even on the window-sill, and on a board, particularly for her favourites, the blue tits. Two nuthatches came one day to have their share in this repast, and were so well pleased that they became quite familiar, and did not even go away in the following spring, to get their natural food and to build their nest in the wood. They settled themselves in the hollow of an old tree near the house; as soon as the two young ones, which they reared here, were able to fly, they brought them to the hospitable window where they were to be nourished, and soon after disappeared entirely. It was very amusing to see these two new visiters hang or climb on the wall or blinds, whilst their benefactress put their food on the board. These pretty creatures, as well as the tits, knew her so well, that when she drove away the sparrows which 87came to steal what was not intended for them, they did not fly away also, but seemed to know that what was done was only to protect and defend them.

These nuthatches remained near the house for the whole summer, rarely wandering, till one fatal day, at the beginning of the sporting season, in autumn, they no sooner heard the report of a gun than they disappeared, and were never again seen. It is possible that fear alone had driven them so far that they could not find their way home again; they did not know that there they would have been in greater safety.

If these birds are left at liberty in the room, they are accustomed, like the tits, to hide the greater part of what is given to them, to keep it for another meal; but their trick of piercing holes in the wood makes them inconvenient, and therefore it is better to keep them in a cage.

Breeding.—The nuthatch builds its nest in the holes of old trees, and lays six or seven eggs spotted with red.

Mode of Taking.—As it has the same taste for hemp seed and oats as the tits, it may often be caught in the same snare; it may also be taken in the area or barn floor trap. Its call is “gru, dek, dek.”

Attractive Qualities.—Its plumage, liveliness, agility, and great cunning in catching and hiding its food, are its most agreeable qualities.

Habitation.—When wild, the crossbill not only inhabits Europe, but also all the north of Asia and America, everywhere frequenting forests of pines and firs, where these trees, which are loaded with cones, furnish abundance of food.

In the house it may be let range at will, but a branch of fir, or any other tree, must be put near it, on which it can perch or sleep. If it be kept in a cage it must be made of wire; for, being so much disposed to peck and nibble, a wicker cage would soon be reduced to chips.

Food.—In its wild state the pine seed is its favourite food; the shape of its beak is peculiarly adapted for procuring these seeds, by separating the scales of the cones; it also gathers from the ground those which have fallen, and it does not neglect those of the fir, and even of the alder. When these fail it is contented with the buds of the same trees.

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In the house, if it be let run about at liberty, the second universal paste will be sufficient; but if kept in a cage it must be fed on hemp, pine, and rape seed, and even elderberries.

Breeding.—The time of breeding is very remarkable, being generally in the depth of winter, from December to April. The nest, which is placed at the top of a pine or fir tree, is first formed of very fine small twigs, there is then a layer of coarse moss, but the interior is lined with the finest and softest moss; it is not glued with resin, as some have said. The young crossbills being in Thuringia the object of many ridiculous superstitions, the wood-cutters are always careful of the nests. The number of the eggs varies from three to five, they are of a greyish white, spotted, speckled, and streaked at the large end with red brown. The heating nature of their food enables the young and old birds to bear the severity of the season. The old birds feed their young with the food disgorged from their own stomach, as do all the grosbeaks. This species may be reared in the house on white bread soaked in milk, and mixed with a few poppy-seeds.

Diseases.—The accumulated vapour from a room with a stove has such an effect on the constitution of these birds, that they are almost always ill30. Weak eyes, swelled and ulcerated feet, are very common occurrences; hence the mountaineers of Thuringia have taken it into their heads that these poor birds can take upon themselves their diseases and pains: and it is this foolish idea that induces them always to keep one of these birds near them. Their superstitious extravagance carries them so far, that they are persuaded a bird whose upper mandible bends to the right, has the power of assuming to itself the colds and rheumatism from men; but when this mandible turns to the left, the bird renders the same service to the women. These simple and credulous people imagine that nothing is more efficacious against epilepsy, than every day to drink the water which the bird has left, because they see that these unfortunate victims are often attacked with this disease.

Mode of Taking.—With the decoy birds nothing is easier than to take the crossbills in the autumn and spring: one large rod, covered with strong bird-lime, is all that is necessary. It must be put in a glade in the wood which these birds frequent, with the decoy bird by the side; this, by its continual cry, will soon attract them. In Thuringia the people put nooses and spring traps on the top of some of the highest pines, and there hang the cage of the decoy bird; as soon as one crossbill has settled, the others follow; so that as many birds are taken as there are traps set, particularly if the stick of the spring traps be placed so that the bird must perch on it.

Attractive Qualities.—The crossbill is rather a silly bird; in the cage its motions are like those of the parrot; when lively it swings its body like the siskin, and sings a few sharp strains, which are more or less monotonous, according to the different powers of the songsters—for some of the males far surpass the others in this short melody. It is easily tamed, can be carried about anywhere on the finger, and will go and return again without wandering.

Habitation.—When wild, bullfinches are found over Europe and Russia. They are particularly common in the mountainous forests of Germany. The male and female never separate during the whole year. In winter they wander about everywhere in search of buds.

In the house those which are caught in a snare are often let run about. These birds not being very unruly or very active, a middling-sized cage will do, in which those which have learned songs are kept; but they must be kept in separate rooms, as they will mutually spoil their songs if left together.

Food.—When wild the bullfinch does not often suffer from the failure of its food; for it eats pine and fir seeds, the fruit of the ash and maple, 94corn, all kinds of berries, the buds of the oak, beech, and pear trees, and even linseed, millet, rape, and nettle seed.

In the house those which run about may be fed on the universal paste, and, for a change, rape seed may be added; those which are taught must be fed only on poppy seed, with a little hemp seed, and now and then a little biscuit without spice. It has been remarked that those which are fed entirely on rape seed soaked in water live much longer, and are more healthy. The hemp seed is too heating, sooner or later blinds them, and always brings on a decline. A little green food, such as lettuce, endive, chickweed, water-cresses, a little apple, particularly the kernels, the berries of the service tree, and the like, is agreeable and salutary to them.

Breeding.—These tenderly affectionate birds can hardly live when separated from one another. They incessantly repeat their call with a languishing note, and continually caress. They can sometimes be made to breed in the house, like the canary, but their eggs are rarely fruitful. In the wild state they breed twice every year, each time laying from three to six eggs, of a bluish white, spotted with violet and brown at the large end. Their nest, which they build in the most retired part of a wood, or in a solitary quickset hedge, is constructed with little skill, of twigs which are covered with moss. The young ones are hatched in fifteen days. Those which are to be taught must be taken from the nest when the feathers of the tail begin to grow; and must be fed only on rape seed soaked in water and mixed with white bread; eggs would kill them or make them blind. Their plumage is then of a dark ash-colour, with the wings and tail blackish brown; the males may be known at first by their reddish breast; so that when these only are wished to be reared they may be chosen in the nest, for the females are not so beautiful, nor so easily taught.

Although they do not warble before they can feed themselves, one need not wait for this to begin their instruction32, for it will succeed better, if one may say so, when infused with their food; since experience proves that they learn those airs more quickly, and remember them better, which they have been taught just after eating. It has been observed several times, that these birds, like the parrots, are never more attentive than during digestion. Nine months of regular and continued instruction are necessary before the bird acquires what amateurs call firmness, for if one ceases before this time, they spoil the air, by suppressing or displacing the different parts, and they often forget it entirely at their first moulting. In general it is a good thing to separate them from the other birds, even after they are perfect; because, owing to their great quickness in learning, they would spoil the air entirely by introducing wrong passages; they must be helped to continue the song when they stop, and the lesson must always be repeated whilst they are moulting, otherwise they will become mere chatterers, 95which would be doubly vexatious after having had much trouble in teaching them.

Diseases.—Those bullfinches which are caught in a snare or net are rarely ill, and may be preserved for eight years or more; but those reared from the nest are subject to many diseases, caused by their not having their natural food, or by those injurious delicacies which are always lavished on favourite birds; they rarely live more than six years. The surest means of preserving them healthy for a long time, is to give them neither sweets nor tit-bits of any kind, scrupulously to confine their food to rape seed, adding now and then a very little hemp seed to please them, and a good deal of the green food before mentioned. The bottom of their cages should be covered with river sand, as the bird there finds some stones which aid the functions of the stomach. Their most frequent diseases are moulting, costiveness, diarrhœa, epilepsy, grief, and melancholy, in which case they are quite silent, and remain immoveable, unless the cause can be discovered. They must not be given any delicacy, and must be fed entirely on soaked rape seed. A clove in their water, proper food, and particularly a good deal of refreshing green food, enables them to pass the moulting time in good health.

Mode of Taking.—There are few birds so easily attracted by the decoy bird as bullfinches. They may also be taken by any of the usual means. In winter numbers may be caught by a noose, by hanging to it such berries as the bird likes; in spring and autumn they may be caught in the area or barn floor trap; and provided they see berries there, the decoy bird is not wanted; it is sufficient if one imitates their soft cry of “tui, tui,” in the hut.

Attractive Qualities.—Although the song of the male and female bullfinch, in their wild state, is very harsh and disagreeable, yet if well taught while young, as they are in Hesse and Fulda, where there are schools of these little musicians, for all Germany, Holland, and England, they learn to whistle all kinds of airs and melodies with so soft and flute-like a tone, that they are great favourites with amateurs, and particularly with the ladies. There are some of these little birds which can whistle distinctly three different airs, without spoiling or confusing them in the least. Added to this attraction the bullfinch becomes exceedingly tame, sings whenever it is told to do so, and is susceptible of a most tender and lasting attachment, which it shows by its endearing actions; it balances its body, moves its tail from right to left, and spreads it like a fan. It will even repeat words, with an accent and tone which indicates sensibility, if one could believe that it understood them; but its memory must not be overloaded. A single air, with a prelude or a short flourish to begin with, is as much as the bird can learn and remember, and this it will execute to the greatest perfection. These little prodigies would be more interesting and agreeable, if their Hessian instructors possessed a little musical taste, but these are generally tradespeople, employed about the house with their different occupations and trades; and hymns, airs, and minuets of a hundred years old, public house songs, or some learnt of their apprentices, in general compose the whole of their music.

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The bullfinch can also imitate the songs of other birds; but in general it is not permitted to do so, that it may only learn to repeat the airs which are taught it.

Different degrees of capacity are shown here, as well as in other animals. One young bullfinch learns with ease and quickness, another with difficulty and slowly; the former will repeat, without hesitation, several parts of a song; the latter will be hardly able to whistle one, after nine months' uninterrupted teaching. But it has been remarked that those birds which learn with most difficulty remember the songs, which have once been well learnt, better and longer, and rarely forget them, even when moulting. Mr. Thiem33, bird-seller, at Waltershausen, near Gotha, sends annually to Berlin and London one or two hundred bullfinches, instructed in this manner, at from one to several pounds sterling a-piece, according as they are more or less accomplished, whilst a wild one would cost only two or three pence. These, however, are also kept in the room and prized, both on account of their beauty and the great ease with which they are tamed; they soon learn to fly on the hand, to receive their food, or will even take it from the mouth, and become at last as familiar as if they had been reared from the nest. The following are the means which are employed to tame them:—As soon as a bullfinch is caught and brought into the room, it must be put into a cage with food sufficient for the first day only; for the loss of its liberty does not prevent its eating as soon as it is disengaged from the lime twigs or noose. The next day a band must be put round the body and wings, like that which bird-catchers put round a decoy bird, which they let run about out of doors; by means of this band the bullfinch may be fastened by a piece of packthread, a foot in length, to some place from which it cannot fall; this will prevent its beating itself to death with its wings; a little bell may be fastened to a box, which when filled with food must be given to the bird, at the same time ringing the bell; it must be then left that it may eat; this must be repeated several times in the day; the same must be done when it is given anything to drink. The poor little captive will not at first either eat or drink in any one’s presence; it is therefore necessary to retire for the two first days after having given it the box, and only approach it by degrees, till it is accustomed to eat in the presence of its master, which it will soon be, for generally on the third day, as soon as it hears the bell and sees the box, it hops forward, and eats without the least shyness. Then the distance must be increased by degrees to make it come farther and farther, when, as soon as it has eaten, it may be taken on the hand and carried here and there, though it may seem a little frightened, but not being able to escape it will soon become used to this treatment, and will even begin to come to eat on the hand by continuing to do this for the third and fourth days; it will fly of itself at the sound of the bell to the hand which holds the box; after this the fastening may be loosened, and if one only move from the bird gradually, it will fearlessly approach and perch on the hand. Should it escape, however, it must be again confined and left without food for some hours. By this 97means a wild bullfinch will in eight days become accustomed to fly immediately to the hand, or wherever it hears the bell; in order to finish its education, it is well to increase the difficulty of getting at its food, by putting it in a small bag with a very little opening; it must also only have rape seed in the cage, keeping the hemp seed, which it likes best, for the hand or little bag. It may be taught to drink out of one’s mouth by keeping it without water for five or six hours. It may even be accustomed to go and return, provided the house is not too near a wood. The surest means of preventing too long an absence is to put a female bullfinch in a cage in the window, or to leave her in the room with her wing clipped; its affection will soon bring it back to her, and it will certainly never abandon her altogether.

Tame bullfinches have been known (says Buffon) to escape from the aviary, and live at liberty in the woods for a whole year, and then to recollect the voice of the person who had reared them, return to her, never more to leave her. Others have been known, which when forced to leave their first master, have died of grief. These birds remember very well, and often too well, any one who has injured them. One of them having been thrown down, with its cage, by some of the lowest order of people, did not seem at first much disturbed by it, but afterwards it would fall into convulsions as soon as it saw any shabbily dressed person, and it died in one of these fits eight months after the first accident.

A bullfinch, belonging to a lady often mentioned before, being subject to very frightful dreams, which made it fall from its perch, and beat itself in the cage, no sooner heard the affectionate voice of its mistress than, notwithstanding the darkness of the night, it became immediately tranquil, and re-ascended its perch to sleep again. It was very fond of chickweed, and as soon as it perceived one bringing it to him, however much care was taken to prevent its finding it easily, it would show its joy by its actions and cries.

Habitation.—When wild, the green bird may be found over all Europe, though not often far north. It may be seen during summer, in hedges, and on the borders of woods, and always where there are several trees near together; during winter it wanders into different provinces, in large and numerous flocks; but in March it begins to return from these journeys.

In the house it may either be let range free, or be shut up in an aviary with other birds, where it is always very peaceable as long as it has sufficient food; but when that fails, it perches itself on the general food-drawer, and keeps it determinedly, pecking it with its beak so cleverly that no other bird can approach: should one venture, it is soon obliged to go away or lose its feathers; otherwise this bird is as quiet and tame in the house as it is wild and active when at liberty.

Food.—In its wild state it seems to like all kinds of seed, even that of the milk thistle, which all other birds dislike.

In the house, when it ranges at will, the second universal paste so well agrees with it that it becomes quite fat; however, as a variety, rape and hemp seed may be thrown to it; if in a cage it must only be fed in summer with rape seed, except a little hemp seed, which may be given after moulting, to make it sing. Lettuce, chickweed and other green food, always agree with it, and even the berries of the juniper tree.

Breeding.—Its nest, which is almost always placed in a hedge, on a large branch near the trunk of a tree, or on the top of an old willow-tree, is firmly built with wool, moss, and lichen, and lined with very fine roots and bristles. The female lays, twice a year, four or five pointed eggs, of a silver hue, spotted with light violet or brown. The young are at first of a greenish grey; some yellow tints, however, may already be seen in the male. When reared from the nest, it learns, though with difficulty, to imitate the different songs of house-birds; and, as it almost always happens with slow memories, having once learnt a thing it never forgets it. It also sings through the whole year; it should therefore be taught by a bird whose song is agreeable, for instance, a chaffinch, and then one would have the pleasure of hearing it without interruption through all the seasons.

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Diseases.—The constitution of the green bird being very strong and healthy, it is rarely subject to disease. It may be kept in good health for twelve years.

Mode of Taking.—If the decoy bird be a good one, the green bird may be easily caught in the area or barn-floor trap, even in December. In the spring it may be taken with bird-lime on the lure-bush, when a linnet will do for the songstress. In order to make it eat soon, a little crushed hemp seed should be thrown in the bottom of its cage.

Attractive Qualities.—Without being handsome its song is not disagreeable; it may also be taught to repeat words; but its greatest merit is the wonderful ease with which it is tamed, equalling, and even surpassing the bullfinch in this particular. It may not only be accustomed to go and return again, but also to build in a room near an orchard, or in a summer-house in the garden. The following are the means which must be taken to make it do this:—

After having taken the young from the nest they must be put in a cage, and placed at the foot of the tree in which this nest is built, in a place dug for the purpose, and on the cage a tit as a decoy. When left there, the old birds come to feed their young, and are caught in the snare. As soon as they are taken, they must all be brought into the house, where the old and young must be put together in any aviary, or large cage, till the latter can fly; the window may then be opened for them to go out, but hunger will soon bring them back. As soon as they have exercised their wings, the old birds should be placed on the table in the window to call them back. In time, they become so familiar that they will accompany one in a walk, and there is no fear of their flying away. If they are not taken thus, it is necessary to wait for winter and snow to let them go out, and if they profit by the permission, to call them back by some of their species placed in a cage in the window. If you wish to be quite sure of success, you have only to put a board in the window, on which two females with their wings cut, can run about, go out, and return.

The green bird likes to build near canaries, and as these are good nurses, they are given the eggs of the green bird, which, like the goldfinches and siskins, learns to draw up its water and food.

Observations.—This bird is found in all the northern regions of Europe, Asia, and America, and in Europe rarely passes the fifty-third degree of latitude. It frequents the pine and fir forests, the seeds of which form its food; in winter it quits these places in search of berries; this is what ranks it among the erratic birds. They are so stupid, that in the north they are easily caught with a circle of brass wire fixed to the end of a long pole, to which are fastened some horse-hair rings, which are simply passed over the head of the bird. They are often caught and kept in cages, as they are liked, both on account of the ease with which they are tamed, and of their song, which is very agreeable; they will even sometimes sing in the night, and always preserve their song through the whole year, while the wild only sing in the spring.

Habitation.—When wild, it may be found in all the temperate parts of Europe and Russia. It is very common among the mountainous countries of Germany, where the beech prevails in the forests. It is rather an erratic bird than a bird of passage, and its excursions are ended in March. Sonnini says, however, that he has seen it during winter, in Egypt, with the blackbirds and thrushes, and its excursions are ended in March.

In the house it is generally kept in a large wire cage, where it is soon tamed. It may also be let run about, provided it has not too many companions, and that it has food in abundance, for it is a very quarrelsome bird.

Food.—In its wild state it eats many different things; the fruit of the beech, elm, ash, and maple; the berries of the juniper, service-tree, and white-thorn; cherries and plums, the stones of which it breaks with the greatest ease, to eat the kernel; hemp seed, cabbage, radish, and lettuce seed also form a part of its food.

In the house, if confined in the cage, it is contented with rape and hemp-seed; and if it run about, with the second universal paste.

Breeding.—Its nest is well built; the eggs, from three to five in number, are greenish grey, spotted with brown, and streaked with blackish blue. The young, when reared from the nest, will become so tame as to eat from the hand, and will courageously defend itself with its beak against the dogs and cats; it may also be accustomed to go and come.

Mode of Taking.—The haste with which these birds come on hearing the call, makes it very easy to catch them in the net, by throwing berries or hemp seed on the trap. In autumn and winter they may be taken by the noose, with service-berries; in spring they may be caught by placing lime twigs on the nest. The loss of their liberty does not prevent their eating immediately rape or hemp seed.

Attractive Qualities.—I confess that it has very few; its song is less agreeable than any of the others', it is a kind of low whistling, mixed with some harsh tones; but its great tameness may please; it is necessary, however, to guard one’s self from its beak.

Observations.—The beautiful song of this grosbeak is so like that of the nightingale, that this name has been given it; but its voice is so strong that it pierces the ears. It sings through the whole year, except during the time of moulting.

In its wild state, its principal food is the seed of the Indian corn and buck-wheat; it collects a considerable quantity of this food, which it skilfully covers with leaves and twigs, only leaving a very small hole, as the entrance to this magazine. In the cage it is fed with millet, rape seed, hemp seed, and the like, which agree with it very well.

Some persons have endeavoured to make it breed in large aviaries in the middle of gardens, but I do not know that it has ever succeeded. In Germany it is very dear, being as much as six or eight pounds sterling for a pair.

Observations.—There are few vessels coming from Java and the Cape of Good Hope that do not bring numbers of these birds, which have as bad a character in those countries, and particularly in China, their native place, as the sparrows have amongst us, on account of the ravages they make in the rice fields. They have nothing attractive but their beauty, for their song is short and monotonous. They cost four or five pounds sterling a pair in Germany.

Observations.—They inhabit the Canary Islands, Senegal, Angola, the Cape of Good Hope, and may even be found as far as India, whence they are brought to Europe. Their beautiful shape, their amiable disposition, and the affection which they show to every one indiscriminately, render them such favourites, that a dozen may be often seen in one cage. Their song is scarcely any thing. They are fed on millet, which also forms their food in their native country, to the damage of the fields which are sown with it. They approach villages like our sparrows; they are caught in traps made of the shell of a gourd, and cut like a bowl, on which some millet is scattered.

Observations.—These birds are as sociable as the waxbills; if there should be twenty or thirty in the same cage, they perch close against one another on the same perch; and, what is more singular, they never sing 105together, but one after another, the rest keeping quite silent to listen to the songster. Their song resembles that of the hay bird, and continues through the winter. The females do not sing; those are wrong who think the contrary. They are very active, often bowing and spreading their tail like a fan. In their native country their food consists of different seeds, particularly millet; this is also given it in the cage, as well as canary seed. They eat and drink a great deal. They will live from six to ten years.

Observations.—The male sings through the whole year, but its voice is so weak that the least noise overpowers it. In England this species has been made to breed in an aviary. Its food is millet and rape seed, and sometimes a little hemp seed.

Observations.—This species is found on the coasts of Africa, in Bengal, and other parts of Asia. It is a very agreeable bird, and though its voice is weak its song is only the more melodious. A male and female put together in a cage seem to be taken up with their mutual affection, always feeding and caressing each other. They are fed on crushed canary and hemp seed, which preserves them in good health for several years. The room in which they are kept must be heated during winter.

Observations.—This bird comes from Brazil, and possesses nothing attractive but its beauty. Its song is merely an occasional call. In Germany it costs three pounds sterling.

Observations.—These birds, which are very numerous in all the colonies at the Cape of Good Hope, do as much mischief there to the flowers and ears of corn, as the sparrows do in Europe. When retiring by thousands in the evening, from the fields to the reeds, they make such a noise with their chirping as may be heard to a great distance. Their call is like the sparrows’ “dib, dib,” and their song as weak as that of the siskin; the nest is skilfully constructed with small twigs interwoven with cotton, and has but one opening, with two compartments, one above the other, the upper for the male and the lower for the female; the eggs are green.

These birds, when kept in a cage, are fed on canary seed. The male and female never like to be separated; there is no instance, however, of their breeding in these climates.

Observations.—This bird, which comes from the Cape of Good Hope lives very well in the house; it is kept in a cage, alone or with the female, and fed with hemp and canary seed. In its native country it frequents the edges of streams and rivers, feeds on seeds, but is not so mischievous as the preceding. The eggs are grey, spotted with black. It is said to be nice to eat.

Observations.—This species, which is found in the interior of the country north of the Cape, lives and builds in marshes: it is rarely brought to Europe. The long tail of the male requires a large cage in order to preserve its beauty. In its wild state this length of tail is very inconvenient during the high winds; and during the rainy season it may be caught by the hand. It is fed with canary seed.

Observations.—I have had an opportunity of observing this bird among the collection belonging to his Royal Highness the Duke of Saxe Meiningen, where it is fed on canary seed. It calls little, and its song is weak, but its plumage is beautiful. It is found in several parts of America, in Brazil, Cayenne, and even in Carolina.

Observations.—This bird has been sold as the female of the preceding, and placed in the same cage. It lived very sociably; but I should suspect it rather of being the female of that under notice. It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.

Observations.—This species, which I have seen in the collection of His Royal Highness the Duke of Saxe Meiningen, comes from Java; it is kept in a cage and fed on canary seed. Its call is “deguay,” its feeble song somewhat resembles the siskin’n.

Observations.—Bird-fanciers give to these the name of Indian sparrows, though they come from Africa; their cry is similar to that of the common sparrow, and their song not very different. They are fed on canary seeds.

Observations.—This pretty species comes from Mexico; its song is soft and clear; its actions are as lively as they are amusing. It is kept in a cage, and fed on canary seed and millet.

Observations.—The Malacca Finch comes from the East Indies: it is very gentle, confiding, and lively. Its voice is strong; its cry, “tziapp,” pronounced in a loud clear tone. Though its song is somewhat nasal and rather noisy, it is not disagreeable.

Its food, when in confinement, is hemp and canary seed, which I have known preserve it for a long time in good health.

Observations.—When the winter is severe, these birds are seen from December to May in many parts of Germany, where they even approach the villages. I am persuaded that, if attention were paid to them, they might be seen in every direction, during March, on their passage to the North; whilst snow is on the ground they are found in company with larks, on the high roads and in the fields; they may then be taken with horse dung, placed in net, or covered with bird-lime, or by clearing a spot of ground of snow and strewing it with oats. I have had a pair six years in my room without a cage, and they are satisfied with the food common for other birds: if kept in a cage, they must be fed on hemp seed, oats, millet, rape, and poppy seeds. They appear much delighted whilst bathing; during the night they seem very uneasy, hopping and running about continually. Their strong and piercing cry resembles a loud whistle; their song would be rather agreeable were it not interrupted in a peculiar manner; it is a warbling mingled with some high noisy notes, descending slowly from shrill to deep, and a little strong and broken whistling. Heat is so contrary to their nature, that they cannot be preserved unless carefully guarded from it.

Observations.—This species, inhabiting the cold regions of Europe, is never found in great numbers. In Thuringia, and some other provinces of Germany, they are seen generally every year, in March, the time of passage, settling in pairs along the high roads, searching for a few undigested grains in the dung of animals. Their song is shrill, tolerably pleasing, and interrupted like the yellowhammer’r. They may be easily kept in the house, either caged or not, feeding them on oats, bread, hemp, and other seeds. These birds also appear uneasy during the night, especially in the pairing season, uttering their call amidst the darkness. Some are occasionally met with of a dull orange on the upper part of the body, streaked with yellow on the head, and deep orange on the back. These are young birds. This species is caught in the same manner as the snow bunting.

Habitation.—In its wild state the yellowhammer is found in all parts of Europe, and the north of Asia. It remains in summer about the skirts of forests and small woods. It overruns the fields in autumn, and in the winter approaches our buildings, particularly barns and stables.

When confined it is generally allowed to run about the room, but where it is rare, and therefore most valued, it is kept in a cage.

Food.—When wild these birds live on insects, particularly caterpillars, on which, like all the other species of this genus, they feed their young. In autumn and winter, they have recourse to all kinds of grain; but they prefer oats, which, with barley, wheat, and millet, they know how to get at very cleverly, notwithstanding the bony tubercle at their palate. They also feed upon rape, and other small seeds, when they can get them.

In the house, to preserve them in health, their food should be properly varied, giving them in turn oats, the crumb of white bread, meat, bruised hemp seed, poppy and rape seed. When running about, the second universal paste agrees very well with them. It is no doubt to assist their digestion, that they often swallow fresh black earth, as I have always seen those do that I have kept; this must not be forgotten to be given them, nor water for them to bathe in, which they enjoy very much.

Breeding.—This species breeds twice in the year, the first time in the end of March, or the beginning of April. The nest, which is placed in a hedge, bush, tuft of grass, or even in moss on the ground, is formed on the outside of straws, interwoven and lined within with the hair of horses and other animals. It contains from three to five eggs, of a dirty white, with zig-zag lines and spots of brown. When reared from the nest the young ones may be taught to imitate the song of the chaffinch, and a few notes of other birds.

Diseases.—The disease most common to this bird is decline. The time 116of moulting is very dangerous to them, as they suffer much, and sometimes die; to render this period less dangerous, they should have fresh ants’ eggs as soon as it commences, a remedy most useful to this species, to chaffinches, and to sparrows.

Mode of Taking.—The yellowhammer is easily taken in winter, near our dwellings, either in a net, with a stalk of oats as a bait, or under a basket or sieve, which may be thrown down, by drawing away the small stick that supports it, by means of a string. They will also enter the area or barn-floor trap, if a perching bird is fastened there, by a string attached to the leather band round its body; in spring they may be caught like other birds, by means of a bird-call.

Attractive Qualities.—The first of these is certainly the beauty of the bird, but the fine yellow which sets it off fades gradually when kept in the house, where it will live five or six years; the second is its song, which, without being very distinguished, is rather pleasing; its call, though not strong, is heard to some distance; but this bird, so gay, so spruce, so active when free, becomes dull, idle, and awkward in a cage.

Habitation.—In its wild state this bird is common in most parts of Europe; in the more northerly parts it does not remain during the winter, and only appears at certain seasons; in March they are met with amongst the larks in the fields, meadows, and on the high roads, often perched on the tops of willows, or on a stake in a hedge, on a milestone, or a clod of earth.

In a room it may occupy a lark’s cage, but is more commonly let run about at liberty.

Food.—Both at liberty and in confinement its food is similar to that of the yellowhammer; it is however a more delicate bird.

Breeding.—Its nest, placed under a bush, does not rest on the ground but on the turf; it is constructed of the stalks of grass, and lined with horse-hair. The eggs are grey, speckled with chestnut and streaked with black.

Mode of Taking.—In autumn these birds may be taken in an area with a decoy bird; in winter, before the barn door, with bird-lime or a clapper; in the spring with a bird-call.

Attractive Qualities.—Their song, shorter and less soft than that of the yellowhammer, has only four or five notes; from their dwelling on the r in the last, they have been given the name of stocking weavers.

Habitation.—In its wild state the ortolan is principally found in the southern and temperate parts of Europe, and is not scarce in some of the provinces of Germany; but if attention were paid to them there, they might be seen in every direction on their passage; for though they may not remain during the summer in a district, yet they make some stay, never passing over a great space of country at a time. Their route is so exact and regular, that when one has been seen in a particular spot, especially if in spring, it is sure to be found there the following year at the same time. They fly rather in families than flocks: the time of their arrival in Germany is towards the end of April, or beginning of May; they are then met with in orchards, amongst brambles or in groves, where they build, particularly if millet is cultivated in the neighbourhood. During harvest they frequent the fields in families, and leave after the oats are gathered in34.

In the house, if much valued, they are given a cage; but in countries where they are common they are let run about free.

Food.—In their wild state they live on insects and grain. In the house they are fed, if in a cage, on millet, hemp seed, and prepared oats; if at liberty in a room the universal paste suits them very well. These birds, being rather delicate, cannot often be preserved beyond three or four years.

Diseases.—The most common disease of these birds is atrophy, to cure or prevent which it is necessary to know how properly to mix and vary animal with vegetable food; but this calls for a greater degree of attention and care than most persons are willing to give.

Manner of Taking.—In spring these birds are easily attracted to a decoy bush, by a female of their own species, or a yellowhammer. In August a turfy place should be chosen near brambles, to form a small area, as a decoy, like that made for chaffinches. It must be surrounded with a low hedge, with some oat-ears fastened to it. About the area should be placed one or several birds of call, especially a perching bird, that is to say, a bird of the same species, with a band of soft leather round it, and confined by a small string, fastened to a peg-stick in the ground, which prevents its going beyond the prescribed limits. Here it should be given plenty of food and water, in order that the birds to be caught may be the more easily attracted within the area, from seeing one of their own species in a place of abundance. This kind of decoy bird is often more necessary than any other.

Attractive Qualities.—The fine form and colours of the ortolan would be sufficient to render it desirable, but still more so its flute-like 119warbling, so clear and full, which has some resemblance to that of the yellowhammer, only that the last notes are much deeper.

Ever since ortolans have been known to epicures as a delicacy, they have been fattened with great care. The common way is to keep them in a room only lighted by lanterns, so that they cannot distinguish day from night: they are then plentifully fed on oats, millet, and the crumb of white bread, made up with good spice. In a short time they become so fat that they would be suffocated if not killed at once. An ortolan thus fed is a perfect ball of most delicious fat, weighing about three ounces.

Description.—This bird, scarce in many provinces of Germany and in Britain, but well known in Thuringia, is about the size of the yellowhammer, being five inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures two and a half. Its small and flattish beak is of a brownish blue on the upper part, and light brown on the under; the feet, eight lines in height, are flesh-coloured; the upper part of the head and neck olive green with small black strokes, a golden yellow streak extends from the angle of the upper mandible to the middle of the neck, passing under the eyes; another begins from the angle of the under mandible, and descending in a straight line, is crossed by a third, which is black, then curving round behind the yellow streak under the eyes, reunites with the black one on the throat; the back and smaller wing-coverts are cinnamon brown, mixed with black and yellow green; the rump is olive, with black streaks; the breast is a fine olive green, light chestnut on the sides; the rest of the under part of the body is of a golden yellow.

The female is known by its plumage being much paler: the head and upper part of the neck are olive, much streaked with black; the back is pale brown, the rump more streaked with black, the tail rather greyish black than black; two pale yellow lines pass one above the other below the eyes, and cross a black line which unites to the black border of the cheeks; the throat is brownish, with a lighter spot below; the breast is olive, with the sides brownish, the rest of the under part of the body is pale yellow.

The young ones, before their first moulting, have the upper part of the body light brown, speckled with black, the under pale yellow streaked with black; the older they grow the more of an olive tint the breast acquires.

Habitation.—In their wild state these birds dwell chiefly in the southern and temperate parts of Europe, where they frequent orchards, groves, 120and the skirts of forests.35 They are birds of passage, which leave in November and return in April; they are then met with very commonly among the chaffinches.

In the house they must be treated in the same manner as the ortolan.

Food.—In their wild state they feed on the cabbage caterpillar in summer, and when corn is ripe, on wheat, barley, millet, oats, and other grain.

Breeding.—They place their nest in a hedge or bush on the road side, and build it of small straws and line it with horse-hair. The eggs are greyish, speckled with chestnut. In the end of July, whole families are met with in the fields, particularly those planted with cabbages, and that have willows in the neighbourhood.

Diseases and Mode of Taking.—These are similar to what is said under ortolan.

Attractive Qualities.—The male surpasses the ortolan in beauty, but does not equal it in its song, as in this it more resembles the yellowhammer.

These birds, however, are very easily tamed, and may be preserved five or six years.

Habitation.—When wild, this species, which loves solitude, and prefers mountainous districts, inhabits the south of France, Italy, and the south of Austria. In some winters they quit these countries and proceed even to the middle of Germany, where they are found in March and April in elevated situations.

In the house they are either kept in a cage or left to range a room, and 121the latter seems to agree with them best, particularly if they have a grated and quiet place to rest in and pass the night.

Food.—When wild, these birds, like others of the genus, feed on insects and grain.

In the house they may be fed on the same food as the ortolan, on which they may be preserved in health above six years, as I have proved by a pair which I kept myself for that time.

Mode of taking.—These birds come without difficulty at the call of the yellowhammer, and enter into every kind of snare so heedlessly, that they have thence been given the name of foolish bunting.

Attractive qualities.—They are very fine and lively birds, whose voice is heard the whole year; in winter their note of call, and from spring to autumn, their cheerful song, shorter indeed, but clearer than that of the yellowhammer. They live very amicably in a room with other species of their genus, especially the yellowhammer; and where one goes the other follows, and if one chooses any particular food, the other prefers the same.

Habitation.—In their wild state this species is found throughout Europe and the north of Asia, flying in small flocks, and returning in March in great flights. The females follow the males, and do not remain behind, as some pretend. During winter some of these birds are met with here and there amongst the yellowhammers; they frequent moist places, the banks of ponds and rivers; they run nimbly up the stalks of aquatic plants, but rarely ascend trees.

In the house it is the custom here to let them range a room; but they may be kept in a cage.

Food.—When wild they feed on the seeds of rushes, bullrushes, reeds, and grasses, as well as on the numerous insects that frequent the water-side.

In the house they seem to relish the first universal paste and poppy seeds, on which food they will live five or six years; but afterwards they droop and die of atrophy or scurf, as I have remarked several times.

Breeding.—These birds make their nests among the reeds and brambles on the water-side. They lay five or six eggs of a dusky light grey, with dark grey spots and dusky lines rather indistinctly mingled.

Mode of Taking.—In autumn they enter the area or decoy with the chaffinch; in spring, when there is snow, they approach the barns and dunghills, and there, as well as in open places in the fields and on the hedges, they are very easily taken with a net or bird-lime.

Attractive Qualities.—Their song is alternately weak and strong. Three or four simple tones, mingled from time to time with a sharp r, distinguish it from every other; it is heard all the summer, even during the night. Of all the buntings, this is the most easily tamed; it is also a great amateur of music, approaching the instrument without fear, as I have 123observed several times, not of one only, but of many of these birds, testifying its joy by extending its wings and tail like a fan, and shaking them so that, by this exercise the feathers have been much injured. The female sings also, but its tones are weaker than those of the male.

Observations.—Thick woods and bushes in a mountainous country are the favourite haunts of the sparrow bunting. It is a bird of passage, which quits us in October or November and returns in April. It is not rare in Thuringia, particularly at the time of passage; formerly it was only known in Russia. Its food, when wild, is insects and all kinds of grain.

In the house, it is fed on the same food as the reed bunting, which it very much resembles in its song and habits: it is taken in the same manner.

Observations.—This beautiful species comes from Angola, and other parts of Africa, and is particularly common in the kingdom of Whidah, or Juida, in Guinea, and hence it takes its name. Though it was formerly brought in great numbers into Germany, it still costs there thirty or forty rix dollars. These birds are very lively, and constantly in motion, always waving their long tail up and down, often arranging their feathers and amusing themselves with bathing. Their feeble song, though somewhat melancholy, is however very agreeable. They may be preserved from eight to twelve years if fed on canary seed, millet, barley meal, and the like, not forgetting to add from time to time lettuce, endive, or other green food. They must be given a large cage, to prevent their spoiling their fine tail.

Observations.—This bird requires the same treatment as the former, and sings in the same very agreeable manner.

Observations.—This bird comes from Africa, and is not less admired than the preceding.

Observations.—This species is most commonly found in Carolina, but is not rare about New York, where it arrives the beginning of April. It frequents the orchards when they are in bloom, and appears to prefer mountainous parts. Its agreeable song, which very much resembles that of the linnet, and the beauty of its plumage, render it a favourite with bird-fanciers. Its food is canary seed, millet, poppy seed, and bruised hemp seed.

Observations.—These birds are found from the frontiers of Canada to Guiana and Brazil; none, however, are seen in Carolina less than one hundred and thirty miles from the sea. They only show themselves in summer, and build principally on orange or similar trees. English and Dutch sailors take home many of these birds, and it has been said that in England they have succeeded in making them breed in aviaries in gardens, spacious enough to contain orange trees, on which they have constructed their nests. When in a cage they are fed on millet, canary-seed, endive, and poppy-seed, on which they may be preserved from eight to ten years. Their song is soft and agreeable.

Habitation.—In its wild state, the chaffinch frequents forests, copses, and orchards, and ought to be reckoned among birds of passage, though there are always some that remain the winter with us. The time of passage, in autumn, continues from the beginning of October to the middle of November, and in spring during the month of March. These birds perform their journey in large flocks. In the spring the males arrive in separate flights, fifteen days before the females; our bird-catchers know this so well, that as soon as they perceive these they put up their implements, their sport being then over.

In the house, though each may vary the form of the cage to his taste, the best, in my opinion, is an oblong cage nine inches long, seven in depth, and seven in height, with the food and water at the two farthest sides, and the perches placed opposite. A bell-shaped cage does not suit the chaffinch, as it prefers jumping down in front, and swinging itself round, to remaining at the top. If there are several in one room they must be placed so as not to see each other, or their song will be injured. Those only are allowed to range whose song is very inferior, and must be provided with a grated place to retire to, or some branches to perch on. These never sing so well as those in cages, their song appearing to require the greatest attention, and hence there should be nothing to distract them.

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Food.—When wild, their food in spring is all sorts of insects, which they carry to their young in their beaks; later in the season they eat various kinds of seeds, pine and fir seeds, when they inhabit forests that contain them, linseed, oats, rape, cabbage, and lettuce, which they know well how to procure and shell.

In the house they are fed all the year on rape seed, dried in summer, or, which is better, soaked and swelled in water, on which food they appear to thrive. Every day a sufficient quantity should be soaked for the next, and given them fresh every morning. In the spring they are allowed a little hemp-seed, or the seed of the nettle-hemp (Galeopsis Tetrahit), to excite their song, and this plant is therefore very much prized in Thuringia; but these seeds should not be mixed with the rape, as in trying to find them they soon scatter their food; it is best to put it in a separate drawer fastened to the iron wires of the cage, between which it may be slipped. It must not be omitted to supply them with green vegetables, chickweed, lettuce, and the like; and in winter a piece of apple, meal-worms, and ants' eggs agree with them. They must have fresh water regularly every day, both to drink and bathe in.

Those that range the room live on the different sorts of food they meet with, bread, meat, and all sorts of seeds.

Breeding.—The nest of the chaffinch is one of the most beautiful of birds’ nests, and formed in the most skilful manner. It is the shape of a half globe flattened on the upper part, and so perfectly rounded that it has the appearance of having been turned on a lathe. Cobwebs36 and wool fasten it to the branch, bits of moss with small twigs entwined form the ground-work; the lining is composed of feathers, thistle-down, the hair of horses and other animals, whilst the outer covering is formed of the different lichens that grow on the tree in which it is placed, the whole firmly united and well cemented. This outer finish is no doubt intended to deceive an enemy’s eye; in fact, it is very difficult, even with great attention, to distinguish the nest from the bark of the branch on which it is fixed.

The female has two broods in the year; she lays from three to five eggs, of a pale bluish grey, spotted and streaked with brown: the first brood (and this is confirmed in general by observations of other birds) rarely produces any but males, the second only females. Bird-fanciers can distinguish the one from the other before they leave the nest; the breast of the male already discovering a reddish tint, the circle round the eyes being yellower, the wings blacker, and the lines that cross them whiter, though in other respects it resembles its mother. If you wish to be quite sure, pluck some feathers from the breast of the bird you have taken from the nest, in a fortnight they will be replaced, and the presence or absence of red will infallibly decide whether it is male or female. As soon as the tail-feathers begin to appear they must be taken from the nest, to prevent the possibility of their ear being injured by hearing an imperfect song, for scarcely are the wings and tail half grown than these birds begin to warble, and to imitate the song of those around them.

They must be fed on rape seed soaked in water and the crumb of white 131bread; it is very easy to rear them and preserve them healthy till the time of moulting, but then numbers perish, particularly if not quickly relieved by being given meal-worms and ants’ eggs, or any other animal food, as bread boiled in or soaked in boiled milk.

Chaffinches that have been reared with care become very familiar, and sing at command, or when one approaches their cage in a friendly manner. If they are wished to learn quickly and accurately, they should be kept in an obscure corner of the room, and only hung up at the windows in May; this is the surest way to prevent their learning any thing imperfect. By these means chaffinches that have been taken full grown have forgotten their former song and adopted a better. The whole artifice consists in keeping the bird in such retirement as will remove everything that might distract it when listening to a fine songster, and take away the wish to sing itself.

There have been examples of chaffinches pairing with female canaries, and it has been said with a female yellowhammer. The distinction between wood and garden chaffinches is unfounded, at least as to species; the eggs of both are of the same whitish pink colour.

Diseases.—The disorders to which the chaffinch is most subject are the obstruction of the rump gland37 and diarrhœa. To cure this an old nail or a little saffron should be put in the water.

When the scales on the feet become too large, the upper ones must be cut skilfully with a sharp knife, or else the bird would either lose the use of his limbs or become gouty; but this operation must be performed with great care.

Blindness also is not uncommon, particularly where they are fed much on hemp seed. This does not, however, injure their song, and as it comes on gradually, it does not prevent their finding their food and hopping about the perches. By means of proper care a chaffinch may be preserved twenty years.

Mode of Taking.—With good baits the chaffinch may easily be drawn within the area or decoy from Michaelmas to Martinmas, and in spring throughout March. Those that remain the winter, or return early in the year, may be taken in a net baited with oats.

bird-catchers use in spring lures and lime twigs, and the sport lasts as long as the time of flight, which begins at daybreak and ends at nine o’olock. These birds employ the rest of the day in seeking food in the fields, in resting, and singing. In the same manner are taken linnets, goldfinches, siskins, yellowhammers, and bullfinches.

Some make use of the excessive jealousy of the males to procure those whose song is very superior. As soon as a bird-catcher who likes this way discovers a fine songster wild, he immediately seeks another male that is in the habit of often repeating its natural cry, fink, fink, ties his wings, and fastens to his tail a little forked stick, half a finger long, well covered with bird-lime; thus prepared, he fastens him under the tree on which the one he is watching is perched; this no sooner sees and hears the false rival 132than he becomes enraged, pounces on him like a bird of prey, and is caught with the bird-lime; his attack is often so violent that sometimes the bird of call is killed by the stroke of its adversary. The following is a surer method:—a soft, narrow leather band is fastened round a male, to which is attached a string a foot long, fastened by a peg, which allows it but a short space to range. This bird, as we have already said, is called, in bird-catchers’ language, a percher. A circle of bird-lime is made just beyond its reach, and a cage with a chaffinch, accustomed to sing either in the shade or exposed, is placed under a neighbouring bush; as soon as this last begins his song, which should be a natural one, not any learned in confinement, the chaffinch that is to be procured darts from the tree like an arrow on the percher, which it mistakes for the songster, and remains fixed by the bird-lime. This new prisoner will sing the same year if it is caught before Whitsuntide: if after, it will never sing, but will die, evidently from grief at being separated from its female and young ones. A bird-catcher, cruel as he is stupid, who, without the least reflection, only thinks of gratifying his ridiculous passion for bird-catching, may in an hour deprive ten or twelve females of their beloved companions, their protectors, and numerous young ones of their father, purveyor, and support: such thoughtless cruelty is, alas! only too common in Germany. As soon as the young chaffinches have left the nest, the bird-catchers are very active in discovering the places where at noon they are accustomed to drink; there they set perches covered with bird-lime, and by this means many of these little unwary creatures are taken. However little memory one of these birds may have, it is capable of learning a good song, and being more robust than those brought up from the nest, bird-dealers make a good deal of them. They collect a great many, being sure that some will succeed amongst them.

Attractive Qualities.—The first of these is undoubtedly the song of the bird; but our amateurs are not less attentive to the different notes that express its passions and wants. The note of tenderness, and which is also thought to indicate a change of weather, is trif, trif: its call, or the rallying note it makes use of on its passage, and which so often draws it within the snares of our bird-catchers, is ïak, ïak, repeated several times; the cry fink, fink, which it often repeats, and from which its German name is derived, appears, if we may so call it, to be mechanical and involuntary. But what makes it appear to still more advantage among other birds are its clear and trilling tones, that seem almost to approach to words; in fact, its warbling is less a song than a kind of battement, to make use of a French word, and is expressed in German by the word schlag (trill), which is used to designate its song as well as the nightingale’e. Some chaffinches have two, three, four, and even five different battemens, each consisting of several strains, and lasting several minutes. This bird is so great a favourite in Germany, that not a single tone of its voice has escaped the experienced ears of our bird-fanciers. They have observed its nicest shades, and are continually endeavouring to improve and perfect it. I confess I am myself one of its warmest admirers; I have constantly around me the best songsters of its species, and if I liked I could write a good sized volume on all the details of its music, but I will confine myself to that which bears most on this subject.

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The song of the chaffinch bearing an evident relation to articulate sounds, its has been thought to distinguish its different variations by the final syllable of the last strain. The most admired in Thuringia are the following, which I shall give in their order, and in their different degrees of superiority.38

1. The Double Trill of the Hartz in Lower Saxony is composed of six strains, rather long, the last of which is ended by dwelling on the two final syllables, which I shall express here by the word “weingeh39.” I doubt if ever a bird in its wild state has executed this so perfectly as I heard it at Ruhl40 and at my own house. Art has certainly created it. It is with difficulty that a chaffinch attains it, if, with the best abilities, it has not been instructed from its earliest youth. Rarely can it give it complete without leaving any part out. On this account a high price must be given for the little prodigy that sings it through, full, entire, and in all its strength.

2. The Reiterzong, or rider’s pull, first heard among the mineral mountains of Saxony and Voigtland, has been known but a short time in Thuringia. It may be heard from a chaffinch in its wild state, but those that have been instructed execute it in a fuller, stronger, and less precipitate manner. This song consists of four strains, the first of which commences in a high key, and gradually descends. When in perfection there is a cadenced pause before the two last syllables, which articulate tolerably clearly reitzing with a zap or clapping, as our amateurs express it. An amateur who has never heard the double trill of the Hartz would not believe that a chaffinch could sing in a superior manner to this; however, in this, as in many other things, each has his taste.

3. The Wine Song is divided into four kinds, 1. the fine, or Längsfeld wine song41, is very beautiful, but little known except in two or three 134places in Thuringia. It is composed of four strains, and to be perfect ought to resemble a hautboy, the two last syllables articulating “weingeh.” This song has never been heard from a wild chaffinch, but is one accidentally produced in the house, and endeavoured to be propagated by education.

2. The bad wine song is not in itself disagreeable, but it is so named when compared with the former. It is composed of three strains, of which the penultimate ought to sound zap five times, and the two last syllables articulate “weingeh.” When once a wild chaffinch has been heard to utter this in Germany it is not long ere it is caught. 3. The sharp wine song is not ended by “weingeh,” but “weingieh.” It is subdivided into the common sharp, such as is sometimes heard in the woods, and the Ruhl sharp, which is an entirely artificial song, confined to Ruhl and a few other villages of Thuringia. It has but two strains, of which the first syllables ought to sound as though flowing into each other, and the penultimate to have an accent.

4. The Bräutigam, or bridegroom song, is also divided into good and bad: the good is only heard in the house, and consists of two simple strains; it begins piano, afterwards forte, and, continuing crescendo, ends in the most brilliant sound. After the double trill of the Hartz it appears to my ear the finest of all. The bad is occasionally heard in the woods, and is composed of three strains; but though not devoid of sweetness, does not please so much as the former.

5. The Double Trill is formed of two long strains, divided by a cadenced pause, which is named the shake. They distinguish, 1. the common, subdivided into four; a, the strong, b, the clear, c, the long, and d, the short. These are heard sometimes in the woods and orchards; but chaffinches that sing a or b soon become the prey of our bird-catchers. 2. The double trill of Iambach42; this is only to be acquired in the house, and is so deep and powerful that one can scarcely conceive how the larynx of so small a bird can produce such sounds. It begins piano, and swelling its tones successively in crescendo, makes of the trilling a strain of five piercing tones, afterwards repeats “pfaff” four or five times, and ends by dwelling on “Rüdidia.” A chaffinch that possesses this song, either alone, or united with the good bridegroom’s song, such as are educated in Iambach, sells here for eighteen French francs.

6. The Gutjahr, or good year song, is so named from the two last syllables, and is also divided, 1. into the common, that has but two strains, of which the second ought to roll five times before articulating “gutjahr.” It is not uncommon in our woods. 2. The good year of the Hartz, which has been acquired in the house, and consists of two very singular strains, in my opinion not very agreeable. Chaffinches are very rare now which sing this, united to that of the wine song of Ruhl, or the sharp song, and their price is consequently high. They are rarely found but at Ersenach and Ruhl.

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7. The Quakia song is so called from its last syllables, and is double or single, one with one strain, the other with two. This song was formerly very much admired. It was heard in the woods and house, but it is now lost, as all the wild chaffinches that sung it have been taken, and those in confinement have been taught in preference the good wine song: I believe I possess the only bird that is now to be found which sings this. To be admired, the quakia must be united with the double trill. This my chaffinch sings also.

8. The Pithia or Trewethia, is a very uncommon and agreeable song, which is never heard but in the depths of the Thuringian mountains. The bird-catchers of the villages about the forests of Hesse seek for birds that possess it, and actively pursue the songsters. It is first a sonorous strain, followed by several repetitions of the word “zack.” Some birds unite to it the common sharp wine song, and are more valued. The last syllables ought to sound “trewididæ.”

These eight varieties, or rather melodies, are those most thought of in Saxony and Hesse. I have said that some of them are heard in the woods; but it is very rarely that they are sung with so clear and strong a voice, or that they are so long and perfect. A chaffinch that knows only one of these varieties generally sings it slowly, and introduces a greater number of syllables. Its voice, in fact, executes it with more strength and depth; if it adds to the last strain the sound “fink,” which our bird-catchers translate by amen, it is of the highest value, no price will be taken for it.

There are a dozen varieties in all; but as they are not uncommon, and what are everywhere heard, they are less admired; they have even been given in contempt the name of plain.

One thing worth remarking is that the song of the chaffinch varies almost as much as the countries it inhabits. It is not the same in Thuringia as in the Hartz, and the taste of amateurs differs equally43. In Austria several named melodies are admired, but I have never heard them.

The chaffinch has so great a facility in learning, that it not only imitates perfectly the song of another chaffinch near which it has been placed from youth, but being hung near a nightingale or canary it learns several parts of their songs, and would no doubt give them completely if its larynx were so formed that it could render notes so long and sustained; in fine, a great difference in memory is observed in these birds, as well as in all others of the singing species. Some require six months to learn an air that others catch on first hearing, and can repeat almost immediately; these can scarcely retain one of the songs given above; those can imitate three, four, and, should you wish it, five different ones. There are also some that cannot give one song without a fault, and we find others that will add to it, perfect it, and embellish it.

One thing peculiar to chaffinches is the necessity of teaching them their song every year, and this in the manner proper for them, during the four or five weeks this exercise lasts. They first utter a murmur, or weak warbling, to which they add at first, in an under voice, one or two, and afterwards several syllables of their song; they are then said to record. A 136chaffinch that takes only a week or fortnight to repeat this lesson for fully bringing out its voice, is reckoned among the geniuses of its species. It is known that other birds whose power of singing is confined to a particular season, also warble feebly, and mingle with their warbling some foreign notes, especially harsh and confused sounds; but none produce sounds so peculiar, and that have so little relation to their own song. If we pay a little attention, however, we shall find that this exercise is intended less to awaken the memory than to render the throat, stiffened by a tolerably long state of inaction, more pliant, and to bring back its natural flexibility.

Wild chaffinches, on their return in spring, do not delay to record; those in the house soon learn, but they are obliged to exercise themselves for nearly two months before they can execute their song to perfection. The singing season does not generally extend beyond June, but young chaffinches brought up in a room prolong it to October, and sometimes later.

Some amateurs of the song, rather than friends of the bird, to procure the pleasure of hearing it night and day in all its strength, employ a very cruel and inhuman contrivance. They first place the cage in a very obscure place, and accustom the poor little creature to find its food in the dark; they then blind it, either by destroying the pupils of the eyes with a red hot iron wire, or by passing it over the edges of the eyelids, unite and paste them completely together.

Others shut up these poor mutilated creatures in a cool place, almost without air, during the summer, in order that when in autumn they are brought to the window, and breathe the fresh air, they may express their joy by their lively and repeated song. What can we think of the heart and morals of people who for a slight amusement thus enjoy the sufferings of a sensitive being that is unfortunately in their power?

Habitation.—In their wild state this species is scattered throughout Europe; however, it is most probable that in the summer they only inhabit the northern parts. During the three other seasons they are found everywhere in Germany, particularly where there are large forests. When beech-mast is plentiful in Thuringia the mountain finches assemble in immense numbers, it is supposed more than 100,000.

In the house they are kept in a cage or not, according as they are esteemed; where they are common they are not thought worthy of one, but allowed to range at will.

Food.—Wild, and in confinement, it is the same as the chaffinch’h.

Mode of Taking.—This bird’s note of call is ïak, ïak, quääk, and as the two first sounds are the same as that of the chaffinch, they will come at its call, and fly in its company. They also afford the best sport with a net, for in autumn hundreds may be taken at one cast. In winter they are caught near barns under nets, or even under common sieves; and in spring on a decoy bush, at the call of the chaffinch, if one of its own species cannot be procured.

Attractive Qualities.—We cannot boast of sweetness in the song of this bird, as it consists of low whistling, or a kind of warbling, intermixed at intervals with a shrill “raitch,” the whole somewhat resembling the first exercises of the chaffinch; but this wretched warbling may be improved by education. A mountain finch placed by the side of a chaffinch that sung well, learnt to imitate it tolerably, but I must confess that it never attained great perfection. I should warn bird-fanciers who wish to keep these birds for the beauty of their plumage, not to let them range with many companions, for they are quarrelsome, and very lavish in distributing severe pecks, especially if food is not very abundant. In Thuringia they are kept in cages to be employed as lures in the area or decoy enclosure. It is said that it is easier to teach them to go and come than the chaffinch.

Habitation.—In its wild state, it haunts the vicinity of houses; when confined, it is allowed to range the room.

Food.—If, unfortunately, it is too true that the sparrows cause great injury in ripe fields of wheat, barley, and peas, it must be acknowledged that they are very useful in our orchards and gardens, by destroying, in the spring, thousands of insects, on which they feed their young ones as well as themselves44. In the house, they feed on any kind of food: oats, hemp seed, or rape seed.

Breeding.—Small openings under the tiles, crevices in walls, empty martin’s nests, are the places they appropriate for breeding, and they line their nest thickly with feathers. The female has two or three broods every season, and has from five to seven young ones at a time.

Mode of Taking.—Sparrows are so cunning that it is difficult to attract them within the net or on lime twigs. They may be caught in numbers however on the brambles in a field where sheep are kept, by sticking plenty of bird-lime about them. They may be taken also by placing a net before those that have retired to cherry trees and under the tiles to sleep for the night.

Attractive Qualities.—The bird-fancier who enjoys seeing several birds running about the room, will, with pleasure, admit the sparrow among them, and may amuse himself especially by observing it breed and produce mules with the hen tree-sparrow. A jar or cup placed in a corner will serve as their nuptial bed. A male tree-sparrow with a hen sparrow does not succeed.

The sparrow may be easily taught to go and come at command, by choosing winter as the time to effect it. It is necessary first to keep it a month near the window in a large cage supplied with the best food, such as millet, meal, or white bread soaked in milk. It will even go there to deposit its eggs if a small box is placed in the cage, with an opening for it to enter 139at. Finally, no bird becomes more familiar, or testifies more attachment to its master. Its actions are very lively, confiding, and delicate. A soldier, says Buffon, had a sparrow which followed him every where, and knew him in the midst of the regiment.

Habitation.—In their wild state, they are not only found throughout Europe, but also in the north of Asia and America. In Germany and England it is not so common as the house sparrow, for in some provinces it is never seen. It frequents gardens, orchards, and fields abounding with trees and hedges. In September, large flights are seen to fall upon the ripe fields of barley and oats.

In the house it is let run about like the former, which it does very awkwardly from having short legs, and this gives it the appearance of dragging along on its belly. It is only kept in a cage in countries where it is very rare.

Food.—This is the same as that of the preceding.

Breeding.—The nest must be sought in the holes of fruit trees, or in hollow willows at the water’s edge; it breeds twice in the year.

Mode of Taking.—This is the same as the preceding; but being less distrustful and cunning, it is easily enticed under a sieve placed before a barn in winter.

Attractive Qualities.—Its plumage is prettier than the preceding, its song is also less short and monotonous; but it is weak, and when it might be sweet, it is lost among the other songs in the room. The tree sparrow might be accustomed in the country to go and come at command by treating it in the manner described with respect to the house sparrow. It is more difficult to preserve it, and it generally dies of decline.

Habitation.—In its wild state the linnets are spread throughout Europe. In the summer they frequent the skirts of large forests, thickets, hedges, and bushes, particularly furze; but as soon as September arrives, they pass in large flights to the fields. They are wandering birds, that in winter go hither and thither seeking food in places free from snow, but in March they return to their native places.

In confinement it is best to keep them in square cages, as they are less subject to giddiness in these than in round ones, and sing better. They are not often allowed to range the room, as they are very indolent, remaining immoveable in the same place, and running the risk of being trodden on; but if a small tree or a roost be placed in a corner, they may be let out of the cage with safety, as they will remain perched there, only leaving it to eat or drink, and will sing all day long.

Food.—When wild, their food is all kinds of seeds that they can shell, and these remain in the crop some time to be moistened before passing into the stomach. In the house, it is only summer rape seed,45 which need not be soaked in water for them, as for the chaffinch, since, having a 143much stronger crop and stomach, they can digest much better. It is not necessary always to give them hemp seed with it, and they must not be fed abundantly, for taking little exercise, they easily become fat, and sometimes die from this cause; but a little salt mixed with their food is useful, as it preserves them from many diseases, and they like it. When linnets are allowed to run about, they will feed with the other birds on the common universal paste; but they must be given green vegetables, water, and sand, as they are very fond of bathing and dusting themselves.

Breeding.—Linnets have two broods in the year. They lay from four to six eggs for each, of a bluish white, speckled with reddish brown, especially at the large end. Their nest placed in a hedge, a white or black-thorn, or, if in a country where they are common, on a vine, or a furze bush, is composed of small twigs, dried grass and moss, and lined with wool, the hair of horses, and other animals. The parent birds feed their young ones from their beaks, and do not discontinue it if prisoners in the same cage. If the young ones are to be taught a new song, they must be taken from the nest when the shafts of the feathers are just appearing, that they may have no idea of their parents’ song. The males may be easily distinguished by their white collar, and from having the most white about the wings and tail.

Diseases.—The most common disorders of this species are constipation, atrophy, and epilepsy. A linnet, however, will, in general, live from ten to twelve years in the house.

Mode of Taking.—These birds are distrustful and suspicious, and, notwithstanding decoys and perching birds, it is very difficult to entice them within the decoy or area, and never many together. In the spring, by means of a good decoy-bird, a few may be taken on a decoy-bush. In the autumn, by fastening snares or lime twigs to the stalks of lettuces, of the seeds of which the linnets are very fond, several may be taken. Our shepherds turn and support the cribs, used to feed the sheep from, in such a manner, that the linnets, coming to gather the grains of salt, easily overturn them on themselves. The call of the linnet is “gäcker.”

Attractive Qualities.—The agreeable, brilliant, and flute-like song of the linnet, consists of several strains, succeeding each other very harmoniously. Our amateurs consider its beauty to depend on there being often mingled with it some acute and sonorous tones, that a little resemble the crowing of a cock, and have made people say that this bird crows. Its song is only interrupted during the year by moulting. A young one taken from the nest, which may be easily brought up on a mixture of the wetted crumb of white bread, soaked rape seed, and eggs boiled hard, not only learns the songs of different birds that it hears in the room, such as nightingales, larks, and chaffinches, but if kept by itself, airs and melodies that are whistled to it, and will even learn to repeat some words. Of all house birds, this, from the softness and flute-like sound of its voice, gives the airs that it is taught in the neatest and most agreeable manner. It is also one of those that pay best; some here cost from three to five rix-dollars when they can warble an air preceded and followed by a grand flourish as of trumpets. The weavers and shoemakers often bring up many of these 144birds. It is very pleasing and surprising to hear a young linnet that is well taught by a nightingale. I have one, whose imitations are as perfect as possible. It amuses me throughout the year, but especially when my nightingales are silent.

Linnets may be accustomed to go and come at command, by treating them in their youth, or in the winter, as I have directed for the house-sparrow; but as they are more timid, it is necessary to be more careful.

It is common for a male linnet to pair with a hen canary, and their progeny can scarcely be distinguished from the grey canary. They sing delightfully, and learn different airs with great facility.

It is well known, that among linnets, some are finer warblers than others, and that, as with many other birds, the old ones sing better than the young; on which account, yellow linnets, being the oldest, are the most valued.

Habitation.—In its wild state the lesser redpole is found in every part of Europe; yet we must consider the north as its native home, Scotland, Sweden, Lapland, Norway, and Greenland. Great flights arrive amongst us at the end of October, and leave us in March and April. In winter, they frequent places planted with alders, the seeds of which they appear very fond of. They are principally found in company with siskins.

In the house, it shows off its beautiful plumage, which, alas! does not retain that beauty long, it is often placed in a pretty cage, but most commonly allowed to range through a room.

Food.—When at liberty, the seed of the alder is what these birds seek most eagerly; but they do not despise the seeds of flax, hemp, and even fir, and many other kinds. Being entirely grain-eating birds, their crop has the power of softening the food before it passes into the stomach.

In the house, if in a cage, they eat poppy, rape, and hemp seed; when at large, the first universal paste.

Breeding.—Occasionally a few stragglers breed with us, but this is rare.

Diseases.—The disorders of this species are the same as those of the siskin; but their feet are oftener diseased, and the toes skin off one after the other. They may be kept from eight to ten years.

Mode of Taking.—In the spring and autumn, the lesser redpoles may be taken in flocks in the area, or barn-floor trap, with a decoy of their own species, or even with a siskin. Many may also be caught with such a decoy on a decoy-bush. They are so silly, or so confiding, that they will even allow themselves to be taken close by the bird-catcher, who is collecting their entrapped companions. This stupidity, or simplicity, is common in all birds that come from the more remote northern parts. Brought up far from man, and out of reach of his pursuit, they know not that fear and distrust which is felt by those that inhabit populous countries. Their call is “peweet” and “crec, creck hewid.”

Attractive Qualities.—The lesser redpole pleases the eye more than the ear; its feeble warbling being only, if I may thus express it, a low continued clicking. It may be taught to draw water more easily than the goldfinch, and it will also learn many other little manœuvres, for it becomes very familiar, and will eat as soon as it is let loose after its capture. The mutual tenderness of the male and female is very pleasing. They are continually caressing each other with their bills, and even do the same to siskins, linnets, goldfinches, and canaries, from which it appears very likely that they would pair with these birds.

Habitation.—In their wild state goldfinches are found in all parts of Europe, frequenting orchards, brambles, thickets, and mountainous districts, interspersed with wood and fields, during the summer. These birds are stationary, not changing their haunts in winter; they merely assemble in the autumn in families, or rather in little flocks of fifteen or twenty, seeking here and there places abounding in thistles, and only when the snow becomes too deep leaving such localities for others more accessible.

In the house, if kept in a cage, this should be a square one, because these birds do not like hopping about the upper part, as they would be forced to do, if in a bell-shaped cage, and also inclined to swing round. When they run on the floor they should be given a small artificial tree for a roost; for they like to perch on this whilst singing as well as sleeping.

Food.—Their food, when wild, consists of all kinds of small seeds, such as lettuce, goats'-beard, scorzonera, thistle, radish, and canary seed.

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With us, in the house, they are principally fed on poppy, hemp seed, properly varied with lettuce, rape, and canary seed. If allowed to range, the second universal paste agrees very well with them. I have a goldfinch, which appears in good health, and eats not only of all the vegetables brought to table, but also meat, though, in their wild state, these birds never touch insects46. They must have green food occasionally, such as chickweed, water-cresses, lettuce, or endive. These birds feed largely, when loose in the room, rarely leaving the food-dish, and driving off, if they can, with loud cries, any of their companions who wish to approach. They will allow those birds, however, to feed peaceably with them, that bear some analogy to their species, at least, in the nature of the stomach, such as the canary, siskin, and especially the lesser redpole, without distinction of male or female.

Breeding.—The goldfinch prefers building in large orchards, at the tops of trees, on weak and terminal branches. It makes the most beautiful nest of any of our birds, except the chaffinch, it being finely rounded, very elegant and firm. The outer part is constructed of fine moss, lichens, stalks of grass, and slender twigs; the whole being interwoven with the greatest nicety. The interior is lined with wool, horse-hair, and the cotton or down of the thistle47, or willow. The female has rarely more than one brood in the year, unless she has been disturbed, and, in this case, the number of eggs is always diminished; on this account goldfinches never appear to increase in number. On a sea-green ground, the eggs have pale red spots and speckles, mingled with streaks of reddish black, which often form a circle at the large end. The parent birds disgorge the food into the young ones’ throats. Before the first moulting the heads of the young birds are grey. If it is only wished to take male birds from the nest, all that have a whitish ring round the root of the beak, must be left. They must be brought up on poppy-seed and the crumb of white bread, soaked in milk or water. Of all the natural songs of birds, they imitate most easily and perfectly that of the canary; they also pair with the canary, and produce together fruitful young ones. For this purpose, a male goldfinch is paired with one or two female canaries, which succeeds better than by placing a male canary with a female goldfinch; the former being more amorous, most favours this union, particularly if educated from youth. The fruit of this union are not less distinguished for the beauty of their plumage, often yellow, with the head, wings, and tail, of the goldfinch, than for the sweetness of their song, whether natural or acquired.

If you are afraid that a pair of canaries you value, may not hatch their eggs as you wish, place them in the nest of a goldfinch in your orchard, and you may be certain that they will be properly matured, and the young ones brought up in the best manner. When they are ready to fly, place them in a cage, and suspend it by the side of the nest till they can feed themselves. By this means you will have no trouble with their education.

Diseases.—Epilepsy is one of the commonest disorders of this bird. If the eyes are weak and swollen, anoint them with fresh butter. Stupor and giddiness being very properly attributed to too great a use of hemp seed, it is best to suppress it entirely, and supply its place with the seed of lettuce and thistles. This latter is so beneficial, that it would be well to give them, from time to time, a head to pluck the seeds for themselves.

Old age makes them blind, and deprives them of their beautiful colours; yet, notwithstanding all the evils with which they are afflicted, in a cage a goldfinch has been known to live sixteen years, and even twenty, or twenty-four years.

Mode of Taking.—In spring these birds are taken on a lure bush, with a decoy bird of their own species. They will also enter the area, or barn-floor trap, with chaffinches, if bundles of thistles are placed there; but it is not without difficulty, for they are very watchful to avoid nets and lime-twigs. In the winter, by building up bundles of thistles, and placing snares and traps on them, several may be caught; but in autumn and spring lime-twigs should be placed on them in preference. It is a still better plan to place bundles of thistles in a tree stuck about with lime-twigs. The goldfinch’s call is “tziflit,” or “sticlit,” which is its name in Bohemia.

Attractive Qualities.—The goldfinch is a very beautiful, lively, active bird, always in motion, and turning continually to the right and left. Its agreeable song, which is only discontinued during moulting, is a mixture of tones and harmonies, more or less dwelt upon, and the oftener the sound “fink” is introduced the more it is admired amongst us. There are some goldfinches that utter it only once or twice in their strains, whilst others will repeat it four or five times following. This species learn with difficulty to repeat airs from the flageolet, or other birds’ songs, and in this respect is inferior to canaries and linnets; but it is remarkable for its docility. Goldfinches have been seen to let off a small cannon, and imitate death. When properly instructed they will draw up their food and water. They are taught this by means of a chain or pulley, furnished with a soft leather band, two lines wide, pierced with four holes, through which the wings and feet are to be passed; the two ends meeting under the belly, and are retained there by a ring, to which is fastened the chain that supports the bucket containing the water or food. Whenever the little waterman wants either, he draws up the chain with his beak, fixing it at intervals with his foot, and thus succeeds in obtaining what he wishes; but if his little buckets are suspended to a pulley, raising one makes the other descend, and he can only enjoy his food and water in turn.

I have also seen goldfinches and siskins, placed in different cages, that have little bells fixed to the seed drawer in such a way that the bird cannot take its food without ringing them; the bells being harmonised, tolerably agreeable chimes are produced, but one is soon tired of such trifles.

The goldfinch is taught to go and come at command, without any danger of losing it, much sooner than the linnet, though the latter learns quite as soon to build in the room. To accomplish this feat the winter should be chosen, and the cage, containing a goldfinch that has not been rendered tender by having been too long accustomed to the heat of the room, must be placed on the outside of the window every day, or on a shelf intended for it, and where the mice cannot reach it. Hemp seed must be scattered 150round, and a bunch of thistle heads fastened by the side, the seeds of which should be mixed with the hemp seed. Presently one or more goldfinches, attracted by the call of the prisoner, collect, to take advantage of the scattered food; as soon as you have succeeded so far it is useless to let the decoy remain any longer exposed to the cold, which may injure it. It will be quite sufficient to place the cage within the window, and to put on the outside a cage as a trap, not for the sake of catching these birds, but to scare away the sparrows, that would soon eat up all the seed unless thus prevented; and in order that the trap may only close when you wish, the door should be supported by a string, passing into the room, and loosened, to catch the sparrows, but the goldfinches should be allowed to go in and out at pleasure, till the snow is on the point of disappearing, then close the trap on those you wish to keep: the birds thus captured should be placed in a cage, where they will soon grow tame, and learn to go and return to it. Whatever form this cage is of, the door should be hung so as to remain open as long as is required, and be closed without noise or alarming the bird, either by means of a spring, that may be acted on by the bird, without his perceiving it, or by his pushing the door of it open on the inside. When a goldfinch has been thus trained it may be let fly without fear the following August, at the time of moulting. It is true that it will be lost for some time, but it will not fail to return in December, when the ground is covered with snow, and it will sing much more sweetly than it would had it been kept prisoner. As soon as it has flown, a cage should constantly be hung outside the window, and seeds placed in it, that, if it should chance to return, it may find food; but it is rarely seen again till winter: at that time the cage should be so arranged that the door may be closed as soon as the bird enters, as it used to do in the room; the surest way is to attract it by a call bird. It must not be allowed to come out so often as before, and it will remain, without injury, shut up till the season arrives for giving it its liberty again. The same course may be pursued for the tit, and with still more success for the chaffinch, which does not enter the snares of the bird-catcher as easily as the others. If it is feared that it may be caught in a neighbouring area or barn-floor trap, it may be frightened from this snare in future, by stretching a net once, in the orchard or garden near. The greenfinch is the best for this manœuvre, as it is extremely fond of hemp seed, is more rarely taken, and returns less wild than the chaffinch. The birds that enjoy their liberty in the summer sing more finely than without this advantage, and, what is almost incredible, though taken to a distance of several leagues, they have always found their master’s house again48.

Habitation.—In its wild state it is found throughout Europe; it is very common in Germany, where it remains all the year49, but in winter it wanders about in search of food, and most frequents the parts well planted with alders. In the house, whether in a cage or not, it soon becomes very familiar.

Food.—When wild it varies according to the season; in summer it eats in the woods the seeds of the pine and fir; in autumn, of hops, thistles, burdock; in winter, of the alder and the buds of trees.

In the house its food is poppy-seed and a little hemp-seed bruised. If allowed to range, the first universal paste suits it. It is a complete glutton, and, though so small, eats more than the chaffinch; it is at the seed drawer from morning till night, constantly eating, and driving off all its companions. It does not drink less, and requires abundance of fresh water; yet it bathes but little, only plunging the beak in the water, and thus scattering it over its feathers, but it is very assiduous in arranging them; it may be called a fop, always engaged with finery.

Breeding.—The siskin rarely builds its nest among the alders, but generally in the pine forests, placing it at the extremity of the highest branches, and fixing it there with cobwebs, the threads of insects and lichens. The outer part is well formed of small twigs, and the lining is formed of finely divided roots. It has two broods in the year, each of five or six eggs, of a light grey, strongly spotted with purplish brown, particularly at the large end. The young males become finer each year till the fourth.

The mules, produced by the siskin pairing with the canary, partake of the two species, and are very prettily spotted if the canary is yellow; but this union is not so easy as that with the green canary, which appears to bear a nearer relation to the siskin.

Diseases.—To the other maladies common to the birds of this family we must add epilepsy, of which these birds often die50. They may, however, be kept from eight to twelve years.

Mode of Taking.—With good traps and nets made for this purpose, several dozen of these birds may be taken at once in the winter. They also collect in numbers, in the spring, on the decoy bush, and they are so fearless, that in the villages a person, who has his house situated near a stream bordered with alders, need only place a siskin in the window, near a stick covered with bird-lime, and he may catch as many as he wishes. I have 153caught some at my window in a cage strewed with hemp and poppy-seed, by letting the door fall by means of a string, when the birds had entered, one of the decoy birds in my room serving to attract them. When the place where they drink at noon is discovered amongst the alders, numbers may be caught by merely laying across the stream some branches covered with bird-lime.

Attractive Qualities.—Their plumage and song are both attractive, though with the latter several tones are mingled, that somewhat resemble the noise made by a stocking-loom. This makes them great favourites with stocking-weavers. They imitate tolerably the song of other birds, such as that of the tit, the chaffinch, and the lark; but they cannot give a musical air. Their carolling is only interrupted during moulting, and very much tends to excite their companions to warble in their turn. The loss of their liberty affects them so little, that they will eat as soon as let out of the hand, after being caught, and on the second day will allow any one to approach their cage without alarm. They are soon taught to draw up little buckets, and many other little manœuvres that they execute gaily; there is no difficulty in accustoming them to go and return if the winter is chosen; the cage should be kept open at the window, and hemp and poppy-seed scattered at the entrance; they will return there in general, and bring several companions with them. This plan will not succeed so well in March, September, and October, the time when these birds roam through the country in search of food, though I have seen some tamed in this manner return after a long absence.

Observations.—Ring sparrows are found in most European forests, or woods; they are common enough in several parts of Germany51, those that inhabit the northern parts removing in winter; but the others are stationary.

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They live on seeds and insects like the house sparrow, and make their nests in hollows of trees. In the house they are fed on rape and poppy-seeds; they also readily eat the first universal paste. They are less prized for their warbling, which is insignificant, than for their beauty or rarity.

Habitation.—It is not more than ten years since the serin was observed between Frankfort and Offenbach. They arrive every year in large flights, during March, and depart in October; but there are always some that remain all the winter. Several were taken in January, 1800, when the thermometer was at twenty-one degrees Réaumur, and I myself have seen some near Offenbach at the end of February. They appear to prefer fruit 155trees, yet in woods they also appear attached to beech and oak trees; but I have never met with them by the sides of rivers or streams planted with willows.

Food.—They feed on all the small seeds found in fields and orchards, particularly groundsel, plantain, garden pimpernel, and others of the same kind.

In the house, rape, mixed with a little poppy seed, agrees very well with them; a few grains of hemp seed and husked oats may be added from time to time.

Breeding.—Their nest is generally placed on the lower branches of apple and pear trees, sometimes on beeches and oaks, but never on willows by the water-side. It is constructed of fine and divided roots, mosses, lichens, principally of those which are farinaceous, the whole being entwined with great nicety, and lined with a thick bed of feathers, horse-hair, and pigs’ bristles. They lay three or four, rarely five, eggs of the form of, but rather smaller than, those of the canary; white, but having at the large end a circle of spots and dots of a bright reddish brown. The hen sits on the eggs thirteen or fourteen days, during which time the male feeds her. He also helps to feed the young ones, which is done by disgorging the food; the young perfectly resemble the grey linnet; they may be reared easily on soaked rape seed; but it is best to take the parent birds, and place them in the cage with their little ones, which they will continue to feed. The young birds remain grey till after moulting, they then attain their full plumage, as described before, but are never so beautiful in the house as in their wild state. After being kept a few years in a cage, the yellow in those taken full grown becomes pale, and fades at length to nearly white. This bird will pair with the canary, siskin, linnet, or goldfinch.

Mode of Taking.—These birds are easily taken in the area, or barn-floor trap, on a decoy bush, and with lime twigs placed near the stalks of plantain.

Diseases.—With the exception of consumption, of which one I had died, I know of no disease they are subject to.

Observations.—Of all house birds, these are the most sprightly and indefatigable songsters. Their voice is not strong, but it is very melodious. The song, with the exception of a few passages, is like the lark’k, and might be mistaken for the canary’y. In their wild state they sing incessantly, either perched on the outer branches of a tree, or whilst rising in the air, and gently sinking again to their former situation, or whilst flying from tree to tree. Their call resembles that of the canary, and their habits are also similar to that species.

They are of a very affectionate character; when allowed to range the room with siskins, linnets, and similar birds, they will caress all with the beak, but seem to prefer the company of the goldfinch, whose tones they will imitate, and improve their warbling by it. They are indeed very attractive birds.

Observations.—This species, inhabiting the south of Europe, occasionally strays into the southern parts of Germany52, and the sweetness of their song makes them much sought after. They should be treated in the same manner as canaries.

Observations.—This bird is always found in the north, both in the old and new world, and goes towards the south in winter. It is met with by us on its arrival with the larks, and on its return with the snow bunting, but it is oftenest taken with larks. Its call is a kind of shrill whistle, and its song is very similar to the linnet’t; the female also warbles, but only in the bullfinch’s style. It ranges the room like the lark, and if in a cage hops about its perches like the chaffinch. It is fed on rape, hemp, and poppy seed, which appear to agree with it very well. It may be fed at less expense on the first universal paste, as it also likes meal worms. I think that in its wild state it lives, like the chaffinch, on seeds and insects.

Observations.—The snow finch inhabits the southern Alps, but is found as far north as the middle of Germany. I have even seen them in Thuringia, in company with the mountain finch; it is a sprightly bird, and very fearless in a cage. It may be fed on rape, millet, and hemp seed; but it appears to prefer the seed of the fir and nettle hemp (Galeopsis cannabina): one would think that in its wild state it also fed on insects, as it readily takes meal worms when offered them. Its call is “kipp, kipp.” It sings a great deal, but its song is not more agreeable than the mountain finch’h, to which it appears allied, and like that is only kept in the house for its beauty and rarity.

Habitation.—Except in the breeding season the male canaries are kept alone in separate cages, which, whatever the shape, ought not to be less than eight inches in diameter and a foot in height, with two sticks placed across for the bird to perch on. The females may be allowed to range the room with one wing clipped, or, what is better, kept in large cages, where, from having plenty of exercise, their health and strength are better preserved. In the small cages, glass vases should be placed on the outside, at the extremities of the lower stick, to hold the food and water. These may be 161surmounted with a cap of tin, or something of the kind, to prevent the seed from being so easily scattered. It is for this reason that the large seed drawers in an aviary are covered with iron wire-work, leaving only sufficient spaces for the heads of the birds to pass through. Cleanliness being a great preservative against most of their disorders, the bottom of the cage should be made to draw out, that it may the easier be cleaned and covered with sand. This should be done every day, or at least several times a week. These tender birds, being natives of a warm climate, and becoming more delicate instead of hardier from being kept in the house, require a temperature analogous to that of their native climate. They must be protected from the cold, and never allowed to remain in winter in a cold room, which would occasion many diseases, or even death. But, in summer, it is proper to place them in the open air, and they enjoy it very much. Never do they sing so gaily as on fine days, and their cages should therefore be placed at the open window, that they may have the advantage of the light and heat of the sun, which is particularly serviceable to them whilst bathing.

Food.—This is an important point, for, in proportion as it is simple and natural, it will be wholesome; and, on the contrary, the more it is mixed and rare, the more injurious and productive of disease will it be. What I have found the best is summer rape-seed; I mean that which is sown at the end of spring, which is small and brown, in distinction from the winter rape-seed, which is sown in the autumn, and which is large and black. This seed alone agrees with canaries as well as with linnets: but to give them the pleasure of variety, a little bruised hemp or canary, or poppy-seed, is added to it, especially in the spring, when they are intended to breed. Indeed a mixture of summer rape-seed, oatmeal and millet, or canary-seed, may be given them as a great treat. But whatever seeds they may have, they equally require green food, as chickweed in spring, lettuce and radish leaves in summer, endive, water-cress, and slices of sweet apple, in winter. As to that whimsical and complicated mixture, prescribed and used by many people, of rape, millet, hemp, canary seed, whole oats and oatmeal, poppy, lettuce, plantain, potentilla, and pink seeds, maize, sugar, cake, hard biscuit, cracknels, buns, and the like, so far from being wholesome, it injures the birds in every respect. It spoils their taste, weakens their stomachs, renders them feeble, sickly, and incapable of bearing moulting, under which they most frequently die. It is true, they may be accustomed to eat of everything which comes to table, but to teach this habit is also to prepare a poison for them, which though slow is not the less sure, and brings them to a premature death; whilst every day we see bird-fanciers who are poor, who hardly know the names of these delicacies, rear, on the simplest food, a considerable number of the healthiest, cleverest, and strongest canaries. We must, however, be guided in a great measure by the constitutions of the birds. They should be daily supplied with fresh water, as well for drinking as bathing, in which they delight. In the moulting season, a nail or bit of iron should be put into the water, in order to strengthen the stomach. Saffron and liquorice are in this case more hurtful than useful. Grains of the sand, with which the bottom of the cage is strewed, afford the birds a help to digestion. What has been said above, refers solely to 162the food of full-grown canaries; the young, which cannot feed themselves, require a different diet.

Breeding.—A very important branch in the history of the canary is its education, which is not without difficulties, but these are augmented by all the refinements and artificial plans which some persons follow with so much parade. A male of from two to five years of age should be chosen for pairing; for experience has taught, that if a young male is placed among older females, they will produce more males than females. A bird is known to be old by the blackish and rough scales of his feet, and by his long and strong claws.

Good males are valuable and scarce. Some are dull and melancholy, always sad, and seldom singing; indifferent to their mates, which are equally so to them; others are so passionate, that they beat or even kill their mates and their young; others are too ardent, and pursue their mates while they are sitting, tear the nest, destroy the eggs, or excite the females so much that they voluntarily abandon them.

The females have also their defects. Some, too ardent, only lay without sitting; others neglect to feed their young, beat them, and pick out their feathers, so that the wretched little creatures die miserably; to others, laying is so painful that they are too much fatigued to sit, or they lay each egg only after a long interval. Quacks (for we find them on this subject as on others) pretend to have specifics for the cure of these defects; but their pretended remedies are mere deceptions, and the use of them causes much trouble. The best plan is to remove the vicious birds, and to retain only those which have none of the above-named bad qualities.

To obtain the most brilliant colours, those birds which have them clear, and whose spots are distinct and regular, are paired together. This, of course, can only be done in separate cages. In aviaries, where the birds pair by choice, the offspring are generally mixed and blotted. A greenish or brownish bird, placed with a bright yellow one, often produces dim white, or other admired colours. It is better never to place together two crested birds, because the offspring is apt to have a part of the head bald or otherwise disfigured.

The best time for pairing canaries is the middle of April. Either one male, and one or two females, are placed in a large cage, or many of both sexes are united in a room or aviary, having the advantage of a south aspect. Nests made of turned wood, or osiers, are given them, as straw ones are too easily torn. It is a good plan to place in the room or aviary slips of pine, which being cut in February do not lose their leaves. If a little enclosure of wire-gauze can be fixed over the window, where the birds can enjoy the fresh air, nothing will more effectually contribute to render the young healthy and robust.

Birds, which are to be paired for the first time, should be previously placed in the same cage for seven or eight days, in order to become acquainted and accustomed to live together. If two females are to be caged with one male, it is especially necessary that they should be together long enough to leave off quarrelling, and the pairing cage should be divided into two equal parts, communicating by a sliding door. This being done, a lively male and one of the females should be placed in the first division; 163as soon as she has laid, the male should be moved into the other division, the door of separation being shut; but as soon as the other has also laid, the door may be left open: the male will then visit the females alternately, and they will not trouble themselves about each other; but without these precautions jealousy would incline them to fight, and destroy each other’s eggs. When it is intended to place a great many females, double or treble the number of males, in a room or aviary, the latter should always be first paired with a single female, which will ever after remain the favourite; and it will only be when she is about to sit that he will pair with the others, and this is all the notice he will take of them, for afterwards he will only notice their young. It is from these mothers, however, that the most and the best birds are generally procured.

If the floor of the room or aviary is well covered with moss, little else need be added for making the nests, otherwise they should be supplied with the hair of cows and deer, hogs’ bristles, fine hay, lint, wool cut two or three inches long, paper shavings, and the like. That which is coarsest serves for the outside, and the softest and finest for the inside. If they have shrubs, traces of the natural instinct of the canary are soon observed in the nests which they construct without the help of the turner or basket weaver; but they are of an inelegant form, and the outside is not very carefully finished. The females alone, as is usual among birds, are the builders, the males only choosing the situation and bringing the materials. It is in the nest, where the female is in continual motion, that the pairing takes place; she invites the male by constant little chirpings, repeated more quickly the nearer she is to laying. Seven or eight days are generally reckoned from the first pairing to the laying of the first egg; the other eggs, whose number varies, without exceeding six, are laid successively every following day, and often at the same hour. The laying ended, pairing continues during the first days of incubation.

If the pairs agree, they must be left entirely to themselves, without endeavouring to use art to help nature, as many do. It is usual to take away the first egg and substitute an ivory one, which is repeated with the others to the last, preserving them in the mean time in a box filled with fine dry sand; they are afterwards restored all together to the nest to be hatched55.

The females lay three or four times a year, from April till September; there are some even so prolific that moulting does not stop them. The eggs, of a sea-green colour, are at one end more or less spotted or marked with maroon or violet. The period of incubation is thirteen days.

If, owing to the weakness of the male or female, it is suspected that some of the eggs are barren, they should on the eighth day be examined by holding them lightly between the fingers in the sunshine or before a candle; 164the good ones will be already filled with blood-vessels, while the bad will continue clear, or even be already addled: these must be thrown away. It is rare for the male to sit in his turn during some hours of the day, the female seldom allowing it, for as soon as she has eaten she flies back to the nest. If the male gives up his place readily, so much the better; if not, she drives him away by force and by pecking him. She appears to know his want of skill in this employment.

The near discharge of a gun, a door slammed with violence, and other similar noises, will often kill the young in the shell; but their death happens generally through the fault of a bad sitter.

As soon as the young are hatched, a small jar is placed beside the usual feeding trough, which contains a quarter of a hard egg minced very fine, white and yellow together, with a bit of white bread steeped in water, and afterwards well pressed; another jar should contain rape seed which has been boiled, and then washed in fresh water, to remove all its acrimony. Some persons, instead of white bread, use biscuit, but this is unnecessary; what, on the contrary, is very essential, is to take care that this food does not turn sour, for it would then infallibly destroy the young nurslings. This food I find by experience to be the best.

Now is the time when the male assumes his important duties of nursing-father. These he fulfils indeed almost alone, in order to give his mate time to rest before a new sitting. When it is necessary to bring up the young by hand, a bit of white bread, or some biscuit, should be pounded very fine, and this powder should be mixed with well-bruised rape-seed. This composition serves, with a little yolk of egg and water, to make a paste, which is given to the young birds on a quill cut like a spoon; each nursling requires for a meal four beakfuls, well piled upon the quill, and these meals must not be fewer than ten or twelve a day.

The young should remain warmly covered by the mother as long as they continue unfledged56; that is to say, generally for twelve days: on the thirteenth day they begin to eat alone. In four weeks they may be placed in other cages of a sufficient size; but they must still for some weeks be fed with the above-mentioned paste, conjointly with the food of full-grown birds; for the sudden privation of this nourishment often occasions death, especially when moulting.

Experience proves that generally those canaries which are hatched in a large garden aviary, where they enjoy fresh air, and considerable space for the exercise of their wings, are more vigorous, more healthy, and more robust than those which are bred in rooms, and it is easy to understand the reason.

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I must not omit to mention here an important observation, which has been often made, that if two females are given to one male, and one of them happens to die, the other immediately takes charge of the abandoned eggs, and assumes so completely the duties of foster-mother, that in order rigorously to fulfil them she avoids and even repulses the caresses of her mate.

Canaries pair not only among themselves in our aviaries and cages, they also form connexions foreign to their species, and, provided the analogy is not too remote, produce fruitful mules. Serins, citral finches, siskins, goldfinches, or linnets, are the species which succeed best57. To succeed, however, it is necessary that the birds should have been brought up from the nest. The custom is to give an old male of one of the above-named species to a female canary, the principal reason being that an old female of one of those species, though she would not object to the union, could never be induced to lay in an artificial nest, like a female canary. The offspring of these mixtures combine the colours of the father and mother, learn well enough if they descend from a linnet or goldfinch, but sing badly if they come from a siskin or lesser redpole.

They are easily brought up with the paste mentioned above for canaries. It is asserted that the mules of serins, citral finches, and goldfinches, are fruitful. It is remarked, however, that their first eggs are very small, and the young hatched from them very weak; but the next year the eggs become larger, and the young stronger and more robust.

No sooner can the young canaries eat alone, which happens on the thirteenth or fourteenth day, and sometimes even before they leave the nest, than the males begin to warble, and some females also, but in a less connected manner, which serves to point them out. As these pretty birds are so docile as to neglect entirely their natural song and imitate the harmony of our instruments, it is necessary immediately to separate from his companions and from every other bird the young one which is to be instructed, by putting him aside in a cage which is at first to be covered with a piece of 166linen, and afterwards with a darker cover. The air which is to be taught should be performed five or six times a day, especially in the evening and morning, either by whistling, or on a flageolet, or bird-organ; he will acquire it more or less readily, in from two to six months, according to his abilities and memory; if his separation from the other birds is delayed beyond the fourteenth day, he will retain some part of his father’s song, which he will always intermingle with his acquired air, and consequently never perform it perfectly. The opinion of some, that the grayish canaries have more facility in learning than the yellow or the white, is unfounded, their only advantage over those of a different hue being that they are generally more robust and vigorous. I have not either found that the true No. 3 suits them better than No. 1 or No. 2; these latter, on the contrary, have appeared to me to please them best.

There is too much trouble and risk in allowing canaries to go in and out of their cages for it to be worth the trouble of teaching them this. Notwithstanding all my attention, and the care which I have taken to follow exactly the prescribed rules, I have never succeeded; and the cleverest bird-fanciers have assured me that it should never be attempted but when they have young ones, and above all, there must be no canaries in the neighbouring houses, which might entice them away. Indeed it is no easy matter to accustom a bird to go and come. There, as in many other cases, conclusions in regard to the species have been drawn from individuals. It is certain that very few tame birds easily acquire this trick, and as I show in their histories, with respect to others, probabilities are too often stated as truths.

Diseases.—Birds which seldom enjoy the benefit of fresh and pure air, prisoners destitute in their confinement of the means of exercise, must be particularly subject to the common diseases which have been named, and also to many other peculiar ones. The following are some of the disorders incident to canaries.

1. Rupture, or Hernia: this is very common among young birds, and is a kind of plethora, which produces inflammation in the bowels. The symptoms of this disease are, thinness, the skin of the belly transparent and distended, covered with little red veins surcharged with blood, the bowels are black and knotted, and descend to the extremity of the body; there are no feathers on the diseased part; the invalid does not eat, and dies in a few days. Too nutritious, or too much food, being the cause of the disease, the only remedy is a very severe regimen, and even then it can be cured only in its first stages. The diseased birds must be immediately removed, and fed with nothing but lettuce or rape-seed, in very small quantities. A bit of iron should also be put in the water, and everything be done to invigorate and purify them. It is very rare for young birds which are brought up by their parents to suffer from this disease, as they never over-feed them. In bringing up by hand this moderation should be imitated, and they should neither be over-fed nor pampered.

2. The yellow gall in the head and eyes, arises from over heat; a cooling diet is therefore the only remedy. If the tumour has grown to the size of a grain of hemp-seed, it must be cut off, and the wound be anointed with a little fresh butter, or bathed with urine.

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3. Sweating.—There are some females which, during the time of incubation, or while they are on their young, are subject to profuse perspiration; the feathers of the belly are in consequence so wet as to destroy the brood: as soon as this indisposition is perceived the invalid must be washed with salt water, and after a few minutes be plunged into pure water, to wash off the salt, and be dried in the sun as quickly as possible. This operation is to be repeated once or twice a day till recovery; but as relapses are frequent, it is better to separate the female, and not allow her to sit.

4. Asthma, or hard breathing, which arises from an oppressed stomach, generally yields to plantain and rape seeds moistened with water as the sole food.

5. Sneezing, produced by an obstruction in the nostrils, is removed by passing a very small quill up them to clear them.

6. Loss of voice.—It sometimes happens that after moulting a male suffers the loss of its voice; it must then be fed with the same paste as is prepared for young birds, adding some lettuce-seed, and, according to some bird-fanciers, a bit of bacon should be hung to the cage, for it to peck.

7. Constipation.—The remedy for this is plenty of green food, as lettuce leaves, water-cress, &c., not forgetting bread and milk.

8. Epilepsy, which is common among many kinds of birds, may be produced in canaries by particular causes, as great delicacy and timidity. We should therefore avoid alarming them, either by catching them too suddenly or violently, or by tormenting them in any way. They are to be cured as has been already directed in the Introduction.

9. Overgrown claws and beak.—When the claws or beak want paring, sharp scissors must be used, and care taken to avoid drawing blood, lest the bird should be maimed. They often injure themselves when their claws are too long, and get hooked in the wires of the cage, and continue thus hanging. The females, in the same way, get entangled in their nests.

10. Lice.—The parasite insects by which these little prisoners are often tormented, are generally produced by slovenliness. Besides frequent bathing, the cages must be cleaned with much care and vigilance, and have plenty of very dry sand strewed over the bottom. These lice, like bugs, retire during the day to cracks and crevices, which accounts for old wooden cages being often infested. To get rid of them, hollow sticks or stalks of rushes are used, which must be examined and changed every day. The plan is good, but by using only tin cages, which may, more easily than any others, be passed through boiling water, the object is more certainly attained.

It is rare for canaries which are kept for breeding to live longer than from seven to ten years; while others, if well used, may be preserved for eighteen or twenty years.

Attractive Qualities.—The plumage, pretty form, and docility, the charming familiarity which disposes it to nestle without fear or reserve beside us, as well as its melodious song, have long introduced the canary to all classes of society. Always before our eyes, the object of the most assiduous care, and constant attention, it has afforded a thousand occasions 168for studying its character, or rather the character and dispositions of the different individuals of its species. It has been discovered that among them, as among quadrupeds, and even man, some individuals are gay and others melancholy; some quarrelsome, others mild; some intelligent, others stupid; some with quick memories, others lazy; some greedy, others frugal; some petulant, others gentle; some ardent, others cold.

Its singing, as strong as varied, continues uninterrupted during the year, excepting at the time of moulting, and even this exception is not general. There are some individuals which sing also during the night58.

Those which introduce into their melody some passages of the nightingale’e song are the most esteemed of all canaries; they are called Tyrolean canaries, because they are considered natives of the Tyrol, where they breed many of these birds. The second are the English canaries, which imitate the song of the wood-lark. But in Thuringia the preference is generally given to those which, instead of a succession of noisy bursts, know how, with a silvery sonorous voice, to descend regularly through all the tones of the octave, introducing from time to time the sound of a trumpet. There are some males which, especially in the pairing season, sing with so much strength and ardour that they burst the delicate vessels of the lungs, and die suddenly.

The female, particularly in the spring, sings also, but only a few unconnected and unmusical sounds. Old ones which have done breeding often sing in this way at all seasons.

Canaries are particularly remarkable for quickness and correctness of ear, for the great ease with which they exactly repeat musical sounds, and for their excellent memory. Not only do they imitate all the birds in whose neighbourhood they have been placed when young59, mixing agreeably these songs with their own, whence have arisen those beautiful varieties which each family transmits to its descendants; but they also learn to repeat correctly two or three airs of a flute or bird-organ, and even to pronounce distinctly some short words. Females also have been known to perform airs which they had been taught.

I shall conclude this article on canaries by pointing out the best rules for obtaining and preserving good singers. The most essential is to choose from among the young that which promises a fine tone, and to seclude it from all other birds, that it may learn and remember nothing bad. The same precaution is necessary during the first and second moulting; for being likely to re-learn (if I may say so) its song, it would introduce into it with equal ease foreign parts. It must be observed whether the bird likes to sing alone, or in company with others, for there are some which appear to have such whims, liking to hear only themselves, and which pout for whole years if they are not humoured on this point. Others sing faintly, and display their powers only when they can try their strength against a rival. It is very 169important to distribute regularly to singing birds the simple allowance of fresh food which is intended for the day. By this means they will sing every day equally, because they will eat uniformly, and not pick the best one day and be obliged to put up with the refuse the next.

About two spoonfuls of the dry food mentioned above, is sufficient for the daily nourishment of a canary; what he leaves may be thrown to the birds which are free in the room, and will serve as a variety to those which have only the universal paste to satisfy their appetite.

Observations.—This bird is found in the woods of Cayenne, and the neighbourhood of Carthagena in America. Its clear note is very agreeable. It appears to sing with so much energy as to ruffle the feathers of the head and neck. Its food consists of all kinds of seeds and fruits. Though bread appears to be sufficient when caged, it is better to add rape, millet, and poppy seed. It is easily tamed.

Observations.—These birds are very numerous during the summer in Carolina, which they quit in the winter in small flights. Juniper berries are their principal food; and they eat them with pleasure when caged. They are generally fed with rape and canary seed; but are soon accustomed to all the food of the aviary. They are more admired for their plumage than their song.

Observations.—These American birds repair in the summer in great numbers to the state of New York; they live on the seeds of different kinds of thistles, like our goldfinches, and eat the same food when caged. They are easily tamed, and sometimes even lay in captivity. Their eggs are of a pearl gray, but I am ignorant whether they are ever productive in confinement.

Observations.—This beautiful species comes from Brazil, and is always very expensive. The form of the beak is nearly the same as that of the goldfinch; the food is also the same; its motions are quick, and its song very pleasing.

Observations.—The blue-bellied finch is a native of Africa, and comes principally from Angola and Guinea: it is a pretty lively bird, with a sweet agreeable song. It is fed with canary-seed, bruised hemp, and poppy-seed.

Observations.—This species inhabits the shores of Africa; it is very lively, and its call is “tzä.” Its weak but sweet song resembles that of the wood wren. It is fed on canary-seed.

Observations.—Angola is the native country of this bird. As to the song, it is sweet and flute-like, very like that of the linnet, but more melodious. It is fed with rape and canary seed. The young males have the same plumage as the females.

Observations.—This species is found in Brazil. The male pleases the ear by his song, as much as the eye by his plumage. It appears that by feeding them simply with rape and canary seed they may be preserved healthy for many years.

Habitation.—In a wild state, the sky-lark is found almost all over the world, frequenting fields and meadows, and by preference plains. It is a bird of passage which generally arrives in our regions in the beginning of February, and departs in great flights in the month of October60. No bird of passage returns so soon as the lark; but as it lives not only on insects, but eats all kinds of seeds and even grass, it can seldom be in want of provision even in the severest weather.

In rooms, it is common to let it hop about, giving it a retired corner to sleep; it is, however, also kept in cages, where it sings best. Whatever form may be given to these cages, they must be at least eighteen inches long, nine wide, and fifteen high; the bottom should have a drawer in which enough of river sand should be kept for this scratching bird to be able to roll and dust itself conveniently. It is also a good plan to have in a corner a little square of fresh turf, which is as beneficial as it is agreeable. The top of the cage must be of linen, since, from its tendency to rise for flight, it would run the risk of wounding its head against a covering of wood or iron wire, especially before it is well tamed. The vessels for food and drink must be outside, or, which I prefer, a drawer for the food may be introduced in the side of the cage: sticks are not necessary, as the lark does not perch. When it is allowed to hop free in a room, the latter 176must be very clean and neat, otherwise a thread or hair may entangle the feet, and if not removed it easily cuts the skin, maims the bird, and the entangled toes shrink and fall off.

Food.—When wild, the food consists of insects, especially ants’ eggs; also of all kinds of seeds, and in autumn of oats, which these birds skin by striking them against the ground, their beak being too weak to shell them alone. In the spring the sprouting seeds and young buds, also the blades of young grass, are eaten, and grains of sand help their digestion.

In the house, if the lark is hopping about, nothing is better than the first universal paste described in the Introduction; but if caged the second will suit it better. Poppy-seed, bruised hemp, crumb of bread, and plenty of greens, as lettuce, endive, cabbage, or water-cress, according to the season, must be added. A little lean meat and ants’ eggs are favourite delicacies, which make it gay and more inclined to sing. When old larks are first made prisoners, they must be fed only with oats and poppy-seed to reconcile them to captivity.

Breeding.—The lark lays but once a year in cold countries, twice in the temperate, and three times in the warmer climates. Its nest, formed on the ground in a little hollow, is made without much art of straw, and the wool and hair of animals, and by preference in hollow ground or among the summer crops of grain. The eggs, in number from three to five, are of a whitish gray, spotted and dotted with dark gray; incubation lasts fourteen days. By the end of April the young are often hatched, and are at first only fed with insects, and leave the nest before they can fly; but they nevertheless continue to be fed by the mother till they can follow her in her excursions. Before the first moulting all the upper part of the body is dotted with white; if it is wished to take nestlings, they must be removed from the nest when the tail is about three quarters of an inch long. They are fed with crumb of white bread, and poppy-seed steeped in milk; some ants’ eggs or a little minced lean meat will be a wholesome addition. The males are soon distinguished by their yellow colour. If it is intended to teach them to perform a tune, their instructor must commence before they are ready to fly, for by that time they already begin to record their natural song. They must also be completely separated from other singing birds, otherwise the great flexibility of their organs, joined to their memory, will infallibly cause them to adopt the song of such birds as they are near; and even old larks, brought into my bird-room, have learnt to imitate perfectly the nightingale and chaffinch. They vary, however, very much in this respect. Some females in confinement lay without the presence of a male, and others pair, but I have never yet succeeded in making them sit. One of my neighbours, notwithstanding the greatest care, has succeeded no better, though he had a female which laid from twenty to twenty-five eggs annually. There would undoubtedly be a better chance of success in a large garden aviary61.

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Diseases.—Besides those which have been named in the Introduction, these birds are very subject to a kind of scurf or yellow crust round the base of the beak. The best remedy is to take care that they have good food; the second universal paste agrees with them particularly well; but greens, ants’ eggs, meal-worms, or other insects, must be added. With this food they may be preserved healthy for many years in the house. Instances have been known of larks which have lived in this way for thirty years.

Mode of Taking.—It would take too long a time to describe all the modes of catching larks which are in use. It is enough to say that with day and night nets, known by the name of lark nets, so large a number of these birds are taken alive in the open country, that it is easy to have a choice of both males and females. This lark snaring is accomplished by placing a considerable number of nets perpendicularly like walls, which are called day-nets, towards which, in the dusk, the birds are forced by means of a long rope, which is drawn along the ground, and drives them forward; in the night a square net called a night-net is carried to a spot where it is known that many larks are collected in the stubble, and there they are covered just when they begin to flutter.

If, in the spring, it is wished to procure a good singing male, for some are better than others, a lark whose wings are tied, and with a little forked lime-twig fixed to its back, must be carried to the place where such a bird is to be found. As soon as it is let loose, and the desired male has perceived it from high in the air, he will fall upon it like an arrow and attack it; but soon, the dupe of his jealousy, he will find himself caught by the lime.

Attractive Qualities.—The very pleasing song of the sky-lark consists of several stanzas or strains, composed entirely of trills and flourishes, interrupted from time to time by loud whistling. I have already said that the lark has great abilities for learning. The young readily imitate the notes of all the birds in the same room with them, and the old sometimes succeed also: this, however, is not general; for among birds as among 178men, memories vary in power. Some have a stronger and more melodious voice; there are some which, in confinement, begin to sing as early as December, and continue till they moult; while others, less lively, delay till the month of March, and cease to sing in the month of August. In its wild state, the lark begins to sing in the first fine days of spring, the season of pairing, and ceases at the end of July; this, however, is not without exceptions, as some individuals continue till the end of September. It belongs to the small number of birds which sing as they fly, and the higher it rises the more it appears to elevate its voice, so that it may be heard when it is out of sight. In the country, it very seldom sings when on the ground; in the room it often does, and with ease, and it becomes so tame as to come and eat from the table or the hand.

Habitation.—When wild it is only in autumn and winter that they appear in Saxony in small or large flights, beside the high roads, on dunghills, near barns and stables, among sparrows and yellowhammers; they are also found all over Europe, from Sweden to Italy62; in summer, they frequent the thickets and bushes of the plains, fields, and meadows, or they inhabit the hollows of ditches, paths in woods, and elevated villages. They depart in October.

In the house they may be kept in cages, like the sky-lark, or be left to run about. I know no bird whose feathers grow so quickly; if the wings are kept clipped, this must be repeated every three or four weeks, as by that 179time they are so much grown that they may serve for flying about the room.

Food.—When wild this bird lives, like the sky-lark, on insects, different sorts of seeds, and oats. In the house it is fed with the same things, but it becomes more robust and healthy than the sky-lark.

Breeding.—This species forms its nest on the ground, under little dry bushes, under garden vegetables, on clay walls, and even on thatched roofs. The eggs, in number from four to five, are of a rusty gray, shaded and spotted at the upper end with dark brown. The first plumage of the young before moulting is variegated white. They are taken from the nest when the feathers are half grown to be tamed and taught airs, or to have them instructed by other birds whose song is admired; they learn every thing with the greatest ease.

Diseases.—They are the same as those of other larks. A lousy disease may be added. I possess two male crested larks, one of which has hardly any of the lice which so commonly torment birds, whilst the other, which is nevertheless as gay and musical, is so covered with them that he cannot be touched without having the hand filled with these nasty insects. He has been with me four years, and though he has maintained for a long time millions of these parasites, he continues in good health, which I attribute to his abundant supply of good food.

Is this produced by a difference in the cleanly dispositions of these two birds, or is it a constitutional difference?

Mode of Taking.—When, in winter, any spot has been remarked which the larks prefer, a place must be cleared from snow, some oats and poppy-seed be thrown upon it for a bait, and limed twigs, nets, or even a simple gauze, be conveniently arranged, and soon plenty will be caught.

Attractive Qualities.—The song of the crested lark is, in my opinion, very inferior to that of the sky-lark; it seems composed of the warbling of that and of the linnet; this bird sings also in the night. Its time of singing lasts from February to August, but longer in those birds which have been tamed from the nest. It has not the tottering gait of the sky-lark, but runs nimbly, and moves its crest in the most expressive way. It is rather quarrelsome, and has the peculiarity that when it fights it continues to sing.

Habitation.—When wild these birds inhabit the temperate regions of Europe, in summer the woods of the plain, near fields and meadows, and in the woods of the hills they alternate between heaths and pasture lands. After breeding time they assemble in small flocks of ten or twelve. They are thus found in the stubble, at their departure in October, and their return in March.

In the house I prefer letting them run about, because my experience shows that they sing better in this way than when caged. They must be well supplied with river sand, as well to roll and dust themselves as to pick out grains necessary for their digestion.

Food.—When wild, in summer, the food consists of insects; in autumn, of rape, millet, seed, and oats; in spring, before they can find insects and worms, they are satisfied with the young buds of herbs, water-cresses, and, on an emergency, with the buds of the filbert.

In the house, as this species is more delicate than the preceding, it is well to vary the food, and to give it occasionally, independent of the universal paste, poppy-seed, oats, hemp, sprouting wheat, fresh curds, fresh and dried ants’ eggs, minced ox heart, meal worms, and the like. When one of these birds is caught by the net or otherwise, the best things to induce it to eat when it reaches the bird-room are poppy-seeds and ants’ eggs.

I have seen two wood-larks which had been kept in a cage for eight years, very healthy and gay, with their feet quite free from disease, and singing perfectly. Their food consisted of crumbs of white bread and pounded hemp-seed mixed together; a piece of white bread, enough for the day, soaked in milk, which was poured boiling over it every morning, was also furnished; and finally, some ants’ eggs, given two or three times a day as a treat. The bottom of the cage was also covered with sand, which was changed regularly every day, as well as the water. They were always kept in summer outside the window, exposed to the free air, screening them from the sun by covering the top of the cage with a sheet of paper or piece of linen by way of parasol. The success of this mode of treatment sufficiently proves its advantage. The cage was furnished with two bars, because the wood-lark perches.

Breeding.—The wood-lark builds among the heath, under juniper bushes, in hedges, high grass, or under a green hillock in fields near the woods, or in copse wood. The nest is made of dry blades of grass, mixed 181with moss, wool, and hair. The eggs are variegated with light gray and brownish violet. The young may be bred up with bread soaked in milk, and ants’ eggs. They readily learn the different songs of the birds with which they are imprisoned; but this medley is less agreeable to me than their natural song.

Diseases.—To the list of diseases already given, to which the wood-lark may be subject, I must add one which is peculiar to it. This attacks the feet and renders them extremely brittle. I cannot too strongly recommend to clean them carefully from everything which might entangle them; a single hair may cut them, so that the toes shrivel, or ulcerate and fall off. They become so brittle with age, that with all my cares I could never keep any beyond four years; the least thing breaks them. Most of the wood-larks which I have had perished from broken legs; and this peculiarity I have remarked in no other species of bird.

We see from these instances, that if birds allowed to hop about a room enjoy more space and free exercise, they are also subject to more inconveniences and disadvantages than caged birds. Their food is neither so appropriate or regular; they cannot be kept so clean; their feet are almost inevitably injured; and lice devour them, without the power of prevention.

Mode of Taking.—The wood-lark may be caught on the nest by means of limed twigs; but as it is very cruel to separate a pair, and thus to destroy a whole family, it is better to wait till autumn, and to use the night-net. They may be caught early in the spring, when there is snow on the ground, by placing limed twigs or nets in cleared places. This is the best method of catching them. It is true that this plan will not succeed in all years; but another may be substituted, if we have a decoy wood-lark, by placing it under a folding net, in a field frequented by a flight of this species, which will not fail to join it. The same means also may be used as with the chaffinch, namely, by tying the wings of a wood-lark with a limed twig on his back, and letting him run to the place where there is a male of the same species. By this means the bird-fancier may obtain whatever kind of singer he prefers.

Attractive Qualities.—Of all the species of larks the wood lark has the finest song, and to my taste it is, of all our indigenous birds (always excepting the nightingale), the one whose natural notes are the most delightful. Its clear flute-like voice executes a sonorous, tender, and somewhat melancholy air. In the country it rises from the tops of the trees so high in the air that the eye can scarcely discern it, and there remaining stationary, the wings and the tail expanded, it sings uninterruptedly for hours together; it sings in the same manner when perched on a tree.

In the house, it is from a retired corner, tranquil and motionless, that it utters the different modulations of its beautiful voice. The singing time in its wild state is from March to July; in the house, from February to August. The female, like other larks, sings also, but her strains are shorter and less sustained. These birds appear to be subject to whims: I have seen some which would never sing in a room or in the presence of an auditor. These perverse birds must be placed in a long cage outside the window. I have remarked that in general these obstinate birds are the best singers. Their abrupt step and various frolics, in which they raise the feathers of the head and neck, are also very amusing.

Habitation.—When wild, with the exception of the most northern parts, this species is found all over Europe. They build in great numbers in Germany and England, in mountainous and woody places, and establish themselves by preference on the skirts of forests, in fields, and orchards, in their neighbourhood, or in the cleared parts of woods. In the month of August they arrive in small flights in fields and enclosures planted with cabbages, where caterpillars abound. In September they pass into the oat fields, and in October they are caught in the nets with the common larks. The time of their return is about the end of March; and if the cold is severe they collect by thousands in damp fields and near warm springs. One peculiarity of this species is the having during the rest of the year a call different from that of the breeding season. It no longer perches on trees and bushes, but remains on the ground, crying “pitt, pitt,” (or rather, I think, “guik, guik,”) while in the sitting time the cry is more tender, expresses more solicitude, “tzip, tzip,” and is heard only in the immediate neighbourhood of the nest. As soon, therefore, as this cry strikes the ear, we may be sure the nest is not far off; and if the young are hatched we shall soon see the father or mother with a beakful of insects, redoubling and increasing the cry as they approach their precious charge. The other cry of “pitt” or “guik” is never heard at this season; whence it happens that sportsmen and bird-catchers make two species of this same lark; one they name the heath lark, whose call in the woods is “tzip,” and the other the cabbage lark, which in the fields calls “guik.” I have never been able to 183convince these people of their error, but by showing them in my bird-room the same lark which called “guik” in the autumn and winter, and “tzip” in the summer. We may judge by this circumstance how many mistakes and errors may slip into natural history, when in the determination of species we meet with things which we can neither see nor verify.

In confinement, I have been accustomed to let the calling lark range freely among my other birds, because I would not trouble myself to give it a particular cage. I own, however, that it would be better so circumstanced, on all accounts, as well in regard to its health as its song. This cage should be long, like that of the sky-lark, and furnished with two sticks, because this kind perches.

Food.—When wild, the food consists of all sorts of flies, grasshoppers, caterpillars, butterflies, beetles, and ants’ eggs.

In confinement, as it is the most delicate of its species, the food must be frequently changed and varied. Besides the universal paste, we should sometimes give it the common food of the nightingale, sometimes bruised hemp, mouldy cheese, meal worms, and ants’ eggs.

It is very difficult to accustom it to take the food of the bird-room. As soon as it arrives, we must throw it some meal worms, ants’ eggs, or caterpillars; as soon as these are eaten, some must be mixed with the universal paste and with all its food; it will thus insensibly grow accustomed to the common food.

This lark does not roll in the sand, and dust itself like the others, but it thrusts its beak into water and sprinkles itself; another indication of its approximation to the wagtail, as was mentioned above.

Breeding.—The titlark lays twice a year. The nest, placed on the ground in a cleared part of the woods, or under a bush or hillock, in a tuft of grass, in a field or orchard, is made in the simplest manner; coarse hay outside and finer within, with some wool and hair, are all the materials. The eggs, in number from four to five, are gray mottled with brown; the young escape as soon as possible, having but too many enemies to fear on the ground.

They may be brought up with ants’ eggs and white bread soaked in boiled milk, to which a few poppy-seeds are added. They easily learn to imitate the songs of the birds in the same room with them, especially that of the canary, without however attaining any great perfection.

Diseases.—Independent of those which are common to the other birds of its species, it is particularly subject to the loss of its feathers out of the moulting season; if it is not at once supplied with food more nutritious, and better suited to its natural habits, as ants’ eggs, meal worms, and other insects, it soon dies of atrophy. At the best it can only be preserved five or six years63.

Mode of Taking.—To take the bird from its nest by a limed twig, and thus destroy the young family by hunger and misery, is a cruelty which none but a harsh insensible amateur could resolve upon. I prefer using the night-net in autumn; this bird is also caught in the water-trap in August and September.

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Attractive Qualities.—The song of the titlark, though short, and composed of only three strains mixed with shakes and trills, is nevertheless very pleasing. It sings from the end of March to July, either from the top of a tree, where it is perched, or when rising perpendicularly in the air, where it remains a few minutes and then quietly descends, almost always to the same place. As it alights it repeats several times “tzia, tzia, tzia.” In the house it begins to sing a month earlier. It pleases also by its pretty ways; its step is somewhat grave, and the tail is in perpetual motion: it is always very clean and trim.

Observations.—This species properly inhabits the north as well of Europe as of America, as far as Virginia; but in the winter it appears in 185Germany, where it may be seen by the road side picking for its food the undigested grains in horse-dung. It perches like the wood-lark. It is caught in the southern parts of Thuringia with lime twigs, or nets, at its return in March, when there has happened a heavy fall of snow; but at such times it is so thin and so weak for want of food as scarcely to have strength to eat what is offered to it. It may, no doubt, be preserved in confinement by treating it like other larks, but of this I have no experience, never having been able to procure a single living individual of this species, which also prevents my speaking of its song.

Habitation.—It appears that this species has much resemblance to the preceding; but it does not inhabit the North; it is found in Syria, Italy, Sardinia, and Provence: it is also said to frequent Carolina, in America.

In confinement it must be furnished with a long cage, the top made of linen, because it hops and jumps about a great deal, especially at first. It must be fed like the other larks.

Breeding.—It builds on the ground like the sky-lark, and lays four or five eggs. In order to have calandras which sing well, they must be bred up from the nest, and be fed in the same manner as the young of the sky-lark species; this is how they breed them in Provence.

Mode of Taking.—In the countries where it is found, the plan consists in spreading a net near the water where it drinks; this method is considered the best.

Attractive Qualities.—Its song is so admired in Italy, that “to sing like a calandra” is a common expression for to “sing well.” It also possesses the talent of imitating, like the sky-lark, the songs of many birds, such as the goldfinch, the linnet, the canary, and even the chirp of young chickens, the cry of the cat, in short, all sounds adapted to its organs, and which may be acquired when they are flexible.

Habitation.—When wild the starling is found all over the old world. It prefers forests and little thickets, surrounded by fields and meadows; it is often seen, especially in spring, on towers, steeples, and churches; but it is never found either in high mountains or ridges. In our climate, it departs, in October, in great flights for the south, and returns in like manner in the beginning of March. During the journey, these birds pass the night among the rushes, where, on the least alarm, they make a great tumult.

In confinement it would be very amusing to let them run free; but let 187them be ever so neat themselves, they would render the room dirty. When caged, they must be furnished with a cage at least two feet long, and one and a half both in height and width. Very restless and always in motion, they require sufficient space to take exercise and keep their plumage uninjured.

Food.—When wild they eat not only caterpillars, snails, worms, insects, and the flies which torment the cattle in the field; but also cherries, grapes, berries of all sorts, and different sorts of grain, as millet and hemp seed.

In confinement they eat meat, worms, bread, cheese, the universal paste, indeed, any food, provided it is not sour. When first caught, they are supplied with earth and meal-worms, and they soon become as tame as if they had been brought up from the nest; but, as there is no rule without exceptions, we sometimes meet with individuals which obstinately refuse to eat, whatever pains may be taken to induce them, and which die of hunger. This bird delights in bathing often, it must therefore never be left without fresh water in a proper vessel.

Breeding.—The starling builds in the holes of trees, and even in boxes, or pots with long necks, suspended to trees, or under the roof, or in pigeon-houses. Its simple nest is composed of dry leaves, hay, and feathers. Like the swallow it returns to the same nest every year, only taking care to clean it out. It lays twice in the year, seven eggs each time, whose colour is ashy green. The young, before moulting, are of rather a yellowish soot colour, than pure black. The beak is dark brown; those which are bred from the nest, and which are easily reared on white bread soaked in milk, repeat the airs they are taught in a stronger and more distinct manner than bullfinches and linnets. They can, indeed, repeat a succession of couplets without changing or mixing them. In Voigtlande, the peasants use the starling like domestic pigeons; they eat the young, which they take before they can fly; by this means they obtain three broods, but they do not touch the last, both in order not to discourage and drive away the father and mother, and not to diminish this branch of economy.

Starlings have been seen to build in dwelling-houses, in an earthen vase with a long neck, appropriated to the purpose64.

Diseases.—I know none peculiar to them. These birds will live ten or twelve years in confinement.

Mode of Taking.—It is principally in autumn, and in places filled with reeds, that the bird-catchers take great numbers of starlings in nets prepared for the purpose. They may also be procured by means of an osier fish-net, placed among the reeds, which they frequent in the evening, and baited with cherries. Though this means is limited, as many as a hundred have been procured by it in one night.

In Thuringia it is never attempted to catch them for the house except in the month of March, when snow falls after their arrival. For this 188purpose limed twigs are put in places cleared from snow, and beside swampy ditches, with some earth-worms for a snare, into which they fall as easily as chickens.

Attractive Qualities.—The starling becomes wonderfully familiar in the house; as docile and cunning as a dog, he is always gay, wakeful, soon knows all the inhabitants of the house, remarks their motions and air, and adapts himself to their humours. In his solemn tottering step, he appears to go stupidly forward; but nothing escapes his eye. He learns to pronounce words without having his tongue cut, which proves the uselessness of this cruel operation. He repeats correctly the airs which are taught him, as does also the female, imitates the cries of men and animals, and the songs of all the birds in the room with him. It must be owned that his acquirements are very uncertain: he forgets as fast as he learns, or he mixes up the old and new in utter confusion; therefore, if it is wished to teach him an air, or to pronounce some words clearly and distinctly, it is absolutely necessary to separate him from other birds and animals, in a room where he can hear nothing. Not only are the young susceptible of these instructions, the oldest even show the most astonishing docility.

Habitation.—When wild it does not build in Germany, but within the Arctic circle; it is found in Thuringia only in the winter, and if the season is mild in very small numbers, the greater portion remaining in the north; but in severe cold it advances farther south. In moderate seasons it is found in great flights in the skirts of the forests throughout the greater part of Germany and Bohemia.

In confinement, it is generally kept in a grated corner, where it may run about freely with the other birds which are also placed there, taking care to keep it at a distance from the stove, the heat of which is so distressing that it opens its beak and breathes with difficulty; this proves that a warm climate is not congenial to the bird. If kept in a cage, it requires one as large as the thrush; and, as it is a very dirty bird, the bottom must be regularly covered with a sufficient quantity of sand.

Food.—When wild we see it in the spring eating, like thrushes, all sorts of flies and other insects; in autumn and winter different kinds of berries; and, in times of need, the buds and sprouts of the beech, maple, and various fruit trees.

In confinement the two universal pastes appear delicacies to it; and it is even satisfied with bran steeped in water. It swallows every thing voraciously, and refuses nothing eatable, such as potatoes, cabbage, salad, fruits of all sorts, and especially white bread. It likes to bathe, or rather to sprinkle itself with water, for it does not wet itself so much as other birds.

Mode of Taking.—It is taken in nooses, to which berries are fixed, which, for this purpose, should always be kept in store till February; attracted by the bait it falls into the snare. It appears to be frightened at nothing, for it flies into nets and traps, though it sees its companions caught and hanging, and uttering cries of distress and fear.

Attractive Qualities.—Nothing but its beauty and scarcity can render the possession of it desirable; for it is a stupid, lazy bird. During the ten or twelve years that it can exist in confinement, and on very meagre food, it does nothing but eat and repose for digestion. If hunger induces it to move, its step is awkward, and its jumps so clumsy as to be disagreeable to the eye. Its song consists only of weak and uncertain whistling, a little resembling the thrush, but not so loud. While singing, it moves the crest up and down, but hardly moves the throat. If this warbling is somewhat unmusical, it has the merit of continuing throughout every season of the year. When the Bohemian chatterer is angry, which happens sometimes near the common feeding-trough, it knocks very violently with its beak. It is easily tamed, but is agreeable only by its beautiful colours, for it is very dirty. It is the greatest eater among birds that I know, being able to devour in a day a quantity of food equal to its own weight. It consequently passes hardly half digested, and, what is very disgusting, it is seen, like the ostrich, to eat again this excrement, if it is destitute of fresh food. I have observed it in this way swallow three times juniper berries which I had given it. In consequence of this voraciousness it must be cleaned very often to be kept sweet.

Habitation.—When wild it frequents by preference the banks of rivers and streams in mountainous countries, and remains all the year near those whose waters flow from springs which never freeze.

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In confinement it has a cage like the thrush, unless it is by preference allowed to run about the room.

Food.—When wild it feeds upon aquatic insects, worms, and even small fish, which it is said to seize by diving.

In confinement it becomes insensibly accustomed to one of the universal pastes, by at first giving it worms, and the eggs of ants and flies.

Breeding.—The female lays from four to six eggs in a rather large nest, which she places in a crack of the rocks at the edge of the water, or in dikes under mill-dams, the wooden gutters of mills, or between the wings of old water-wheels which are not in use. The young may be reared on meal-worms, ants’ eggs, and white bread soaked in milk. It is just as well not to take them till they are ready to fly.

Mode of Taking.—Each pair has a chosen spot, which it seldom leaves: and they are generally seen there either on a trough, a stone, dike, or a bush growing near; by fixing close to these places limed twigs, to which are fastened worms, which writhe about and attract attention, it is very easy to catch them.

As soon as one of these birds is caught and caged, he must be put in a quiet place, be fed with earth and meal-worms, and thus be gradually accustomed to the common food.

Attractive Qualities.—The song of the dipper is not disagreeable; he has, indeed, some very sonorous strains, which in the distance and during winter have a very good effect. He also sings in the night.

Habitation.—When wild the missel thrush is found all over Europe, but more in the north than the south. It lives in forests, especially those of the mountains, and prefers those of fir to oak and beech. In Thuringia it is a bird of passage, disappearing in December and returning in the month of February, provided the weather is fine65.

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In confinement it is common to assign it a grated corner of the room unless a cage is preferred, which must be at least three feet and a half long, and nearly as many high, a size necessary for it to take the exercise suited to its vivacity and petulance, without injuring its feathers. It would be still better if it could be allowed, as other birds of its size, an aviary or room to itself, where its copious excrements would be less troublesome.

Food.—When wild it feeds on insects and earth-worms, which it finds in abundance in fields and swamps during the spring and summer; in autumn and winter berries of all sorts make a great addition.

In confinement it is not dainty. The two universal pastes are very well liked, but it will put up with plain oatmeal, or even bran moistened with water. It is thus that our bird-fanciers feed it throughout the year, as well as many other large birds caught in traps, which they are obliged to keep as a lure for the snare. It is true, that if this meagre diet is sufficient to keep it alive, it will hardly serve to enliven it and make it sing; for this purpose it must be better fed, with bread and milk, meat, and other dishes served at table, none of which it refuses; and it must also be allowed to bathe, since nothing does it more good, or enlivens it so much.

Breeding.—Its nest, which it places higher or lower in the trees of the forest, is formed at bottom of herb-stalks and lichens, in the middle of earth, and in the interior of mosses, fine roots and hay: it lays twice a year, generally each time four greenish white eggs, a little speckled with violet and maroon. The young birds are gray above and very much spotted under, with a wide edge of rusty yellow on the wing feathers. Much less docile and susceptible of instruction than the blackbird, they hardly remember any little thing which they hear continually, but they become so familiar as to sing without difficulty on the hand. They are fed with white bread soaked in boiled milk.

Diseases.—The commonest disorders of this bird, are an obstruction of the rump gland, constipation, and atrophy66.

Mode of Taking.—These birds are taken in autumn with nets and snares, with berries for the bait, and they are caught in great numbers. They may also be taken in February, by placing under the trees on which the mistleto grows, perches with limed twigs. They may also be caught in the water-traps at sunset. Those which are yellowish under the body, being males, are chosen for confinement. During the first days of captivity, they are savage, sulky, and often refuse to eat, so that many perish in this way; those which are saved soon repay the trouble by their songs and familiarity.

Attractive Qualities.—Perched on the top of a tree in the woods, the missel thrush begins, in the month of February, to utter his melancholy but musical warblings, consisting of five or six broken strains, and continues singing for four or five months. As his song is too loud for the sitting-room, this bird should be placed in a large hall, or his cage should be hung outside a window. He lives in captivity from ten to twelve years. His call very much resembles “iis, r, r, r.”

Habitation.—When wild this species is spread all over Europe, frequenting woods near streams and meadows. As soon as the autumnal fogs appear, they collect in large flights to seek a warmer climate67. The principal time of passage is from the 15th of September to the 15th of October, and of return about the middle or end of March; each pair then returns to 194its own district, and the male warbles his hymn to spring from the same tree where he had sung it the preceding year.

In confinement this bird is lodged like the missel thrush, and is much more worthy of being kept, as its voice is more beautiful, its song is more varied, and being smaller it makes less dirt.

Food.—When wild it lives on insects and berries, like the preceding.

In confinement, oatmeal moistened with milk is a very good food; and it requires also a great deal of fresh water, as well for bathing as drinking. When taken old it is often very difficult to induce these birds to eat, and the greater number die in consequence.

Breeding.—This species generally builds on the lower branches of trees; the nest being pretty large, and formed of moss mixed with earth or cow-dung. The hen lays twice a year, from three to six green eggs, speckled with large and small dark brown spots. The first brood is ready to fly by the end of April. The upper part of the body in the young ones is speckled with white. By taking them from the nest when half-grown they may be easily reared on white bread soaked in boiled milk; and they are easily taught to perform airs. As this thrush builds by preference in the neighbourhood of water, the nest may be easily found by seeking it in the woods beside a stream, and near it the male will be heard singing.

Mode of Taking.—This is the same as for the preceding species and the three which follow; of all the birds for which snares are laid, those for the thrush are most successful. A perch with a limed twig is the best method for catching a fine-toned male. In September and October these birds may also be caught in the water traps, where they repair at sunrise and sunset, and sometimes so late that they cannot be seen, and the ear is the only guide. When they enter the water haste must be avoided, because they like to bathe in company, and assemble sometimes to the number of ten or twelve at once, by means of a particular call. The first which finds a convenient stream, and wishes to go to it, cries in a tone of surprise or joy, “sik, sik, sik, siki, tsac, tsac, tsac;” immediately all in the neighbourhood reply together, and repair to the place: they enter the bath however with much circumspection, and seldom venture till they have seen a red-breast bathe without danger; but the first which ventures is soon followed by the others, which begin to quarrel if the place is not large enough for all the bathers. In order to attract them, it is a good plan to have a tame bird running and fluttering on the banks of the stream.

Attractive Qualities.—The song thrush is the great charm of our woods, which it enlivens by the beauty of its song. The rival of the nightingale, it announces in varied accents the return of spring, and continues its delightful notes during all the summer months, particularly at morning and evening twilight. It is to procure this gratification in his dwelling that the bird-fancier rears it, and deprives it of its liberty; and he thus enjoys the pleasures of the woods in the midst of the city. With care and properly varied food it may be preserved in captivity five or six years.

Habitation.—When wild this species spreads not only all over Europe, but also over Syria and Siberia. In the summer it remains in the northern regions, where it builds in pine forests. It arrives in Germany and England in prodigious flights in November, and passes the winter in places producing the juniper; its return northward takes place in the first fine days of spring.

In confinement it is treated like the missel thrush, but it is generally only kept as a decoy bird. Heat being injurious, it is kept as far as possible from the stove.

Food.—When wild it feeds like the two preceding species.

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In confinement it is fed in the same way; raw carrots grated with bread is added, which the others like also.

Mode of Taking.—The same as in the two preceding species.

Attractive Qualities.—Its song is a mere harsh disagreeable warble. I should not have introduced it among cage birds if the lovers of bird-catching did not in winter require its call when pursuing its species.

Habitation.—When wild it inhabits the north of Europe; it goes to the south only towards the end of October, and returns at the end of March or beginning of April.

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In confinement the redwing is treated like the preceding; but it is not much valued, as its song is in no respect agreeable. It always requires fresh water and but little warmth.

Food, Mode of Taking, Diseases.—The same as in the preceding species.

Attractive Qualities.—The song of the male is as unmelodious as that of the fieldfare. These birds make a great noise when they are collected in large flights upon the alders, in March and April, but their warbling hardly deserves the name of song. I have known but one which succeeded in imitating, though very indifferently, the notes of the song thrush and some loud tones of the nightingale. It is not therefore their song which will gain these birds a place in the house; but they may please by their familiarity, their patience, their easy motions, and the readiness with which they obey orders. Bird catchers keep them principally as decoy birds. They are good eating.

Habitation.—When wild these birds are to be met with in many parts of Europe and Asia. The inhabitants of Aleppo and the neighbourhood see with pleasure the arrival of large flights of them, in the months of July and August, to extirpate the clouds of locusts which then ravage the country. Great numbers are also seen in spring on the banks of the Don and Irtish, where they build and find abundance of food; also on the shores of the Caspian and the banks of the Wolga. In Europe they appear in Sweden as far as Lapland, in England, in Germany, in Switzerland, and France: rare indeed in all these countries, but least so in Italy.

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In confinement this bird is kept in a cage of the same size as the blackbird’d.

Food.—When wild this bird appears to subsist entirely on insects.

In confinement it would doubtless thrive very well on the food which is given to the blackbird, which will be mentioned hereafter. It is better, however, to study it a little, and find out what suits it best.

Breeding.—It builds among rocks; but its nest has not yet been discovered in Europe, though some circumstances indicate that it propagates there. In 1784, in the duchy of Altenburg, three young ones were killed, but just out of the nest, and which consequently could not have come from far. This fact should excite the attention and vigilance of zealous observers.

Modes of Taking.—Skilful bird-catchers will soon discover the means of catching the bird: snares and limed twigs, with grasshoppers and other living and moving insects for bait, will probably accomplish this end. It would be hazardous to shoot the birds in the hope of wounding them but slightly, as is sometimes done with other birds, which soon recover, and remain tame, if, during their recovery, they have been well treated.

Observations.—A sportsman discovered, in 1794, in the environs of Meiningen, in Suabia, a flight of eight or ten rose ouzels, moving leisurely from south-west to north-east, and passing from one cherry-tree to another. He fired on these birds, only one fell, which was fortunately very slightly wounded, so that it soon quite recovered. Being immediately carried to M. Von Wachter, the rector of Frickenhausen, this clergyman took the greatest care of it; he gave it a spacious cage, and found that barley-meal moistened with milk was as wholesome as agreeable to it. His kindness tamed it in a short time so far that it would come and take from his hand the insects which he offered to it. It soon sang also, but its warbling consisted at first of but a few harsh sounds, pretty well connected however, and this became at length more clear and smooth. Connoisseurs in the songs of birds discover in this song a mixture of many others; one of these connoisseurs, who had not discovered the bird, but heard its voice, thought he was listening to a concert of two starlings, two goldfinches, and perhaps a siskin; and when he saw that it was a single bird, he could not conceive how all this music proceeded from the same throat. This bird was still alive in 1802, and the delight of its possessor.

Habitation.—When wild the blackbird is found all over the old world, as well as in Germany; it is the only species of its genus which does not migrate thence.

In confinement it is kept in a large cage; it is better to keep it separate because, whether from spite or jealousy, it is often inclined, like the tits, to pursue and kill its little companions of the aviary or room.

Food.—When wild the blackbird eats berries, and, in winter, when insects are scarce, he seeks them near warm springs.

In confinement he is satisfied with the first universal paste, but he also eats bread, meat, and anything which comes to table, such as a bit of 200apple. More delicate than the song thrush, he would not digest mere bran and water. He delights in bathing often, and should therefore be furnished with the means for so doing.

Breeding.—As the blackbird does not travel he pairs early in the spring, and the first young are hatched by the end of March. The nest, placed in a thick bush, or in a heap of boughs, is formed on the outside of stalks, then of moss and mud and lined in the inside with fine hay, hair, and wool. The female lays three times a year, from four to six eggs, of a greenish gray, spotted and streaked with light brown; when the young are hatched the males are always darker than the females, therefore bird-catchers can never be mistaken when they take the former and leave the latter. They are easily reared on white bread soaked in boiled milk, a little raw beef, and worms dipped in water. It is better to take them from the nest when the quills of the feathers are just beginning to develop, because, having then no idea of their natural song, they will retain more perfectly and distinctly the airs which may be taught them.

Diseases.—An obstruction in the rump gland is their most common disorder, and must be treated in the manner described in the Introduction. It would doubtless be prevented by never omitting to furnish the means of bathing. With care, and a proper variety of food, this bird will live in confinement ten or twelve years.

Method of Catching.—Timid and distrustful, the blackbird seldom enters the area or barn-floor trap, but it is easily caught in the winter with a noose or springe, by using service berries for a bait. It sometimes falls into the large traps set for tits, when the berries are spread over the bottom; limed twigs put with the berries in a place cleared from the snow, will catch many also; it also goes to the water-trap, but generally at night-fall. Its call is “tsizirr, tak, tak.”

Attractive Qualities.—The natural song of the blackbird is not destitute of melody; but it is broken by noisy tones, and is agreeable only in the open country. When wild it sings only from March to July; but when caged, during the whole year, except when moulting. Its voice is so strong and clear, that in a city it may be heard from one end of a long street to the other. Its memory is so good, that it retains, without mixing them, several airs at once, and it will even repeat little sentences. It is a great favourite with the lovers of a plaintive, clear, and musical song, and may, in these respects, be preferred to the bullfinch, whose voice is softer, more flute-like, but also more melancholy. The price of these two birds, if well taught, is about the same.

Observations.—Though the ring blackbird traverses the whole of Europe, it builds only in the north68. It arrives in Germany and England on the foggy days of the end of October and beginning of November. It moves always in small flights, stopping generally in spots covered with briers and juniper bushes, where it may be caught with a noose. Its food, when free and in confinement, is the same as that of the common blackbird, with which it has the most striking resemblance in its gait, the motion of its wings and tail, and its call, “tak.” Its voice, though hoarser and deeper, is nevertheless more harmonious and agreeable. It is so weak that a red-breast may overpower it. It continues singing at all times, except when moulting. It will live in confinement from six to ten years.

Habitation.—When wild it is found in the south of Europe and Germany, in Austria, and the Tyrol. In France, in Bugey, and more to the south; and especially in the Alps and Pyrenees, frequenting rocks or old ruined castles. In its migrations it visits bare rocky mountains, searching for insects which take refuge among the stones. Its departure is in September and its return in March.

In confinement it is furnished with a cage larger than that of the nightingale.

Food.—When wild it appears to live entirely on insects.

In confinement it is fed like the nightingale; but with every care it cannot long be preserved.

Breeding.—The female builds her nest in an almost inaccessible crevice of the rocks, and lays five eggs. As the young are very susceptible of instruction, they are readily brought up when they can be obtained70; they are fed and treated like young nightingales.

Mode of Taking.—It is by fixing to the spots they frequent plenty of limed twigs, with meal-worms attached to them; it is said that in the Alps and Pyrenees they are caught with a bird-call.

Attractive Qualities.—It is considered one of the most agreeable singers; and if caught young it soon acquires the songs of the other birds of the chamber, learns to whistle tunes, and even, like the starling, to repeat words. “It begins to sing,” says Buffon, “a little before dawn, which it announces by noisy sounds. If its cage is approached during the night with a candle, it begins to sing; and when, during the day, it does not sing, it appears to be practising in an under tone, and preparing new songs.”

Habitation.—When wild it seldom quits the mountains in the south of Europe; in spring, however, it advances as far as Burgundy, and returns in the end of August; it arrives, in the month of April, at the spot where it generally passes the summer, and returns constantly every year to the place where it first took up its abode. Two pairs are seldom found in the same district. Except in the pairing season it is a solitary bird.

In confinement it is furnished with a cage like that of the blackbird.

Food.—When wild it feeds on insects, berries, and grapes.

In confinement it is treated like the song thrush, adding ants’ eggs and meal-worms.

Breeding.—The nest, made of blades of grass and feathers, is generally placed at the top of a solitary chimney, or on the summit of an old castle, or on the top of a large tree, generally near a steeple or high tower. The female lays five or six eggs. The young ones, if taken from the nest soon enough, are capable of instruction; the flexibility of the throat fitting it either for tunes or words. They sing also by candle-light in the night. If treated with care they live in confinement eight or ten years. From the summit of a high tower or steeple the male utters for whole days the most beautiful and pathetic song, accompanying it by flapping his wings, moving his tail, and elevating the feathers of his head.

Attractive Qualities.—His beautiful voice is in great repute in all the countries he inhabits; it is, indeed, very sweet and flute-like; his song, though musical, is somewhat melancholy, as is usual with solitary birds; many persons, however, are very fond of it. This bird, when tamed, fetches a very high price at Milan, Constantinople, &c. In some countries it is so much respected that it is considered sacrilegious to kill it or destroy its nest.

Habitation.—When wild the blue thrush is found in the Archipelago, in Dalmatia, Italy, Spain, and other southern countries, always among steep rocks.

In confinement it is provided with a convenient cage, like the preceding.

Food.—When wild it feeds on all sorts of insects.

In confinement it is fed like the nightingale.

Breeding.—Like the rock thrush it builds among rocks, on ruined or deserted towers, and the like. The young are reared in the same way as those of the nightingale.

Attractive Qualities.—Its pretty plumage and fine voice do not constitute its only attractions. It is very easily tamed, and is very capable of instruction, and amuses much by its natural gait and habits, which very much resemble those of the rock thrush.

Habitation.—When wild it is found all over Europe, with the exception of the most northern parts; it is a stranger in those parts of Germany only where there are neither lakes, ponds, nor stagnant rivers abounding with rushes; for it is always on their banks and in large swamps that it resides, and more frequently on the ground than in trees71.

In confinement it is provided with a nightingale’s cage.

Food.—When wild it feeds on aquatic insects, the enormous multitude of which it seems intended to diminish. In order to catch these it is continually seen climbing the stems of the rushes and reeds: it also eats berries.

In confinement, hitherto, no food but that of the nightingale has succeeded with it, and that even for only four or six months. It is soon attacked by a disease which carries off great numbers of white-throats: the feathers falling off without being renewed, the bird declines and dies of atrophy72.

Breeding.—The nest is found fastened with wool to the stems of the rushes, or the branches of neighbouring bushes. On the outside it is formed of moss and stubble, firmly mixed, and lined on the inside with fine hay and hair. The eggs, five or six in number, are grayish white, spotted with black. The young, before the first moulting, have the appearance of a white-throat, with some dark spots on the breast. They are taken from the nest and reared, like young nightingales, on ants’ eggs; and if they are placed near this winged Orpheus, they learn his song so well and so perfectly that they become as excellent performers as their masters, with the additional advantage of possessing a noise more flute-like and less shrill than that of the nightingale.

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Mode of Taking.—The great difficulty of catching this bird makes it scarce in our rooms. The only means is to ascertain well the place it frequents, then to scratch up the earth and throw upon it some meal-worms, and cover the place with limed twigs.

Attractive Qualities.—With a more beautiful and musical voice, its song is also more varied than that of the song-thrush, without being so long, so sustained, or so brilliant, as that of the nightingale, with which it most deserves to be compared. Some of its couplets resemble those of the blackcap, but broken, like those of the song-thrush. When caged it may be much improved by imitation of the notes of the nightingale, which the young easily copy. It is particularly in the morning and evening that the reed-thrush utters his beautiful warblings. Not only is his throat then in motion; his wings, his tail, and his whole body, are agitated as if to follow the cadence and the measure.

Habitation.—When wild, nightingales are found throughout Europe, as far as the north of England and the middle of Sweden: in all Asia, as far as the temperate regions of Siberia; and in Africa on the banks of the Nile. They every where choose for their residence places which are shady, cool, but not cold, such as woods, thickets, and even mere hedges in the fields. They do not go beyond the skirts of the forests on high chains of mountains, and never stop on elevations where the air is too keen. Groves, thick brambles, tufted bushes near fields and meadows, are their favourite abodes. They also like gardens planted with untrimmed elm-hedges, which are consequently thick and bushy down to the ground. It is not true that they like watery situations, and if they frequent them it is not for the water, but because they generally produce thick tufted bushes. It must also be owned that their favourite food is more constantly abundant in such places, and if the cold destroys the insects elsewhere, plenty may always be found in them. It is not however the less certain that the water is not the attraction, or all would repair to its vicinity, which experience contradicts. The fact is, that each nightingale generally establishes himself in the place which gave him birth, whether near the water or not, whether in an orchard or on a mountain; and when once he has fixed on a spot, he returns to it every year, unless the place has lost its charm or advantage. If the wood for instance has been cut down, or has lost the thick shade, which was its chief merit, in such circumstances he seeks in the neighbourhood another spot more to his liking. But if, in a considerable circuit where no change has taken place, a nightingale is seen to establish himself in a spot which was unoccupied the preceding year, it may be concluded that it is a young bird which was born in the vicinity. Convenient places are so much valued, that if the possessors die or are caught, new comers seize upon them immediately; so that the bird which we hear to-day, is very possibly not the same which sang yesterday in the same place. Many other causes may also concur in producing this change of inhabitants, which an ear well versed in the language of these birds will always discover.

It may, perhaps, be asked why, in many places which appear so well adapted to attract nightingales, none are found73. I reply that these spots may be concealed by woods or mountains, and not lie perceived by the nightingales in their journeys, or they may be quite out of their route, for they have a regular one which they never quit, because, their progress being 209slow, and subject to interruptions, it is requisite that they should find on their passage every thing necessary for their subsistence, and too cold an atmosphere is painful to them. It may also happen that the nightingales which formerly frequented them, may have been altogether extirpated; and as it has been said that the young always establish themselves in the district which gave them birth, it is by no means surprising that they should not be chosen, at least there are many chances against it. Rather than wait in vain for this chance, there is a means of re-peopling such places with these charming birds. It is only necessary to bring up some broods of young ones, and not let them loose in the following spring till after the period of return is elapsed; because being no longer excited by the instinct which induces them to travel, and the instinct itself being subdued in a great measure by their imprisoned education, they will not wander, but will remain and propagate, provided they are not disturbed, and will return the year following with all their family. I must not omit to say that the young intended for this re-peopling must not be confined in a cage, as they would lose the use of their wings, and run the risk of perishing the first day of their liberation. As soon as they can feed themselves, they must be allowed an entire room, in which they may fly freely, and grow strong and bold. A sort of grove should be formed of branches or small trees, and nature should be imitated as much as possible also in feeding them, by throwing to them more insects and ants’ eggs than usual, to accustom them to seek for them.

The period of the nightingale’s return throughout the greater part of Germany, is the middle of April, rarely either earlier or later74: it is always when the white-thorn begins to expand its leaves. Advancing slowly and gradually, these birds are not so likely to suffer from bad weather as those which go straight to their destination by one stage. In the middle of August each family prepares to depart; this is done quietly, removing gradually, and passing from grove to grove to the end of their journey; then it is that these birds are caught with nooses or springes, by using elderberries or currants for a bait. The middle of September is the latest period at which they are seen in Germany. All then disappear imperceptibly, so that the time they employ in the rest of their journey is altogether unknown. Other birds, whose instinct leads them to travel in large flights, do not so easily escape observation. If by accident a nightingale is met with at the end of September, or in October, it must have been delayed by some peculiar circumstance; for instance, it may be a young one that has lost its way, or that was hatched late, or it may be an invalid.

In confinement nightingales may be allowed to fly freely, as I have often permitted them; but they do not then sing so well as when in a cage, where they are less subject to interruptions, and where also they live longer and more healthily, from being fed with more care and regularity. The nightingale’s cage, of whatever form, must not be less than a foot and a half in length, by about one in width, and one or more in height. The top should be made of linen or soft stuff, that when 210jumping and struggling, especially when first caught, he may not injure his head. The drinking-cup and feeding-trough are fastened on the outside, unless it is preferred to introduce the latter within, in the form of a drawer. The following are the best form and proportions for a nightingale’s cage, that I am acquainted with:—Length, one foot and a half; breadth, eight inches; height, fifteen inches in the middle; thirteen at the sides, because the roof is arched. The sides are made of osiers about a quarter of an inch thick; the bottom is made of the same material, but it is covered by a drawer an inch and a quarter in depth. In order to clean it more easily, I cover it with coarse paper, which I renew every time. The feeding-trough is introduced on one side, with edges high enough to prevent the bird’s spilling too much of the food. In the middle of the front of the cage, and extending from top to bottom, is a cylindrical projection in the form of a belfry, in which is suspended a large drinking-glass. The upper stick of the cage is confined here, terminating in a fork, or fixed to a semi-circle, that the projection may not be prevented from moving. This projection is made of osiers, like the rest of the cage. The middle and lower sticks are covered with green cloth, firmly sewed on, that the nightingale may have a softer perch, and not have his feet so soon injured, which is very common with imprisoned birds. The arched roof is also covered with green stuff, which is painted that colour with oil paint, as well as the whole of the cage. But it must be well dried, and quite free from smell before the bird is put into it.

My reasons for preferring this cage are, first, because being small, it occupies less room, without disadvantage to the bird or to the apartment; second, because the size of the osiers leave small intervals for the admission of light, and it is consequently darker; third, because the bird can bathe without wetting his cage or his perches: and consequently his feet remain cleaner and more healthy.

As to the situation of the cage, the prisoner’s taste must be consulted. Some nightingales dislike being in the window, and prefer a dark corner of the room; others like the light and the sun. If it is wished that a nightingale should sing everywhere, it is necessary, when he is moulting, and before he resumes his song, to accustom him to a change of place, by carrying him sometimes here, sometimes there. Some will sing only when they are alone, while others like to perform alternately with a neighbour; but they never sing so loud and well when there are several in a room. Perhaps jealousy is the chief cause of this. On these occasions, the first that begins generally maintains the superiority; the others sing only when he stops, and this but seldom, and in an under tone. Some are so sulky that they will not sing at all. Some of these obstinate pouters are occasionally, from their silence, mistaken for females, and consequently dismissed from the room, but when they find themselves alone they begin to sing at full stretch.

Food.—When wild nightingales feed on insects, especially little green caterpillars, of which they clear the bushes and trees, small butterflies, flies, and beetles, and the grubs of insects hid among moss or in the earth, which are discovered by turning it up. At their departure, towards the end of summer, they also eat elderberries and currants.

211

In confinement, meal worms and fresh ants’ eggs are the first things which should be offered to birds which are just caught; in place of these, when it is not possible to procure them, some persons prepare a mixture of hard eggs, ox heart, and white bread, some mouthfuls of which they force the birds to swallow, and then throw some meal worms on the rest, to induce the nightingale to eat it; but this artificial food is so unfit for these birds, especially at first, that it kills the greater number. They may also be injured by forcibly opening their delicate beak. When ants' eggs cannot be procured, it is better to set the birds at liberty than thus to sacrifice them. Their best food in summer is ants’ eggs, to which are daily added two or three meal worms75; when none of the former remain fresh they must be supplied by dried or rather roasted ox heart and raw carrot, both grated, and then mixed with dried ants’ eggs76. The carrot, which may be preserved fresh in sand in the cellar, prevents heat in the stomach and bowels; a little lean beef or mutton minced small may also be used sometimes; after different trials, it is in this way I feed my nightingales. The cheapest food is very ripe elderberries, dried and mixed with ants’ eggs, in the same way as the carrots and white bread.

Some bird-fanciers, in winter, bake a little loaf made of the flour of peas and eggs, which they grate, moisten, and then mix with dried ants’ eggs; others, who would still be more economical, pound poppy-seeds in a mortar to express the oil, and then mix them with the crumb of white bread; when accustomed to it the birds seem very fond of it, but a proof that it does not agree with them is that they soon fall into a decline and die. This plan has lately been introduced into Thuringia; but knowing, as I do from experience, that the stomach of the nightingale is not formed to digest such food, since he is not graminivorous, I take care never to administer it; and I think I ought to warn others against it. The best will always be the simplest, and that which is most conformable to nature. Those who adopt 212that which I have mentioned will have the satisfaction of finding their nightingales healthy, cheerful, active, and good singers.

I have already said that I have tried letting them run about the room, feeding them upon the common universal paste; but this food is not sufficiently nutritious for them: on this diet they can hardly pass six months without falling into a decline, and they would inevitably perish if they were not speedily restored to one which is fitter for them. They require fresh water every day, as well for bathing as drinking; they habitually bathe, when caged, after singing. They have also been observed to do so the first thing in the evening, when the candles were lighted.

Breeding.—Each nightingale has his little district; and if in the pairing season several males are found together, very angry battles take place, which end in the flight of the weakest. The commonest quarrels of this kind are between fathers and sons. The latter, having been born in the place, determine to fix themselves in it; all feeling of relationship is then extinguished, and they are strangers; the relations of father and son, those sweet ties, hitherto so close, are suddenly broken, never more to be felt.

The nest is built in a grove or orchard, among a heap of branches, or on a thorn bush, or the trunk of a tree surrounded by briars; or even on the ground when it may be hid by tall grass or thick bushes. Its form is simple and inartificial, on the outside dry leaves, on the inside hay, fine roots, with the hair of animals, is all the apparatus. The female lays from four to six eggs, of a brownish green, on which she sits a fortnight. The young are fed with small caterpillars and butterflies. As the low position of the nest exposes them to become the prey of carnivorous quadrupeds, they soon quit it, even before they can fly. Their plumage before moulting has no resemblance to that of the old birds except the red of the tail; the upper part of the body is of a reddish grey, spotted with yellowish white on the head and coverts of the wings; the under part is of a rusty yellow, spotted on the breast with dark brown; but after moulting the resemblance is so perfect that they can hardly be distinguished. If, therefore, any of these birds are caught towards the end of summer, they are carefully examined on the back of the head, round the eyes, and under the beak and neck, for, provided there remains in these places a small feather, or mere yellow point, it is sufficient to ascertain that they are young. As these are the only means of judging, if no marks appear, it is necessary to wait for a few days till the bird begins to sing. This, however, is not a sure sign, as the young females sing as well as the males, till the month of April, though in a weaker and more unconnected way, and without so visibly swelling their throats: it is by these nice observations that connoisseurs succeed in distinguishing them. It may also be remarked, as a help to those who wish to rear nightingales, that, when in the nest, those which are marked with white, and especially those which have a white throat, are males; the reddest and brownest being always females. The young, when taken, are fed with ants’ eggs mixed with white bread, grated and moistened. The males begin to warble even before their tails are quite grown: if the father and mother are taken at the same time as the young ones, they will, when caged, continue to feed them as before. It is said that nightingales sometimes build in the bird room; this, however, can only succeed by giving up to a tame 213healthy pair a whole room, in which a sort of grove should be formed of branches.

Diseases.—In general moulting amounts to a disease among nightingales: at this critical time they require a more succulent diet, and sometimes a spider by way of purgative. If their stomach is disordered they puff up their feathers, half shut their eyes, and remain for hours with their head under their wing. They are relieved and cured by ants’ eggs, some spiders, and by giving them occasionally water impregnated with saffron till it is of an orange colour, to drink.

As to those diseases which they have in common with other birds, they are treated according to the directions given in the Introduction. It is especially necessary, every three months, carefully to remove the large scales from their legs and toes. A nightingale may be kept in confinement fifteen years; whilst in a wild state they are never observed to exist so long in the same spot, which seems to prove that they do not attain so great an age when exposed to all sorts of accidents, both from birds of prey and bird-catchers. I have an instance of a nightingale which has lived twenty-five years in confinement. When they have reached six years they begin to sing less frequently and long, with less brilliancy and ornament; it is then better to set them at liberty in the month of May. The open air often invigorates them so much that they regain their song in all its force and beauty.

Mode of Taking.—Nothing is easier than to catch a nightingale in the season of pairing. If a little furrow, smooth at the bottom, is dug in a dark soil, and some meal worms or ants’ eggs are thrown into it, he will immediately fly to these delicacies. By putting also in the same place limed twigs, or a small net which may be easily dropped, he will soon be caught; it is even sufficient to fix over the furrow a bit of wood supported by a stick, which will fall as soon as the bird perches upon it. He is so unsuspicious that he observes the snare being laid, and then foolishly falls into it, when the bird-catcher has moved only a few steps from it; he will even allow himself to be led to it when at a little distance, if in a gentle manner. A bird-catcher may thus, in a few hours, depopulate a whole district of these delightful songsters. If, however, this is feared, there is a means of baffling his intentions, by anticipating him, and catching the nightingale we wish to preserve in our neighbourhood, either by a limed twig or in a net, and letting him go again. This experiment will prevent his falling so readily into the snare in future. In the greater part of Germany, indeed, it is forbidden, under a very heavy penalty, to catch nightingales. Another mode of taking them is by nooses and springes, and suspending for a bait, instead of berries, live meal-worms; but there is one disadvantage attending it, while struggling the bird almost always injures his feet, especially in springes.

Attractive Qualities.—The first good quality of a nightingale is undoubtedly its fine voice, and notes which I shall endeavour to describe. The nightingale expresses his different emotions by suitable and particular tones. The most unmeaning cry when he is alone appears to be a simple whistle fitt, but if the syllable crr is added, it is then the call of the male to the female. The sign of displeasure or fear is fitt repeated rapidly and loudly before adding the terminating crr; whilst that of satisfaction and pleasure 214such, for example, as conjugal endearments, or on the occasion of finding a delicate morsel, is a deep tack, which may be imitated by smacking the tongue.

In anger, jealousy, rivalry, or any extraordinary event, he utters hoarse disagreeable sounds, somewhat like a jay or a cat. Lastly, in the season of pairing, when the male and female entice and pursue each other, from the top of a tree to its base, and thence again to the top, a gentle subdued warbling is all that is heard.

Nature has granted these tones to both sexes; but the male is particularly endowed with so very striking a musical talent, that in this respect he surpasses all birds, and has acquired the name of the king of songsters. The strength of his vocal organ is indeed wonderful; and it has been found that the muscles of his larynx are much more powerful than those of any other bird. But it is less the strength than the compass, flexibility, prodigious variety, and harmony of his voice which make it so admired by all lovers of the beautiful. Sometimes dwelling for minutes on a strain composed of only two or three melancholy tones, he begins in an under voice, and swelling it gradually by the most superb crescendo to the highest point of strength, he ends it by a dying cadence; or it consists of a rapid succession of more brilliant sounds, terminated, like many other strains of his song, by some detached ascending notes. Twenty-four different strains or couplets may be reckoned in the song of a fine nightingale, without including its delicate little variations; for among these, as among other musicians, there are some great performers and many middling ones. This song is so articulate, so speaking, that it may be very well written. The following is a trial which I have made on that of a nightingale in my neighbourhood, which passes for a very capital singer77:—

Tioû, tioû, tioû, tioû.
Spe, tiou, squa.
Tiô, tiô, tiô, tiô, tio, tio, tio, tix.
Coutio, coutio, coutio, coutio.
Squô, squô, squô, squô.
Tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzi.
Corror, tiou, squa, pipiqui.
Zozozozozozozozozozozozo, zirrhading!
Tsissisi, tsissisisisisisisis.
Dzorre, dzorre, dzorre, dzorre, hi.
Tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, dzi.
Dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo.
Quio, tr rrrrrrrr itz.
Lu, lu, lu, lu, ly, ly, ly, ly, liê, liê, liê, liê78.
Quio, didl li lulylie.
Hagurr, gurr quipio!
215 Coui, coui, coui, coui, qui, qui, qui, qui, gai, gui, gui, gui79
Goll goll goll goll guia hadadoi.
Couigui, horr, ha diadia dill si!
Hezezezezezezezezezezezezezezezeze couar ho dze hoi.
Quia, quia, quia, quia, quia, quia, quia, quia, ti.
Ki, ki, ki, ïo, ïo, ïo, ioioioio ki.
Lu ly li le lai la leu lo, didl ïo quia.
Kigaigaigaigaigaigaigai guiagaigaigai couior dzio dzio pi.80

If we could understand the sense of these words, we should doubtless discover the expression of the sensations of this delightful songster. It is true that the nightingales of all countries, the south as well as the north, appear to sing in the same manner; there is, however, as has been already observed, so great a difference in the degree of perfection, that we cannot help acknowledging that one has a great superiority over another. On points of beauty, however, where the senses are the judges, each has his peculiar taste. If one nightingale has the talent of dwelling agreeably on his notes, another utters his with peculiar brilliancy, a third lengthens out his strain in a particular manner, and a fourth excels in the silveriness of his voice. All four may excel in their style, and each will find his admirer; and, truly, it is very difficult to decide which merits the palm of victory. There are, however, individuals so very superior as to unite all the beauties of power and melody; these are generally birds of the first breed, which, having been hatched with the necessary powers, in a district well peopled with nightingales, appropriate what is most striking in the song of each, whence results this perfect compound, so worthy of our admiration. As the return of the males in spring always precedes that of the females by seven or eight days, they are constantly heard to sing before and after midnight, in order to attract their companions on their journey during the fine nights. If their wishes are accomplished they then keep silence during the night, and salute the dawn with their first accents, which are continued through the day. Some persist in their first season in singing before and after midnight, whence they have obtained the name of nocturnal nightingales; but they cannot be distinguished till after some time, when they are established in their district, and have the society of their females. After repeated experiments for many successive years, I think I am authorised in affirming that the nocturnal and diurnal nightingales form distinct varieties, which propagate regularly: for if a young bird is taken from the nest of a night singer, he, in his turn, will sing at the same hours as his father, not the first year, but certainly in the following81; while, on the other hand, the young of a day nightingale will 216never sing in the night, even when it is surrounded by nocturnal nightingales. I have also remarked that the night singers prefer mountainous countries, and even mountains themselves, whilst the others prefer plains, valleys, and the neighbourhood of water. I will also venture to affirm that all the night singers found in the plains have strayed from the mountains; thus in my neighbourhood, inclosed in the first chains of the mountains of Thuringia, we hear only night singers, and in the plains of Gotha they know only the day nightingale.

It is a pity that the time for this delightful bird’s song should be so short, that is to say, when wild. It endures hardly three months; and during this short interval it is not maintained with equal power. At its first arrival it is the most beautiful, continued, and impassioned; when the young are hatched, it becomes more rare; the attentions which they require occupying considerable time. If from time to time the nightingale’e song is heard, it is evident that the fire which animated it is much weakened. After midsummer all is ended, nothing is heard but the warbling of the young, which seem to study their father’s song, and try to imitate it. The nightingale sings much longer in confinement: birds which are caught full grown sometimes sing from November to Easter; those which are bred from the nest sing much longer, sometimes as long as seven months; but in order that they may sing well they must be put under the instruction of an old nightingale which is a good singer, otherwise they will be only stammerers, mutilating their natural song, and inserting in a confused manner tones and passages which they have caught from other birds. If, however, they have a good instructor, and a good memory, they imitate perfectly, and often add to their instructor’s song some beauties of their own, as is usual among young birds82.

I cannot help here mentioning the cruel and disgusting selfishness of some men, who, in order a little to prolong the song of this interesting bird, sacrifice to their transient gratification its eyes, by blinding it, as is done to the lark and the chaffinch.

It is said that a nightingale and a female red-breast running free in the room will sometimes pair, and produce mules, but I have no experience on this subject.

I cannot better complete my account of the nightingale’s song than by transcribing the delightful, though somewhat exaggerated picture, which has been given of it by Buffon. “There is no well organised man,” says he, 217“to whom the name of the nightingale does not recall some one of those fine nights in spring, when the sky being clear, the air calm, all nature silent, and as it were attentive, he has listened with delight to the song of this chorister of the woods. Several singing birds may be named whose voices in some respects may compete with that of the nightingale; the lark, the canary, the greenfinch, the blackcap, the linnet, the goldfinch, the common blackbird, the solitary thrush, the American mocking-bird, are all listened to with pleasure when the nightingale is silent: some have fine tones, others have their voice as clear as it is soft, others have as fine flourishes, but there is not one which the nightingale does not surpass in the complete union of all these different talents, and in the prodigious variety of his songs; so that the song of each of the above-named birds is, when taken in its whole extent, only one couplet of that of the nightingale. The nightingale always charms, and never copies himself servilely; if he repeats any passage it is animated with a new accent, embellished by new ornaments. He succeeds in all styles, he renders all expressions, he seizes all characters, and he also augments their effect by contrast. If this Coryphæus of the spring prepares to sing a hymn to nature, he begins by a timid prelude, by faint uncertain sounds, as if he would try his instrument and interest his audience; then gaining courage he becomes gradually animated, warmed, and he soon displays in their plenitude all the resources of his incomparable organ, brilliant bursts, lively delicate trills, volleys of notes whose distinctness equals their volubility; an internal dull murmur, not itself pleasing to the ear, but very fit to enhance the brilliancy of the agreeable strains, sudden, brilliant, and rapid runs, articulated with strength, and even a tasteful ruggedness, plaintive accents, tender cadences; sounds dwelt on without art, but swelling with sentiment; enchantingly penetrating notes, the true sighs of voluptuousness and love, which seem to come from the heart, and make all hearts palpitate; which produce in all who are not insensible a delightful emotion, a touching languor. In those impassioned tones are recognised the language of sentiment which a happy husband addresses to his beloved partner, and which she alone can inspire; while in other strains, more surprising perhaps, but less expressive, are discovered the simple wish of amusing and pleasing her, or of disputing before her the prize of singing with rivals jealous of his glory and happiness.

“These different strains are interspersed with pauses which in all styles of melody concur in producing great effects. We dwell on the beautiful notes we have just heard, and which still resound in our ears; we enjoy them the more because the pleasure is more limited, more exclusive, and undisturbed by new sensations. Soon we expect, we desire another strain; we hope it may be pleasing; if we are mistaken, the beauty of what we hear will not leave us room to regret that which is only delayed, and the interest of hope is maintained for the strains which will follow. One of the reasons why the song of the nightingale is so striking, and produces so much effect, is, as Mr. Barington has well said, because he sings in the night, which is the most favourable time, and he sings alone, whereby his voice is heard in all its splendour, and is undisturbed by any other voice. He eclipses all other birds, adds Mr. Barington, by his soft flute-like tones, and by the uninterrupted duration of his warble, which lasts sometimes for twenty seconds. The same observer reckoned in this warble sixteen dif218ferent strains, well marked by their first and last notes, the intermediate notes being tastefully varied by the bird; and he ascertained that the space filled by the nightingale’s voice is no less than an English mile in diameter, especially when the air is calm: this equals the compass of the human voice.

“It is surprising that so small a bird, which weighs only half an ounce, should have such force in the vocal organs. Mr. Hunter has observed that the muscles of the larynx, or gullet, are stronger in proportion, in this species, than in any other, and also stronger in the male which sings, than in the female which does not sing.

“Aristotle, and Pliny after him, say, that the song of the nightingale lasts in all its strength for fifteen days and fifteen nights uninterruptedly, at the time that the trees are putting forth their leaves; this can refer only to wild nightingales, and must not be taken literally; for these birds are not silent either before or after the period fixed by Aristotle. It is true they do not continue to sing with so much ardour and constancy. They generally begin in the month of April, and do not completely end till the month of June, about the time of the solstice; but the time when their song diminishes most, is when the young are hatched, because they are then occupied in feeding them, and in the order of instincts, that which tends to the preservation of the species is pre-eminent. Captive nightingales continue to sing for nine or ten months, and their song is sustained not only for a longer time, but it is more perfect and studied. Hence Mr. Barington infers, that in this species, and in many others, the male does not sing to amuse the female, and enliven her fatigue when sitting; which appears a very just and probable inference. Indeed, the female when she sits performs her office from an instinct, or rather a passion, stronger in her than even the passion of love; she finds in it an internal satisfaction of which we can form no idea, but which she appears to feel sensibly, and we cannot therefore suppose that at such moments she is in any want of consolation. Since then it is neither from duty nor virtue that the female sits, neither is it on that account that the male sings: indeed he does not sing during the second incubation. It is love, and especially the first season of love, which inspires the song of the bird; it is in spring that they experience the want both to love and to sing; it is the males which have most desire, and it is they who sing the most. They continue to sing during the greater part of the year if we preserve around them a perpetual spring, which incessantly renews their ardour, without affording an occasion for extinguishing it; this happens to caged nightingales, and even, as it has been already mentioned, to those which have been taken full grown. Some have been known to begin to sing with all their strength a few hours after being caught. They must, however, have been insensible of their loss of liberty at first. They would starve the first seven or eight days if they were not fed, and would injure their heads against the top of the cage if their wings were not tied; but at last the passion for singing prevails, because it is produced by a still deeper passion.

“The songs of other birds, the sounds of instruments, the tones of a sweet sonorous voice, excite them much. They run, they approach, attracted by the sweet sounds; but duets attract them still more powerfully, which would seem to prove that they are sensible to the effects of harmony. 219They do not continue silent auditors, they join the performance, and use all their efforts to eclipse their rivals, to surpass all the other voices, and even all other sounds. It is said that they have been known to drop down dead at the feet of a person singing. Another has been seen fluttering, swelling his throat, and uttering an angry warble every time a canary which was near him, began to sing; he succeeded by his threats in imposing silence, so true is it, that superiority is not always free from jealousy. Can it be in consequence of the passion for pre-eminence, that these birds are so careful to seize every advantage, and that they prefer singing in a place favourable to sound, or within reach of an echo?

“All nightingales do not sing equally well. Some are so very inferior as not to be worth keeping. It has even been thought that the song of the nightingale is different in different countries. In England, those who are curious respecting these birds, prefer, it is said, those of the county of Surrey, to those of Middlesex; as they prefer the greenfinch of Essex, and the goldfinch of Kent. This diversity of song among birds of the same species has very rationally been compared to the different dialects of the same language. The true causes can hardly be assigned, as they are for the most part accidental. A nightingale may perhaps have heard other singing birds, or emulation may have caused him to perfect his song, which he thus transmits improved to his descendants, for every father is the singing master of his family; and it is easy to perceive that in succeeding generations the song may be still further improved or modified by similar accidents.

“After the month of June, the nightingale sings no more, and he retains only a hoarse cry, a sort of croaking, by which the melodious Philomel cannot be recognised, and it is not surprising that formerly, in Italy, they gave him a different name under these circumstances. He is indeed another bird, a bird altogether different in respect of voice, and even, in a great degree, in respect of the colour of his plumage.

“Among nightingales, as well as other species, some females are found participating in the constitution of the male, his habits, and especially in his musical powers. I have seen, in confinement, one of these female singers. Her warble resembled that of the male, but was neither so strong nor so varied. She preserved it till spring; but then subduing the exercise of her talent to the natural duties of her sex, she became silent, in order to build her nest, and to lay, though she was solitary. It appears that, in warm countries, such as Greece, it is very common to see these female singers, and respecting this species and many others we may draw the same inference from a passage of Aristotle. One would hardly imagine that so varied a song as that of the nightingale is confined within a single octave; this is, however, the result of the attentive observations of a man of taste (M. le docteur Remond). He remarked, indeed, some sharp tones which formed the double octave, and which were emitted like lightning; but this happens rarely, and when the bird by a powerful effort of the gullet raises his voice to the octave.

“The same observer discovered shakes on the third, fourth, and octave, but always from sharp to flat; cadences, generally in the minor, on almost every note; but no arpeggios, no coherent design.”

Independent of these talents, the nightingale possesses a quality very likely to augment the number of his friends; he is capable, after some 220time, of forming attachments. When once he has made acquaintance with the person who takes care of him, he distinguishes his step before seeing him; he welcomes him by a cry of joy; and, during the moulting season, he is seen making vain efforts to sing, and supplying by the gaiety of his movements, and the expression of his looks, the demonstrations of joy which his throat refuses to utter. When he loses his benefactor, he sometimes pines to death; if he survives it is long before he is accustomed to another83. His attachments are long, because they are not hasty, as is the case with all wild and timid dispositions.

Observations.—The difference in the song is very remarkable. The greater nightingale has a much stronger, louder, and deeper voice; but it sings more slowly and more unconnectedly; it has not that astonishing variety, those charming protractions, and harmonious conclusions of the common nightingale; it mutilates all the strains; and, on this account, its song has been compared to the missel-thrush, to which, however, it is superior in softness and pureness. The common nightingale is superior in delicacy and variety, but inferior in force and brilliancy. The greater nightingale sings generally in the night, so that it is the real night-singer; while among nightingales this is rather uncommon. Its voice is so loud that it is almost impossible to bear it in a room. It is necessary to keep it always outside the window, either by hanging its cage there, or by opening from it a sort of passage into which it can remove.

Its call is also very different; hi! glack arrr! It seems also to pronounce David, Jacob, and generally begins its song by the latter word. If the song is complete, it consists of the following strains:—

Guia, gu, gu, gu.
Hajai, hajai, dzu, dzu, dzu, dzu.
Gorgué, guéguéguéguéguéh,
Hoa goigoigoi gui.
Dzicka, dzicka, dzicka.
Davitt, davitt, davitt.
Gogock, gogock.
Guedum, guedum, guedum, guedum, gueï!
Gai, goi, goi, goi, guirrrr.
Golka, golka, golka, golk.
Hia, guiaguiaguiaguia.
Glockglockglockglockglockglock.
Gueai, gueaigueai gui!
Goi, guaguaguagua guagui.
Heid, heid, heid, heid hi.
222 Voi dada! voi dada!
Gai, gai, gai, gai, guirr, guirr.
Hoi, gueguegue gui.
Hoi goi.

This bird is not found in any part of Thuringia. There are some in Silesia, Bohemia, Pomerania, near Wittenberg, Halle, and Dessau; but in Austria, Hungary, and Poland, they are in some districts more abundant than the common nightingale85. They generally settle among the bushes of the hills and plains, and especially near rivers. When caged they are fed like nightingales. They are less delicate, however, and live much longer.

They are chiefly brought from Vienna to Thuringia, whence they have the name of Vienna Nightingales. Some people make a business of fetching them from Hungary, in the beginning of April, where they buy them cheap, in order to sell them very dear, in Saxony and other remote provinces. Those from Hungary are preferred to the Polish. A distinguishing characteristic is, that they first pronounce the davitt or jacob only once when they call; while the second repeat davitt many times in succession.

At Thorn, and all along the Vistula, where the common and the large nightingale equally abound, the latter is called the Polish Nightingale, and the former, the Nightingale of Saxony. The nest of the greater nightingale is built like that of the nightingale; but the eggs are larger, and of an olive brown, with dark shades.

These birds are caught like nightingales; their diseases, also, are similar; but they appear to suffer still more when moulting; they become dull and ill, and often die under it. It is usual to give them at this crisis some spiders, and the grubs which gnaw wood; what, however, after many experiments, appears most salutary, is the Golden Tincture of Halle86, one or two drops of which are poured into the drinking-trough.

Habitation.—When wild, this bird is found throughout Europe, inhabiting woods and orchards, or their vicinity; it particularly loves thick copse-wood. In September it leaves our climate, and returns about the middle of April, to enliven our woods by its brilliant and well supported song.

In confinement, when it is allowed to hop about, it is provided with a branch, or a roost furnished with several sticks, because it walks with difficulty, and prefers perching, on which account a cage is better adapted to it. At the time for departure, these birds, urged by the instinct to travel, are much agitated, especially in the night, by moonlight. The desire to rove is so strong, that they often fall ill and die.

Food.—When wild, the blackcap feeds on small caterpillars, butterflies, flies, in short, of all kinds, on insects and their grubs; in time of need, on berries and fruits also87.

In confinement this bird does very well on the universal paste, with which a little bruised hemp seed is mixed, and occasionally meal worms, ants’ eggs, or insects. In summer and autumn he is supplied with elder224-berries, and they are also dried, in order that he may have some in winter, soaked in water, which is found very good for his health. He is a great eater, and when at liberty in the bird room partakes of everything, meat, bread, and even vegetables. As he is generally caught in the autumn he is soon accustomed to artificial food, by having elderberries and meal worms mixed with it for several successive days. He is fond of bathing, and must be always well supplied with fresh water.

Breeding.—This species generally lays but once a year, occasionally twice, and even thrice. His nest, placed near the ground, generally in a hedge or bush of white-thorn, is hemispherical, solid, and well built; the outside of stalks, deserted cocoons, and stubble, the inside of fine soft hay, mixed with hair. It contains from four to six eggs, of a yellowish white mottled with yellow and spotted with brown. The young are fed with small caterpillars, insects, and currants; those which are brought up by hand are fed with white bread and milk. The charming tone of their voice gives to their own song, as well as to that of the nightingale and canary, which they easily learn to imitate, a sweetness and grace which are enchanting. Before moulting there is so little difference between the young males and females that it requires great skill to distinguish them, for the cap of the former is only a slight shade darker of olive brown, and the back a greyish brown, rather more tinted with olive; but on the first moulting the head of the male begins to blacken first behind the beak, while that of the female retains its original colour, except that it becomes more bright and distinct. When it is wished to ascertain the sex of these young birds, the best plan is to pull out a few brown feathers from the head; if it is a male, black ones will come up in their place, and thus there will be no danger of taking females by mistake; these, however, would soon be known, because the males begin to warble as soon as they are able to fly and feed themselves.

Diseases.—The blackcap is subject to the same diseases as the nightingale, but is more frequently attacked by decline. As soon as the symptoms appear he must be fed with a great many meal worms and ants’ eggs, and his drinking water must be impregnated with iron, by putting a nail into it. Those which are left to run about the room are apt to lose their feathers. Under such circumstances they must be caged, and exposed to the warmth of the sun or the fire; they must be well fed, especially with the food given to nightingales; these methods generally restore them, and their feathers are gradually renewed. A tepid bath, repeated for two or three days, is very likely to help their development. In epileptic or paralytic attacks I make them swallow, with great success, two or three drops of olive oil; I lately had the pleasure of seeing the success of this remedy on a bird of this species suffering from an apoplectic fit, and which dragged his little paralysed foot about the room where he lived uncaged; he is now quite recovered, very gay, and active; his song was never before so delightful to me. These birds generally live in captivity as long as nightingales.

Modes of Taking.—Every taste but that of the palate must be destroyed if this charming bird is caught for the table. Besides, it is by no means numerous; but if it is desired as an ornament to the house, snares baited 225with currants must be laid for it in July and August, the greatest care being taken to save the feet, which are very likely to be broken. Patience is very necessary in order to succeed, for it is a very suspicious bird, approaching slowly, and falling into the snare only when pressed by hunger. The same suspicious disposition causes it to repair with repugnance to the water trap, though in other situations it delights in water, and often bathes. If it perceives anything unusual it will remain for hours without approaching, and will pass twenty times by currants which are hung up as a bait without touching them, though very greedy of this food; but if it sees another bird bathe, or drink, it takes courage, and soon falls into the trap. The young, before moulting, still foolish and inexperienced, are more careless, and may be taken in great numbers in autumn; and in the spring they are as easy to catch as the nightingale, by means of a net or limed twigs, in a place cleared from moss and turf, and baited with meal worms and ants’ eggs.

Attractive Qualities.—It is perhaps a sufficient eulogium to say that this bird rivals the nightingale, and many persons even give it the preference. If it has less volume, strength, and expression, it is more pure, easy, and flute-like in its tones, and its song is perhaps more varied, smooth, and delicate. It sings also for a much longer period, both when wild and in confinement, its song being hardly suspended throughout the year by day, and prolonged, like that of the nightingale, far into the night, though begun at dawn. The female sings also, but in a more limited degree, very much like the red-breast, which has caused it to be mistaken for a particular species with a redcap. The call is a sort of smart “tack,” repeated quickly several times. The sudden view of an unknown object, or of an imminent danger, makes it utter a hoarse disagreeable cry of fear, very like a cat when hurt88.

Habitation.—When wild, this bird, which is found all over Europe, appears to prefer the groves and bushes which skirt the forests, as well as orchards in their vicinity. He arrives some days before the nightingale, and departs at the end of September.

In confinement he is treated like the blackcap, and, being more delicate, must be furnished with a cage.

Food.—When wild the fauvette feeds on small caterpillars and the other little insects which are found on the bushes, where he is continually searching for them, uttering at the same time the sweetest and softest song. After midsummer he appears very fond of cherries; he eats the pulp up to the stone, and this causes his beak to be at this season always stained; he also likes red currants and elderberries.

In confinement he is so great an eater that if he is not caged he hardly ever quits the feeding-trough of the nightingale. Though he is more easily tamed than the blackcap, he seldom survives more than two or three years, and the artificial food is no doubt the cause. He appears very fond of the universal paste; but I have often observed that it causes the feathers to fall off to so great a degree that he becomes almost bare, and then I think he dies of cold rather than from any other cause89.

Breeding.—The nest of the fauvette, placed in a hedge or bush of white-thorn, at about three feet above the ground, is well built on the outside with blades of grass and roots, and inside with the finest and softest hay, very seldom with moss. The edges are fastened with spiders’ webs and dry cocoons. The female lays four or five eggs, of a yellowish white, spotted all over with light ash grey and olive brown. The young, which are hatched after fifteen days’ sitting, are no sooner fledged than they jump out of the nest the moment it is approached.

Diseases.—They are the same as in the blackcap; but the fauvette is 227still more subject to the loss of its feathers. It fattens so fast upon the first universal paste that it often dies from this cause.

Mode of Taking.—These birds may be caught during the whole of the summer with nooses and springes baited with cherries, red currants, or elderberries. They go also very readily to the water trap, from seven to nine in the morning, and in the evening a little before sunset.

Attractive Qualities.—“Of the inhabitants of our woods,” says Buffon, “fauvettes are the most numerous and agreeable. Lively, nimble, always in motion, they seem occupied only with play and pleasure; as their accents express only joy, it is a pretty sight to watch them sporting, pursuing, and enticing each other; their attacks are gentle, and their combats end with a song.”

Observations.—This bird arrives among us towards the end of April. It frequents hilly places covered with bushes and briars, among which it builds its nest, about four or five feet from the ground, and among the thickest foliage. The eggs, five in number, are whitish, mottled with bluish brown, and speckled with dark maroon. Incubation lasts but thirteen days. At first the young are fed with the smallest caterpillars, afterwards with larger ones, flies, and other insects; but as soon as they can fly they accompany their parents in search of cherries, red currants, elderberries, and, later in the season, the berries of the service tree. The family departs together in the month of September, and then some are taken in nooses or springes baited with elderberries. But this species is not much valued, and does not therefore excite the attention of bird-catchers, who give the preference to the fauvette.

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However, this bird is an excellent singer, and though his voice is not so clear and flute-like as that of the fauvette, yet by skilfully introducing his call into his warble, he produces a very striking and agreeable variety. This species is fed and treated like the preceding, but with still greater care, for it is even more delicate. With all my care I have never been able to preserve it more than two years at the utmost: the difficulty, however, does not appear to proceed from the diet, for being caught in the autumn it soon gets accustomed to the food of the nightingale, by first giving it the berries which it selects in a state of freedom.

Habitation.—When wild it is found all over Europe, making its abode in thick deep forests. It is with us a bird of passage; but some individuals, which come from quite the north, remain during the winter near our dwellings, searching the heaps of wood and stones, the hedges and fences, and, like the wren, entering barns and stables. Those which leave us return at the end of March, stop for some time in the hedges, and then penetrate into the woods.

In confinement this bird is so wakeful and gay that it may be safely left at liberty in the room, having a roosting-place for the night; it is also kept in a cage.

THE BEARDED TIT.

Food.—When wild, the great variety of things which serve it for food prevent its ever being at a loss throughout the year. It is equally fond of small insects and worms and small seeds. In spring it feeds on flies, caterpillars, grubs, and maggots, which it seeks for in the hedges, bushes, and in the earth. In summer it feeds chiefly on caterpillars; in autumn on seeds of all kinds and elderberries; and in winter, when the snow has 229covered all seeds, it has recourse to insects hid in the cracks and crevices of walls and trees.

In confinement it will eat anything that comes to table. It is fond of the universal paste, hemp, rape, and poppy-seeds, and refuses none of these things immediately on being imprisoned, and it soon seems as completely at ease as if accustomed to confinement91.

Breeding.—This species lays generally twice a year; placing its nest among the thickest bushes, about five or six feet from the ground; the outside is composed of mosses, and fibres of roots, and wood, and the inside is lined with the fur of deer, hares, and the like. The eggs, five or six in number, are bright bluish green. The young are no sooner fledged than, like the preceding, they quit the nest. Their plumage is then very different from that of their parents: the breast is spotted with grey and yellow, the back with brown and black; lastly, the nostrils and angles of the beak are rose-coloured. They are easily reared on white bread and poppy-seeds moistened with milk. As soon as they are tamed these birds have a great inclination to build in the room. The male and female collect all the little straws, threads, and similar materials which they can find, to build a nest among the boughs with which they are supplied for the purpose. The female lays even when solitary; they may be paired with red-breasts, and these unions succeed very well.

Diseases.—If it were generally true, that birds in a wild state are never ill, this species must be excepted; for, however strange it may appear, the young are subject to the small pox; they are attacked by it while in the nest, or even after they can fly. I have a young bird of this kind, which, at a time when this disease prevailed in my neighbourhood, took it; he recovered, however, tolerably well, but he entirely lost the tail-feathers, which were never afterwards renewed. Old ones are sometimes caught or killed whose feet and eyes are ulcerated, or have tumours on them; perhaps they may be only chilblains. Weavers’ stoves appear to be particularly injurious to these birds; in two or three months their eyes swell, and the feathers fall off all round them; the beak is attacked with scurvy, which spreads to the feet, then all over the body; but they nevertheless continue to live from eight to ten years in these rooms.

Mode of Taking.—This is very easy at their return in the spring. As soon as they appear in the hedges, where they soon discover themselves by the cry “issri,” a little place near, where the earth is bare, must be found; after having placed limed twigs, and thrown among them earth or meal worms for a bait, the dunnock is gently driven towards them without alarming him; as soon as he perceives the worms he darts upon them and falls into the snare. In the autumn they may be caught in the area and with a noose; in winter in the white-throat’s trap; but they resort in the greatest numbers to the water trap, not so much for the sake of bathing as to seek for dead insects or decayed roots.

Attractive Qualities.—However agreeable this bird may be in the room, from its good humour, agility, gaiety, and song, it does not deserve 230the name of winter nightingale, which it bears in some places; its song is too simple and short; it is a little couplet, composed of a strain of the lark and one of the wren. The sounds tchondi, hondi, hondi are repeated frequently and for a long time, always descending a sixth, and gradually diminishing in power. This song is accompanied with an uninterrupted movement of the wings and tail, and lasts through the year, except at the moulting season. Some young ones, reared in confinement, will, if placed beside a fine singing bird, learn enough of its song to embellish their own. But, whatever may be asserted on the subject, they never succeed in imitating the nightingale. When the dunnock disputes with its fellow captives for a place or for food its anger evaporates in a song, like the crested lark and the wagtail.

Habitation.—When wild, these birds are found in abundance during the period of migration, on hedges and bushes, but in summer they must be sought in the woods. “This retreat,” it has been said, “is necessary to their happiness: the male is engrossed with the society of his mate, all other company is troublesome; he pursues eagerly the birds of his species, and drives them from the district he has chosen for himself; the same bush never contains two pairs of these birds.” The red-breasts return to us (in Germany) about the middle of March92; they stop for about a fortnight in the hedges, and then proceed into the woods. In October they return towards the bushes, which they busily search as they travel, and proceed gradually to their destination. Some delay their departure till November, some will even remain here and there throughout the winter, but generally to their cost, as their life is usually sacrificed by these delays. Necessity then forces them to draw near to houses, dunghills, and stables, where they are generally caught by men or cats, or die of hunger and cold if the frost is long and severe, and the snow deep. Care must be taken in hard weather not to transport them suddenly into a warm room, the rapid change from cold to heat invariably kills them. They should at first be put in a cold room, and be gradually accustomed to warm air; with these precautions they will do as well as those which are caught in the autumn or spring.

In confinement the inhabitants of my neighbourhood like to see red-breasts hopping about the room, and they make a roost for them of oak or elm branches. They find that this bird destroys flies and even bugs. Such a situation appears to agree with him very well, as he lives in this way from ten to twelve years. He is so jealous and unsociable that he must not have a companion; he must be quite alone; a second would cause battles which would end only with the death of one of the combatants; if, however, they are equal in strength, and in a large room, they will divide it, and each taking possession of his half, they remain in peace, unless one should pass his limits, in which case war begins, and is maintained to the last extremity.

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In order the better to enjoy their pretty song, they are provided with a cage generally resembling that of the nightingale.

Food.—When wild the red-breast feeds on all sorts of insects, which are pursued with great skill and agility; sometimes this bird is seen fluttering like a butterfly round a leaf on which is a fly, or if he sees an earth-worm he hops forward flapping his wings, and seizes it. In autumn he eats different sorts of berries.

In confinement, by giving him at first some earth or meal worms, and in the autumn elderberries, he soon gets accustomed to eat anything: he picks up crumbs of bread, the little fibres of meat, and the like, but cheese appears his favourite food. When hopping about the bird-room he likes the universal paste very much93. He chiefly requires a regular supply of fresh water, both for drinking and bathing; and he makes himself so wet as to conceal the colours of his plumage.

Breeding.—The red-breast lays twice a year. The nest, placed near the ground, either among moss, in the crevices of stones, among the roots of a tree, or in the hole of an old felled trunk, is carelessly formed of moss, lined with fine hay, hair, and feathers. She lays from four to six eggs, of a yellowish white, with lines and spots joined and mixed together of a reddish colour; the colours become deeper as the spots approach the large end, where they form a crown of a light brown colour. The young birds are at first covered with yellow down, like chickens, they then become grey, and their feathers are edged with dusky yellow; they do not acquire the orange red till they have moulted. They are easily reared on white bread soaked in boiled milk. When their cage is placed beside a nightingale they acquire some parts of his song, which, introduced into their own, make a very pretty mixture.

Diseases.—Their most common disorder is diarrhœa, for which some spiders are administered. Decline is often cured with plenty of ants’ eggs and meal-worms; but indigestion often proves fatal, especially when it arises from having eaten too many earth-worms. It may, however, be cured by making the bird swallow spiders and meal-worms.

Mode of Taking.—In spring, when the red-breasts frequent the hedges and bushes, sticks are passed transversely through them, on which limed twigs are fastened, then two persons gently beat the hedge or bush to drive the birds towards the twigs, where they are soon caught, for red-breasts have the habit of perching on all the little low projecting branches, in order that they may discover earth-worms. This sort of red-breast chase is very common in Thuringia, where many persons keep them. Limed twigs may also be put in a bare place with earth or meal-worms, just as for the dunnock. The small nightingale net and the white-throat trap catch many. They are also caught at the water trap; but the greatest number are caught in autumn with the noose, baited with elderberries, which are at that season their favourite food. If they are caught 233for the room (and it is a pity to hunt so pretty a bird for the table), it is necessary, in order to preserve their feet, to cover the springes with felt or cork.

Attractive Qualities.—His pretty plumage, tricks, and great sociability would be enough to make him charming. He is soon tamed, so as to come upon the table and eat from a plate or the hand; his cheerfulness and agility must also give pleasure, always in motion, and bowing after every hop and calling “sisri;” but he is particularly valued on account of his song. This song is generally more perfect and altogether superior when he is caged than when hopping about the room. There are however exceptions. The red-breast sings throughout the year, but in spring his voice is most brilliant and his melody most enchanting. In a country residence it is very easy to teach this bird to go and come, whether reared from the nest or caught full grown.

Habitation.—When wild this species exists all over Europe94. It is a bird of passage, and when returning towards the north, in the beginning of April, it stops in large flights near streams, in hedges, and damp fields, comes even into courts, and on the dunghills of farms, if surprised by snow and a severe return of cold. In the summer it frequents those parts among the mountains abounding with water; in August it approaches cabbage fields enclosed by hedges or bushes. It is very seldom that one or two pairs build in our country.

In confinement it may be let run about; it soon grows so tame as to come when called, and feed from the hand. Its rapid motions and races are amusing; but it must not be allowed to fly high enough to get on the tables and furniture, as it would soon dirty them. It sings better and longer when caged. The cage should be, like the nightingale’e, large enough for the bird not to spoil its beautiful feathers; the tail-feathers easily drop if they are rubbed.

Food.—When wild the blue-breast feeds on all sorts of insects; it also eats elderberries.

In confinement it must at first be fed with ants’ eggs, meal-worms, and even some earth-worms. If it is kept uncaged these things must be thrown upon the universal paste, which it will thus learn to relish; but though it is easily reconciled to it, ants’ eggs, earth and meal-worms, must nevertheless be occasionally supplied, or it will soon die in decline. When caged it is fed like nightingales, and on that food it will live seven or eight years. It is a great eater, and can devour in a day its own weight of the first universal paste, so that it mutes incessantly. It requires a constant supply of fresh water for drinking and bathing: it wets itself so much that it is completely drenched. I have observed for several successive years that it never bathes till the afternoon95.

Diseases.—Diarrhœa and decline are its commonest disorders. The treatment has been pointed out in the Introduction.

Mode of Taking.—I often hear it said that the blue-breast is a rare bird; that in some parts of Germany it appears only every five, or even ten, years, but I can declare that this opinion arises from a want of observation. Since I have taught my neighbours to be more attentive to the time of their passage, they every year catch as many as they please. If in the first fortnight of April, up to the 20th, cold and snow return, plenty may be found by merely following the streams, rivers, and ponds, especially in the neighbourhood of a wood. A proper place is chosen, near the water and a bush, meal and earth worms are thrown there, with limed twigs, and soon these poor birds, if ever so little pushed towards it fall blindly into the snare; they also fall into white-throat traps and nightingale nets. In 235autumn, when they frequent cabbage grounds to hunt for caterpillars, plenty may be caught by planting here and there sticks with limed twigs fastened to them, baited with meal-worms. At this season they sometimes go to the water trap, but this is not usual. If it happens that any are caught in nooses or spring traps baited with elderberries, hunger must have been the cause, and they must have been entirely destitute of food.

Attractive Qualities.—Its beauty, sprightliness, sociability, and song, unite in rendering the blue-breast delightful. It runs very swiftly, raises its tail with a jerk, and extends it like a fan, keeping it and the wings in perpetual motion, uttering the cry of “fide, fide” and “tac, tac.” It is unfortunate that it gradually loses the fine blue on the breast in successive moultings, when confined to the house, and becomes at length of a whitish grey. In a few days it will become tame enough to eat meal-worms from the hand, and it will not be long before it comes for them when called by the voice or whistle. Its song is very agreeable; it sounds like two voices at once; one deep, resembling the gentle humming of a violin string, the other the soft sound of a flute.

When at liberty in the room it always seeks the sunshine, and sleeps on its belly. Its notes very much resemble those of the common wagtail, but much improved by a violin-like hum.

Habitation.—When wild it is found equally near houses, in the fields and mountains, and in every place where insects and worms are in plenty. It is in Germany a bird of passage, which assembles in autumn on the tiles, like the swallow, to prepare for its departure in the first fortnight of October96. It returns towards the end of February or beginning of March, though the weather be not mild; it may come thus early without danger, as it does not fear to approach houses, on the walls of which it finds flies that the spring sun has drawn from their retreat; and in the streams it also finds abundance of aquatic insects.

In the house it may be kept in a cage, or allowed to range; but in either case it is necessary to scatter plenty of sand about, as it is a very dirty little bird.

Food.—When wild, it feeds on gnats, water-spiders, aquatic insects, flies, and insects that fasten on cattle, round which it often roams. It also follows the ploughman to feed on the insects turned up by the plough.

In the house nothing tames it so soon as ants’ eggs, meal-worms, flies, and other insects. By degrees it acquires a taste for other food. In the cage it must be fed in the same manner as the nightingale.

Breeding.—This species breeds two or three times in the course of the season. Its nest, placed in a hole, in a crevice between stones, or even under a tile, is carelessly formed of moss, small roots, hay, or something of the kind, and lined with hair and wool. It lays five or six eggs, of a bluish white, spotted with black. The young ones brought up from the nest become so tame, that they will go and return like a pigeon, build in the room, and seek for food for their little ones in the fields.

Diseases.—Though very subject to diarrhœa, this and the two following species may be preserved in a room five or six years.

Mode of Taking.—If there is snow on the ground on their return in March, it is only necessary to clear a place (below the window will do), and scatter meal-worms amongst limed twigs, or place these on stones or wood where the birds assemble, or even fasten a meal-worm to a limed twig, loosely stuck in the earth, and you may soon catch a wagtail.

Attractive Qualities.—Its handsome plumage, its sprightliness, its quick and elegant motions, please one as much as its pretty song, which, without being striking, is varied, and continues the whole year, except during moulting. I always keep a wagtail amongst my birds, and when the blackcap, the blue-breast, the lark, and the linnet sing, it seems to form a counter-tenor.

Habitation.—In their wild state, these wagtails are found throughout Europe; but in the greatest number in mountainous and wooded parts, where the brooks flow over beds of pebbles. They are birds of passage, and return amongst us the end of February or beginning of March. A few have been observed to remain during mild winters, when they take up their abode near dunghills or warm springs.

In the house they should be kept in a nightingale’s cage, and treated like one; they are so delicate, that with the greatest care they can rarely be preserved two years.

Food.—When wild they prefer aquatic insects, and are continually chasing them among the plants and stones by the water-side.

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In the house they should be fed on the same food as the nightingale, to which they may be gradually accustomed, by throwing amongst it meal-worms and ants’ eggs.

Breeding.—Their nests, placed by the water-side, in mill-dikes, or heaps of stones, are formed with rather more art than those of the preceding species. They begin to lay as early as March, five or six white eggs, mottled with flesh-colour. The young ones must be reared on ants’ eggs and the crumb of white bread, soaked in boiled milk.

Mode of Taking.—This is very simple; it is only to plant sticks with limed twigs and meal-worms attached to them, on the banks, or in the middle of a stream which they frequent; you will not have to wait long before some are caught.

Attractive Qualities.—They are as pleasing as the common wagtail; but their plumage is more brilliant, and their voice stronger. Their beautiful clear trilling sound renders their song agreeable, though rather short.

Habitation.—When wild, this species, better known than the preceding, is found throughout the plains of Europe, running about the pastures amongst the sheep and cattle. They assemble in September, and depart for warmer countries in large flights, uttering the cry “sipp, sipp!” in a clear tone; they return in March.

It must be treated like the grey wagtail, in the house; but it is not so delicate.

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Food.—When wild it feeds on flies and other insects that tease the cattle.

In the house it must be fed like the preceding.

Breeding.—Its nest, made of stubble, and lined with wool, is placed at the water-side, or in a deserted mole-hill, sometimes in the grass, or corn, like the lark’k. It breeds twice in the year, each time laying five or six eggs, grey-blue, spotted all over with reddish grey, and very like those described above. The under parts of the young birds are much paler than in the old ones. They must be reared on ants’ eggs and white bread soaked in boiled milk.

Mode of Taking.—These birds are not very easily caught; at least, I have always found it very difficult to succeed; and, therefore, one is reduced to the necessity of placing limed twigs on the nest, which is cruel. If snow should fall, however, after their return in spring, some of them may be taken, by clearing a convenient place, and scattering there meal-worms amongst limed twigs, if you succeed in bringing the birds near.

Attractive Qualities.—Its beauty and agreeable song make this bird a desirable acquisition; but with every possible attention, I have never been able to keep one more than two years.

Habitation.—When wild this species frequents stony and mountainous places; and, during their migration, they may be seen resting in the fields, on the tops of isolated stakes, and other similar places; rarely on trees or bushes. They take their departure during the first fortnight in September, and return towards the middle of April, when white frosts cease.

In the house these birds must be kept in nightingales’ cages, or shut up behind a grating, and not suffered to range until accustomed in their prison to their new food; for, unless taken good care of at first, they will soon die. They can rarely be tamed.

Food.—When wild they feed on flies and other insects, which they catch as they run along.

In the house they must be given plenty of meal-worms and ants’ eggs as soon as they are taken; for, if not fed profusely, they will die, and what is rather astonishing, of diarrhœa, although they have not eaten any of the common house-food. Afterwards they may be fed on nightingales' food, and occasionally on white bread soaked in boiled milk; yet, with every attention, they can rarely be preserved more than two years.

Breeding.—Their nests, formed of stalks of grass and feathers, are generally placed in the crevices of some stone-quarry, sometimes in holes on the banks of streams or rivers, or in an empty mole-hill, or even on a heap of stones. They lay from five to six eggs, of a greenish white. To rear the young ones, they must be taken when half-fledged, and fed on ants’ eggs and white bread soaked in boiled milk.

Mode of Taking.—Limed twigs must be placed on the stones or stakes where these birds rest, or even on sticks fixed in the ground for the purpose, and they must be driven gently towards the snares.

Attractive Qualities.—No one would take the trouble to tame a full-grown wheatear, unless passionately fond of keeping birds. I have one, that, by the use of plenty of fresh ants’ eggs, has been accustomed to range the room. Its plumage is pleasing, its actions graceful; it is continually waving and spreading its fine tail. Its song is passable, but is interrupted every now and then by a kind of scream.

Habitation.—When wild they generally frequent the skirts of woods. They appear amongst us the beginning of May, and depart towards the end of September. In August they may be seen scattered over the fields, on the stalks of plants, or detached bushes.

In the house they must be kept in a nightingale’s cage.

Breeding.—The nest, constructed of dried grass mixed with moss, lined with hair and feathers, is commonly placed in a tuft of grass in the middle of a meadow or orchard. The females lay five or six eggs, of a fine light blue. Young ones reared on ants’ eggs succeed much better than those taken full grown.

Mode of Taking.—In spring, when some of these birds are seen in a field or meadow, sticks, furnished with limed twigs, should be stuck there, and the birds gently driven to that side, to induce them to settle, which they will soon do. In summer, the noose, spring-trap, and limed twigs, must be employed in the following manner:—If the noose is used, a stake must be set up, about three feet high, slit at the top to put in crossways a stick three inches long, and the noose is placed an inch and a half above, to be of the height of the bird’s breast when it is perched on the stick.

If limed twigs are used, forked switches three feet long should be employed: the fork, four inches in length, must be covered with bird-lime. Spring-traps or gins must be suspended to small stakes or cabbage stalks. As soon as a sufficient number of these spring-traps, snares, and limed twigs, are prepared, they must be carried to a cabbage garden, when a 243number of these whinchats has been seen; there fix the stakes in cross lines, two or three paces apart; then go to the end of the garden and drive the birds gently towards the snares; they jump from one cabbage stalk to another till they approach the stakes; then you stop, and in a short time the birds are caught one after another. When they are caught, the prisoners must be taken out and the snares arranged again; then go to the other end and again drive the birds forward as before, and thus continue till the sport is over.

Attractive Qualities.—However gay this bird may appear when free, it becomes sad and melancholy in the house. If permitted to range, it only moves to procure food, and then returns to its accustomed place, and keeps its head sunk on its breast. Its pleasing song very much resembles the goldfinch’h; but what makes it more admired, is, that it is not only heard during the day, but also in the evening, and sometimes during the night.

Habitation.—When wild the white-throat is spread through Europe. They leave us the beginning of October, and are then observed to retire from bush to bush, and from hedge to hedge. They reappear towards the middle of April, fluttering about the bushes in the fields, the brambles, thickets, underwood of the low mountains, and the orchards, running about very swiftly.

In the house they must be treated in the same manner as the fauvette; but they are much more delicate. An amateur had better rear young birds, and treat them like nightingales. It is the only way to keep them many years.

Food.—When wild these birds are constantly seeking among the bushes for all kinds of insects, grubs, and especially small caterpillars. When, from the air becoming cooler, the supply of this sort of food lessens, they immediately substitute for it currants, cherries, and elderberries.

In the house they must be fed, as we said before, on nightingales’ food. They may, however, be given, occasionally, barley meal and white bread soaked in boiled milk; but this food alone will not agree with them, for they will upon it gradually lose their feathers, till at length they become quite bare. It is a good thing in summer to give them elderberries, though they may be red, and in winter dried ones, after soaking them in water.

Breeding.—The nest is formed of small grass stems and moss, and lined with horse-hair. It is placed in a thick bush, near the ground, or among roots at the water side, sometimes even in tufts of grass. The eggs, from four to six in number, are greenish white, spotted with olive green, and speckled at the large end with dark ash-grey. The young leave the nest so soon that it is difficult to take them from it. Their first plumage resembles full-grown ones, and the females may be known by the fainter tint of fawn brown with which the wing-feathers are edged. I have reared them easily on ants’ eggs. They soon learn to peck alone, and are tolerably satisfied with bread soaked in boiled milk; but to keep them long in health they must be fed in the same manner as the nightingale. They are pretty, engaging birds, thus reared, becoming so tame that they will perch and sing on the finger.

Diseases.—These are the same as those of the blackcap, which may be referred to.

Mode of Taking.—The easiest way is to place limed twigs on the nest, but this is repugnant to persons not cruel. Towards the end of 246summer, spring-traps may be set, with elderberries and gooseberries hung near them. It is difficult to take these birds at the water-trap.

Attractive Qualities.—This bird, gay, lively, and constantly in motion, is a pleasing object in the country. Its song, prolonged far into the night, consists of several strains, which rapidly succeed each other, but must be near for all its beauties to be distinguished, since the soft low tones are only occasionally interrupted by louder notes, which are shrill and follow quickly one after the other. The bird rises in the air as it sings, as if to be better heard, circles round as it ceases, and sinks again into its bush. Its call is a loud tze. When the white-throat is alone in a room, its song appears very melodious.

Habitation.—When wild this species is found throughout Europe, except the north. It is common in the hedges in Germany, disappearing in September, and returning the middle of April. Its taste for currants often draws it to the garden hedge. It is not very often seen in young coppice wood, scarcely ever on trees97, continually on low bushes.

In the house it must be lodged like the fauvette, and taken the same care of; it is so delicate, that when taken rather old it can rarely be preserved.

Food.—When wild it is the same as the preceding species.

In the house these birds cannot be kept long, unless fed on nightingales' food, mingled with ants’ eggs and meal-worms.

Breeding.—The nest is generally found on a thick gooseberry bush, or white-thorn, and on young fir trees in fir woods. It is formed of coarse dried grass, lined with small roots mixed with hogs’ bristles. There are five or six eggs, white, spotted at the large end with grey and yellow brown in a circle. The female’s attachment to her brood may be known from her dropping from her nest almost fainting as soon as any one approaches, uttering anxious cries, fluttering on the ground, and slowly retiring from the nest. Scarcely are the young ones fledged, when, if looked at, they will dart like an arrow from the nest, and run and hide themselves among the bushes. If you wish to rear them, they must be taken as I have 248directed for the fauvette, remembering that the male and female cannot then be distinguished.

Diseases.—These are the same as in the fauvettes.

Mode of Taking.—If snow should fall after their return, a place near a hedge should be cleared, and limed twigs fastened to the lower branches; after having thrown meal-worms there, the birds should be gently driven towards it, and for the sake of the worms they will creep under the limed twigs, and remain caught.

Attractive Qualities.—Though the plumage is not very striking, yet this bird is very pretty. Some clacking tones, rather like the noise of a mill, have given it in Germany the name of the little Miller; as these notes are heard more distinctly than the others, they are erroneously thought to be its whole song; but the rest, certainly very weak, is so soft, so varied, so melodious, that it surpasses other warblers. Whilst singing in this under tone it is continually hopping about the bushes, but when going to utter clap, clap, it stops and employs the whole strength of the larynx to pronounce this syllable. To enjoy the beauty of its song it should be alone in a room, and then no other singing bird is more agreeable, as it rarely utters its call.

Habitation.—In its wild state the black redstart is found in the temperate parts of Europe and in Asia in the same latitudes98. They seem to prefer mountainous districts to wide plains, and they are seen in great numbers on bare chalk-hills; if found in woods, it is only in those that are on rocks. They frequent towns and villages, perching on the highest buildings, towers, steeples, churches, and castles99. In spring and autumn it hops about the hedges. It arrives early in the spring, its song is heard in the beginning of March, and it quits us in small flights towards the middle of October. It possesses one quality, not common among singing birds, that of singing all the year, or, at least, whilst in our country, however cold and stormy the weather may be.

In the house it should be kept in a nightingale’s cage, or at least not permitted to range the room.

Food.—When wild it feeds on flies, drawn by the warmth of spring from their retreat, and settled on walls; afterwards on cabbage caterpillars and other insects, and in autumn on berries.

In the house they may be kept in health a long time, if the above insects are procured for them, or if fed on nightingales’ food, adding occasionally ants’ eggs and meal-worms.

Old birds taken in autumn may sometimes be tamed and accustomed to eat the common food in the room, by putting amongst elderberries, in autumn, ants’ eggs, and meal-worms at other seasons. They have been known to live five or six years in a cage.

Breeding.—This bird makes its nest in the holes of rocks and walls, particularly in high buildings, on the timbers of barns, and places it at a distance from any other. It is constructed of hay, mixed with the hair of animals. Each laying (for there are two in the year) consists of five or six white eggs. The young have a reddish grey plumage, and should be taken from the nest when the tail is half grown, if it is wished to rear them. They should be fed on ants’ eggs, and white bread soaked in boiled milk.

Diseases.—These are the same as those of the fauvette.

Mode of Taking.—Limed twigs, with meal-worms fastened to them, should be laid wherever these birds are most frequently found. Towards winter they may be caught in spring-traps with elderberries hung opposite.

Attractive Qualities.—Its call, “fitza,” being very similar to the 252nightingale’e, has given rise most probably to its name of Wall Nightingale, which it has in common with the following species. Its song certainly cannot enter into comparison with that of the nightingale, for it is sad, and consists of only three strains, the middle one scarcely more than croaking; the other two may boast of a few high clear tones; it may be heard from early in the morning till night. It is always gay and active, its motions light and nimble; it shakes its tail quickly from side to side at every hop or spring, and utters continually the cry “fitza100!”

Habitation.—In a wild state these birds are found in Europe and Asia, and are very common in Germany and England. They leave us the beginning of October, and return the end of March or beginning of April. At this time and in autumn they haunt hedges and bushes; but in summer they principally frequent gardens, the banks of streams planted with willows, and even forests. Those that frequent gardens also enter towns, and will perch on the roofs of the houses, enlivening the inmates with their song from morning till night.

In the house, if given a cage, it should be of such light wire work as not to conceal the beauty of the plumage.

Food.—When wild they feed on all kinds of insects, earth-worms, currants, and elderberries.

In the house, if taken in autumn, they may sometimes be induced to feed on elderberries, rarely on the poultry paste. To entice them to this meal-worms must be mixed with it at first, and some thrown in when it is eaten; ants’ eggs must be added in spring. These birds are delicate, and always require to be supplied with insects; but never give them earth-worms, as they do not digest them easily. If kept in cages they should be given nightingales’ food; yet fed in this way it is rare to preserve them above three or four years; they generally die of consumption or atrophy.

Breeding.—The redstart generally places its nest in a hole of a tree or wall; it is negligently formed of moss, stalks of grass, feathers, and hair. The female has two broods in the year, and each time she lays from five to seven eggs, of an apple green. Scarcely have the tail-feathers begun to grow ere the young ones hop from the nest and perch on some neighbouring branch, where they receive food from the parent birds till they are able to seek it for themselves. Their plumage before moulting is ash grey spotted with white. The young females resemble the nightingale so much in autumn that they are often mistaken for it. Bird-fanciers should rear these birds on ants’ eggs, with white bread soaked in boiled milk occasionally, and thus accustom them to the common universal paste. They learn to repeat parts of the songs of their companions.

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Diseases.—Diarrhœa and atrophy carry off the greatest number.

Mode of Taking.—Sticks covered with bird-lime should be placed across the hedges frequented by these birds; they must then be driven gently towards them. They are also attracted under nets, and amongst limed twigs baited with meal-worms. In autumn they may be taken in nooses, by suspending elderberries near them, either in orchards or thickets. Those intended for the house should be taken in bird-traps or springes, taking care that the wooden part be covered with felt or cork, to prevent the legs being broken. The young ones of the first year are the easiest to preserve. They also go to the water-trap without difficulty.

Attractive Qualities.—Its plumage, and still more its song and sprightliness, render this a delightful bird. It is always in motion, bowing, and moving its tail from side to side at every step; all its actions are lively and graceful. It can improve its song, composed of some very pretty strains, by adding to it parts of the songs of birds that are found near it. For instance, those that build under my roof imitate tolerably the chaffinch that hangs in a cage at my window; and a neighbour of mine has one in his garden that repeats some strains of a blackcap that has its nest near. This facility in appropriating the song of other birds is rare in birds that live in a state of liberty, and seems peculiar to this species. They become so tame that they will take meal-worms from the hand.

Habitation.—In its wild state it frequents orchards, groves, and brambles; but with us it seems to prefer small woods that are interspersed with resinous trees. It arrives the end of April, and quits us as early as the end of August, before the moulting season.

In the house it is kept in a nightingale’s cage, in which no change must be made, still less must another be given it, for it would not survive these disturbances. It is so delicate, that if taken when full grown it is almost impossible to tame it.

Food.—When wild its food is all kinds of insects, smooth caterpillars, flies, gnats, &c.; and if these are scarce, berries103.

In the house it prefers these insects and meal-worms. It is only with great patience and management that it can be given a taste for the nightingale’e food. In general it will eat nothing but insects.

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Breeding.—The nest of the arbour bird is one of those that are so well and curiously formed, commonly placed eight feet above the ground, in the fork of a tree. It is built of pieces of the white bark of the birch tree, dried plants, caterpillars’ webs, wool, and the upper layer of down. All these white materials give it the appearance of being made of paper. It is lined with the finest hay. The female lays five eggs, which are at first of a pale rose red, but after having been sat upon some days acquire a dark flesh-coloured tint, speckled with dark red. This species has but one brood in the year, and if the nest is approached two or three times it will desert it, whether the young ones are hatched or not.

If a person wish to have this pleasing bird in the house, as it is often seen in Hesse, he must take the young ones early from the nest, feed them on ants’ eggs and bullock’s heart chopped small, and always keep them in a warm place. As soon as the arbour bird has been placed in the situation destined for it, it must be left there constantly; its cage ought not to be changed, at least there should be no difference in the one given it afterwards, as without this attention it becomes sad, eats no longer, and dies in a short time. I may observe here, that it moults in December or January, whence we may infer that it passes the winter in a southern climate.

Diseases.—These are the same as the nightingale’e.

Mode of Taking.—This can rarely be accomplished but by placing limed twigs on the nest, which is a cruel method, and the nest is often deserted as soon as it has been approached. Neither will these birds go to the water-trap: they may be caught occasionally in bird-traps in August, by baiting them with currants104. The surest way then is to take them young, especially as the old ones cannot be tamed.

Attractive Qualities.—The song of the arbour bird is sweet, varied, full of power and melody, long sustained; yet some harsh strains have been remarked, and some resembling the notes of the chimney swallow. Whilst singing its throat is much dilated. Its call is dak, dak! hyovie, hyovie! Its plumage is pretty.

Habitation.—When wild they are found throughout Europe, wherever rushes and reeds abound. They arrive in Germany towards the middle of April, and leave it the beginning of September. As they are very delicate, in the house they must be kept in a nightingale’s cage.

Food.—When wild it feeds on all kinds of aquatic insects, and, when these fail, on berries. In the house, independently of nightingale’s food, it requires in a cage all the insects that can be caught, as flies, water-spiders, and gnats.

Breeding.—The nest, rather long and very ingeniously fastened to the stems of the reeds or the branches of bushes by the water side, is constructed of pieces of dried grass, of which the largest are on the outside, and the finer within; these are sometimes mixed with wool and hair. The eggs, five or six in number, are greenish white, streaked and speckled with olive green. The young ones can only be reared on ants’ eggs.

Mode of Taking.—These birds are sometimes caught by placing lime twigs on a place cleared of the turf, and throwing meal-worms there.

Attractive Qualities.—The song of the reed warbler very much resembles that of the arbour bird, but is not so full; what renders it so agreeable is, that its varied melody is heard during evening and morning twilight.

Habitation.—When wild it is found all over Europe, and particularly frequents mountainous and woody places. It does not quit us, but remains in winter, as in summer, near our dwellings.

In the house, on account of its liveliness, it is given rather a large cage, the bars of which should be very near together. If allowed to range it may easily escape through small openings, as it is very fond of penetrating such crevices.

Food.—At liberty, it consists throughout the year of small insects, which it seeks in winter in barns, stables, cellars, holes in walls, and piles of wood. In autumn, however, it will eat both unripe and black elderberries.

As soon as it is brought into the house it must be plentifully supplied with meal-worms, flies, elderberries, and then gradually add nightingales' paste, which will soon become its ordinary food. It is only by adopting this method that I have been successful in preserving one of these birds.

Breeding.—Any nook appears to suit the wren to build its large nest in; which may be found in a hole of a tree, amongst the roots, under a roof, or a cavity under ground; every place is suitable, provided the nest can be concealed. This is oval, covered with moss on the outside, and lined with feathers and hair. It has an opening at the top or side to go in and out by. The female lays from six to eight pretty little white eggs, speckled with red. The young ones are rusty red, spotted with black and white. They may be reared on ants’ eggs, adding, as soon as they can fly, the universal paste; but they always prefer ants’ eggs.

Mode of Taking.—If in winter, a white-throat trap is set in a place much frequented by these birds, and meal-worms scattered within and around it. In this the wrens will surely be caught. They may be entrapped in autumn with spring traps and springes, by hanging elderberries before; but, after every precaution, they generally break their legs.

Attractive Qualities.—Its sprightliness is pleasing, and its actions gay and varied. It has a very powerful voice for its size, and its song is continued throughout the year; it is soft, and mingled with some notes of the canary, which are the more pleasing as they consist of distinct loud tones always descending. Its call is tzrr, tzetzererr! I have never preserved one more than a year, but other amateurs say they may be kept two or three.

Habitation.—When wild these pretty little birds are diffused throughout the old world, principally frequenting pine and fir forests, and do not appear to migrate, excepting those that inhabit northern countries, and go towards the south in October, and return in March; at least, they are then observed on their passage, in Germany, the hedges being full of them in spring; but those established among us remain, as they are seen all the year. They assemble in small flights in winter, and fly about here and there, like the tits, seeking places where their food is most abundant.

In the house a bell-shaped cage appears to suit them best. Several may be kept together in a part of a room enclosed with trellis work, and with a small fir tree for them to perch on. Reared from the nest, they may be allowed to perch on a tree in the room, which they enjoy so much that they are never far from it; if there are many they will perch in a row, press close side by side, and sleep in this manner.

Food.—In the wild state it feeds on all kinds of small insects and their grubs; they are, however, able to swallow large flies, as the beak has a wide opening.

In the house the gold-crests are soon accustomed to the nightingales' paste, by throwing amongst it at first flies deprived of their wings, or half dead, and at length they will be satisfied with bruised hemp-seed; but they must have insects occasionally, flies, meal-worms cut small, ants’ eggs, &c.; finally, to keep them healthy, their paste should be neither too stiff nor too moist, and care must be taken to avoid their swallowing rape or camelin seed, which would immediately kill them106.

Breeding.—The nest, fixed to the extremity of a branch, is round, and very soft, built of moss, caterpillar’s cocoons, and tufts of thistle down; it is generally found in low underwood or meadows with woods adjoining, on the first tree towards the east. About nine eggs are laid, the size of a pea, and pale blush red. Those young ones intended to be reared must not be taken from the nest till they are fledged, and it is best to catch 272them just as they are leaving the nest. They eat readily meal-worms cut small, flies, ants’ eggs, and white bread soaked in boiled milk.

Mode of Taking.—As they are not fearful, they may easily be caught by gently approaching the tree where one is perched, and merely striking it with a limed twig fastened to a pole long enough to reach it. It may be brought down also with water, in the manner adopted by M. Le Vaillant, that is, by first putting into a gun the common charge of powder, then a wadding of silk, then, as soon as the bird is within reach, two spoonfuls of water are poured in and covered with a second wadding of silk, which must not be rammed down hard, lest the water should reach the powder below. This load, discharged at the distance of twenty paces, is capable of wetting the bird so completely that it may be taken by the hand; but if there are hedges in the neighbourhood, or if a stronger bird be fired at, a chaffinch, for instance, it may easily escape.

Many gold-crested wrens may be caught by means of a hut set for any small birds, when the way to attract them is known. They come in great numbers to the water trap, and by their often repeated call of tzitt, tzitt, give notice of sunset and the arrival of larger birds.

They will soon grow tame enough to eat out of the hand. On account of their delicacy, many often die before a person succeeds in rearing one; but when once accustomed to the house they will live a long time, at least if not hurt by other birds, and if they do not swallow what they cannot digest.

Attractive Qualities.—The smallness of their size, their elegance and beauty, render them a pleasant acquisition; but their song adds to their attractions, for though weak it is very melodious, and resembles that of the canary.

Observations.—This species frequents the secondary mountains of Switzerland and southern Germany, and is as common there as the field larks on our plains107. In winter it descends into the valleys, and approaches 274villages and barns, around which these birds may be caught, in as great numbers as yellowhammers. They are generally seen on the ground, running as swiftly as the wagtail, and will sometimes hop on stones, but rarely perch on trees.

They feed on seeds and insects, and in the house they should be given bruised hemp-seed, poppy-seed, white bread, and ants’ eggs. On this food they may be preserved for several years. Their song is sweet, but sad and melancholy; their attitudes are graceful, and often when they hop they flutter their wings and tail. They build on the ground or in clefts of rocks, which has given them the name of rock larks108.

Habitation.—In its wild state it is found throughout the old world, but in the greatest numbers in mountainous countries, where orchards and groves abound, and woods of beech, oak, and similar trees, are found alternately with those of fir. Though these birds do not migrate, yet in autumn they assemble and pass the winter together, seeking their food amongst orchards and woods. In autumn, as soon as the bird-catchers see these flights of tits succeed each other quickly, they call it their passage, and immediately prepare snares for taking them. In March each pair separates and prepares for breeding.

In the house, if kept in a cage, this should be of iron wire, and bell-shaped, for the advantage of seeing the birds twirl about, and drop from one stick to another like monkeys. If they be allowed to range, it is necessary to supply them with abundance of the food they like, for if this fails they will attack the other birds, and pierce their heads to eat the brain; when once they have tasted this food there is no longer safety for the birds around them, whatever their size may be. I have seen an oxeye attack a quail and kill it in this way. Some bird-catchers say that the tits with forked tails are alone addicted to this, but they are mistaken; it is certainly true that some are more cruel than others, experience teaches us this every day.

Food.—When wild they feed on insects, seeds, and berries, destroy many smooth caterpillars, flies, grasshoppers, gnats, and small butterflies, and climb about the trees like woodpeckers, seeking in the moss the eggs and grubs of insects. In autumn and winter they eat all kinds of seeds, especially hemp-seed, fir, and pine-seed, oats, kernels of fruit, mast nuts, and occasionally flesh. They hold these things in their claws, tear them with their beak, and skin them with their tongue.

In the house they will eat any thing on the table, meat, bread, cheese, vegetables, sweet almonds, walnuts, filberts, lard, and all sorts of fat, all pastes adapted for other birds; so that we must not attribute their early death to the delicacy of the tits, but to the want of care in those that have them. The more they eat the more they sing, and the less inclined they are to attack their companions. They drink often, and enjoy bathing.

Breeding.—The oxeye builds in a hole of a tree or wall, sometimes in the forsaken nest of a squirrel, crow, or woodpecker. It lays on an artless bed of moss, wool, and feathers, eight or ten whitish eggs, sprinkled with large and small spots mixed with streaks of dark red, particularly at the large end, where they form a coronet. The young do not quit the nest till they can fly well. The under parts of the body are pale yellow; and the black about them is not glossy as in the old birds.

Diseases.—In a cage, this species is subject to vertigo or giddiness, occasioned by feeding too much on hemp-seed, which heats it and makes it twirl about too much. To cure the disorder, the bird should be kept for some time in a small square cage, or permitted to range the room. From the same cause often arises atrophy, consumption, and even gout, all which proves the injurious qualities of hemp-seed; but with care on this point and a little attention it may live eight or ten years.

Mode of Taking.—The chase after tits, is, according to bird-catchers, one of the most agreeable, and is pursued in many ways; but I shall con276fine myself to two or three of the surest methods, specifying the best for taking those birds that are for the house.

In autumn and spring, the bird-catcher should go into an orchard, or any other place much frequented by oxeyes, carrying one with him as a decoy; this must be placed on the ground in a small square cage, and some sticks, with lime-twigs fastened to them, fixed obliquely around it. The tits, attracted by curiosity, or the desire of approaching one of their own species that calls them, quickly descend, and are caught in the lime-twigs. A whistle made of the bone of a goose’s leg succeeds still better; with this instrument all the tits in the neighbourhood are quickly assembled; for the tone being stronger than the natural call, it is heard farther; if there are but few of these birds near, they are sure to be all caught.

They are easily attracted, in winter, to a trap, by the kernels of nuts, lard, and oats. This trap should be placed in a garden, with a little oat straw fastened under in such a way that it may be seen at a distance, as the tits are instantly attracted thereby. It is a small box a foot in length, and eighteen inches in height and width, the sides of which, when not made of small boards painted green, are formed of small elder sticks, tied or screwed to the four corner sticks; in this case only two small boards are required, one for the bottom, the other for the cover, which must be fastened on with packthread, and turn as with hinges; from the middle of the bottom rises a peg supporting a cross stick, with a nut kernel at one end, and a little lard at the other; this cross stick supports a small perpendicular one, which keeps the cover open three or four inches. When a tit hops on the cross stick and begins pecking the nut or lard, the cover falls, and the bird is caught.

The oxeye, like the other tits, assembles in numbers at the water-trap, commonly from seven to nine in the morning, and from four to five in the evening.

In autumn these birds are taken in nooses and common bird-traps, baited with berries, but the snare must be of horse hair, for if of thread, the bird, as soon as it feels itself caught, will try to bite through it, as mice do.

Attractive Qualities.—The sprightliness and activity of these birds are very pleasing, but their gay and lively song still more so: in it are agreeably mingled the call “fick, fick” and the shrill “tzizerr.” Nothing, in my opinion, is more pleasing than to hear repeated fifteen or twenty times following these striking notes, “sitzida, sitzida, stiti, stiti.” One may judge of the capability of young ones to imitate the song of other birds, from the facility with which the full-grown birds learn detached parts, and particularly different calls.

Some people amuse themselves by making these birds perform many little manœuvres, such as drawing up their food with a chain, turning a cylinder110 which has the appearance of being moved by two miners, and hopping after a nut suspended to a thread.

Habitation.—When wild these birds are seen in great numbers in pine forests, and seldom, except during their wanderings in autumn, winter, and spring, are they met with in other kinds of woods, groves, and orchards. They often pass from one pine forest to another in large flights during the winter111. They appear to like the society of the gold-crested wrens, which are always found in these flights, as also some crested tits, which serve as guides.

In the house it is pleasanter to allow them to range with the other birds than to keep them in a cage, yet there is some danger to their companions from their cruelty.

Food.—When wild, besides insects and their grubs, they feed on the seeds of different resinous trees; but as they are often deprived of this food in winter from the trees being loaded with snow and hoar frost, nature has given them the instinct to provide against this emergency: they hide a great quantity of these seeds in fissures, and under the large scales of the bark of pine trees, to which store they have recourse when in want.

The instinct just alluded to is manifested also in the house, even when they have abundance of all kinds of food; where they are observed to rob 278the other birds of seeds and bits of nuts, and run and hide them immediately in any crevices they may find, often visiting these stolen stores afterwards to see if they are safe. The blue tit and the oxeye are also accustomed to carry part of their food into a corner, but they do not hide with so much care, or from the same cause, as the cole tit. These birds are commonly fed on the universal paste, but they are accustomed to it with difficulty.

Breeding.—This species generally places its nest either in some hole deserted by a mole or mouse, or under the overhanging edges of some deep wheel-rut in an old disused road, rarely in holes of trees or walls. The nest is composed of a layer of moss covered over with the fur of the hare, roe-buck, and stag. There are two broods in the year, each of six or eight white eggs, prettily speckled with pale red. The plumage of the young differs from that of the old only in having the black duller and less glossy.

Diseases.—Decline is the most common disorder of these birds, and it is sometimes prevented by giving them fresh ants’ eggs, particularly when moulting. I kept a cole tit six years, and it then died of old age, having first become blind, and been often attacked with vertigo or giddiness.

Mode of Taking.—Less timid and distrustful than the oxeye, this species may be caught with greater ease. A limed twig fastened to a pole is often sufficient, with which you approach the tree on which the bird is, and, touching it with the twig, it becomes your prisoner. Its call is “tzip teune.” Like all the tits, it is delicate, and, in the house, often dies soon before being accustomed to the common paste.

Attractive Qualities.—This is a very amusing little bird; bold, lively always in motion, hopping and fluttering about continually. Its song is only a clashing of harsh tones, relieved by a clear sonorous “tzifi,” repeated twenty times in succession. It sometimes ends, however, with so reflective an air, that you would think it was going to give something very fine.

Habitation.—These birds, in their wild state, frequent woods, particularly those of beech and oak. During autumn and winter they wander from one place to another, and are often seen in considerable numbers in our orchards.

In the house they may be kept in a cage like the oxeye; but it is preferable to let them hop and flutter about at pleasure, as their plumage is then seen to the greatest advantage. They are as mischievous and quarrelsome as the oxeye, and pursue the other birds in the same manner, even killing them when they are strong enough.

Food.—When wild they feed on insects and their grubs, and in autumn on berries112.

In the house they should be given the same food as the oxeye, accustoming them to it at first by mixing bruised hemp-seed with it. They like to wash themselves.

Breeding.—The nest, placed at the top of a tree in an old hollow branch, is built of moss, hair, and feathers. This species lays from eight to ten reddish white eggs, speckled and spotted with brown. The plumage of the young birds differs from that of the older ones, only in being less bright and glossy.

Diseases.—Most of these birds that are caught in winter, are attacked with vertigo, or giddiness, after being in the house a few days, fall to the right and left, and being unable to find their food, soon die.

Mode of Taking.—They may be caught in the same way as the oxeye.

Attractive Qualities.—The blue tit is easily tamed, and lives two or three years. Its beauty and activity are more attractive than its song, which is merely an indistinct warbling, composed of a few strains, amongst which some higher notes are occasionally introduced.

Habitation.—In their wild state, these birds, during the summer, frequent groves and orchards; in winter, they assemble in flocks, and when they move from place to place, always fly in a line one behind the other113.

In the house they should be allowed to flutter and hop about freely; they are very delicate, and require a great deal of care at first.

Food.—When wild, they feed on insects, seeds, and elderberries, according to the season.

In the house they eat the same things as other tits; but at first, ants' eggs and elderberries must be added. The seeds of the sunflower (Helianthus major) have succeeded best with me, and preserved them in health longest. They will also eat hemp-seed and oats.

Breeding.—They lay ten or twelve rusty white eggs, spotted with reddish yellow, in a hole of a tree, on a bed of moss, hair, and feathers.

Mode of Taking.—In winter they will easily enter a trap baited with nut kernels or oats. A surer method is, to lay limed twigs on a sunflower plant, the seeds of which are ripe. If these tits do not enter the garden, a plant must be carried to a place much frequented by them. When once these birds have tasted these seeds, they appear quite contented in the house. It is only necessary to supply them freely; they will seize them eagerly directly after being taken.

Attractive Qualities.—Their pretty actions please, and their song is sweet. They relieve it occasionally by a lively strain, “diar, diar, hitzi, ailtz, ailtz!” which is their call in the pairing season.

I was never able to keep one in the house beyond two or three years.

Habitation.—When wild these birds frequent all the pine and fir woods in Thuringia, but are not so numerous as the other species114. They fly about low bushes, and therefore delight in places where juniper bushes abound.

In the house they require the same treatment as the blue tit, and even greater attention; they can rarely be tamed when taken full grown115.

Food.—In a wild state it feeds in the same manner as the cole tit.

In the house it must be first fed on ants’ eggs, flies, and meal-worms. It will afterwards eat nuts and hemp-seed, like the other tits, but it seems to require insects occasionally.

Breeding.—The nest is formed like that of the cole tit, and placed in the hole of a tree, amongst some stones, or in large forsaken nests. The brood consists of from six to ten snow-white eggs, spotted with bright red. The young must be reared on meal-worms cut small and ants’ eggs.

Mode of Taking.—This is the same which is adopted for catching the cole tits. Its call is “gærrky.”

Attractive Qualities.—Its song is not striking, but its form and habits are very pleasing.

Habitation.—In a wild state these birds are found where there are lakes, large ponds, and extensive marshes full of reeds and aquatic plants; they rarely show themselves in summer, keeping in pairs amongst the tufted reeds; but they are seen in winter, when food failing them in these retreats, they fly about in families, perching on the trees and bushes117.

In the house they must be kept in a large cage to allow them plenty of exercise, unless permitted to range the room, which is still better.

Food.—When wild this bird feeds principally on aquatic insects and the seeds of the common reed (Arundo phragmitis).

In the house they are generally first fed on poppy-seed, ants’ eggs, and meal-worms, and afterwards on bruised hemp-seed and the food common for the other tits. It is best to rear them from the nest, as it is very difficult to preserve those taken when full grown.

Breeding.—The knowledge on this head is very limited: the nest, placed in the interwoven stems of the reeds, is in the shape of a purse, and composed of dried grass and the down of several plants. In this the female lays four or five speckled eggs, with a pale red ground. The young birds should be taken from the nest when they are ready to fly, and fed on ants' eggs and meal-worms cut small.

Mode of Taking.—There is much difficulty in this. Fishermen who know the places frequented by this species place limed twigs on the reeds, and try gently to drive them towards one side, and sometimes catch a few118.

Attractive Qualities.—In this bird are united beautiful plumage, a graceful shape, and sprightliness. Its song resembles that of the blue tit, but its call is very different. It is a pity it is so difficult to obtain. Buffon says that all of this species that are found in England sprang from a pair the Countess of Albemarle suffered to escape; but most likely they had not been seen before from want of attention.

Habitation.—This species, found in Europe and Asia within the temperate zone, is very common in the woods of Germany and Britain: it quits us the beginning of October, in small flights, and does not return till the middle of March, and sometimes later, always some weeks after the stock dove. During harvest it frequents small groves and detached thickets, to be nearer the corn fields.

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Food.—It feeds on all kinds of corn and leguminous seeds, myrtle berries, with the seeds of pines and firs. When a ring dove is caught it must be first fed on wheat, and other species of corn should by degrees be mixed with it, but not oats. It will only live a few years in the house.

Breeding.—This species builds in trees, and forms its nest of dried branches, but so carelessly that a rather high wind will often blow it down. The female has two broods in the year, and lays two large white eggs each time. It succeeds very well to place these eggs under a domestic pigeon, and if care is taken to prevent the young birds from migrating in autumn they will afterwards remain in the pigeon house, going out and returning like the other pigeons that inhabit it; but I have never observed that they pair with them; I have sometimes seen the ring dove tread the domestic pigeon, but as yet nothing has resulted from it; future experiments may perhaps decide this point.

Mode of Taking.—This is the same as with the stock dove. Ring doves taken when old rarely eat, and die of hunger if they are not crammed, like young pigeons.

Attractive Qualities.—Besides being a fine bird, the male coos in a very pleasing and sonorous manner, moving all the time around his mate, now before, then behind, hopping close to her side, and turning his head in every direction. It may be rendered very tame.

Habitation.—In their wild state these birds are found throughout the temperate parts of Europe and Asia, and also in many of the South Sea Islands. They always prefer woods, but never go far into those on great chains of mountains; they also frequent detached thickets, and even orchards when near forests. Being more delicate than the two preceding species, they do not arrive in our woods till the end of April or beginning of May, and quit us in September. They are often seen in great numbers in the forests of Thuringia when the pine seed has ripened well. In 1788 287a prodigious number were seen; they have never since been so numerous there120.

In the house we keep them within a grated partition near the stove, where they can range freely. Young ones reared by a domestic pigeon are easily accustomed to the dovecot, but as they are very sensible to cold it is necessary to warm the place they are in during winter. These birds multiply fast, either paired amongst themselves or with the collared turtle dove.

Food.—The seeds of the pine seem to be their favourite food here, but they do not confine themselves to it; they eat peas, vetches, millet, hemp-seed, rye, and wheat. In the house they may be fed on bread and any grain at hand: they are easily preserved.

Breeding.—When wild, their nest, negligently formed of dried sticks, is tolerably secure when placed in a pine, but is often blown down when in a beech. The female lays two white eggs.

In the house the turtle dove is given a small straw basket, in which it builds, for, whether reared from the nest, or taken when full grown, it pairs without difficulty, and produces young ones. It will also pair with the collared turtle.

The cooing of the male is peculiar; he utters a deep prolonged sound, then bends his head and stops. The young birds are grey on the upper part of the body, and spotted with bluish black on the wings. Those sprung from a collared and a common turtle dove are more or less like either; generally they are reddish grey on the head, neck, and breast, the back and wing-coverts, with red appearing through the grey; the belly, the secondary quill-feathers, and the end of the tail, are white, and the primaries greyish brown. These birds are fruitful, and produce others; what is curious is that they are larger than the parent birds, and have a peculiar note. This is certainly also the case with other mule birds, as I have often observed.

Mode of Taking.—This is the same as with the two preceding species; snares placed where salt is strewed for deer are sufficient.

Attractive Qualities.—The inhabitants of our forest villages are very fond of having this turtle dove in their stove apartments, less on account of its agreeable qualities than from the persuasion that it cures their colds and rheumatisms. It is certainly true that this bird is generally ill during the illness of its masters121. It will, however, live six or eight years in the house.

Habitation.—This species is a native of India and China, from which it has been brought to Europe. It is very common among our peasants, who fancy it has the power of curing their colds and rheumatisms122. They assign these poor birds some grated place near the stove, sometimes under a bench; if they are allowed to range, their wings must be clipped, to prevent their flying against the windows, and breaking them. They will generally run under the stove, as they are fond of warmth. They may be accustomed to the dovecot, but their showy plumage often occasions them to fall a prey to carnivorous birds. It is also necessary either to warm the dovecot, or remove them to a heated room during the winter.

Food.—They prefer wheat, and this should be their common food; they will also eat millet, linseed, poppy, and rape-seed, and even bread. The peasants give them the siftings of their corn.

Breeding.—A piece of fur, or soft stuff, or still better, a little basket, serves as the foundation for their nests. To this they merely add a little straw, on which they lay two white eggs. They sit on these a fortnight, but rarely hatch more than one, either from the egg being unfruitful, or from the carelessness of the parent birds. It is therefore rare to see them rear six young ones in the year. These resemble the old ones, and the sex is known by the absence or presence of the reddish colour.

Diseases.—Besides decline, they are subject to all the diseases that attack the persons shut up in the same room; small-pox, when the children have it; swollen legs, when any one is attacked with this complaint; and tumours in the feet, when these are prevalent. Thus we see they partake of the diseases of their masters, but without curing them, which is contrary to the ridiculous persuasion of the ignorant peasant. Yet with all these evils they will live seven years.

Attractive Qualities.—These birds are very neat and gentle. Their cooing resembles laughter; but, besides this, the male has other tones still more tender, to invite his mate to come to the nest, and he passes the night close to her side. When he coos he does not turn like the domestic pigeon, but hops forward a little, then stops, bends his head to the ground, and swells his crop.

Habitation.—The common partridge is found throughout Europe, in fields and adjoining woods: when in the open country, thickets and bushes serve as a retreat during the night. In wide plains, where the frosts are severe, and the snow so deep that the game is in danger of perishing, it is customary, in winter, to catch in a net as many as possible of these birds, and keep them in a warmed room with a high ceiling. If such a room cannot be had, the top of the room and windows should be hung with cloth, to prevent the frightened birds from injuring themselves.

Food.—In the house, when permitted to range, partridges may be fed on barley and wheat. They will also eat bread, the common universal paste, cabbage, beet, and lettuce; for they like green vegetables, and these are almost indispensable to their health. In a state of liberty, they generally feed in winter on the tops of grass and young springing seeds. In the summer, they eat clover and other green plants, as well as all kinds of grain. They often roll in moist sand, which they should be allowed to do in the house.

Breeding.—The best way to domesticate the partridge, is to rear it young, in which case it becomes extremely tame, and its habits are very pleasing. These young birds must be fed at first on ants’ eggs and hens' eggs boiled hard and chopped up with salad; afterwards they will eat barley and other dry food. The covey often consists of twenty young ones, which follow the mother as soon as they are hatched, and often fall in the way of mowers, shepherds, and huntsmen. I am persuaded that it would not be difficult to render these birds quite domestic, if the eggs were hatched by our barn-door fowls, in an open, yet enclosed place, clipping the wings of the young ones, allowing them to range, during the summer, in a garden surrounded with walls, and giving them plenty of food. Supposing that this plan did not quite succeed the first summer, one would have at 291least half-tamed birds, which, by following the same plan, would gradually become more and more accustomed to domestic food, the society of man, and would certainly at last breed in the house, like our common fowls.

Habitation.—When wild the quail is found throughout the old world. Unlike the other species of poultry, it is a bird of passage, arriving in Europe in May, and departing the end of September. It keeps continually in corn fields, preferring those of wheat.

In the house, if allowed to range, its gentleness, neatness, and peculiar motions, are seen to advantage; but it is often kept in a cage of the following make:—A small box two feet long, one foot deep, and four high, of any shape which is preferred; in this are left two or three openings, one for drinking at, the other to give light; besides this all is dark; the bottom is a drawer, which should be covered with sand, and have a seed drawer at one end; the top is of green cloth, for as the quail often springs up it would hurt itself were it of wood. This case should be suspended during the summer outside the window, for the quail sings much more when confined in this manner than if allowed to range the room, where there are many things to call off its attention from its song123.

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When a male without the female is allowed to run about the room, it is always necessary to shut it up in June (the pairing season), or else its ardent feelings tempt it to attack all the other birds, particularly those with a dark plumage, somewhat resembling its own. Larks, for example, it will follow, and pluck out their feathers till they are nearly bare.

Food.—In a wild state the quail feeds on wheat and other corn, rape-seed, millet, hemp-seed, and the like. It also eats green vegetables, as well as insects, and particularly ants’ eggs.

In the house it is fed on the same food, adding bread, barley meal mixed with milk, the universal paste, and occasionally salad or cabbage chopped up small, and, that it may want nothing to keep it in health, plenty of river sand for it to roll in and to peck up grains, which assist its digestion; but this sand must be damp, for if dry it will not touch it. It drinks a great deal, and the water, contrary to the opinion of some persons, should be clear, never turbid. It moults twice in the year, once in autumn, and again in spring; it then requires river sand, and greater attention than at other times.

Breeding.—The quail breeds very late, never before July. Its nest, if it can be called so, is a hole scratched in the earth, in which it lays from ten to fourteen bluish-white eggs, with large brown spots. These are hatched after three weeks’ incubation. The young ones, all hairy, follow the mother the moment they leave the shell. Their feathers grow quickly, for in the autumn they are able to depart with her to the southern countries. The males are so ardent, that if one is placed in a room with a female, he will pursue her immediately with extraordinary eagerness, tearing off her feathers if she resists in the least; he is less violent if he has been in the same room with her during the year. The female, in this case, lays a great many eggs, but rarely sits on them; yet if young ones are brought her from the fields, she eagerly receives them under her wings, and becomes a very affectionate mother to them. The young must be fed on eggs boiled hard and cut small, but the best way is to take the mother with the covey, which may be done with a net. She watches over them attentively, and they are more easily reared. During the first year one would think that all in the covey were females, the males resemble them so much, particularly before the brown shows itself on the throat.

Mode of Taking.—There are several different methods of taking quails, but I shall only mention the commonest and easiest. The male birds are generally caught in a net, called a quail-net, by means of a call which imitates the cry of the female in the breeding season; it is the way adopted by bird-catchers in the spring, when they wish to take a male that sings in a superior manner, that is, which repeats a dozen times following the syllables “pieveroie.” If the male has not yet met with a mate, and if he has not been rendered suspicious by some unskilful bird-catcher, he will run eagerly into the snare. The most important thing is to have a good call; they may be had cheap of turners at Nuremberg, who make them of leather, with a pipe turned from the bone of a cat or hare, or the leg of a stork; but they may easily be made by any body. The first thing necessary is a piece of calf-skin, one foot in length, and four inches in breadth, the sides must be sewed together within two inches of the 293end, and the bottom filled with a piece of wood an inch and a half in length, and rings composed of thick leather, the diameter of the interior opening not exceeding an inch and a half, are pushed into the sewed cylinder, and kept about a quarter of an inch apart; the whole may afterwards be pressed close together, making the rings touch each other; then a tube made of the bone of a goose or hare, and filled at the end like a common whistle, is fastened to the part of the cylinder left unsewed; the interior is then stopped with wax near the notch on the side of the leather, and a hole pierced through it with a knitting-needle; the upper part of the tube must also be stopped with wax, and lastly, the lower part, which is thus become a kind of whistle, is very firmly tied to the unsewn part of the cylinder. When the call is to be used, the lower end must be held firmly in one hand, and the leather cylinder worked up and down with the other, making the rings approach and separate, which produces the notes of the female, “peuk, peuk, pupu.”

As soon as the male quail is heard that you wish to procure, you must advance softly to within fifty paces of his station, and place the tray amongst the wheat in such a position as will suffer it to fall level with the ground, to prevent the bird’s passing under and escaping. Then retire a few steps back, when the quail will soon utter its song, to which reply with two or three notes, that when the quail is silent he may only hear one or two, from the call exactly resembling the cry of the female. If this is not done with care, the bird will suspect treachery, and will either retire or remain silent, and never after fall into such a snare; but if skilfully done, it is surprising to see how the bird proceeds directly to the call: if by chance he miss the trap, he will go so near as to be within reach of the hand; in this case it is best to retire softly to the other side of the trap and repeat the call, which will again attract it. There are some quails that know how to avoid the net, particularly if placed in too open and exposed a place. In this case it is safest to turn it in a corner at both ends, and thus when it tries to turn it becomes entangled.

It is proper to notice, that in damp weather, or when it rains, the quail does not run, but flies immediately towards the call. It does this also in dewy mornings and evenings; dry days should therefore be chosen for this chase. In the pairing season, two, three, or even four quails may be taken at the same place.

If no male is heard in the field, the call of the female must be well imitated on a larger and more powerful bird-call, and, if any males are within hearing, they will not fail to answer; the person must then advance quickly, placing the net so as to stop their road, and repeat the call.

When a female is to be caught, it is best to employ a common net, such as is used to take quails in autumn; but this chase should be deferred till towards the end of harvest, when most of the corn is cut, and only a few pieces left standing, which serve to harbour numbers of these birds. Several nets are used at once, as many as six or eight; some of them are placed across the field of corn, and the others parallel to them at the extremity of the same field: this being done, the party go to the opposite side and begin to drive the quails into the nets in the middle of 294the field by means of a packthread stretched across the corn, having little bells suspended to it by threads, so as almost to touch the ground, two persons holding it, and as they advance shaking it from time to time. As soon as the prisoners are secured, the march is continued towards the nets at the end of the field; and in this manner great numbers of quails, both male and female, are procured either for the house or for the table.

Attractive Qualities.—Besides beauty of form and plumage, the song of this bird is no slight recommendation to the amateur. In the breeding season, that of the male commences by repeating softly, tones resembling “verra, verra,” followed by the word “pieveroie,” uttered in a bold tone, with the neck raised, the eyes shut, and the head inclined on one side. Those that repeat the last syllables ten or twelve times consecutively, are the most esteemed. That of the female only consists of “verra, verra,” “pupu, pupu,” the two last syllables being those by which the male and the female attract each other’s attention; when alarmed or angry their cry resembles “guillah!” but at other times it is only a murmur, resembling the purring of a cat.

The quail never sings when left to run about in a light room, except during the night, but continually when in a darkened cage. Those reared from the nest begin to sing the end of December, and continue till September; whilst those taken full grown rarely commence till the beginning of May, and cease in August.

Observations.—It is a bird of passage, which quits Europe the end of September, and returns in April. It feeds on fish, amphibious animals, field-mice, moles, and even weasels, which it catches coming out of their holes. It also eats insects, especially bees, which it catches by the beakfull on flowers. Its nest is only a heap of dry sticks woven together, and it occupies the same nest every year, after repairing it a little. I have been assured, that some nests have lasted a hundred years; and the circumference often becomes covered with sparrows and swallows’ nests. The male and female never separate, and are a true model of conjugal fidelity. If the young ones are taken from the nest, and fed on frogs and meat, they may be rendered so tame that they will go a league from the house, and return again regularly. At the time of their flight, in September, the wings of those that are to be kept through the winter should be clipped, and they should be kept in a temperate place, as their feet are very sensible to cold. They become so familiar that they will enter the room during meals, to be fed on meat from the table. A clapping with their beak expresses either anger or affection. It is very pleasing to see a tame stork circling round the house, and descending insensibly in a long spiral line till it reaches the ground.

Observations.—The woodcock builds its nest on the ground in mountainous districts; lays three or four dusky pale yellow eggs, and feeds on worms, snails, and the grubs of insects, which it seeks in meadows, marshes, and fields. In October it quits the high lands for more temperate parts; this migration is called its passage, and as these birds constantly follow the same route, this is the time when fowlers, scattered in its destined path, prepare for a chase, either with guns or large nets made for the purpose, and await the moment when these birds quit the meadows for the woods, or the woods for the meadows. The flight of woodcocks is slow and awkward, but they are very fine game, the flesh being wholesome and of an excellent flavour; they are generally cooked without taking out the intestines.

In the house, by beginning with insects and ants’ eggs, the woodcock may be accustomed by degrees to the universal paste. Twenty years ago I saw, in an aviary at Carlsruhe, a tame woodcock that would come from his cage and show himself to strangers; it was a male, and appeared very willing to pair, if it could have found a mate.

Observations.—The snipe darts through the air at a great height, and descends like an arrow, continually uttering the cry “maicherai.” It is found in marshy places, abounding with bushes and brambles; in a hole in the ground, washed by the water, it lays four or five dusky olive-coloured eggs, streaked with brown. Its common food is worms, and the grubs of insects, but it will eat corn, and the tender roots of marsh plants. Every one knows that it is delicate eating; but many are ignorant that it may be tamed, and that it is then a very pleasing bird.

Observations.—It feeds on all sorts of insects, small snails, worms, and even plants. The young ones are easily tamed. They are first fed on ants’ eggs, and then gradually accustomed to bread, and even bran mixed with milk. The eggs may be placed under pigeons, but care is necessary when they are hatched, as they run the moment they leave the shell. The old birds may be kept in the garden if the wings are clipped, where they destroy the insects and worms; but they must be brought into the house in the winter, and fed at first on bullocks’ heart cut in the form of worms, then with less care, till by degrees they become accustomed to other meat, and even to bread. As these birds are much esteemed game, snares are laid for them in places they frequent in large flocks. They are either taken in nets, throwing worms as baits, or with nooses made of horse hair, and set in the paths they trace in the rushes, or, which is cruel and destructive, in the neighbourhood of their nests.

Observations.—It is easy to obtain this bird, which has many attractions for the amateur. It runs quickly, continually shaking the back part of its body, and repeating, particularly towards evening, its loud and tender call, “hidutzt.”

When wild it eats insects and worms, found near the water. In the house it will soon eat the universal paste, if a few meal-worms and ants' eggs are at first thrown amongst it. If there are other birds in the same room, the water vessel should be removed from the food, or another vessel devoted to it, for not being able to swallow what is not soft, it carries all its food to the water to soak, and thus renders it dirty. It catches insects very dexterously; it advances slowly like a cat, its head bent down, and then darts forward swiftly and slyly. I admire their habits so much that I have one generally in my house. I have observed that all the species of snipes have the habit of turning over any stones they meet with, to look for insects under. It is very easy to take the purr as soon as the stakes, sticks, and other places where they most commonly alight, are known; it is only to put bird-lime on them and drive the birds gently towards the part. This and the corn crake are the only two marsh birds that should properly be reckoned among house-birds.

Observations.—Though not web-footed, this species swims as well as those birds that are, and has this advantage over them, that it can rest on trees and bushes by the water side, like land birds, and can also run when inclined. Its nest is placed among bushes that are in the water, or on reeds, and is built of water plants, especially reeds well interwoven; it is so firmly fastened, that if the water rises it floats, but is not carried away; the eggs are often surrounded with water. It feeds on insects, seeds, and aquatic plants. It is easily tamed, particularly when taken young; it likes white bread soaked in milk. I often have these birds in my poultry-yard among my fowls; they go to a neighbouring pond, and regularly return after a short time. I never took any trouble to tame them; they always kept near the water, by the dunghill, seeking after insects and grubs.

Observations.—The male is often heard uttering his kind of croaking notes, “arrp, schnarrp,” in the meadows and fields, in the evening and at night; but is rarely seen to fly. It feeds on insects and grain, for which bread soaked in milk may be substituted, when it is in the house. The female lays from eight to twelve greenish grey eggs, streaked with pale brown, on the bare ground; the young ones, when hatched, are covered with a kind of black down, the feathers of varied colours do not appear for three weeks. The hen sits with so much constancy, that she will often perish by the sithe rather than quit her eggs. The young, like the young quails, run under the oat sheaves, and may easily be caught there by the hand.

The agility of these birds, and their pleasing habits, render them much admired in the house; they chirp very much like chickens. I confess I like very much to hear the “arrp, schnarrp” of the male in the evening near me.

Observations.—The story of its melodious death-song is now quite exploded; the organisation of its windpipe permits only a slight hiss, a dull murmur, and a gentle croaking. Song, properly so called, belongs exclusively to the whistling swan; a poet may have heard it once, and without observing the difference between the birds, have attributed it to the common swan. The latter feeds on insects and aquatic plants; during the winter corn should be given it, and it must be kept in a temperate place. The female forms a large nest, of the stalks of rushes, reeds, and other plants, and lines it with feathers from her breast. She lays six or eight greenish white eggs, and sits on them five weeks. During this time, the male is always near her, driving away and pursuing all that would approach. He has such strength of wing, that a well-aimed blow of it would break a man’s leg. The young ones are at first grey. It is said that swans will live a hundred years. Their utility as well as their beauty would merit more attention than is commonly paid to their education, which is easier than that of geese. Lithuania, Poland, and eastern Prussia, send several quintals every year to the fair of Frankfort upon Oder. Many tame swans are also collected on the Sprey, round Berlin, Spandau, and Potsdam; particularly in May, to rob them of their down. The skins with the down on them are prepared for pelisses; powder puffs are also made of it.

Observations.—This species, found in the north of Europe and Asia, hollows out the sand by the sea-shore, or uses a forsaken rabbit’s hole, or some cavity in a rock, to form its nest in. The beauty of its plumage has attracted the attention of amateurs, who tame it, and keep it in the poultry-yard; but it is not useful, its flesh having an unpleasant smell and flavour. It feeds with the other ducks, and becomes very familiar; it ever appears intelligent.

Observations.—This species frequents the shores of the North Sea during the summer; but in autumn departs in large flights disposed in a triangular form, and passes the winter in more southern countries, feeding on the blades of newly-sprung rye.

There are places in Thuringia where thousands of these birds collect in winter; they are very distrustful, placing sentinels as soon as they alight, which are so watchful, that it is very difficult to take or shoot them. If by chance the wing of one of these geese is shot, it may easily be kept in the yard with poultry; they are also taken in snares laid in places frequented by them during the night; they associate without difficulty with the domestic geese; but I only know one instance of a wild male pairing with a domesticated female.

Observations.—Like other birds of the same order, the wild ducks unite in large flights in the autumn, but divide into pairs in summer, and build their nests either near the water, among the reeds and bushes, in the trunks of old trees, or sometimes even in the depths of woods. They lay from twelve to sixteen eggs. In the forest districts of Thuringia, the young ones are met with in considerable numbers, being led to a neighbouring pond by the parent birds. If, after having mutilated or lamed the end of the wing, they are put into a pond with domestic ducks, they live and pair with them, become accustomed to their mode of life, follow them in winter into the house, without any decoy but being fed plentifully. Wild ducks are taken in nets, snares, and even with fishing-hooks.

By pairing a mallard with a female domestic duck, a very fine middle race is obtained, which remains domestic125.

Observations.—The tarrocks remain in the north of Europe during summer, and go south in winter. In February, when snow comes after mild weather, great numbers are seen to stop on the ponds and rivers in Germany, where many perish; they may then be taken with nets and snares placed on the banks, after removing the snow. Though their proper food is fish and aquatic insects, they are contented, in the poultry-yard, with bread and other food; are easily tamed, and live equally well on the water or the land; in winter, they should be kept in a moderately warm situation; they may even be left in the court, driving them in the evening into the place appropriated to them for the night.

“To the reverend gentleman who gives us this book we owe much; it is so admirably done as to be thoroughly perfect as far as the subject goes. He tells us everything about the canary, and in the pleasantest manner, enlivening his story with many anecdotes. It is written in a tender and loving spirit; lucky are the birds who have so sympathetic and considerate a master, and fortunate is the master who owns so many beautiful birds; for the charming pictures that decorate the volume are so many portraits of ‘the author’s own pets.' Mr. Smith is not a writer who has produced a book ‘to order;’ he has obviously loved his task. Years of thought and study, and familiarity with his subject in all its bearings, have enabled him to tell us everything needful to be known by those who keep the bird—one or many; how best to be its friend and its doctor; how to improve without impairing nature; how, in a word, the extremest amount of enjoyment may be derived from the cultivation of those delicious little inmates of our homes. The book is a delightful book; it may give pleasure to those who do not keep the birds; but to those who do it will be indispensable.”—Art Journal.

“A tasteful little book, written evidently by an enthusiast in the study of the beautiful and innocent creatures whose habits he describes. It is likely to make the canary a greater favourite than ever.”—Morning Star.

“A large amount of pleasure combined with much curious information, may be easily enjoyed by families or young folks who choose to follow Mr. Smith’s directions. The book is written in a pleasing style, and will take its place as a popular manual and an ornament for the drawing-room table.”—The Student.

“The style in which the author details the various incidents connected with his little pets is so pleasant and so alluring, that really one feels inclined on laying down the book to rush out forthwith to the nearest dealer, and without delay secure the necessary material for the formation of an aviary.”—City Press.

“This volume contains matter valuable to all who are interested in its subject; while to those who have never paid attention to the canary the work can hardly fail to open up a source of attraction. The reverend author is an enthusiastic lover of the bird, and the result of his experience should find favour with all who share his enthusiasm.”—Glasgow Herald.