The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Progess of Ethnology, by John Russell Bartlett.

Explorations and Discoveries in the Mounds and other earth-works in Ohio. Similar researches and their results in Mississippi and Louisiana.... Mr. Jomard's essay on the tablet found in the Grave Creek mound in Virginia, p. 3.

California and New Mexico—Recent explorations in these countries, with accounts of the Navijo and Moqui Indians; architectural remains on the banks of the Gila.... French explorations in the Isthmus of Panama, p. 16.

Researches in Greenland, and the Arctic regions; geographical and historical results.... Late attempts for exploring the northern portions of the American Continent, p. 23.

Details of the Scientific Expedition under Count Castelnau, sent by the French government for exploring the interior of South America.... English expedition under Lord Ranelagh—other scientific expeditions.... Peruvian antiquities, etc. etc., p. 27.

Recent attempts for exploring the interior of Africa.... Mr. Thomson's journey from Sierra Leone.... Mr. Duncan's journey northward from Dahomey. Missionary operations at the Gaboon.... Mr. Richardson's journey into the great desert of Sahara.... The French expedition up the Senegal, under Mr. Raffenel.... Extensive project for the exploration of Soudan, in Central Africa.... Proposed expedition for penetrating the country from the eastern side.... Contributions to the geography of Southern Africa.... Mr. Maizan's unfortunate attempt to reach the interior from Zanzibar, p. 32.

Algiers—scientific explorations by the French Government; interesting results; errors respecting the desert of Sahara, p. 41.

Egypt; results of the late explorations; state of hieroglyphic and Coptic literature; Egyptian history and chronology, p. 48.[iv]

Borneo—Mr. Brooke's colony; the Dyaks.... The Dutch and other European colonies in the East Indies.... New Caledonia islands.... The Sooloo islands. The Nicobar islands, p. 54.

Australia; accounts of late explorations, by Count Strzelecki, Dr. Leichardt and others, p. 64.

Arabia—Historical and philological results of the researches in Southern Arabia, the country of the ancient Himyarites; importance of these discoveries in elucidating Scriptural history, p. 73.

The Caucasus—Exploration by M. Hommaire de Hell.... Sclavonic MSS. and inscriptions, p. 84.

Assyria and Persia—History of the study of the ancient arrow-headed inscriptions.... Extraordinary results therefrom.... The Zendavesta.... The Zend language.... The great inscription of Darius.... Explorations at Nineveh. Journeys of Dr. Robert; of Prince Waldemar, etc., p. 84.

Siberia—Journeys of Count Middendorff and others; geographical and ethnographical results, p. 109.

Corea—Efforts of the Catholic missionaries to christianize the natives, p. 123.

Manchuria....Mongolia—Recent accounts from these countries; journey of Rev. Mr. Huc, in Mongolia, 125.

Lew-Chew Islands—Attempt to establish a mission, by Rev. Mr. Forcade; notices of the people, their manners, customs, and language, 127.

Japan—Recent attempts to communicate with the Japanese; peculiarities of this people.... General view of the languages of the Japanese, Coreans, Chinese, and Cochin-Chinese, 131.

THE PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

NORTH AMERICA.

I have the pleasure of laying before the New York Historical Society a brief account of the progress which has been made during the past year towards extending our knowledge of the globe, particularly with reference to its geography, and to those nations whose history is imperfectly known. The subject is one that more properly belongs to ethnology, but the historical results which are deduced from these enquiries come within the scope of the objects, the elucidation of which belongs to this Society.

A new impulse has lately been given to the study of American Antiquities. A brief account of recent investigations carried on in a portion of the West and South will show that we possess much that is interesting, and which will throw light on a neglected branch of aboriginal history and ethnology.

Every enquirer into the origin and purposes of the monuments and ancient remains of the Mississippi valley has regretted the limited number and poorly attested character of the facts, of which the public are in possession, respecting them. The practical investigations made from time to time by various individuals, have not been sufficiently thorough and extensive, nor have they developed sufficient data to warrant or sustain any definite or satisfactory conclusions. They have served rather to provoke enquiries which they could in no degree satisfy,[4] than to afford information on the subject with which they were connected.

It was under a strong sense of the deficiencies in our stock of information in this branch of knowledge, that two gentlemen of Chillicothe, Ohio, Dr. Davis and Mr. E.G. Squier, undertook the exploration of the ancient remains which abound in the state of Ohio, and particularly of those in the valley of the Scioto river.

It is known that there exists in this region vast numbers of mounds, of various dimensions, and extensive embankments of earth, enclosing in some instances many acres of ground. Beside these there are ditches, walls, causeways and other works of a greater or less extent. The examination of these, by opening the mounds, and making accurate surveys of the other works constitute the labors of these gentlemen, some of the results of which may be stated in anticipation of a full account which will shortly appear.

Though their labors at first promised to end in increased doubt and uncertainty, they were abundantly rewarded as their enquiries progressed. Out of confusion, system began to develope itself, and what seemed accidents, were found to be characteristics. What was regarded as anomalous, was recognized as a type and feature of a class, and apparent coincidences became proofs of design.

For instance, it was remarked among the numerous tumuli opened, that certain ones were stratified, while others were homogeneous in their composition. Further observation showed that stratified tumuli occupy a certain fixed position with regard to other works, which the unstratified tumuli do not. Still further examinations demonstrated that the contents of those respective tumuli are radically and invariably different. Here then was established: 1st. That the mounds are not, as is generally supposed, identical in character and purpose. 2d. That one class occupies a fixed position with regard to works of a different character, the design of which is to be[5] determined, to some degree, by the peculiarities and the contents of this description of mounds, etc.

It will be seen, at once, that a close observation of facts of this kind is absolutely essential, to arrive at any reasonable conclusions, regarding the purposes of these ancient structures, their origin, or the character or customs of the people by whom they were built. The investigations of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier, were therefore conducted so as to permit the escape of no fact which might tend to elucidate the mystery in which our antiquities are shrouded. The excavations were made under their personal direction, and the results may be briefly stated, without detailing the facts in support of each conclusion, as follows.

The number of enclosures or earthworks which have been surveyed by them, and of which they have taken careful admeasurements, exceeds ninety. The number of tumuli which have been excavated and their characteristics noted, amounts to one hundred and fifteen.

Of the first class of works, it has been sufficiently demonstrated, that a small proportion were intended for works of defence; that another portion were sacred places, or in some way connected with religious or superstitious rites, while a third and much the larger number are entirely inexplicable in our present state of information.

The tumuli are divided into three grand classes, which are broadly marked in the aggregate, though there are individual instances of an anomalous character. These are:

1st. Tumuli of sepulture, each containing a single skeleton enclosed in a rude, wooden coffin, or an envelope of bark or matting, and occurring in isolated or detached groups.

2d. Tumuli of sacrifice, containing symmetrical altars of stone or burnt clay, occurring within or in the immediate vicinity of enclosures, and always stratified.[6]

3d. Places of observation, or mounds raised upon elevated or commanding positions.

Within these monuments have been found implements and ornaments of silver, copper, lead, stone, ivory and pottery, fashioned into a thousand forms, and evincing a skill in art, to which the existing race of Indians, at the time of their discovery, could not approach. Marine shells, mica from the primitive regions, native copper from the shores of lake Superior, galena from the upper Mississippi, cetacean teeth, pearls and instruments of obsidian, show the extent of communication and intercourse had by the authors of these ancient works. Sculptures of animals, birds and reptiles have been found in great numbers and variety, exhibiting a skill which few could now surpass. Also, sculptures of the human head, disclosing most probably the character of the physiognomy, as well as the manner of adjusting the hair, the head dress and ornaments of the mound-builders. Careful admeasurements of the earth works which abound in the Ohio valley, have been made by the gentlemen alluded to, in which the interesting fact has been developed, that many of them are perfect circles and squares, and hence that the people by whom they were constructed had some means of determining angles and of constructing circles. In some of those earth-heaps, sufficient remains to show that when in a perfect state, they resembled the teocallis or terraced edifices of Mexico and Yucatan, though they were composed wholly of wood and earth.

The number of works manifestly connected in some way with their religion, guide us to some estimate of the prominence which their superstitions occupied, and that a religious system existed among them, in some degree resembling that of the ancient Mexicans. The immense tumuli heaped over the remains of the dead, show the regard which they attached to their chiefs, and the veneration in which they held their memory. The number and extent of their remains of all kinds, which occupy[7] the fertile valleys, and which are confined almost entirely to them, indicate that an immense population once existed there, that it was stationary and therefore agricultural;[1] and if agricultural and stationary, that a different organization of society, different manners and customs, different impulses and feelings existed among them, than are to be found among the hunter and nomadic tribes, discovered by Europeans in possession of the country.

Another class of antiquities has been discovered by these gentlemen, of which we only have the particulars in a letter. These consist of rocks sculptured with figures of men, of birds and animals. They are cut in outline, the lines being from one half to three quarters of an inch deep by about the same width. Only those on the sides of the rocks are visible. Those on the upper or horizontal faces are nearly obliterated. One represents an elk and is said to be very spirited.

What may result from the future researches of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier, remains to be seen; but sufficient has been developed to show that a people, radically different from the existing race of Indians, once occupied the valley of the Mississippi, and built the singular monuments in which it abounds. These also show that they were to a certain extent advanced in the arts and civilization. In short that they closely resembled in the character of their structures, ornaments and implements of war and husbandry, the races of Central America; if they were not indeed their progenitors or an offshoot from them. Many facts strongly point to such a conclusion and farther observations carefully conducted, will probably enable us to settle the question beyond a doubt.[8]

A detailed account of the researches of the gentlemen alluded to, accompanied by numerous engravings representing the implements, ornaments and sculptures, &c., discovered in their excavations;—surveys of the various earth works, forts and enclosures in the Scioto valley, will be given in the second volume of the Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, now preparing for publication. They are still actively engaged in their labors, and intend, should the facilities be extended them to carry on their operations, to examine every ancient relic to be found in Ohio and the adjacent parts, where these remains exist.

Among the explorations which have been carried on in the United States, none possess a greater interest than those of Dr. M.W. Dickeson, in the south western states, chiefly in Mississippi, though in some instances extending to Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas. Dr. Dickeson has laid open or examined one hundred and fifty mounds and tumuli, of various dimensions and collected a vast number of interesting relics, which illustrate the customs and arts of the ancient people who built them. The mounds vary from three to ninety feet in height, and from twelve to three hundred feet in diameter at the base. The Seltzer Town mound contains a superficies of eight acres on its summit. On digging into it vast quantities of human skeletons were found, chiefly with their heads flattened, and measuring generally six feet in length. Numerous specimens of pottery, including finely finished vases filled with pigments, ashes, ornaments, and beads, were also found.

The north side of this mound is supported with a wall two feet thick, of sun dried bricks, filled with grass, rushes and leaves. In order to ascertain whether this immense tumulus was artificial or not, Dr. Benbrook, sank a shaft forty two feet, and found it artificial or made ground to that depth. Immense quantities of bones, both of men and animals, among the latter the head of a huge bear,[9] were thrown out. Other excavations were made in this tumulus with the same result, thus showing it to have been a vast mausoleum or cemetery of the ancient race.

The mounds are generally in systems varying from seven to ten, which Dr. Dickeson has divided into six classes as follows: out post, ramparts or walls, telegraphs or look outs, temples, cemeteries, and tent mounds. The first is seldom more than thirty feet at the base by ten feet high. Their shape varies, presenting sometimes a pyramid, at others a cone, or rhomboid. Walls surround the second class, which are from ten to fifteen feet in heighth, the same across the top, and from forty to fifty feet at the base.

The "Look out" mounds are seldom under sixty feet high. Of this class, Dr. Dickeson has examined upwards of ninety. They are generally on the summit of a hill, overlooking the bottom lands. Here they stand some three hundred feet above the bottom lands, commanding an extensive prospect, and in some instances one may see the peaks of several systems of mounds in the distance.

The "Temple mounds" are seldom more than twenty feet high, and stratified with ashes, loam, gravel, &c. They all have an earthen floor. Dr. Dickeson has, but in a single instant, found a skeleton in these mounds, and in this, he thinks the subject a Choctaw Indian recently placed there. It lay in a horizontal position, differing from the usual mode of burial, which is the sitting posture.

The "Cemeteries" are oval, and from six to ten feet high, filled with bones, lying east and west, and when incased in sarcophagi, the rows run in the same direction. In some instances Dr. Dickeson found the bones lying in heaps, promiscuously. These he believes to have been the canaille.

The "Tent or Structure mounds" are small, and a short distance below their surface, fragments of brick and cement are found in great quantities; sometimes skeletons and pottery. Never more than six skeletons are found together, and more care is shown in the burial of these[10] than in the "cemetery mounds." In one instance an angular tumulus was seen by the Doctor, with the corners quite perfect, formed of large bricks, bearing the impression of an extended hand.[2]

Many mounds and tumuli are advantageously situated on the tops of ridges, surrounded with walls. Some of the latter have crumbled away, while others remain strong and perpendicular. In many instances, the walls that surround these groups of mounds, form perfect squares and circles. Dr. Dickeson adds that, "if from the centre of one of these groups a circle were traced, it would strike the centre of each mound, both large and small." They contain numerous fragments of walls, images, pottery, ornaments, etc. etc.

The "Temples" are generally situated among the hills and ravines, with perpendicular escarpments, improved by artificial fortifications. The enclosures often embrace upwards of thirty acres. The great enclosure at "the Trinity" contains upwards of one hundred and fifty acres, and is partially faced with sundried brick. Upon the plantation of Mr. Chamberlain in Mississippi, the temple is flanked with several bastions, besides squares, parallels, half moons, and ravines with perpendicular escarpments for its defence. The ditches and small lakes are frequently chained for miles and filled with water, intended, the Doctor thinks, for outworks. In these, bricks are found both at the bottom and on the sides. Among the rubbish and vegetable deposits taken from them to put on the land, ornaments, and other relics are found.

Wells and reservoirs, completely walled with burnt clay,[11] are found in Louisiana; near which are "systems," or groups of mounds so regular and strongly fortified, that they became the retreat of pirates and robbers who infested the rivers, greatly disturbing the early settlers, after the massacre of the Natchez Indians by the French. The Natchez built large dikes or ditches, and upon the counterscarp piled up huge ramparts, which they made almost impregnable, by having one side flanked by the slope of a hill, surrounded by precipices. They are sometimes situated on the level "bottoms."[3] In these cases one side invariably faces a creek or bayou, or is in its bend, making the creek serve as a formidable ditch, offering a serious impediment to an enemy's approach. The other two sides are protected by parallel walls or half moons, with gateways leading to the citadel. These walls have indications of having been faced with dry masonry. The east and west corners are generally flanked with a small oval mound.

In these tumuli and mounds numerous ornaments and pottery were found by Dr. Dickeson, buried with the occupants, such as idols, clay stamps, mica mirrors, stone axes, and arrow heads, silver and copper ornaments, rings, beads of jasper, chalcedony, agate, &c., similar to those found in Peru and Mexico. Several pearls of great beauty and lustre, an inch in diameter, have been found. By an examination of the skulls, Dr. D. discovered that dentistry had been extensively practised by this ancient people, as plugging the teeth, and inserting artificial ones, was common. In one instance, five artificial teeth were found inserted in one subject. Ovens were found containing pottery partially baked, three feet below the surface, with large trees covering them, exhibiting an age of upwards of five hundred years. Magazines of arrow[12] points, in one instance a "wagon body full," (about twenty bushels), lying within the space of a few feet. In a small mound in Adams county, Dr. D. found three large jars holding upwards of ten gallons of arrow points elaborately finished; and three similar in dimensions and finish, have lately been received by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, from South Carolina. Carvings representing the English bull dog, the camel and lama, have been found by Dr. Dickeson, from forty to sixty feet below the surface of the mound. The bricks, to which allusion has been made, are of various colors; some of a bright red, others dark brown, various shades of purple and yellow. Forty stamps of baked clay, containing a variety of figures used for stamping their skins. Pieces of coin, two of which found near Natches, had the figure of a bird on one side, and on the reverse an animal.

The pottery found is quite extensive, some mounds have been opened in which were upwards of sixty vases, some quite plain, and others elaborately ornamented. Of the pottery, Dr. Dickeson has succeeded in getting upwards of a hundred fine specimens to Philadelphia, which are deposited with his other Indian relics and fossils, in the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences.

Dr. Dickeson has kindly furnished me a catalogue of his collection of relics, from which I have selected the following to give an idea of the extent and variety of the objects found:

A great variety of personal ornaments of jasper, chalcedony, pottery, beads, pearls, war clubs, war axes, mica mirrors, carved ornaments, arm bracelets, bone carvings, earthen plates, handled saucers, earthen lamps, a variety of vessels for culinary purposes, stone chisels, two copper medals, the tusk of a Mastodon, six feet long, elaborately carved with a serpent and human figures; cylindrical tubes of jasper perforated, ornaments in pumice, (lava), seals, bricks, jars, cups and vases in every variety.

In addition to these, Dr. Dickeson has made a collection of upwards of sixty crania of the ancient mound builders, out of many thousand skeletons discovered by him in his several explorations. These possess much interest in an Ethnographic point of view, for the rigid test to which all his results have been subjected, have satisfied him that these skulls belong to the ancient race. Like the gentlemen in Ohio, whose labors have been noticed, the Doctor can at once detect the mounds and remains of the ancient, from those of the modern race. Some mounds he has found to be the work of three periods. At the top were the remains of the present race of Indians; digging lower he found these remains accompanied by ancient Spanish relics, of the period of the earliest Spanish visit to these parts; and below these, he discovered the remains and relics of the ancient race.

The inscribed tablet discovered in the grave-creek mound, Virginia, and which was noticed by Mr. Schoolcraft in the first volume of the Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, continues to excite much interest. Mr. Jomard of the French Institute, read a second paper on that subject last year, before the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres at Paris, a copy of which[14] he has transmitted to the Society.[4] He distinctly shows, that the letters of this curious inscription are identically the same as those of the Libyan on the monument of Thugga,[5] and of the Tuarycks used at this day. It is worthy of remark, that Mr. Hodgson in his "Notes on Africa,"[6] arrived at the same conclusion, without the knowledge that Mr. Jomard, some years previously, had asserted the Libyan character of this inscription, in a first note on the subject.[7] Such a coincidence gives force to the views adopted by both these gentlemen. The results to which the French savant has arrived, in his enquiry into this engraved stone or tablet, possess much interest, as it is the only relic yet discovered in North America, of an inscription bearing alphabetic characters,[8] which have been satisfactorily identified as such. This Numidian inscription, which title we may now apply to the engraved tablet in question, will be again alluded to, when we come to speak of the philological discoveries in Northern Africa, and of the Libyan alphabet.

In conclusion Mr. Jomard observes, that at a remote period the Libyan language was spoken by various tribes in Northern Africa, and that it was a language written[15] with characters, such as we now find on the Thugga edifice and other monuments; that it is still written with the same characters, particularly in the vicinity of Fezzan and in the deserts traversed by the Tuarycks, although this method of writing has been to so great an extent supplanted by Arabic letters that we must consider the Berber language, the language of Syouah, Sokna, Audjelah, and Gherma, as representing the remains of the ancient Libyan language in use in the most remote period; and finally, that in the interior of America, on a monument of which the age is unknown, but anterior to the settlement by Europeans, we find an engraved stone, bearing signs perfectly resembling the characters traced by the modern Tuarycks and by their ancestors, upon the rocks of Libya. Mr. Jomard's pamphlet contains an engraved table, in which are given, in parallel columns, the characters on the American tablet, the Tuaryck alphabet, the Thugga characters, and their value in Hebrew and Arabic.

In connexion with this subject it may be added, that M. Berthelot, a learned traveller, states that there exists a striking affinity between the names of places and of men in the ancient language of the Canaries and certain Carib words.[9] The contiguity of the Canaries to the African continent is such, that we can readily suppose their ancient inhabitants to have had communication with it, whereby the Libyan language became known to them. A new field of enquiry is thus opened to philologists, and we may here seek for the means to unravel one of the most difficult questions connected with the origin of the American race, and the means by which they reached this continent, for we never have been among those who believed that America derived the mass of her population, her men and animals, from Asia, by the way of Behring's Straits.

The author of a late work on California, New Mexico, &c., brings to our notice a tribe of Indians known as the[16] Munchies (Mawkeys) or white Indians.[10] "This remarkable nation occupies a valley among the Sierra de los Mimbros chain of mountains, upon one of the affluents of the river Gila, in the extreme northwestern part of the province of Sonora. They number about eight hundred persons. Their country is surrounded by lofty mountains at nearly every point, is well watered and very fertile. Their dwellings are excavated in the hill-sides, and frequently cut in the solid rock. They subsist by agriculture, and raise great numbers of horses, cattle and sheep. Among them are many of the arts and comforts of civilized life. They spin and weave, and make butter and cheese, with many of the luxuries known to more enlightened nations. Their government is after the patriarchal order, and is purely republican in its character. In morals they are represented as honest and virtuous. In religion they differ but little from other Indians. Their features correspond with those of Europeans, with a fair complexion and a form equally if not more graceful. In regard to their origin, they have lost all knowledge or even tradition; neither do their characters, manners, customs, arts or government savor of modern Europe."

Another tribe of Indians called the Navijos, of whom we know but little, except that they have long had a place on the maps, is noticed by the same author. They occupy the country between the Del Norte and the Sierra Anahuac, in the province of Sonora, and have never succumbed to Spanish domination. "They possess a civilization of their own. Most of them live in houses built of stone, and cultivate the ground—raising vegetables and grain for a subsistence. They also raise large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep—make butter and cheese, and spin and weave."

The blankets manufactured by these Indians are supe[17]rior in beauty of color, texture and durability to the fabrics of their Spanish neighbors. Their government is in strict accordance with the welfare of the whole community. Dishonesty is held in check by suitable regulations, industry is encouraged by general consent, and hospitality by common practice. As warriors they are brave and daring, making frequent and bold excursions into the Spanish settlements, driving off herds of cattle, horses and sheep, and spreading terror and dismay on every side. As diplomatists, in imitation of their neighbors, they make and break treaties whenever interest and inclination prompts them.[11]

The Navijo country is shut in by high mountains, inaccessible from without, except by limited passes through narrow defiles, well situated for defence on the approach of an invading foe. Availing themselves of these natural advantages, they have continued to maintain their ground against fearful odds, nor have they suffered the Spaniards to set foot within their territory as conquerors.

The relations above given of the Mawkeys and Navijos (pronounced Navihoes, and sometimes so written), correspond with the accounts that from time to time have been brought to us, by hunters and trappers who have occasionally visited them. A few years since there appeared in the newspapers an account of both these tribes, by a trapper. He stated that the Mawkeys had "light, flaxen hair, blue eyes and skins of the most delicate whiteness."[12] I have two other accounts wherein both are described much as before stated. Their manufactures are particularly dwelt upon. Some of them wore shoes, stockings and other garments of their own make. Their stone houses are noticed as well as their large herds of cattle,—also their cultivation of fruits and vegetables. They raise[18] cotton, which they manufacture into cloth, as well as wool. Fire arms are unknown to them. "Their dress is different from that of other Indians, and from their Spanish neighbors. Their shirts, coats and waistcoats are made of wool, and their small clothes and gaiters of deer skin."

These accounts might be considered fanciful, had we not high authority which fully corroborates them. Humboldt says, "The Indians between the rivers Gila and Colorado, form a contrast with the wandering and distrustful Indians of the savannas to the east of New Mexico. Father Garces visited the country of the Moqui, and was astonished to find there an Indian town with two great squares, houses of several stories, and streets well laid out, and parallel to one another. The construction of the edifices of the Moqui is the same with that of the Casas grandes on the banks of the Gila."[13]

In Mr. Farnham's late work on California, is a notice of the Navijos from Dr. Lyman's report. The author begins by saying, that "they are the most civilized of all the wild Indians of North America."[14] Their extensive cultivation of maize and all kinds of vegetables—their rearing of "large droves of magnificent horses, equal to the finest horses of the United States in appearance and value," and their large flocks of sheep are also noticed. From the fleece of the sheep which is long and coarse resembling mohair, "they manufacture blankets of a texture so firm and heavy as to be perfectly impervious to water." They make a variety of colors with which they dye their cloths, besides weaving them in stripes and figures. They are constantly at war with the Mexicans, but stand in fear of the American trappers, with whom[19] they have had some severe skirmishes, which resulted much to their disadvantage.[15]

It is believed by Baron Humboldt and by others, that in the Navijos and Mawkeys we see the descendants of the same race of Indians which Cortez and the Spanish conquerors found in Mexico, in a semi-civilized state. We are unable to state whether any affinity exists between their language and the other Mexican dialects, as no vocabularies have been collected. The whiteness of their skins, their knowledge of the useful arts and agriculture, and the mechanical skill exhibited in their edifices at the present day, bear a striking analogy with the Mexican people at the period of the conquest, and as M. Humboldt observes, "appears to announce traces of the cultivation of the ancient Mexicans." The Indians have a tradition that 20 leagues north from the Moqui, near the mouth of the Rio Zaguananas, the banks of the Nabajoa were the first abode of the Aztecs after their departure from Atzlan. "On considering the civilization," adds Baron Humboldt, "which exists on several points of the northwest coast of America, in the Moqui and on the banks of the Gila, we are tempted to believe (and I venture to repeat it here) that at the period of the migration of the Toltecs, the Acolhues and the Aztecs, several tribes separated from the great mass of the people to establish themselves in these northern regions."[20][16]

Connected with this subject and in evidence of the identity of these tribes with the Aztecs, it should be stated that there exists numerous edifices of stone in a ruined state, on the banks of the Gila, some of great extent, resembling the terraced edifices and teocallis of Mexico and Yucatan. One of these structures measures four hundred and forty-five feet in length by two hundred and seventy in breadth, with walls four feet in thickness. It was three stories high, with a terrace. The whole surrounding plain is covered with broken pottery and earthen ware, painted in various colors. Vestiges of an artificial canal are also to be seen.[17] Among the fragments are found pieces of obsidian, a volcanic substance not common to the country, and which is also found in the mounds in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, in both cases applied to the same uses.

Some valuable contributions to the geography and ethnology of the vast region lying between the Rocky Mountains and Upper California and Oregon, have been made by Capt. Fremont of the U.S. corps of Engineers. The expedition under his command traversed the great desert, and examined portions of the country not before visited by white men. The information collected by this enterprising traveller will be of much service to the country in the new relations which may arise between the United States and California, as well as to persons who are seeking new homes in Oregon. The report of Captain, (now Col.) Fremont has been so widely circulated, and rendered so accessible to all who feel an interest in the subject,[21] that it would be superfluous to give any analysis of the work at this time. So satisfactory were the results of the expedition of this accomplished officer to the country and the government, that he has again been sent to make further explorations of the country south of that previously visited by him, and which lies between Santa Fé and the Pacific Ocean. Colonel Fremont has in this expedition already rendered important services to the country, having the command of a detachment of troops in Upper California. This armed body of men will give him great advantages over an ordinary traveller in a wild and inhospitable country, where there are still tribes of Indians which have not yet been subjugated by the Spaniards, and which an unprotected traveller could not approach. Much interest has been awakened from the accounts already received from Col. Fremont, and it is to be hoped that ere long we shall be placed in possession of full reports of his explorations, which must throw much light on the geography of this vast region, its aboriginal inhabitants, productions, climate, &c.

An exploratory journey in the isthmus of Panama has recently been made by M. Hillert, which has resulted in adding much important information to our previous knowledge of the country. It is known that there have been many surveys of the isthmus, with the view of opening a water communication between the oceans on either side. Such was the primary object of Mr. Hillert, who, it appears has also made enquiries as to the practicability of making a rail road across it. His observations on the junction of the two oceans by means of a canal have appeared in the bulletin of the Geographical Society of Paris for 1846, (pp. 306 and 389), together with various letters from him on other subjects which attracted his attention.

Among other things Mr. Hillert has made known a most valuable anti-venomous plant, the guaco, a creeping plant, which abounds in the forest of the Isthmus, the virtues of which were made known to him by the Indians. After[22] rubbing the hands with the leaves of this plant, a person may handle scorpions and venomous insects with impunity, and mosquitoes after sucking the blood of those who had taken it inwardly died instantly. The geology and botany of the country received particular attention. M. Hillert proposes to introduce several of the most useful plants and vegetables into the French dominions in Senegal or Algeria, among them the plant from which the Panama hats are made. So valuable are the labors of this gentleman considered, that the French commission has awarded him the Orleans prize, for having introduced into France the most useful improvement in agriculture. Some ancient monumental edifices were discovered in the Isthmus, not far from the river Atrato, and others near the mines of Cano; besides these an ancient canal cut through the solid rock in the interval which separates the rivers Atrato and Darien.

Greenland and the Arctic Regions. The Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries published, in 1845, Grönlands Historiske Mindesmærker, (The Historical Monuments of Greenland), Vol. III., (958 pages, with 12 copperplates), which closes this work. The 1st and 2d volumes, (pp. 814 and 794 respectively), were published in 1838. After Professor Rafn had finished the compilation of his separate work, Antiquitates Americanæ, which was published by the Society in 1837, he connected himself with Professor Finn Magnusen, for the purpose of editing—also under the auspices of the Society—the great collection of original written sources of the ancient history of that remarkable polar land, which was first seen in 877, and colonized in 986. With a view of doing all that lay in its power to throw light on ancient Greenland, the[24] Society, during the ten years from 1832 to 1841, caused journies to be undertaken and explorations to be performed in such of the Greenland firths as were of the greatest importance in respect of the ancient colonization. By excavations made among the ruins remaining from the ancient colony, there was obtained a collection of inscriptions and other antiquities, which are now preserved in the American Museum erected by the Society, and drawings were taken of the ground plans of several edifices. Of the reports received on this occasion, we must in an especial manner notice, as exhibiting evidence of the most assiduous care, and as moreover embracing the most important part of the country, the exploration undertaken by the Rev. George T. Joergensen, of the firths of Igalikko and Tunnudluarbik, where the most considerable ruins are situated. The present, vol. III., contains, extracts from annals, and a collection of Documents relating to Greenland, compiled by Finn Magnusen; (to this part appertains a plate exhibiting seals of the Greenland Bishops); ancient geographical writings, compiled by Finn Magnusen and Charles C. Rafn; the voyages of the brothers Zeno, with introductory remarks and notes by Dr. Bredsdorff; a view of more recent voyages for the re-discovery of Greenland, by Dr. C. Pingel, an antiquarian chorography of Greenland, drawn up by J.J.A. Warsaae, from the accounts furnished by various travellers of the explorations undertaken by them. The work is closed by a view of the ancient geography of Greenland, by Professor Charles C. Rafn, based on a collation of the notices contained in the ancient manuscripts and the accounts of the country furnished by the travellers. To which is added a list of the bishops and a chronological conspectus of the ancient and modern history of the country, a historical index of names, a geographical index, and an antiquarian index rerum. Copperplate maps are annexed of the two most important districts of ancient Greenland—the eastern settlement, (Eystribygd), and the western settlement,[25] (Vestribygd), exhibiting the position of the numerous ruins. Moreover, plans and elevations of the most important ecclesiastical ruins and other rudera; also delineations of runic stones and other northern antiquities found in Greenland.

Scripta Historica Islandorum, latine reddita et apparatu critico instructa, curante Societate Regia Antiquariorum Septentrionalium. Vol. XII. The edition first commenced by the Society, of the historical Sagas recording events which happened out of America, (Iceland, Greenland and Vinland), particularly in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, in the original Icelandic text with two translations, one into Latin, and another into Danish, (36 vols.) has now been brought to a completion, by the publication of the above mentioned volume, (pp. 658 in 8vo.) wherein are contained Regesta Geographica to the whole work, which for this large cyclus of Sagas may be considered as tantamount to an old northern geographical gazetteer, in as much as attention has also been paid to other old northern manuscripts of importance in a geographical point of view. Complete, however, it cannot by any means be called, neither as regards Iceland especially and other lands in America, whose copious historical sources have, in the present instance, been but partially made use of, nor also as regards the European countries without the Scandinavian North, for whose remote history and ancient geography the old northern writings contain such important materials, but it is to be hoped that the Society will in due time take an opportunity of extending its labors in that direction also. The present volume does, however, contain a number of names of places situated without the bounds of Scandinavia in countries of which mention is made in the writings published in the work itself. To the name of each place is annexed its Icelandic or old Danish form, and the position of the place is investigated by means of comparison with other historical data and with modern geography.[26]

Sir John Franklin who left about two years on a voyage of exploration, in the Arctic regions of America, remains in those inhospitable parts. Much anxiety is felt for him as no tidings have been received from him. It is to be hoped that his voyage will prove successful and that before the close of the present year, he may return.

The Hudson's Bay Company has lately fitted out an expedition, for the purpose of surveying the unexplored portion of the coast on the northeast angle of the North American continent. The expedition, which consists of thirteen persons, is under the command of one of the company's officers. It started on the 5th July, in two boats, under favorable circumstances;—the ice having cleared away from the shores of the bay at an earlier period of the year than usual.[18]

A memoir on the Indian tribes beyond the Rocky mountains, and particularly those along the shores of the Pacific ocean, from California to Behring's straits, with comparative vocabularies of their languages, is preparing for publication by the Hon. Albert Gallatin, from authentic materials. Mr. Hale, philologist of the United States Exploring Expedition, has made a valuable contribution to the Ethnology of this region, in his volume, entitled "Ethnology and Philology," being the seventh volume of the U.S. Exploring Expedition.

SOUTH AMERICA.

The French expedition which has been engaged for the last three years in exploring the interior of South America, has at length reached Lima, from which place Count Castelnau has transmitted a detailed report of his journey, to the French Minister of Public Instruction.[19]

This expedition is by far the most important that has yet been sent out for the exploration of South America, and has already traversed a large portion of its central parts, little known to geographers. Their first journey was across the country from Rio Janeiro to Goyaz, on the head waters of the river Araguay (Lat. 16° 11' S. Long. 50° 29' W.) which river they descended to its junction with the Tocantiu, and then returned by the last named river and the desert of the Chavantes.

They made another journey to the north of Cuyaba, to explore the diamond mines, and examine the sources of the Paraguay and Arenos. In the next journey,[20] the particulars of which have just been communicated from Lima, the expedition descended the rivers Cuyaba and San Lorenzo to Paraguay. During this voyage they entered the country of the Guatos Indians, one of the most interesting tribes of the American aborigines. "The features of these Indians," says the Count, "are extremely interesting;—never in my life having seen finer, or any more widely differing from the ordinary type of the red man. Their large, well opened eyes, with long lashes, nose aquiline and admirably modelled, and a long, black beard, would make them one of the finest races in the world, had not their habit of stooping in the canoe bowed the legs of the greater number. Their arms, consisting[28] of very large bows, with arrows seven feet long, demand great bodily strength—and their address in the use of them passes imagination. These savages are timid, nevertheless, and of extreme mildness. By taking them for our guides, and attaching them by small presents, we were enabled to explore parts wholly unknown, of that vast net-work of rivers which they are constantly traversing." In Paraguay the party met a tribe of the celebrated Guaycurus nation. These people are eminently equestrian—transporting their baggage, women and effects of every kind on horseback, across the most arid deserts. They are mortal foes to the Spaniards, and a terror to the whole frontier. They wear their hair long, and paint themselves, black or red, after a very grotesque and irregular fashion; the two sides of their bodies are generally painted in a different manner. "Their chief arms are the lance, knife, and a club, which they throw with great precision at a full gallop. Their hats are made of hides. Each warrior has his mark, which he burns with a red hot iron on all that belongs to him—his horses, dogs and even wives. One of the most atrocious traits in the manners of this people, is that of putting to death all children born of mothers under thirty years of age."

After traversing the country between Paraguay and Brazil, the expedition proceeded north by the river Paraguay, and passed the mouths of the San Lorenzo, where it entered the great lake Gaiva, and from thence the greater lake Uberava, the limits of which could not be traced, being lost in the horizon. An Indian told the Count that he had travelled for three whole days in his canoe, without finding its extremity, which supposes a length of twenty-five or thirty leagues. This great inland sea is unknown to geographers. At Villa Maria a caravan of mules awaited the travellers, when they entered the desert or Gran Chaco, as it is called, and proceeded to the town of Matto-Grosso, which is considered the most pestiferous place in the world. Out of a population of[29] 1200 souls, there were found but four whites, of whom three were officers of the government; all the rest was composed of blacks and Indians of every variety and color, who alone are able to support this terrible climate.

From this place the expedition proceeded to Santa Cruz of the Sierra, where they found bread, of which they had been deprived for two years; after a month's repose, a journey of eight days brought the party to Chuquisaca, in Bolivia, and from thence by Potosi to Lima.

The results of this expedition are already of great interest. It will make known people, the names of which were unknown to geographers. Rivers which appear on our maps are found not to exist, while hitherto unknown rivers and large bodies of water have been discovered. Many geographical positions have been determined, and the particulars of the trade which is extensively carried on in the centre of this vast continent by means of caravans of mules, are made known.

M. de Castelnau has paid particular attention to the productions of the country, with a view of introducing such as are valuable into the French colony of Algeria. Large collections in Natural History have already been received at the museum in Paris; observations on terrestrial magnetism and meteorology have been made, in fact, no department of science seems to have been neglected by the expedition, which will reflect great credit on its distinguished head, Count Castelnau, as well as on the French government, by whose liberality and zeal for the promotion of science it has been supported.

From Lima, Count Castelnau intended to prosecute further researches in the country of the Incas, after which he would proceed to the Amazon river.

PERU. Some interesting remains of the ancient Peruvians, have lately been brought to light in the Province of Chachapoyas, about five hundred and fifty miles north of Lima and two hundred and fifty miles from the coast. The particulars of these ruins were communicated by[30] Señor Nieto to the prefect of the Department.[21] "The principal edifice is an immense wall of hewn stone, three thousand six hundred feet in length, five hundred and sixty feet in width and one hundred feet high.[22] It is solid in the interior and level on the top, upon which is another wall six hundred feet in length, of the same breadth and height as the former, and like it solid to its summit. In this elevation, and also in that of the lower wall, are a great many rooms eighteen feet long and fifteen wide, in which are found neatly constructed niches, containing bones of the ancient dead, some naked and some in shrouds or blankets," placed in a sitting posture.

From the base of this structure commences an inclined plane gradually ascending to its summit, on which is a small watch tower. From this point, the whole of the plain below, with a considerable part of the province, including the capital, eleven leagues distant, may be seen.

In the second wall or elevation are also openings resembling ovens, six feet high, and from 20 to 30 feet in circumference. In these, skeletons were found. The cavities in the adjoining mountain were found to contain heaps of human remains perfectly preserved in their shrouds, which were made of cotton of various colors. Still farther up this mountain was "a wall of square stones, with small apertures like windows, but which could not be reached without a ladder," owing to a perpendicular rock which intervened. The Indians have a superstitious horror of the place, in consequence of the mummies it contains, and refused to assist the exploring party, believing that fatal diseases would be produced by touching these ghastly remains of their ancestors. They were therefore compelled to abandon their researches, though surrounded by objects of antiquity of great interest.[31]

Mr. Chas. Frederick Neumann, a distinguished oriental scholar of Munich, has lately published a work "On the Condition of Mexico in the Fifth Century of our Era, according to Chinese writers." It purports to be an account of that country, called Fu-Sang, in the Chinese annals. De Guignes, in his celebrated work on China, supposes that America was the country referred to, while Klaproth, on the contrary, believes it to be Japan.

It is stated in the English papers [23] that an expedition, which promises the most important results, both to science and commerce, is at this moment fitting out for the purpose of navigating some of the great unexplored rivers of South America. It is to be under the command of Lord Ranelagh; and several noblemen and gentlemen have already volunteered to accompany his lordship. The enterprising and scientific band will sail as soon as the necessary arrangements are completed. He proposes to[32] penetrate, by some of the great tributaries of the Amazon, into the interior of Bolivar—for which purpose a steamer will be taken out in pieces. Returning to the Amazon, he will ascend this great river to its highest sources. The distance and means of communication between the Pacific and the basin of the Amazon will be minutely examined.

Another scientific expedition has been sent out by the French Government to its West India colonies and the northerly parts of South America, under M. Charles Deville, a report from whom was read at a meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences in June last. Its publication was recommended.

The French Government gave notice to the same Academy, at its meeting on the 31st August last, of an intended expedition by Lieut. Tardy Montravel, to the Amazon river and its branches, with the steamer Alecton and the Astrolabe corvette; and invited the Academy to prepare a programme with a view to facilitate the researches which M. de Montravel is charged to make.

AFRICA.

The zeal which was manifested a few years since for the discovery and exploration of the interior of Africa, and which seemed to have terminated with the Landers, and the unsuccessful voyage of the steamers up the Niger, has again shown itself, and we now find as much curiosity awakened, and as much zeal manifested for geographical discovery in this vast continent, and the solution of questions for ages in doubt, as has been exhibited at any former period.

The Travels of M. d'Abaddie, Dr. Beke, Isenberg, and others make known to us the immense extent and windings of the Bahr-el-Abiad and the Bahr-el-Azrek, or the white and blue Nile, but they have not yet been traced to their[33] rise, and the solution of the question of the true source of the Nile, remains still unsettled.

We have received from Mr. Jomard, member of the French Institute, a work entitled "Observations sur le voyage au Darfour" from an account given by the Sheikh Mohammed-el-Tounsy, accompanied by a vocabulary of the language of the people, and remarks on the white Nile by Mr. Jomard. This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of a portion of the interior of Africa, only known to us by the visit of Mr. Browne in 1794, and forms a link in the chain between Lake Tchad and a region of country quite unexplored, and of which we have no knowledge whatever.

We have some information of interest, relating to Senegal, communicated to the Royal Geographical Society of London,[24] being a narrative of Mr. Thomson, linguist to the Church Missionary Society at Sierra Leone, from that place to Timbo, the capital of Futah Jallo. His place is about four hundred miles northeast of Sierra Leone. "The principal object of the mission, was to open a road for a regular line of traffic through that country, between the colony and the negro states on the Joliba or Niger."

Mr. Thomson's narrative is full of interest and shows the great hardships to be encountered in effecting a communication with the interior. No man could be better prepared for such an enterprize, both by knowledge of the languages of the country, and the manners of the people; zeal, perseverance, and courage, also were prominent traits in his character; yet his enterprize failed and death cut him off, when on the point of starting for the eastward.

An expedition more successful in its results, has been undertaken in Dahomey on the Guinea coast, the particulars of which are given in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, (vol. 16.) This journey was performed by Mr. John Duncan, from Cape Coast to[34] Whyddah, and from the latter about five hundred miles due north, through the Dahomey country to Adofoodiah. Although the king of Ashantee had refused permission for Mr. Duncan to pass through his territory, and had endeavored to prejudice the king of Dahomey against him, he was received with great kindness by the latter, and every facility given him to travel in his dominions. A guard of one hundred men was furnished to accompany him—a path was cleared for upwards of one hundred miles, and arrangements made so that at every village through which he passed, provisions were always waiting, ready cooked for them. Among the strange things seen by this traveller was a review of six thousand Female troops, well armed and accoutred. Their appearance, for an uncivilized nation, was surprising, and their performance still more so. The slave trade is carried on extensively in Dahomey. In the market of Adofoodiah, articles from the Mediterranean, and from Bornou in the interior were exposed for sale, showing the immense extent of the trade of the country. He met people from Timbuctoo and gathered some particulars of that remarkable city, as well as some information respecting Mungo Park's death. This enterprising traveller has lately been provided with the means to enable him to set out on a new journey with a determination to penetrate the country to Timbuctoo, from whence he will endeavour to follow the Niger to its mouth.

The American Missionaries at the Gaboon, (Western Africa), with a view of establishing a mission in the Pong-wee country have been preparing a grammar of the Pong-wee language, the peculiarities of which are such as to deserve notice. The Missionaries call it "one of the most perfect languages of which they have any knowledge. It is not so remarkable for copiousness of words as for its great and almost unlimited flexibility. Its expansions, contractions, and inflections though exceedingly numerous, and having, apparently, special reference to euphony, are all governed[35] by grammatical rules, which seem to be well established in the minds of the people, and which enable them to express their ideas with the utmost precision. How a language so soft, so plaintive, so pleasant to the ear, and at the same time so copious and methodical in its inflections, should have originated, or how the people are enabled to retain its multifarious principles so distinctly in their minds as to express themselves with almost unvarying precision and, uniformity, are points which we do not pretend to settle. It is spoken coastwise nearly two hundred miles, and perhaps with some dialectic differences, it reaches the Congo river. How far it extends into the interior is not satisfactorily known."[25]

An attempt to penetrate this continent from the north has been made by Mr. James Richardson, by advices from whom it appears that on the 23d November, 1845, he had reached Ghadames, in the Great Desert, where he had been residing for three months, and whence he was to start on the following day, with a negro and a Moor, for Soudan. If successful in reaching that country, he intended to proceed to Timbuctoo and other parts of the interior. Mr. Richardson was well received by the people and Sultan of Ghadames; but his journey to Sackatoo the capital of Soudan, which would take three months to accomplish, through some of the wildest tribes and without any guarantee from the English or Ottoman government, was considered foolhardy and desperate.[26]

Later accounts state that Mr. Richardson had returned after a successful exploration in the very centre of the Great Zahara, and that he has collected important information relating to the slave trade, one of the objects of his undertaking. We shall look forward with interest to the publication of his travels.[27]

The details of the expedition under M. Raffenel of the[36] French navy and other scientific gentlemen, up the Senegal, have just been published.[28] The party ascended the Senegal to the river Falémé, and from the mouth of the Falémé they penetrated the country to Sansanzig. They then visited the gold mines of Kenieba, on the Bambouk, the country of Galam, Bondou and Woolli, and returned by the river Gambia. Seven months were spent on this expedition. They found the country beautiful, but its cultivation neglected, and of course little was produced. They visited the place where the French were formerly established, with the view of making treaties with the natives for its occupation anew. Few traces of the colony were to be found. They were kindly received by the various tribes of aborigines, wherever they went; though when at the extreme point of their journey, owing to the wars among the natives, they did not think it safe to proceed farther. The results of the expedition are interesting to science, as well as to the friends of humanity, who wish to improve the condition of this people.

For the more complete exploration of this portion of the African continent, it has been proposed to send another expedition under M. Raffenel for the purpose. This gentleman has submitted a memoir to the Minister of Marine, by whom it was presented to the Geographical Society of Paris. The result was favorable, and Mr. Raffenel has been provided with instructions for his guidance in his proposed journey.

A journey of exploration and civilization in Soudan, is about to be undertaken by four Jesuits from Rome—Bishop Casolani, and Fathers Ryllo, Knoblica, and Vinco. Casolani and Ryllo will start from Cairo in January, 1847—having previously obtained a Firman from Constantinople; and, proceeding through Upper Egypt, Nubia, and thence by Kordofau and Darfour, they hope to reach Bornou,—and meet there their brethren, who travel by[37] the way of Tripoli and Mouryok. Should they be fortunate enough to meet, it will then be determined which route shall afterwards be followed. They have determined to accomplish what they have undertaken, or perish in the attempt. From the high character of all the parties, great hopes are entertained of the result of this journey. They are all men of extensive learning, and familiar with the languages, manners and customs of the East.[29]

A project is on foot in London and a prospectus has been issued for a new Expedition of Discovery to penetrate the interior of Africa from the eastern side. Many advantages are presented by beginning the work of exploration here; among them, the populousness and civilization of Eastern Africa, which is in general superior to that of the western coast. The languages of the former bear a close affinity to each other, and extend over a very large space, which is not the case with the latter. "The absence of foreign influence, (particularly of the Portuguese, by whom the slave trade is carried on), and the readiness of the Sultan of Muscat to listen to British counsels," are strong inducements to carry out the scheme proposed.[30]

Lieutenant Ruxton of the Royal Navy, who has lately made an interesting journey into Africa from the southwestern coast, near the island of Ichaboe, is about to undertake a second journey with the intention of crossing the continent from this point to the eastern coast, under the sanction of the British Government.

Some valuable contributions have been made to our knowledge of the geography of Southern Africa by Mr. Cooley [31] and Mr. McQueen,[32] which tend to elucidate[38] portions of this continent hitherto enveloped in much obscurity. Mr. Cooley's investigations relate to the country extending from Loango and Congo, the Portuguese settlements in Western Africa, to the eastern coast between Zanzibar and Sofala, in lat. 20° South.

He commences by examining the statements of the Portuguese geographers of the 16th century, Lopez, Joao Dos Santos, Do Couto, and Pigafetta. "The information collected by Lopez, was elaborated by Pigafetta into a system harmonizing with the prevalent opinions of the age, and in this form was published in 1591. Yet in the midst of this editor's theories, we can at times detect the simple truth." Much confusion seems to have arisen by misapplying the names of lakes, rivers and people, as this information was in a great degree derived from natives, and not properly understood by the persons who received it from them. Mr. Cooley, by a rigid examination of these various statements, together with the accounts derived from later writers and from native traders, has been enabled to rectify the errors which had crept in, and clear up much that had been considered fabulous. The great lake called N'Yassi, and the natives occupying the country around it, are among the most interesting subjects of our author's enquiries. This lake, or sea, as it is called by the natives, is some five or six hundred miles from the eastern coast. Its breadth in some places is about fifteen miles, while in others, the opposite shores cannot be seen. Its length is unknown, neither extremity having been traced. It probably exceeds five hundred miles, according to the best authority. Numerous islands filled with a large population, are scattered among its waters. It is navigated by bark canoes, twenty feet long, capable of holding twenty persons. Its waters are fresh, and it abounds in fish. The people seem more advanced in civilization than any African nations south of the Equator, of which we have knowledge. Pereira, who spent six months at Cazembe, in 1796, describes the people as similar, in point of civilization, to the Mexicans[39] and Peruvians, at the time of the conquest. The nation called the Monomoesi, or Mucaranga, north of the lake, as well as the Movisa, on its opposite shores, are a tall and handsome race, with a brown complexion. "They are distinguished for their industry, and retain the commercial habits for which they were noted two centuries and a half ago, when their existence was first known through the Portuguese. They descend annually to Zanzibar in large numbers. The journey to the coast and back again, takes nine or ten months, including the delay of awaiting the proper season for returning. They are clothed in cotton of their own manufacture; but the most obvious mark of their superiority above other nations of Eastern Africa is, that they employ beasts of burden, for their merchandize is conveyed to the coast laden on asses of a fine breed." Mr. Cooley believes that "the physical advantages and superior civilization of these tribes, who are not negroes," explain the early reports which led the Portuguese to believe that the empire of Prestor John was not far off.

Mr. M'Queen's memoirs consist of the details of a journey made by Lief Ben Saeid, a native of Zanzibar, to the great lake N'Yassi, or Maravi, alluded to in Mr. Cooley's memoir. This visit was made in the year 1831. The facts collected corroborate what has been stated by Mr. Cooley. He found the country level, filled with an active population, civil to strangers, and honest in their dealings. A very extensive trade was carried on in ivory, and a peculiar oil, of a reddish color. The Manumuse (Mono-moezi) are pagans, and both sexes go nearly naked. Near the lake there are no horses or camels, but plenty of asses, and a few elephants. The houses on the road and at the lake, are made of wood and thatched with grass. Dogs are numerous, and very troublesome. Some are of a very large kind.[40][33]

The region which forms the subject of the memoirs just alluded to, is doubtless one of the most interesting fields for exploration of any on the African continent. The languages spoken by the several nations between the two oceans, which are here separated by a space of sixteen or seventeen hundred miles, in a direct line, are believed to belong to one great family, or at least to present such traces of affinity, that an expedition, if sufficiently strong, aided by interpreters from the Zanzibar coast or the Monomoezi tribes, might traverse the continent without difficulty. Obstacles might be thrown in the way by the Portuguese traders, who would naturally feel jealous at any encroachments by rival nations; but by a proper understanding, these might be overcome, and this interesting and hitherto unknown portion of Central Africa be laid open to commerce and civilization.

The latest attempt to explore this region was that of M. Maizan, a young officer in the French navy, who towards the close of the year 1844, set out for the purpose. In April, 1845, he left Zanzibar, furnished with a firman from Sultan Said to the principal chiefs of the tribes of the interior, though in reality they enjoyed the most complete independence. Having been warned that a chief, named Pazzy, manifested hostile intentions towards him, he stopped some time on his way, and after having acquired information relating to the country he wished to survey, he made a grand détour round the territory over which this savage chief exercised his authority. After a march of twenty days, he reached the village of Daguélamohor, which is but three days' journey from the coast in a direct line, where he awaited the arrival of his baggage, which he had entrusted to an Arab servant. This man, it appears, had communication with Pazzy, and had informed him of the route his master had taken. Pazzy, with some men of his tribe, overtook M. Maizan towards the end of July, at Daguelamohor, and surrounded the house in which he lived. After tying him with cords to a[41] palisade, the savage ordered his men to cut the throat of their unfortunate victim.[34]

Mr. M'Queen gives some particulars obtained from a native African relating to the country between Lake Tchad, or Tshadda and Calabar. This portion of the African continent has never been visited by Europeans, and although little can be gained of its geography from the statements of this man, there is much in them that is interesting on the productions of the country, the natives, their manners, customs, &c.

ALGIERS.

The publication by the French government of the results of the great scientific expedition to Algeria has thrown much light on the districts embraced in Algiers and the regency of Tunis, as well as on the countries far in the interior. Among the subjects which have received the particular attention of the commission, are, 1. An examination of the routes followed by the Arabs in the south of Algiers and Tunis; 2. Researches into the geography and commerce of Southern Algiers, by Capt. Carette; 3. A critical analysis of the routes of the caravans between Barbary and Timbuctoo, with remarks on the nature of the western Sahara, and on the tribes which occupy it, by M. Renou; 4. A series of interesting memoirs on the successive periods of the political and geographical history of Algiers from the earliest period to the present time, by M. Pelissier; 5. The History of Africa, translated from the Arabic of Mohammed-ben-Abi-el-Raini-el-Kairouani, by M. Remusat, giving a particular account of the earliest Musselman period.

Gen. Marey in an account of his expedition to Laghouat in Algeria, published in Algiers in 1845, has contributed important information on this country, which deserves a[42] rank with the great work of the scientific expedition.[35] In this work the author has corrected the erroneous opinion which has long been held, of the barrenness of the Sahara. Among the Arabs this word Sahara does not convey the idea which the world has generally given it, of a desert or uninhabitable place, but the contrary. Like every country, it presents some excellent and luxuriant spots, others of a medium quality as to soil, and others entirely barren, not susceptible of cultivation. By Sahara, the Arabs mean a country of pastures, inhabited by a pastoral people; while, to the provinces between the Atlas mountains and the sea, they apply the name of Tell, meaning a country of cereals, and of an agricultural people.

M. Carette, in his exploration of this region, has also discovered the false notion long imbibed in relation to it. "The Sahara," says he, "was for a long time deformed by the exaggerations of geographers, and by the reveries of poets. Called by some the Great Desert, from its sterility and desolation, by others the country of dates, the Sahara had become a fanciful region, of which our ignorance increased its proportions and fashioned its aspect. From the mountains which border the horizon of Tell, to the borders of the country of the blacks, it was believed that nature had departed from her ordinary laws, renouncing the variety which forms the essential character of her works, and had here spread an immense and uniform covering, composed of burning plains, over which troops of savage hordes carried their devastating sway. Such is not the nature, such is not the appearance of the Sahara."

This region, occupying so large a portion of the African continent, "is a vast archipelago of oases, of which each presents an animated group of towns and villages. Around each is a large enclosure of fruit trees. The palm is the king of these plantations, not only from the elevation of its trunk, but from the value of its product, yet it does not[43] exclude other species. The fig, the apricot, the peach and the vine mingle their foliage with the palm."

The Algerine Sahara has lately been the object of a special work of Col. Daumas who intends completing the researches begun by Gen. Marey and the members of the scientific commission. He has made an excursion to the borders of the desert, and has collected much that is new and interesting in ethnology, particularly relating to the Tuarycks, a great division of the Berber race whose numerous tribes occupy all the western part of the great desert.[36]

Among the interesting Ethnological facts which the late expeditions in this region have brought to light, is that of the existence of a white race, inhabiting the Aures mountains, (mons Aurarius) in the province of Constantine.[37] Dr. Guyon, of the French army of Africa, took advantage of an expedition sent out by General Bedeau to the Aures, to collect information about this people, to whom other travellers had referred. He describes them as having a white skin, blue eyes and flaxen hair. They are not found by themselves, but predominate more or less among various tribes. They hold a middle rank, and go but rarely with the Kabyles and the Arabs. They are lukewarm in observances of the Koran, on which account the Arabs esteem them less than the Kabyles. They are more numerous in the tribe of the Mouchaïas, who speak a language in which words of Teutonic origin have been recognized. In Constantine where they are numerous, they exercise the trades of butcher and baker. Late writers believe that they are the remains of the Vandals driven from the country by Belisarius.

M. Bory de Saint Vincent in making some observations to the Academy of Sciences, on the paper of Dr. Guyon, exhibited portraits of individuals of this white race, which[44] had been engraved for the Scientific Commission, and stated his belief that they were evidently of the northern Gothic and Vandal type.[38]

In Northern Africa, an important discovery has lately been made of the ancient Libyan alphabet, by Mr. F. de Saulcy, member of the French Institute. This curious result has been produced, by a study of the bilingual inscription on the monument of Thugga, which is published in the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society of New York. The reading of the Phœnician part of this bilingual inscription having been established, the value of the Libyan or Numidian letters of the counter part, has been as clearly proved, as the hieroglyphic part of the Rosetta stone has been established, from a comparison with the Greek text of that bilingual inscription.

By this discovery, a vast progress has been made in the ethnography and history of ancient Africa. Two facts of the greatest consequence have been established by it:—That the Libyan language was that of Numidia, at the early period of its history, when the Phœnicians were settled there; that the Numidians of that early day, used their own peculiar letters for writing their own language. To these facts, may be added another of no less ethnographic value; that the present Numidian or Berber race of the great Sahara, who are called Tuarycks, make use of these identical letters at this day.

For this recent and valuable acquisition to science, we are again indebted to Mr. de Saulcy,[39] who has published a Tuaryck alphabet as communicated to him by Mr. Boisonnet, Captain of Artillery at Algiers. It was furnished to him by an educated native of the Oasis of Touat, in the great Sahara, and is called by him Kalem-i-Tefinag.[45][40] What the writing of Tefinag means, it would be curious to know. This Touatee, Abd-el-Kader, has promised more extended information, in relation to the writing of the Tuarycks, than which, no more valuable contribution to African ethnography can be imagined. He asserts that, the Tuarycks engrave or scratch on the rocks of the Sahara, numerous inscriptions, either historic or erotic. This subject has been alluded to by Mr. Hodgson, in his "Notes on Africa" in which he mentions the Tuaryck letters copied by Denham and Clapperton.

The impulse first given by our countryman Mr. Wm. B. Hodgson, in his researches into the Berber language, and the ethnographic facts which were the results of his elucidations, has extended to England, France and Germany, and the last two years have been productive of several valuable and important works, including grammars and dictionaries of the Berber language. These have added greatly to our previous knowledge of the ancient and primitive people, who at a remote period, coeval with that of the ancient Egyptians occupied the northern part of Africa.[46]

Mr. de Saulcy has already unravelled the intricacy of the demotic writing of Egypt and the popular characters of ancient Libya. He is thus working at both ends of the Libyan chain. He will find the Berber thread at the Oasis of Ammon, and at Meröe. We shall thus probably find, that the Berber language was the original tongue of that part of Ethiopia. Dr. Lepsius found in that region, numerous inscriptions in the Egyptian demotic, and in Greek characters, but written in an unknown language. He strongly suspects, that the old Ethiopian blood will be found in the Berber veins; and that the Nubian language has strong affinities with the Berber. When these inscriptions in an unknown language are decyphered, it will be known how far the interpretation of Egyptian mythology and the local names, heretofore proposed by Mr. Hodgson, is to be received as plausible. He has proposed the Berber etymologies of Aman or Ammon as water; Themis as fire or purity; Thot as an eye; Edfou and Tadis as the sun.

Madagascar.—The island of Madagascar has recently attracted and continues to occupy attention in France. In 1842 M. Guillian, in command of a French corvette, was sent by the governor of the isle of Bourbon to this island, to select a harbor safe and convenient of access, and to obtain information relative to the country and its inhabitants. After visiting various parts of the island on its western side, in which fourteen months were spent, M. Guillian returned to Bourbon, and in 1845 the results of his visit were published in Paris. The first part of this work gives a history of the Sakalave people, who occupy the western parts of the island. The second details the particulars of the voyage made in 1842 and 1843, embra[48]cing the geography, commerce and present condition of the country, an abstract of which is given in the Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Paris, Feb. 1846.

So important were the results of the visit of M. Guillian that a new expedition has been sent to Madagascar under his direction, with instructions for a more extended examination, particularly in relation to its animal and vegetable productions. A more extensive work by M. de Froberville, is preparing for publication in Paris, in which more attention will be given to the ethnography of this important island.

EGYPT.

I have hesitated, in the superficial view I propose to take in noticing the ethnological and archæological researches of the day, as to whether I ought to speak of the land of the Pharaohs. The explorations have been on so grand a scale, and the results so astounding, that one is lost in amazement in attempting to keep pace with them.

In England, France, Germany and Italy, Egyptian archæology is the most fruitful topic among the learned.[49] In Paris, it forms the theme of lectures by the most distinguished archæologists, and the subject absorbs so much interest in Germany, that the King of Prussia has established a professorship at the Royal University for Egyptian antiquities and history, which he has assigned to Professor Lepsius, the most accomplished scholar in Egyptian learning, and who was at the head of the scientific commission sent by his majesty to explore the valley of the Nile.

It will be remembered that in addition to the immense and costly work published by Napoleon, there have since been published the great national works of Champollion, by the French government, and of Rossellini by the Tuscan government. These are to be immediately followed by the great work of Lepsius, who has just returned from Egypt, laden with innumerable treasures, the results of three years of most laborious and successful explorations. This undertaking is at the expense of the King of Prussia, one of the most enlightened monarchs of Europe, and who, at the present moment, is doing more in various parts of the world for the advancement of science than any now living.

But the French government, which has always been foremost in promoting such explorations, is determined not to be superseded by the learned Prussian's researches in Egyptian lore. An expedition has been organized under M. Prisse, for a new survey and exploration of Egypt. Mr. Prisse is an accomplished scholar, versed in hieroglyphical learning, and author of a work on Egyptian Ethnology. He will be accompanied by competent artists, will go over the same ground as Lepsius, and make additional explorations.

As regards the eminent men who have won brilliant distinction in the career of Egyptian studies, it is out of the question here to analyze their books: it must suffice to state, that all have marched boldly along the road opened by Champollion, and that the science which owed[50] its first illustration to Young, to the Champollions, to the Humboldts, to Salvolini, to Rosellini, to Nestor L'Hote, and to whose soundness the great De Sacy has furnished his testimony, counts at this day as adepts and ardent cultivators, such scholars as Letronne, Biot, Prisse, Bunsen, Lepsius, Burnouf, Pauthiér, Lanci, Birch, Wilkinson, Sharpe, Bonomi, and many more.[41]

A few important results of the late explorations in Egypt, and researches into her hieroglyphics and history, it may be well to mention.

Prof. Schwartze, of Berlin, is publishing a work on Egyptian philology, entitled Das Alte Ægypten. Some idea may be formed of the erudition of German philologists, and the extent to which their investigations are carried, when we state that this savant has completed the first part of the first volume of this work, which embraces 2200 quarto pages! and this is but a beginning.

De Saulcy has made great advances in decyphering the Demotic writing of Egypt, in which, from Champollion's death to 1843, little had been done. He has now translated the whole of the Demotic text on the Rosetta stone, so that we may consider this portion of Egyptian literature as placed on a firm basis.

Farther elucidations of the Coptic language have been made. This, it will be remembered, is the language into which the ancient Egyptian merged, and is the main instrument by which a knowledge of the latter must be obtained. Recently a discovery has been made by Arthur de Rivière, at Cairo, in an ancient Coptic MS. containing part of the Old Testament. The manuscript was very large and thick, and on separating the leaves was found to contain a pagan manuscript in the same language, the only one yet discovered.[42] On a farther examination of[51] this manuscript, it proved to be a work on the religion of the ancient Egyptians. The translation of this curious document is looked for with much interest.

M. Prisse is publishing at the expense of the French Government, the continuation of Champollion's great work on Egypt and Nubia—50 plates are in press.

Mr. Birch, of London, has nearly ready for the press a work on the titles of the officers of the Pharaonic court. He has discovered in hieroglyphical writing those of the chief butler, chief baker, and others, coeval with the pyramids and anterior to Joseph. He has also discovered upon a tablet at the Louvre (age of Thotmes III. B.C. 1600) his conquest of Nineveh, Shinar, and Babylon, and with the tribute exacted from those conquered nations. The intense interest which Egyptian archæology is exciting in Europe will be seen from the list of new books on the subject.

The most remarkable discoveries, and in which the greatest advances has been made, are in monumental chronology. Through the indefatigable labors of the Prussian savant, Lepsius, primeval history has far transcended the bounds to which Champollion and Rosellini had carried it. They fixed the era of Menes, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, at about 2750, B.C. Böckh, of Berlin, from astronomical calculations, places it at 5702 B.C.

Henry of Paris, in his "L'Égypte Pharaonique," from historical deductions, places the era at 5303 B.C.

Barucchi, of Turin, from critical investigations, at 4890 B.C., and Bunsen, in his late work entitled "Egypt's Place in the World's History," from the most laborious hierological and critical deductions, places the era of Menes at 3643 B.C.

I should do wrong to speak of the labors of foreign[52] savans, without alluding to what has been done in this country. Dr. Morton, it is known, has published a work on Egyptian Ethnography, from crania in his possession furnished by Mr. Gliddon, which reflects great credit on his scholarship, and has been highly commended in Europe. The late Mr. Pickering, of Boston, was one of the few who cultivated hieroglyphical literature in America. But perhaps the American people, as a mass, owe a deeper debt of gratitude to Mr. Geo. R. Gliddon, for his interesting lectures on Egypt and her literature, and to his work entitled Chapters on Egyptian Antiquities and Hieroglyphics, than to any other man. Mr. Gliddon, by a long residence in Egypt, and by a close study subsequently of her monuments, has been enabled to popularize the subject, and by the aid of a truly magnificent and costly series of illustrations of the monuments, the sculptures, the paintings and hieroglyphics of Egypt, to make this most interesting and absorbing subject, comprehensive to all.

The results of these Egyptian investigations will doubtless be startling to many; for if the facts announced are true, and we see no reason to believe otherwise, it places the creation of man far, very far, beyond the period usually assigned to him in the chronology of the Hebrew Bible. But again, it must be observed that the common chronology gives the shortest period for that event. If other scriptural chronologies are adopted, we gain two or three thousand years for the creation of man, which gives us quite time enough to account for the high state of civilization and the arts in Egypt, four thousand years B.C.[53]

But we do not fear these investigations—truth will prevail, and its attainment can never be detrimental to the highest interests of man.

EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.

Borneo.—Among the most remarkable and successful attempts to open a communication with the natives of the East India Islands, is that of Mr. James Brooke. This gentleman, prompted solely by a desire to improve the condition of the people of Borneo, and at the same time to explore this hitherto unknown region, has established himself at Sarawak, on the northwestern part of the island, 427 miles from Singapore. Such was the interest manifested by him on his arrival in the country to promote the good of the people, and to suppress the piracies which have been carried on for many years by the Malays, and certain tribes associated with them, that the then reigning Rajah, Muda Hassim, resigned to him his right and title to the government of the district, in which he was afterwards established by the Sultan of Borneo. The success that has attended Mr. Brooke's government, among a barbarous people, whose intercourse with foreigners had been confined to the Malays and Chinese, is most remarkable. Possessed of an independent fortune, of the most enlarged benevolence; familiar with the language, manners, customs and institutions of the people by which he is surrounded, with a mind stored with knowledge acquired from extensive travel and intercourse with various rude nations, he seems to have been prepared by Providence for the task which he has attempted, and which has thus far been crowned with success.

Capt. Keppel's Narrative of his expedition to Borneo, and Mr. Brooke's Journal, furnish some interesting ethnological facts. The Dyaks, or aboriginal inhabitants of Borneo, are divided into numerous lesser tribes, varying in a slight degree in their manners and customs. Their language belongs to the Polynesian stock, on which has been ingrafted, particularly along the coast, a large num[55]ber of Malayan words. It also exhibits evidences of migrations from India at remote periods. In speaking of the Sibnowans, Mr. Brooke observes that "they have no idea of a God, and though they have a name for the Deity, (Battara, evidently of Hindoo origin), with a faint notion of a future state, the belief seems a dead letter among them. They have no priests, say no prayers, make no offerings to propitiate the Deity; and of course have no occasion for human sacrifices, in which respect they differ from all other people in the same state of civilization, who bow to their idols with the same feelings of reverence and devotion, of awe and fear, as civilized beings do to their invisible God."[43] From their comparatively innocent state, Mr. Brooke believes they are capable of being easily raised in the scale of society. "Their simplicity of manners, the purity of their morals and their present ignorance of all forms of worship, and all idea of future responsibility, render them open to conviction of truth and religious impression, when their minds have been raised by education."[44] It is a well known fact, that since the establishment of Europeans in the Eastern Archipelago, the tendency of the Polynesian races has generally been to decay. The case of Mr. Brooke, however, now warrants us in hoping that such a result need not necessarily and inevitably ensue.

While success has attended this gentleman at the north, the American missionaries, among the Dutch possessions farther south, have totally failed in their objects. They attribute the unwillingness of the Dyaks to submit to their instruction, to the influence of the Malays, whose interests are necessarily opposed to those of the missionaries, for, it is evident that once under the guidance of the latter, the Dyaks will see their own degraded and oppressed condition, and submit to it no[56] longer. Mr. Youngblood says that "so prejudiced are the Dyaks, that I have been unable to obtain a few boys to instruct, of which I was very desirous."[45]

The Dutch have long had trading establishments in Borneo, but they had made no efforts either to suppress the piracies, or improve the moral and social condition of its inhabitants. Its great value has now become so apparent, that unless they keep pace with, and follow the example set by the English, they will be in danger of having it wrested from their hands by the more enlightened policy of the latter.

Borneo produces all the valuable articles of commerce common to other islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Its mineral productions are equally rich, and include gold dust, diamonds, pearls, tin, copper, antimony, and coal. The interior is quite unknown. It is three times larger than Great Britain, and is supposed to contain about 3,000,000 of people.

I have purposely avoided speaking of the trade and commerce of the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, as they are subjects which do not fall within the sphere of our enquiries, in a review like the present; although the productions, the trade and commerce of nations are properly a branch of ethnological enquiry, in a more enlarged view. An interesting pamphlet, embodying much valuable information on the commerce of the East, has been lately published by our townsman, Mr. Aaron H. Palmer. This gentleman is desirous that the United States government should send a special mission to the East Indies, as well as to other countries of Asia, with a view to extend our commercial relations. The plan is one that deserves the attention of our people and government, and I am happy to state that it has met with favor from many of our merchants engaged in the commerce of the East, as well as from some distinguished[57] functionaries of the government.[46] England, France, Prussia, Denmark, and Holland, have at the present moment, expeditions in various parts of the East Indies and Oceanica, planned for the pursuit of various scientific enquiries and the extension of their commerce. With the exception of Prussia, these nations seem to be desirous to establish colonies; and they have, within a few years, taken up valuable positions for the purpose.

Is it not then the duty of our government to be represented in this new and wide field? Our dominions now extend from ocean to ocean, and we talk of the great advantages we shall possess in carrying on an eastern trade; but how greatly would our advantages be increased by having a depot or colony on one of the fertile islands contiguous to China, Java, Borneo, Japan, the Philippines, &c. An extended commerce demands it, and we hope the day is not distant when our government may see its importance.

England, France, Spain, Portugal and Holland have possessions in the East. The former, always awake to her commercial interests, now has three prominent stations in the China Sea,—Singapore, Borneo, and Hongkong. But even these important points do not satisfy her, and she looks with a longing eye towards Chusan, a point of great importance, commanding the trade of the northern provinces of China, and contiguous to Corea and Japan. The "Friend of India," a leading paper, "is possessed with a most vehement desire," says the editor of the "China Mail," "that the British, without infringing their 'political morality,' could contrive some means[58] of obtaining the cession of Chusan, which, in their hands, he believes, could be converted into a second Singapore, and become one of the largest mercantile marts of the East."[47]

It is evident from what has been stated, and from the opinions expressed in foreign journals, that the attention of the civilized world has been suddenly attracted to the Eastern Archipelago, and it is only surprising, considering the knowledge possessed by the European nations, of the rich productions of these islands, and the miserable state in which a large portion of their inhabitants live, that efforts have not before been made to colonize them, and bring them under European rule.

The Spaniards contented themselves with the Philippines, but the Dutch, more enterprising, as well as more ambitious, extended their conquests to Sumatra, Java, the Moluccas, and recently to Bali, Sumbawa, Timor and Celebes. But these are not all, for wherever our ships push their way through these innumerable islands, they find scattered, far and wide, their unobtrusive commercial stations, generally protected by a fort and a cruiser.

It is said that the natives feel no attachment for their Dutch rulers, which, as they possess so wide spread a dominion in the Archipelago, is much to be regretted; for this feeling of animosity against them, may effect the relations that may be hereafter formed between the aboriginal races and other Christian people. Attempts will doubtless be made to prejudice the natives against the English, but the popularity of Mr. Brooke at Sarawak, in Borneo, his kindness to the natives, and the destruction of the pirates by the British, will no doubt gain for them throughout the Archipelago, a name and an influence which the jealousies of other nations cannot counteract. The natives of these islands except those of the interior, are strictly a trading and commercial people. Addicted to a seafaring life, and[59] tempted by a love of gain, they traverse these seas in search of the various articles of commerce which are eagerly sought after by traders for the European, India, and Chinese markets. Piracy, which abounds in this region, grows out of this love of trade—this desire for the accumulation of wealth—and we believe that nothing would tend to suppress crime so effectually as the establishment of commercial ports throughout the Archipelago.

It is said that the population embraced in the twelve thousand islands of which Polynesia consists, amounts to about forty millions. No part of the world equals it in the great variety and value of its products. There is scarcely an island but is accessible in every direction, abounding in spacious bays and harbors, and the larger ones in navigable rivers. The people are generally intelligent, and susceptible of a higher degree of cultivation than the natives of Africa, or of many parts of the adjacent continent.

To obtain a station or an island in this vast Archipelago, we should require neither the outlay of a large sum of money, nor the loss of human life; no governments would be subjected, or kings overthrown. Civilization and its attendant blessings would take the place of barbarism, idolatry would be supplanted by christianity, and the poor natives, now bowed down by cruelty and oppression, would, under the care of an enlightened government, become elevated in the scale of social existence.

The cultivation of spices in the Archipelago, and the acts by which the monopoly is secured by the Dutch in the Moluccas, reflect little credit on human nature. "No where in the world have the aboriginal tribes been treated with greater cruelty; and in some cases literal extermination has overtaken them. Their tribe has been extinguished, they have been cut off to a man, and that merely lest, in order to obtain a humble subsistence, they should presume to trade on their own account in those costly spices, the sale of which, without right or reason, Holland has[60] hitherto thought proper to appropriate to herself. No form of servitude, moreover, equals the slavery of those who are engaged in the culture of the nutmeg-tree. They toil without hope. No change ever diversifies their drudgery; no holiday gladdens them; no reward, however trifling, repays extra exertion, or acts as a stimulus for the future. The wretched slave's life is one monotonous round, a mere alternation of toil and sleep, to be terminated only by death."[48] The northern portions of New Guinea, as well as other islands, are in the same latitude as Banda and Amboyna, and produce the nutmeg and other spices. They might be extensively cultivated by the natives, if encouragement was given them; and a sufficient supply obtained for all the markets of Europe and America.

The Island of Bali, lying east of Java, from which it is separated by a narrow strait, has recently been subjected by the Dutch. Some difficulty growing out of the commerce with the people, is the alleged cause. It is an island of great importance to Holland, and would seriously injure her commerce with Java, should any other European nation take it under its protection, or plant a colony there. A slight pretext therefore sufficed for its annexation.

New Caledonia Islands. Later information has been received from the Catholic Missionaries in New Caledonia; for it seems that even in those distant and barbarous islands both Protestant and Catholic are represented. The Propaganda annals contain some interesting accounts of the natives of these islands, and of other facts of importance in Ethnology. Two Catholic missionaries, the Rev. Mr. Rougeyron and the Rev. Mr. Colin, had been twenty months on these islands, during which time they had accomplished nothing in the way of conversions, and[61] but little towards improving the moral condition of the natives. It was hardly time to expect much, as they had only then begun to speak the language of the country, which they found very difficult to acquire. The natives are a most lazy and wretched people. They cultivate the ground with the aid of a piece of pointed wood, or with their nails, but never in proportion to their wants. For the greater part of the year they are compelled to live upon a few fish, shell-fish, roots and the bark of trees, and at times when pressed by hunger, worms, spiders and lizards are eagerly devoured by them. They are cannibals in every sense of the word, and openly feed on the flesh of their enemies. Yet they possess the cocoa, banana and yam, with a luxuriant soil, from which, with a little labor, an abundance could be raised.

Among no savage tribes are the women worse treated than here. They are completely at the mercy of their cruel and tyrannical husbands. Compelled to carry burdens, to collect food, and cultivate the fields, their existence promises them but little enjoyment; and when there is any fruit or article of delicacy procured, it is at once tabooed by the husband, so that she cannot touch it but at the peril of her life.

The missionaries had begun to expostulate with the natives on the horrors of eating their prisoners, and other vices to which they were addicted, and observe that "a happy change has already taken place among them; that they were less disposed to robbery, and that their wars are less frequent."[49] They are beginning to understand the motive which brought the missionaries to them, and already show a desire to be instructed.

The protestant missions have not accomplished any more than the Catholic's among these savages. The latest accounts state that four of the native teachers who had been converted to Christianity, had been cruelly mur[62]dered, and that such was the hostility of the chiefs at the isle of Pines, that the prospects of the missionaries were most discouraging.[50]

Sooloo Islands.—Mr. Itier, attaché to the French mission in China, has recently visited a cluster of islands lying to the northeast of Borneo, between that island and Mindanao.[51] His researches on the natural history and geology of these islands, are of much interest. The soil is exceedingly fertile, and the climate more healthy than is usual in intertropical climates. The sugar cane, cocoa, rice, cotton, the bread fruit, indigo, and spices of all kinds, are among their products. Fruits and vegetables of a great variety, are abundant, and of a superior quality. Nine-tenths of the soil is still covered with the primitive forest, of which teak-wood, so valuable in shipbuilding, forms a part. A considerable commerce with China and Manilla is carried on, and from ten to twelve thousand Chinese annually visit the island of Basilan, the most northerly of the group, to cultivate its soil, and take away its products. The peculiar situation of these islands, and their contiguity to the Philippines, to Celebes, Borneo, Manilla, China, and Singapore, make them well adapted for a European colony. In fact, there do not appear to be any islands of the East Indies of equal importance, and there can be no doubt that with the present desire manifested by European nations for colonizing, this desirable spot will ere long be secured by one of them. The Sooloo group embraces sixty inhabited islands, governed by a Sultan, residing at Soung. One of these would be an advantageous point for an American colony or station.

The same gentleman has presented to the Geographical Society of Paris, the journal of a voyage and visit to the Philippine islands, from which it appears that that large[63] and important croup is not inferior in interest to the Sooloo islands. The natural history and geology, the soil and its products, the manners and customs of the people, their commerce and political history, are described in detail.[52] The group embraces about twelve hundred islands, with a population of 4,000,000, of whom about 8,000 are Chinese, 4,000 Spaniards, 120,000 of a mixed race, and the remainder natives.

The Nicobar Islands, a group nineteen in number, in the Bay of Bengal, have again attracted the attention of the Danish government, by which an expedition has been sent with a view to colonize them anew. The Danes planted a colony there in 1756, but were compelled to abandon it in consequence of the insalubrity of the climate. Subsequently the French made an attempt with no better success.

Australia. This vast island continues to attract the attention of geographers and naturalists. Its interior remains unknown, notwithstanding the various attempts[64] which have been made from various points to penetrate it. The explorations of scientific men during the last four years have been productive of valuable information relating to its geography, ethnography, geology and natural history.

Among the most eminent and successful in this field, is the Count de Strzelecki. This gentleman, as early as the year 1840, made an extensive tour into the southwestern part of Australia, in which he discovered an extensive tract called Gipp's Land, containing an extent of five thousand six hundred square miles, a navigable lake and several rivers, and from the richness of the soil, presenting an inviting prospect to settlers. His explorations were continued during the years 1842 '43 and '44, and in the following year the results were given to the public,[53] "comprehending the fruits of five years of continual labor during a tour of seven thousand miles on foot. This work treats, within a moderate compass, of the history and results of the surveys of those countries, of their climate, their geology, botany and zoology, as well as of the physical, moral and social state of the aborigines, and the state of colonial agriculture, the whole illustrated by comparisons with other countries visited by himself in the course of twelve years travel through other parts of the world." For these extensive explorations and discoveries, and for his valuable work in which they are embodied, the Royal Geographical Society of London awarded the "Founders" gold medal to Count Strzelecki.[54]

Additional information to our knowledge of Australia is contained in Capt. Stokes's late work detailing the discoveries made by himself and other officers attached to H.M.S. Beagle. These discoveries consist of a minute examination of a large part of the coast of that island, of[65] several rivers on its northern and northwestern sides, and of expeditions into the interior. Natives were seen in small numbers in various parts, all of whom were in the lowest state of barbarism. A remarkable diversity of character was noticed, however, among the natives of different localities, some being most kindly disposed, and approaching the strangers without fear, as though they were old acquaintances, whilst others manifested the greatest hostility and aversion. In the instances referred to, they had never seen white men before. Capt. Stokes says his "whole experience teaches him that these were not accidental differences, but that there is a marked contrast in the disposition of the various tribes, for which he will not attempt to account."[55] The natives at Port Essington, on the north, appear to be in some respects superior to those in other parts of the island. Their implements of war and their canoes show a connexion with the Malays. They also have a musical instrument made of bamboo, the only one yet found among them.[56] The rite of circumcision was practised on the northern coast near the gulf of Carpentaria. On the southern coast, at the head of the Australian bight, it had before been noticed by Mr. Eyre.[57] For the practice of this ancient rite at such remote distances, and confined to within such narrow limits, we can only account, by some early migration or visit of people by whom it was practised. Nothing has yet been done towards a comparison of the languages spoken by the Australian tribes. In the late cruise of Capt. Stokes, natives of the south were taken to the northern parts of the island, but in their intercourse with the people of the latter, they were unable to make themselves understood. It is possible, however, that like the languages of the American Indians, though they may exhibit a wide difference in words for similar objects, the grammatical structure may be the same. This is a more[66] important test in ethnological comparison, and should be applied before any of the aboriginal tribes of Australia are extinct.

By far the most important journey yet accomplished for the exploration of Australia, is that of Dr. Leichardt. This gentleman, accompanied by Mr. Gilbert, a naturalist, and six others, started from Moreton Bay, on the southeastern shore of the island, in October, 1844, to penetrate to Port Essington, on its most northerly point; in order, if possible, to open a direct route to Sydney. Several months after the party left, reports were brought to Moreton Bay that they had been cut off by the natives. This was proved to be untrue by an expedition sent out for the purpose, who traced the travellers four hundred miles into the interior. Dr. Leichardt found it impossible to penetrate into the interior in a direct course, on account of high table-land, and the absence of water; and this circumstance compelled him to keep within six or seven degrees of the coast. Their six months' provisions being exhausted, the only resource of the party was the horses and stock bullocks,—and with these the strictest economy was necessary. One was killed as provision for a month—sometimes a horse, at others a bullock. For six months prior to reaching Port Essington, the party were reduced to a quarter of a pound of meat per day—frequently putrescent—unaccompanied with salt, bread, or any kind of vegetable. In the neighborhood of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Mr. Gilbert, the naturalist, was surprised by the natives, and killed. The remainder reached Port Essington on the 2d of December, 1845.[58]

The narrative of Dr. Leichardt's expedition has not yet been published in detail. The report [59] which has appeared consists chiefly of notices of the geography of the[67] region traversed, the soil, productions, climate, &c. He encountered natives in many places, sometimes in considerable numbers. By some they were kindly received, by others treated as enemies. Their characteristics are not noticed. The most extraordinary feature in Dr. Leichardt's narrative is the constant succession of water. Although the season was an exceedingly dry one, no rain having fallen for seven months, yet from the commencement to the close of his year and a half's expedition, throughout the whole length and breadth of the vast region he traversed, he was continually meeting with fresh water, in the forms of "pools, lagoons, brooks, wells, water-holes, rocky basins, living springs, swamps, streams, creeks or rivers." The soil in many places was of the best kind, covered with luxuriant grass and herbs. Of the former, some twenty kinds were seen. In lat. 18° 48' he found a level country, openly timbered, with fine plains, extending many miles in length and breadth. The flats bordering the creeks and rivers were covered with tall grass, and the table-lands presented equally attractive features. "The whole country along the east coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria is highly adapted for pastoral pursuits. Cattle and horses would thrive exceedingly well, but the climate and soil are not adapted to sheep. Large plains, limited by narrow belts of open forest land; fine grassy meadows along frequent chains of lagoons, and shady forest land along the rivers, render this country inviting to the squatter." Dr. Leichardt thinks there are many districts suitable for the cultivation of rice and cotton.

In regard to a communication between the settlements, it is the decided opinion of the Doctor, that no line of road can be effected direct from Fort Bourke to the northern settlement. A route from Moreton bay to the gulf of Carpentaria will be easily constructed. The whole coast is backed by ranges of mountains, consisting, nearest the sea, generally of granite and basaltic rocks, which he[68] calls the granite range; behind this is a second range of sandstone. Descending from this and again rising, they entered upon the table-land; which they could nowhere penetrate, so as to determine what might be the character of the central country. It was covered with a dense shrub, had no water; and frequently there was difficulty in descending from it, owing to the perpendicular cliffs and deep ravines. They passed several rivers all of which ran easterly towards the coast. After reaching the Gulf of Carpentaria, they again ascended the table-land, and suffered extremely for want of water. The country beneath them was delightful to look at, but they were unable to descend to it, until they reached the dip towards the Alligaters. Here the country surpassed in fertility any thing that they had seen.

By later advices from Sydney, it appears that this enterprising and zealous traveller, is again making arrangements for another expedition to explore the interior of this great island.[60] The Doctor now proposes to leave Moreton[69] bay and endeavor to trace the sources of the rivers which flow into the Gulf of Carpentaria. He will then proceed northwest, penetrating directly across the unknown and unexplored interior, forming the are of a circle, to Swan river. This will be the most daring journey yet attempted; but under the direction of one who has already shown so much perseverance and undergone such severe hardships, it is to be hoped that his efforts may be crowned with success.

An expedition for the exploration of Australia, under the command of Sir Thomas L. Mitchell, is at present employed in traversing the unknown parts of this vast country. When last heard from, the expedition had reached the latitude of 29° 45' longitude 147° 34'. The particulars of Dr. Leichardt's journey have been sent to him to guide him in his course of future operations.[61]

ASIA.

Lycia, Asia Minor. This interesting region has been further explored by two English gentlemen, Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Professor Forbes, who, accompanied by the Reverend E.T. Daniel, embarked from England in the year 1842, in H.M. ship Beacon, for the coast of Lycia, for the purpose of bringing home the remarkable monuments of antiquity discovered by Sir Charles Fellows.

This gentleman, it will be remembered, was the first who in modern times successfully explored the interior. He visited the sites of many ancient cities and towns; copied numerous inscriptions, by means of which he was enabled to identify the names of fifteen out of eighteen cities; and made sketches of the most interesting sculptures and monuments.

It is remarkable that a country so often spoken of by the Greek and Roman historians should not have sooner attracted attention, when districts contiguous to, as well as far beyond, have been so thoroughly explored. The ruins on the southern coast of Asia Minor, were first made[70] known by Captain Beaufort, who discovered them when employed in making a survey of this coast. Several travellers subsequently made short excursions into the country; but it was not until Mr. now Sir Charles Fellows, in 1838 and 1840, made his visits and explorations, that the riches of the interior in historical monuments were disclosed.

The relics of antiquity brought to light in these researches, consist first of the ruins of large cities, many of which, by reason of their isolated situation among the high lands and mountains, seem to have been preserved from the destruction which usually attends depopulated cities situated in more accessible places.

These ruined cities contain amphitheatres more or less spacious, and generally in a good state of preservation, temples, aqueducts, and sepulchral monuments, together with numbers of lesser buildings, the dwelling houses of the inhabitants. The ruins of Christian churches are also found in many places, and in one instance a large and elegant cathedral; the purposes of these are satisfactorily made out by their inscriptions; and the date of their erection, when not otherwise known, may be fixed by their style of architecture. The most numerous as well as the most interesting monuments of these ancient cities, are their sepulchres. In some instances where a mountain or high rock is contiguous, it is pierced with thousands of tombs, presenting an appearance similar to Petræa in Idumea, sometimes called the City of the Dead. The roads in all directions are lined with tombs and sarcophagi, many of them covered with elaborate sculptures and inscriptions. It is by means of the latter, which abound and which exist in a fine state of preservation, that the names of the cities are identified and other historical facts brought to light. The following is a translation of the most common form of sepulchral inscription.

"THIS TOMB APOLLONIDES, SON OF MOLISSAS, MADE
FOR HIS WIFE AND CHILDREN: AND IF ANY ONE
VIOLATES IT, LET HIM PAY A FINE."
[71]

In architecture, we find excellent specimens of the several Grecian orders, exhibiting both the perfection and declension of the art. The works of Sir Charles Fellows abound in architectural representations. A pointed arch was discovered by Lieut. Spratt and Professor Forbes in the interior of a tomb (a sketch of which is given) among the ruins of Antiphellas. This conclusively shows, that this peculiar form of the arch was not first introduced with Gothic architecture, as has been generally believed, but belongs to a period anterior to the Christian era. An inscription in the Lycian and Latin was found on the monument.

The language of the ancient Lycians is an important discovery which has resulted from these researches. A bilingual inscription in Lycian and Greek first led to the key, and similar inscriptions, subsequently discovered, have furnished sufficient materials for ascertaining the values of the several letters of the alphabet, which consists of twenty-seven letters, two of which are still doubtful. Able disquisitions on the language have been written by Mr. Sharpe and Professor Grotefend.

In regard to the antiquity of the monuments, and the people who spoke the language called Lycian, now first made known through these inscriptions, we are enabled to arrive at conclusions which fix their era with some degree of certainty. The earliest inscription yet decyphered is a bilingual one, which consists of an edict, in which the name of Harpagus, or his son, a well known personage, is mentioned; which would give a date of 530 to 500 B.C. This is about the period of the earliest arrow-head inscriptions yet known—namely, those at Behistun, of the age of Darius, decyphered by Major Rawlinson. The language belongs to the same family as the Zend and old Persian, and is supposed to have been in use in the same age as the former, and along with that of the Persepolitan[72] inscriptions. The sculptures too, bear some resemblance to the figures on the Persian monuments, particularly the well known figure with an umbrella, so common on the latter.

Other reasons are adduced by scholars for fixing the date of the Lycian language not before the fifth century B.C., or to the age of Herodotus. This historian was from the adjoining province of Caria; and as might be expected, gives accounts of the Lycians before his time, but does not say that they spoke a language different from his own, or from that of the entire region,—a fact that he would not have overlooked had such been the case.

It is believed that Cyrus, when he subjected this country, brought in some people from his Persian dominions, who afterwards became the dominant party, and introduced their language.[62]

It is surprising to find the names of these Lycian cities so well preserved when the descendants of its ancient inhabitants have been so entirely swept out of the country, and replaced by a people differing in manners, in religion,[73] and having no interest connected with the locality to induce them to respect the relics or names, and keep alive the memory, of the former possessors of the soil.

ARABIA.

If we now turn to the discoveries that have recently been made in the southern part of Arabia, we find much in them worthy of attention. This country, called in the Scriptures Hazarmaveth, by the natives Hadramaut, and by the classical writers of antiquity, Arabia Felix, is celebrated as being the kingdom of the Queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon, as well as for the gold, gems, frankincense and other precious productions, which it furnished in ancient times. It is represented by the Greek and Roman writers as a populous country, with many extensive cities, abounding in temples and palaces; though the palpable fables with which these accounts are intermingled, show that at least they had no personal knowledge of the facts, but retailed them at second hand.

After Europe had awoke from the intellectual slumber of the dark ages, the Arabs were long regarded only as objects of religious and political abhorrence. The discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope, at the close of the fifteenth century, by diverting the channel of Indo-European traffic from the Red Sea, left the countries bordering upon it in such a state of solitude, that when better feelings began to prevail, there was no means of obtaining any direct information respecting them.

In 1650, the illustrious Pococke, by the publication of his Specimens of Ancient Arabian History, extracted from native authors, created a curiosity respecting Southern Arabia and its ancient inhabitants, which successive collections of a similar nature, down to our own times, have served rather to increase than to gratify. The researches[74] of Niebuhr, Seetzen, and Burckhardt, in the latter part of the last, and the beginning of the present century, made us somewhat acquainted with the western extremity of this country, along the shores of the Red Sea; but before the investigations of which we are about to speak, its southern coast had never been accurately explored, and the great body of the interior, with its once famous capital, Mareb, remained, as it ever had been, completely unknown to and unvisited by the natives of Europe.

The hordes of pirates, which until twenty years ago infested the Persian Gulf, caused the government of British India to order a complete survey of its islands and both its shores, with the view of laying bare their haunts, and putting an end to their depredations. In 1829, after this service had been performed, the project then recently set on foot of establishing a steam communication between England and Bombay, caused orders to be issued for a similar examination of the Red Sea.

The attention of the officers composing the expedition, was not restricted to the technical duties in which they were chiefly engaged. It was well known that information of every kind would be prized by the government which they served; and this, together with the monotony of life on board ship on the one hand, and the novelty of the scenes by which they were surrounded on the other, seems to have created among them a spirit of emulation that led to the most interesting discoveries respecting both the geography and the antiquities of the adjacent countries.

Among the most intelligent and enterprising of these officers was the late Lieut. Wellsted, who thus describes his reflections on joining the expedition in the Red Sea, on the 12th October, 1830. "From the earliest dawn of history, the northern shores of the Red Sea have figured as the scene of events which both religious and civil records have united to render memorable. Here Moses and the Patriarchs tended their flocks, and put in motion those springs of civilization, which, from that period, have[75] never ceased to urge forward the whole human race in the career of improvement. On the one hand the Valley of the Wanderings, commencing near the site of Memphis, and opening upon the Red Sea, conducts the fancy along the track pursued by the Hebrews during their flight out of Egypt; on the other hand are Mount Sinai, bearing still upon its face the impress of miraculous events, and beyond it that strange, stormy, and gloomy-looking sea, once frequented by Phœnician merchants' ships, by the fleets of Solomon and Pharaoh, and those barks of later times which bore the incenses, the gems, the gold and spices of the East, to be consumed or lavishly squandered upon favorites at the courts of Macedonia or Rome. But the countries lying along this offshoot of the Indian Ocean, have another kind of interest, peculiar perhaps to themselves. On the Arabian side we find society much what it was four thousand years ago; for amidst the children of Ishmael it has undergone but trifling modifications. Their tents are neither better nor worse than they were when they purchased Joseph of his brethren, on their way to Egypt; the Sheikhs possess no other power or influence than they enjoyed then; the relations of the sexes have suffered little or no changes; they eat, drink, clothe themselves, educate their children, make war and peace, just as they did in the day of the Exodus. But on the opposite shores, all has been change, fluctuation, and decay. While the Bedouins have wandered with their camels and their flocks, unaspiring, unimproving, they have looked across the gulf and beheld the Egyptian overthrown by the Persian, the Persian by the Greek, the Greek by the Roman, and the Roman in his turn by a daring band from their own burning deserts. They have seen empires grow up like Jonah's gourd. War has swept away some; the varieties and luxuries of peace have brought others to the ground; and every spot along these shores is celebrated."

When the northeastern and the western shores of the[76] Arabian peninsula had thus been investigated, there still remained to be explored the south eastern shore, the coast of the anciently renowned province of Hadramaut, extending from Tehama, on the Red Sea, to the province of Oman, at the entrance to the Persian Gulf; and it is to the discoveries made in this almost unknown part of the world that I now wish more particularly to allude.

In the year 1839 Capt. Haines, the commander of the expedition and the present governor of Aden, published his survey of about two fifths of this coast, extending from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb as far east as Missenaat, in long. 51° east of Greenwich.[63] In the year 1845, he published his further survey of about an equal portion extending to Cape Isolette, in long. 57° 51', leaving about one fifth of the whole extent on the eastern end still to be explored.[64]

In June, 1843, Adolphe Baron Wrede, a Hanoverian gentleman, made an excursion from Makallah on the coast, into the interior of the country. He visited among other places an extensive valley called Wadi Doan, which he thus describes. "The sudden appearance of the Wadi Doan, took me by surprise and impressed me much with the grandeur of the scene. The ravine, five hundred feet wide and six hundred feet in depth, is enclosed between perpendicular rocks, the debris of which form in one part a slope reaching to half their height. On this slope, towns and villages rise contiguously in the form of an amphitheatre; while below the date grounds, which are covered with a forest of trees, the river about twenty feet broad and enclosed by high and walled embankments is seen winding through fields laid out in terraces, then pursuing its course in the open plain, irrigated by small canals branching from it. My first view of the valley disclosed to me four towns and four villages, within the space of an hour's[77] distance." He also gives an account of some curious spots of quicksand, in the midst of the great desert of El-Akkaf, which are regarded with superstitious horror by the wandering Bedouins. A cord of sixty fathoms in length with a plummet at the end, which he cast into one of them, disappeared in the course of five minutes. His narrative is published in the fourteenth volume of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London.

In spite of the glowing descriptions of ancient authors, the idea hitherto entertained of this region in modern times, has been that of a succession of desert plains and sand-hills, with nothing to give animation to the arid scene but solitary groups of Bedouins and occasionally a passing caravan. The recent explorations, however, of which the one just quoted is a specimen, show that this is far from being a correct view of the entire country. The coast is thickly studded with fishing-villages and small seaports, which still carry on, though on a diminished scale, the trade with India and the Persian gulf, which has existed ever since the dawn of history. It is true, the general appearance of the country along the coast, consisting as it does of successive ranges of sand-hills, is such as to naturally give rise to the views entertained and promulgated by navigators, who have had no opportunity of visiting the interior. But the deeper researches that have been made during the last ten or twelve years, show that these opinions are very erroneous; for besides that there are a number of green valleys running down to the coast, produced by streams provided with water for at least a good part of the year, no sooner has the traveller surmounted the first range of sand-hills, than his sight begins to be regaled with numerous well watered valleys and mountains covered with verdure. Besides this, even in those parts of the country where the surface is naturally a desert plain, the inhabitants have possessed from the remotest times the art of forming flourishing oases, in which to establish their hamlets and towns; an operation which, as Wellsted re[78]marks, is effected with a labor and skill that seem more Chinese than Arabian. This traveller says: "The greater part of the face of the country being destitute of running streams on the surface, the Arabs have sought in elevated places for springs or fountains beneath it. A channel from this fountain-head is then, with a very slight descent, bored in the direction in which it is to be conveyed, leaving apertures at regular distances, to afford light and air to those who are occasionally sent to keep it clean. In this manner water is frequently conducted from a distance of six or eight miles, and an unlimited supply is thus obtained. These channels are usually about four feet broad and two feet deep, and contain a clear and rapid stream. Few of the large towns or oases but had four or five of these rivulets or feleji running into them. The isolated spots to which water is thus conveyed possess a soil so fertile, that nearly every grain, fruit, or vegetable, common to India, Arabia, or Persia, is produced almost spontaneously; and the tales of the oases will be no longer regarded as an exaggeration, since a single step conveys the traveller from the glare and sand of the desert into a fertile tract, watered by a hundred rills, teeming with the most luxuriant vegetation, and embowered by lofty and stately trees, whose umbrageous foliage the fiercest rays of a noontide sun cannot penetrate."[65]

These oases and the towns situated in them, date from various periods; some of those already discovered being evidently of considerable antiquity. In describing some of these towns, Wellsted says: "The instant you step from the Desert within the Grove, a most sensible change of the atmosphere is experienced. The air feels cold and damp; the ground in every direction is saturated with moisture; and from the density of the shade, the whole appears dark and gloomy. To avoid the damp and catch an occasional beam of the sun above the trees, the houses[79] are usually very lofty. A parapet encircling the upper part is turreted; and on some of the largest houses guns are mounted. The windows and doors have the Saracenic arch; and every part of the building is profusely decorated with ornaments of stucco in bas relief, some in very good taste. The doors are also cased with brass, and have rings and other massive ornaments of the same metal." These descriptions relate to the province of Oman, the eastern extremity of Southern Arabia. The glimpses already obtained of this ancient and famous land, sufficiently prove that the fortunate traveller who shall succeed in obtaining access into the interior of the country, which has always been a terra incognita to Europeans and their descendants, will find an abundance of objects of interest to reward his zeal and self-devotion.

There is however another class of interesting objects, relating to the ancient history of the country, which I have not alluded to until now, because I wish to speak of them more particularly. These are the ancient inscriptions, of which a number have already been discovered and in part decyphered.

Several Arabian writers have stated that there existed in the southern part of their country, before the time of Mohammed, a kind of writing which they call Himyaritic, after the name of the ancient inhabitants of the country, the Beni Himyar. But the confused nature of these accounts, together with the Arab practice of giving the name of Himyaritic to every ancient mode of writing which they were unable to read, caused the story to be regarded as little better than fabulous. In the year 1808 the late Baron de Sacy published a learned treatise on the subject, in which he collected all the Arabian accounts; but no further progress was made in the enquiry, until the discovery of a number of inscriptions on various massy ruins situated along the coast and in the interior, by officers attached to the surveying expedition already spoken of, in the years 1834 and '5.[80]

Copies of these inscriptions were transmitted to the late Dr. Gesenius of Halle, one of the first Orientalists of Europe. After making some progress in the investigation, he gave up the subject to his colleague Dr. Rödiger, who had devoted himself to it with great ardor and success. The latter published a copious dissertation containing the results he had arrived at, which he reprinted in 1842 by way of an appendix to his German edition of Wellsted's Travels in Arabia. By comparing the characters of the inscriptions with the Himyaritic alphabets contained in some Arabic manuscripts and with the present Ethiopic alphabet, he was enabled to ascertain the powers of the letters, and even to interpret, with various degrees of certainty, many portions of the inscriptions themselves. Thus, these venerable records, which in all probability have for many ages been dumb to every human being, are in a fair way of being made to yield up to modern scientific research whatever information they may contain. That this information must be interesting and valuable to the historian is inferred from the imposing nature of the structures on which they are found, and whose existence but a few years ago was as little looked for in this part of the world as in the forest wilds of Oregon. A full account of these discoveries and of the attempts at decyphering the inscriptions was published in 1845 in the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society of this city. I will therefore merely proceed to state what has been accomplished in the matter since the time when that account closes.

In the beginning of 1843, the same year in which M. Wrede made his exploration, a French physician of the name of Arnaud being then at Jiddah, received from M. Fresnel, the French consular agent at that port, accounts of the Himyaritic inscriptions discovered by the officers of the Indian Navy, and of the interest they had created in Europe. M. Arnaud's enthusiasm being excited on the[81] subject, he resolved to take a share in these arduous researches. The grand object of his ambition was to reach Mareb, the ancient capital of Hadramaut and the residence of the famous Queen of Sheba, whose name according to the Arabians was Balkis. Two English officers had undertaken the journey several years ago, and had reached Sana, a town within three or four days' journey of it; but the suspicions of the native authorities becoming excited, their further progress was prevented.

The mode of proceeding adopted by M. Arnaud, who spoke the Arabic fluently, was to travel as a Mussulman, in company with a caravan going to the place. His plan was happily crowned with success. In the middle of July he reached the city, where he saw the imposing remains of the ancient dam, said to have been built across the valley of Mareb by Balkis herself, and which, by collecting an immense body of water near the metropolis, whence the surrounding country was irrigated, had given rise to the fertility and beauty for which the region was celebrated in ancient times. On these remains M. Arnaud discovered a number of inscriptions, as also among the ruins of the former city; among the most remarkable of these is one called Harem Balkis, which is thought to be the remains of the palace of the ancient Sabean kings. The inscriptions of which Mr. Arnaud brought away copies with him amount to fifty-six in number. The tour of M. Wrede was also not unproductive in this respect. He copied, among others, a long inscription in Wadi Doan; which, according to the interpretations that have since been made of it, contains a list of kings more copious than those which have been left us by Albulfeda and other historians of the middle ages.

When M. Arnaud returned to Jiddah from his hazardous and toilsome expedition, M. Fresnel, who had originally moved him to the undertaking, set about studying the new inscriptions, aided by the previous labors of the German scholars and his own knowledge of Arabic and the[82] modern Himyaritic. Possessing a far more abundant supply of materials than had been collected before, he was able to assign to a few doubtful characters their proper values. He transmitted to Paris a fair copy of the original inscriptions, and also a transcription of them in the Arabic character, showing how they should be read. A fount of Himyaritic types having been constructed for the express purpose at the Imprimerie Royale, they were all published in the course of last year in the Journal Asiatique, together with several letters on the subject from M. Fresnel. The form of the characters in these inscriptions is essentially the same as in those discovered before; but, whereas the former ones all read from right to left like the Arabic of the present day, some of the new ones are found to read alternately from right to left and from left to right, like some of the inscriptions of ancient Greece. M. Fresnel's attention has been mainly directed to the collection and identification of the proper names of persons, deities, and places, in which the inscriptions abound, and in which he recognises many names mentioned in Scripture, and in Greek, Roman, and Arabian authors. Thus he identifies the deity 'Athtor with the Ashtoreth or Venus of the Hebrews. He finds in an inscription at Hisn Ghorab the word Kaná, showing the correctness of the conclusion already arrived at that this is the Cane emporium of Ptolemy. He identifies the ruins of Kharibeh, a day's journey to the west of Mareb, with the Caripeta of Pliny, the furthest point reached by the Roman commander, Ælius Gallus, in his expedition into Arabia Felix, in the reign of Augustus Cæsar. He has also recognised many names of Himyaritic sovereigns mentioned by Arabian writers, among others those of the grandfather and uncle of Queen Balkis. M. Fresnel has also begun to translate the inscriptions connectedly, a work of great labor and difficulty. He has already furnished an improved reading and translation of one at Sana, which had been copied before by English officers, and interpreted by Gesenius and Rödiger, and[83] has offered a translation of another found by M. Arnaud, on the Hiram Balkis at Mareb.

The discoveries already brought to light, merely serve to show the richness of the mine that yet remains to be explored. Other expeditions are now planning, or in progress of execution, for penetrating into other parts of the country; and eminent scholars are busied in elucidating the treasures which the enterprize of travellers is bringing to light. Their united exertions cannot fail, at least, to accumulate many curious particulars relative to the history of one of the most remarkable and least known nations of past ages.

The Rev. T. Brockman, who was sent by the Royal Geographical Society of England for the purpose of geographical and antiquarian research in the Arabian peninsula, had proceeded up the coast from Aden to Shehar, midway between Aden and Muscat, and had coasted along to Cape Ras al-Gat. Subsequently in attempting to reach Muscat, he was arrested by sickness at Wadi Beni Jabor, where after a few days he died. His papers, which will be sent to the Geographical Society, are thought to contain matters of interest respecting this region.[66]

Sclavonic Mss.—It is stated in the Russian papers that M. Grigorowitsch, professor of the sclavonic tongues in the Imperial University of Kasan, has returned to that capital from a two year's journey in the interior of Turkey, by order of the Russian government, in search of the graphic monuments of the ancient Sclavonic nations. He has brought home fac-similes of many hundred inscriptions, and 2,138 Sclavonian manuscripts—450 of which are said to be very ancient, and of great importance.

The Caucasus.—The results of a scientific expedition for the exploration of the Steppes of the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, and of Southern Russia, under the direction of M. Hommaire de Hell, has lately been published. This portion of the East has been little noticed by travellers, and the present work has therefore added much to our previous knowledge of the country. It is accompanied by a large map, on which the geographical and geological peculiarities are defined with great minuteness and elegance.[67]

ASSYRIA AND PERSIA.

The discoveries recently made, and the researches now in progress in those regions of the world known in ancient times as Assyria, Babylonia and Persia, are among the most interesting and important of the age. Of the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians we know nothing, but what we find in the Bible, or what has been preserved[85] and handed down to us by the Greek historians. Unlike Egypt, who has left so many records of her greatness, of her knowledge of the arts, and of her advancement in civilization, in the numerous and wonderful monumental remains in the valley of the Nile, the Assyrians were supposed to have left nothing, no existing monuments as evidences that they ever had an existence, save in the vast and misshapen heaps along the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris, believed to wash the spots where the great cities of Nineveh and Babylon once stood. The site of Nineveh still remains doubtful; and so literally have the prophecies in regard to Babylon been fulfilled, that nothing but vast heaps of rubbish, of tumuli, and traces of numerous canals, remains. The language of the Assyrians is unknown, and the impressions of characters in the form of a wedge or arrow-head stamped upon the bricks and other relics dug from these heaps, have been looked upon as mysterious and cabalistic signs, rather than the representatives of sounds, or belonging to a regular form of speech. For more than twenty centuries, these countries have been as a blank on the page of history; and all we have gathered from them consists in the observations of curious travellers, who, at the risk of their lives, have ventured to extend their wanderings this way.

Pietro della Valle, Le Brun, Niebuhr, Ker Porter, Rich, and Ouseley, have given us descriptions of the ancient remains in Persia and Assyria, particularly those at Persepolis, Pasargadæ, and Babylon. These consist of views of the monuments and sculptures, together with copies of the inscriptions in the cuneiform, or arrow-head character. The object of the edifices, the subject of the sculptures, and the meaning of the inscriptions, were wholly matters of conjecture; and it seemed a hopeless task to arrive at any conclusions in relation to them, until some key should be discovered, by the means of which the language should be made known, and the numerous inscriptions decyphered. No bilingual tablet, such as the[86] Rosetta stone of Egypt, had been discovered; and, although it appeared that many of the inscriptions were recorded in three different languages, no means seemed to exist by which philologists could obtain a clue to their meaning. With this dark prospect in view, the task of decyphering the arrow-headed characters was attempted by M. Grotefend, one of the most sagacious and distinguished philologists of Europe. The particulars of the attempt and its results, we shall briefly state.

At Persepolis it is known are extensive ruins, chiefly belonging to a large edifice, with every indication that this edifice was originally a royal palace. History and tradition supported this belief; and the general character of the sculptures and architecture, together with the inscriptions, would carry its origin back to a period some centuries before the Christian era. It was doubtless the work of one of the great monarchs of Persia; of Cyrus, Cambyses, Xerxes, Darius, or some other with whom history is familiar.[68] On some of the monuments at Persepolis, are inscriptions in the Pehlvi character, parts of which have been decyphered by M. de Sacy. In one of these, the titles and name of a king are often repeated; these titles M. Grotefend thought might be repeated in the same manner in the arrow-head characters.[69]

Over the doorways and in other parts of this edifice, are portraits, evidently of kings, as there is always enough in the dress and insignia of a monarch to enable one to detect him on any ancient monument. Over these por[87]traits are inscriptions; these it was natural to suppose related to the person represented, and if so, contained the name of the king and his titles. Such would be the conclusion of any one who reflected on the subject, and such was the belief of M. Grotefend and other philologists. In these inscriptions one group of characters was repeated more frequently than any other, and all agreed that the decyphering of this group would furnish a key to the whole. On this group of characters then our Savans set to work.

According to the analogy of the Pehlvi inscriptions, decyphered by De Sacy, it was believed that the inscriptions then under consideration, mentioned the name of a king son of another king, that is the names of father and son. M. Grotefend first examined the bas-reliefs at Persepolis, to ascertain the particular age of the Persian kings to which they belonged, in order that he might discover the names applicable to the inscription. A reference to the Greek historians convinced him that he must look for the kings of the dynasty of the Achæmenides, and he accordingly applied their names to the characters of the inscriptions. "These names could obviously not be Cyrus and Cambyses, because the names occurring in the inscriptions do not begin with the same letter; Cyrus and Artaxerxes were equally inapplicable, the first being too short and the latter too long; there only remained therefore the names of Darius and Xerxes;" and these latter agreed so exactly with the characters, that Mr. Grotefend did not hesitate to select them. The next step was to ascertain what these names were in the old Persian language, as they come to us through the Greek, and would of course differ somewhat from the original. The ancient Zend, as preserved in the Zendavesta, furnished the only medium through which the desired information could be obtained.[88][70] He next ascertained that Xerxes was called Kshershe or Ksharsha; and Darius, Dareush. A farther examination gave him the name of Kshe or Ksheio for 'king.'[71] The places or groups of characters corresponding with these names, were then[89] analyzed and the value of each character ascertained. These were then applied to other portions of the inscriptions, and led to the translation of two short ones, as well as to the formation of a considerable portion of the alphabet.

Such was the result of Professor Grotefend's labors up to the year 1833. His first discovery was made and announced as early as 1802, but an account of his system of interpretation did not appear until 1815, in the appendix to the third German edition of Heeren's Researches. This was afterwards enlarged in the translation of Heeren published at Oxford in 1833, when it was first made known to English readers. In 1837 he published a treatise containing an account of all the Persepolitan inscriptions in his possession, and another in 1840 on those of Babylon.

The brilliant success which attended Grotefend's earlier efforts, soon attracted the attention of other philologists to the subject. M. Saint Martin read a memoir before the Asiatic Society of Paris in 1822, but did not make any additions to our previous knowledge. Professor Rask next took it up, and discovered the value of two addi[90]tional characters. M. Burnouf followed in 1836, with an elaborate memoir, in which he disclosed some important discoveries.[72] Professor Lassen, in his Memoir published in 1836, and in a series of papers continued up to the present day,[73] has identified at least twelve characters, which had been mistaken by all his predecessors, and which, says Maj. Rawlinson, "may entitle him almost to contest with Professor Grotefend the palm of alphabetical discovery."

In 1835, Major Rawlinson, then residing in Persia, turned his attention to the subject, and decyphered some of the proper names on the tablets at Hamadan. In the following year he applied himself to the great inscription at Behistun, the largest and most remarkable that is known in Persia, and succeeded in making out several lines of its contents.

The result of Major Rawlinson's first attempt at decyphering the Behistun inscription, was the identification of several proper names, and consequently the values of additional characters towards the completion of the alphabet.[74] But more was wanted than the alphabet, which only enabled the student to make out proper names, but not to advance beyond; and it was the lack of this knowledge which prevented the sagacious and indefatigable Grotefend from carrying out to any great extent, the discoveries which he had so well begun.[91]

The language of the inscriptions must next be studied; and as the Zend had been the medium through which the first links in the chain of interpretation had been obtained, it was naturally resorted to for aid to farther progress. The Zendavesta, with the researches of Anquetil du Perron, and the commentary at the Yaçna by M. Burnouf, wherein the language of the Zendavesta is critically analyzed, and its grammatical structure developed, furnished the necessary materials. To the latter work, and the luminous critique of M. Burnouf, Major Rawlinson owes the success of his translations; as he acknowledges that by it he "obtained a general knowledge of the grammatical structure of the language of the inscriptions."

But the Zend was not of itself sufficient to make out all the words and expressions in the Behistun and other inscriptions. Other languages contemporary with that of the inscription and of the Zend must be sought for, to elucidate many points which it left obscure.[75] The Sanscrit was the only one laying claim to a great antiquity, whose grammatical structure was sufficiently developed to render it useful in this enquiry. A knowledge of this language had previously been acquired by Major Rawlinson, and he was therefore fully prepared for the arduous task he had undertaken. Neither of these, it must be observed, was the language of the inscriptions, which it is believed had ceased to be a living form of speech, at the period when the Sanscrit and Zend were in current use.[92]

It is unnecessary to note in detail the difficulties and great labor attending the decyphering of the Behistun tablets, on which Major Rawlinson was occupied from time to time during a space of ten years. His discoveries were announced in London, in a memoir read before the Royal Asiatic Society in 1839, but were not published in extenso until 1846.

Briefly to sum up the results of his labors, it will suffice to state that they present "a correct grammatical translation of nearly four hundred lines of cuneiform writing, a memorial of the time of Darius Hystaspes, the greater part of which is in so perfect a state as to afford ample and certain grounds for a minute orthographical and etymological analysis, and the purport of which to the historian, must be of fully equal interest with the peculiarities of the language to the philologist." In a few cases it may be found necessary to alter or modify some of the significations assigned; but there is no doubt but that the general meaning of every paragraph is accurately determined, and that the learned Orientalist has thus been enabled "to exhibit a correct historical outline, possessing the weight of royal and contemporaneous recital, of many[93] great events which preceded the rise and marked the career of one of the most celebrated of the early sovereigns of Persia."

Such is the history of this great discovery, which has placed the name of Major Rawlinson among the most distinguished Oriental scholars of the age. He will rank among the laborers in cuneiform writing, where Champollion does among the decypherers of Egyptian hieroglyphics; for though, like Champollion, he did not make the first discoveries in his branch of Palæography, he is certainly entitled to the honor of reducing it to a system, by ascertaining the true powers of a large portion of the alphabet, and by elucidating its grammatical peculiarities, so that future investigators will find little difficulty in translating any inscription in the particular class of characters in question.

The cuneiform (wedge-shaped) or arrow-headed character is a system of writing peculiar to the countries between the Euphrates and the Persian frontier on the East. Various combinations of a figure shaped like a wedge, together with one produced by the union of two wedges, constitute the system of writing employed by the ancient Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, and the Achæmenian kings of Persia. The character seems to have been as extensively employed in this portion of the world, as the Roman letters now are in Europe. Particular arrangements or combinations of these characters apparently belonged to different nations, speaking different languages. When and where this system of writing originated is not known. Professor Westergaard [76] thinks that "Babylon was its cradle, whence it spread in two branches, eastward to Susiana, and northward to the Assyrian empire, from whence it passed into Media, and[94] lastly into ancient Persia, where it was much improved and brought to its greatest perfection."

Major Rawlinson makes of the arrow-headed writing three great classes or divisions, the Babylonian, Median and Persian. The first of these he thinks is unquestionably the oldest. "It is found upon the bricks excavated from the foundations of all the buildings in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Chaldea, that possess the highest and most authentic claims to antiquity;" and he thinks it "not extravagant therefore to assign its invention to the primitive race which settled in the plain of Shinar."[77] In the recent excavations made by M. Botta and Mr. Layard, on or near the site of ancient Nineveh, numerous inscriptions in this form of the arrow-head character were found. It also occurs in detached inscriptions from the Mediterranean to the Persian mountains.

A comparison of the various inscriptions in the Babylonian class of writing has led Major Rawlinson to believe that it embraces five distinct varieties, which he calls the Primitive Babylonian, the Achæmenian Babylonian, the Medo-Assyrian, the Assyrian, and the Elymæan.[78] The peculiarities of these several varieties, with the countries in which they are found, are pointed out in the second chapter of our author's learned Memoir on cuneiform writing. The Median and Persian classes are peculiar to the trilingual tablets of Persia, and are better known than the first class or Babylonian.

Mr. Westergaard [79] divides the cuneiform writing into five classes: the Assyrian; the Old Babylonian; and the three kinds on the trilingual tablets of Persia, which embrace the Median and Persian varieties, and the one called by Rawlinson the Achæmenian Babylonian.

The history we have already given of the progress made[95] in decyphering these characters applies exclusively to one of the varieties on the tablets of Persia. The inscriptions on these monuments are almost invariably repeated in three sets of characters, and doubtless in three different languages. The characters of what appears in each case to be the primary or original inscription, of which the others are translations, are of the simplest construction, and consequently were the first to attract the attention of decypherers, and to yield to their efforts. The language in which they are written has been found to exhibit close affinities both to the Sanscrit and to the Zend, and is now termed by philologists the Old Persian. The system of writing is alphabetic, that is to say, each character represents a single articulate sound; whereas that of the other two species is at least in a great measure syllabic, which renders the task of decyphering them much more difficult.

For our knowledge of the second variety of characters on the Persian trilingual tablets, we are indebted to the labors and sagacity of Professor Westergaard.[80] These characters had remained entirely undecyphered until the first kind had been completely made out. It was evident that the inscriptions in the second kind of character were but a translation of those in the first; and with this supposition, this learned Orientalist began the task of decyphering, by identifying the proper names Darius, Hystaspes, Cyrus, Xerxes, Persians, Ionians, &c., which frequently occur in the inscriptions decyphered by Major Rawlinson. Having obtained these, he next analyzed each and ascertained the phonetic values of the several characters of which they are composed. By[96] this means, he was enabled to construct an alphabet. He next examined the introductory words and the titles of the sovereigns, and finally the entire inscriptions, all of which he has most satisfactorily made out, and with them has reconstructed the language in which they are written. In his learned and elaborate article detailing the process of this discovery, Professor Westergaard gives a systematic classification of the characters, one hundred in number, of which seventy-four are syllabic, twenty-four alphabetic, and two signs of division between words. The character of the language, which for convenience sake he terms Median, he does not pretend to decide, though he considers that it belongs to the Scythian rather than to the Japhetic class of languages; in which opinion Major Rawlinson coincides. The Oriental Journal alluded to in the second note to p. 90, contains several learned papers by Professors Westergaard and Lassen, on the arrow-headed inscriptions.

In the third sort of Persepolitan characters, termed the Achæmenian Babylonian, some advances have been made by Major Rawlinson. The contents of the other portions of these tablets being known, he pursued the course adopted by Professor Westergaard, namely that of identifying the groups of characters corresponding with the proper names in the other inscriptions. He has thus been enabled to ascertain the phonetic values of a large number of characters which must in time lead to a knowledge of the rest of the alphabet. A beginning in this direction was also made by Professor Grotefend, who in his Memoirs of 1837 and 1840, singles out and places in juxtaposition the names of Cyrus, Hystaspes, Darius and Xerxes, in the first and third species of Persepolitan writing. There is every reason to hope that the labors of the three accomplished Oriental scholars, Rawlinson, Lassen, and Westergaard, which have been so far crowned with success, will add to their fame by making out the characters and language of this species of[97] writing also. A high degree of interest is attached to it, not only on account of the information it embodies, but in regard to the nation to which it is assignable.

It will be recollected, that besides these three sorts of Persepolitan writing, there are two other distinct classes of arrow-head characters, called Babylonian and Assyrian. Little or nothing has yet been accomplished towards decyphering them; which is owing to the fact that they are of a very complicated nature, and that they have hitherto been found alone, that is to say not accompanied by a version in any other language or character. A Parisian savant, M.J. Löwenstern, who has applied himself to the study of the Assyrian tablets, published in 1845 an Essay on the monument recently discovered by M. Botta at Khorsabad near Mosul, in which he thinks he has made out the groups which stand for the words great king, and also several alphabetical characters. Further investigations can alone determine whether or not his conclusions are correct.

It will be necessary to state some of the historical facts brought to light by the labors of Major Rawlinson, to which we have alluded. The great tablet at Behistun relates exclusively to Darius. "To this monarch," says Major Rawlinson, "insatiable in his thirst of conquest, magnificent in his tastes, and possessed of an unlimited power, we are indebted for all that is most valuable in the palæography of Persia. Imbued, as it appears, with an ardent passion for monumental fame, he was not content to inscribe the palaces of his foundation at Persepolis with a legend commemorative of their erection, or with prayers invoking the guardianship of Ormuzd and his angels, but he lavished an elaborate workmanship on historic and geographic records in various quarters of his empire, which evince considerable political forethought, an earnest regard for truth, and an ambition to transmit the glories of his reign to future generations, to guide their conduct and invite their emulation. At Persepolis, the high place[98] of Persian power, he aspired to elevate the moral feelings of his countrymen, and to secure their future dominancy in Asia, by displaying to them their superiority over the feudatory provinces of the empire,[81] while upon the sacred rock of Baghistan, he addressed himself in the style of an historian, to collect the genealogical traditions of his race, to describe the extent and power of his kingdom, and to relate, with a perspicuous brevity worthy of imitation, the leading incidents of his reign. His grave relation of the means by which, under the care and favor of a beneficent Providence, the crown of Persia first fell into his hands, and of the manner in which he subsequently established his authority, by the successive overthrow of the rebels who opposed him, contrasts strongly but most favorably with the usual emptiness of Oriental hyperbole."

The following are some of the translations from the great inscription at Behistun, which embraces upwards of four hundred lines in the arrow-headed characters. In Major Rawlinson's Memoir, are given fac-similes of the original inscriptions, a transcription of the same in Roman letters with an interlineal translation in Latin, and a translation in English. Accompanying these, is a critical commentary on each line, together with notes, rendering the whole as clear as possible.

He then goes on to speak of the rebellions in his dominions after the death of Cambyses, of the Magian who declared himself king, and that no one dared to resist him. He continues:

He then says, he "established his race on the throne, as in the days of old," prohibited the sacrificial worship introduced by the Magian, and restored the old families to office,—all of which was accomplished by the aid of Ormuzd. The people of Susiana and Babylon then became rebellious. He slew the leader of the former.

Darius then continued his march to Babylon, where he was met by the army of Natitabirus; he gave him battle and defeated him, driving his army into the water. He then took Babylon. It would appear from what this monarch relates, that he had a pretty rebellious set of subjects, who took advantage of his absence at Babylon. The inscription continues.

He then gives the names of the rebellious leaders and of the officers sent to subjugate them; the forts, villages, or cities, where battles were fought; the day of the month when they took place, and the result, in every case, by the help of Ormuzd. One example will suffice. After speaking of the revolt of Armenia, the inscription continues.

In this manner we have the whole history of the reign of Darius king of Persia, who filled the throne 550 B.C. And it may truly be said that no monument of remote antiquity which has been preserved to modern times, at all equals it in importance. The inscriptions of Egypt are[101] far more ancient, but consist of fragments, which, excepting the tables of kings, do not throw much light on history. Nothing is more interesting in the details given by the Persian king of his successes, than his acknowledgment of an overruling power, a Supreme Being, who protected him and aided him in all his battles. From the closing part of this remarkable tablet, which consists of twenty paragraphs, we select the following.

The great inscription from which we have made these extracts, is sculptured in three languages, and in three different forms of the arrow-headed character, the particulars of which have been stated. There are a few imperfections and cracks in the stone which made certain words and sentences unintelligible; these will be corrected when the other two inscriptions are decyphered. In the midst of these records is a piece of sculpture in relief, representing Darius followed by two of his officers, with his foot upon a man, who raises his hands before him, and nine other figures representing the rebellious leaders whom he had severally conquered. They are connected by a rope around their necks and have their hands tied behind, and are probably portraits of the persons they[102] represent. Beneath each is engraved his name, as in the extract given.

The discoveries of Professor Westergaard, to whom we are indebted for the key to the second or Median form of the arrow-headed character, require notice. This accomplished Orientalist, on his return from an archæological tour in India and Persia, under the patronage of the king of Denmark, brought with him, among other literary treasures, copies of a great number of inscriptions in the arrow-headed character. While in Persepolis he carefully examined all the inscriptions which those wonderful ruins still retain. Those which had already been published, he accurately compared with the original monuments, and the remainder he copied entire. This gentleman went thoroughly furnished with all the preparatory knowledge that could be gained in Europe to ensure success. He had shown himself by his publications to be an excellent Sanscrit scholar; besides which he had acquired as complete a knowledge of the Zend language as it is possible to do at present, and was well acquainted with all that had been effected in the way of decyphering the inscriptions. Having thus so greatly the advantage of his predecessors, Niebuhr, Ker Porter, and Rich, it is not to be wondered at that his transcripts are proportionably more accurate and complete.

It has long been known that all the inscriptions at Persepolis are triple, like those on the Behistun tablets, before described. Those of the first or simplest variety, have all been translated by Professor Lassen,[82] to whom Professor Westergaard transmitted them. Accompanying his translations are critical and explanatory remarks, proving[103] conclusively the correctness of his version. The inscriptions at and near Persepolis, relate to Xerxes. They do not possess the historical value that the tablets of his father do on the rocks of Behistun, but consist of praises of Ormuzd for blessings he had received, and of himself for the additions he made to the royal palace at Persepolis. The following is a translation of an inscription on the wall of an immense portal at Nakshi Regib, two miles from Persepolis.[83]

No inscriptions have yet been found in Persia of Artaxerxes, the first son of Xerxes. A vase, however, was discovered at Venice by Sir J.G. Wilkinson, bearing an inscription in hieroglyphics, and in the three species of arrow-headed characters so common in Persia. This vase and its inscriptions have been examined by M. Letronne and M. Longpérier, who do not hesitate to ascribe it to Artaxerxes the first, or Longimanus, whose names and titles have been made out both in the hieroglyphics and cuneiform characters.[84]

An inscription of great historical interest of Artaxerxes the third, has been found at Persepolis.[85] It is in only one[104] species of the Achæmenian writing, and is noticed by Prof. Westergaard as exhibiting "a most remarkable change and decay which the language must have undergone in the interval between the reigns of Xerxes and this monarch." In a philological point of view, this fact is interesting as showing so early a decline of the Persian language.

But the most important part of this inscription consists of the genealogy of Artaxerxes the third, from Arsama, the Greek Arsames, the father of Hystaspes, completely agreeing with that given by Grecian historians. In this as well as in all the other inscriptions thus far decyphered, Ormuzd is invariably invoked; he is called upon to aid them, and the several sovereigns acknowledge their gratitude to him as to an all-protecting Providence for the blessings received.

Nineveh. We have received from M. Mohl, of Paris, an account of the researches of MM. Botta and Flandin,[86] on or near the site of ancient Nineveh.

This volume contains letters from M. Botta, giving the details of his discoveries, accompanied by fifty-five plates of sculptures, statues, and inscriptions. He penetrated into the interior of a large mound, where he found a series of halls and chambers, the walls of which were covered with paintings and relievos representing historical events, and scenes illustrating the manners and customs of the Assyrians. The drawings and sculptures exhibit a higher state of art than the monuments of Egypt. The figures are remarkably well drawn, both as it regards the anatomy and the costumes. The men appear to be more athletic than the Egyptians—they wear long hair combed smooth over the top of the head, and curled behind. The beard is also long and always curled. Their dresses are exceed[105]ingly rich and profuse in ornaments and trimmings. Ear-rings, bracelets, and armlets, of various forms and elaborately wrought, are seen on most of the figures both of the men and women. The discoveries made by M. Botta have induced others to explore the ground in that vicinity. An English traveller, Mr. Layard, has recently opened a mound many times larger than that excavated by the French. "It contains the remains of a palace, a part of which, like that at Khorsabad, appears to have been burnt. There is a vast series of chambers, all built with marble, and covered with sculptures and inscriptions. The inscriptions are in the cuneiform character, of the class usually termed Babylonian. It is possible that this edifice was built at an epoch prior to the overthrow of the Assyrian Empire by the Medes and Babylonians under Cyaxares. Many of the sculptures discovered by Mr. Layard are, even in the smallest details, as sharp and fresh as though they had been chiselled yesterday. Among them is a pair of winged lions with human heads, about twelve feet high. They form the entrance to a temple. The execution of these figures is admirable, and gives the highest idea of the knowledge and civilization of the Assyrians. There are many monsters of this kind, lions and bulls. The other reliefs consist of various divinities, some with eagles' heads—others entirely human but winged—with battle-pieces and sieges."[87]

Other letters from Mr. Layard of a later date than that just mentioned, announce new discoveries. "Another mine has been opened at Nimroud; and every stroke of the pick-axe brings new wonders to light." Old Nineveh, whose very existence had become little better than a vague historic dream, is astonishing the world by her[106] buildings her sculptures, and her many thousands of inscriptions, which have been brought to light by the explorations of Mr. Layard.[88] "He has opened fourteen chambers and uncovered two hundred and fifty sculptured slabs. The grand entrance previously described led him into a hall above two hundred and fifty feet long and thirty broad—entirely built of slabs of marble covered with sculptures. The side walls are ornamented with bas-reliefs of the highest interest—battles, sieges, lion-hunts, &c.; many of them in the finest state of preservation, and all executed with extraordinary spirit. They afford a complete history of the military art of the Assyrians; and prove their intimate knowledge of many of those machines of war, whose invention is attributed to the Greeks and Romans—such as the battering ram, the tower moving on wheels, the catapult, &c. Nothing can exceed the beauty and elegance of the forms of various arms, swords, daggers, bows, spears, &c. In this great hall are several entrances, each formed by winged lions, or winged bulls.[89] These lead to other chambers; which again branch off into a hundred ramifications. Every chamber is built of marble slabs covered with sculptures or inscriptions." The excavations thus far only extend to one corner of a great mound, the largest on the plain, measuring about one thousand eight hundred feet by nine hundred. The wonders that may be brought to light from a more complete survey of this vast heap of ruins, will be looked forward to with intense interest.

All are familiar with the accounts of the building of this city by Asshur, (whence the name Assyria), and of the first[107] empire under Nimrod. In this short record we have the first traces of political institutions and of great cities. They burst upon us, and as suddenly disappear from the world's history for more than a thousand years. A learned author of the last century [90] has endeavored to throw distrust on all that the Greek writers have written about these countries, because in the Persian historians he could not recognise the great Cyrus and other prominent characters which fill important places in the Grecian annals. But the revelations already made through the arrow-headed inscriptions must remove these doubts, as they substantiate in a remarkable degree the assertions of the Greek writers. The observations of a learned Orientalist are so well adapted to this subject that I cannot forbear quoting them. "The formation of mighty and civilized states being admitted even by our strictest chronologers to have taken place at least twenty-five centuries before our era, it can but appear extraordinary, even after taking into account violent revolutions, that of so multitudinous and great existences, only such scanty documents have come down to us. But, strange to say, whenever a testimony has escaped the destruction of time, instead of being greeted with a benevolent though discerning curiosity, the unexpected stranger is approached with mistrustful scrutiny, his voice is stifled with severe rebuke, his credentials discarded with scorn, and by a predetermined and stubborn condemnation, resuscitating antiquity is repelled into the tomb of oblivion."[91]

A journey of much interest was undertaken by Dr. Robert in 18_3, who was directed by the French government to continue, in the west of the Himalaya range and the high region adjacent, the geographical, physical, and ethnographical observations which had been begun by M. Jaquemont. The latest accounts from this intrepid tra[108]veller left him in the inaccessible valleys of Chinese Tartary, from whence it was his intention to pass through Turkestan, for the purpose of entering China on the north.[92]

In the same distant region we hear of the journeys of H.R.H. Prince Waldemar, of Prussia (cousin to the king). "Consulting only his ardor for science, and burthened with the usual load carried by a traveller on foot, he scaled the lofty Himmalayah, crossed the frontier of the Celestial Empire, and reached the table-land of Thibet."[93] The prince has already transmitted a large collection of objects of natural history, many of which are new, to Berlin. It is his intention to return to Europe by way of Affghanistan, Persia, and Asia Minor.

Siberia. To the love of science which the enlightened Emperor of Russia, has always manifested, we are indebted for an expedition, the most successful which has yet been undertaken for the exploration of the northern and eastern parts of Siberia. The results of this extensive exploration of a region not before examined by scientific men, are of the greatest interest to science, and have earned for its distinguished and undaunted leader, Prof. Von Middendorff, the applause of the savans of Europe. Not having seen any detailed account of this journey, I am indebted to Sir R. Murchison for some particulars of its results.[94]

The expedition traversed the whole extent of Siberia, from east to west, and from south to north, even to the extreme northern headland of Taimyr. "Undaunted by the severe privations he had undergone in obtaining his knowledge of the far northern lands of Siberia, he next undertook the not less arduous task of traversing the whole of that vast continent to the Shantar Isles, at its southeastern extremity, and thence to return to Nertchinsk, along the Chinese frontier. His journey through thickly-wooded rocks, deep morasses and over swollen rivers,[110] was so successfully accomplished, that the stores he has brought back to St. Petersburgh, will fully lay open the Fauna and Flora of a region never previously explored by a man of science."

"Floating down the sea of Okotsk from Udskoi in frail canoes, M. Middendorff and his friends, braving shoals of floating ice and perpetual rains, reached Nitka on the great Shantar island. The wild regions which were traversed, in many parts could only be threaded by following the tracks formed by bears beneath the dense matting of underwood and birch trees" In his return journey, he examined the frontier line of China, a tract never explored even by a Cossack, and ascertained that between the Udskoi of the Russians and the mouth of the Amur, there is a considerable tract quite independent both of Russia and China, and occupied by a people called Guilaiques, who pay no tribute to either Emperor.

In addition to the several arduous journeys performed by this intrepid traveller and his companions, many questions hitherto unsolved were investigated and much new light added to our previous knowledge on these respective points. One was the real state of the question of the frozen subsoil of Siberia. "By placing thermometers at various depths in the shaft at Yakutsk, he has found that at its bottom, or at 382 feet below the surface, the cold is 2° 4" Réaumur, and that it is probable the frozen subsoil reaches to the great depth of about 600 feet! Notwithstanding this extraordinary phenomenon, the lateral extent of which has still to be determined, it appears that the culture of rye succeeds perfectly under favorable local conditions in those regions, and that the crops of grain are more abundant than in Livonia!" M. Middendorff has also thrown new light on the boreal range of vegetation. He has ascertained "that whilst rye, turnips, beets, and potatoes grow on the Yenisei to latitude 61° 40', indigenous plants, requiring less warmth, flourish much farther north, and that even trees with vertical[111] stems reach to about 72° north latitude, in that parallel of longitude!" This fact will show that geographers can no longer mark the limit of vegetation by a rectilinear zone, but must accommodate such line to climatological and local conditions.

In regard to the mammoths, the fossil bones of which have been found in Siberia, M. Middendorff has shown that, in accordance with the views of Professor Owen, (who states that these quadrupeds were specially organized to live on the branches and leaves of such shrubs and trees as grow in boreal latitudes) there are still trees in latitude 72° which would suffice for their sustenance.

The Ethnology of this region has been elucidated by our traveller, who by investigating the languages and physical characteristics of these remote tribes, has been enabled to affiliate them with their parent stocks.

Our knowledge of the geology and geography of the northern and southeastern extremities of Siberia have been greatly extended by this journey; in fact no enquiry for the advancement of science and a knowledge of this far distant and hitherto unknown region, seems to have been neglected.[95]

Another scientific expedition of an Ethnological character is employed in Siberia under the direction of M. Castren, who has devoted much of his first report to the geography of the country. After speaking of the river Irtisch and its fisheries, he gives some account of the Ostiaks, the most ancient people of its banks. Surrounded by Russians and Tartars, they have lost all their nationality except their language. The Tartar influence is feeble, but that of Russia is felt in their religion, their manners, their customs and even in their general mode of thinking.

A paper containing "Ethnological Notes on Siberia," by[112] Prof. Von Middendorff, was read at the late meeting of the British Association for the advancement of science. "In this paper, the geographical boundaries of the different tribes were set forth, the tribes were enumerated and some of the characteristic peculiarities described. The 1st, was the Ostiaks; these were stated to be of Finnish origin, on both physiological and philological evidence. 2d, the Samoiedes, who were of Mongol descent. 3rd, the Tunguses. 4th, the Yakuts; the extent to which Mongol features were found in a nation speaking a language akin to Turkish, was insisted on. 5th, the Yukagins; the physical peculiarities of which placed them along with the Samoiedes. 6th, the Ainos; these were the inhabitants of the Kinule islands at the mouth of the Arnus; of these there were two types, the Finnish and the Japanese. 7th, the Kachkell; these were only known through the Ainos."

A geographical Society has lately been founded at St. Petersburg, to which the emperor proposed to give ten thousand silver rubles annually. The first great exploratory expedition under the directions and patronage of this Society will be directed along the eastern flank of the Ural mountains, from the parallel of 60° north (Bogoslafsk) to the Glacial sea. This survey is to be conducted by Count A. Von Keyserling, already known to the public through his valuable geological co-operation in the work on Russia, by Sir R.I. Murchison; and who by his sound acquirements in geology, zoology and geography, will it is presumed, during the ensuing three years, throw great additional light on the wild Arctic Ural which separates Europe from Asia, and which, inhabited by Ostiaks and Samoiedes, extends beyond the limits of arboreal vegetation. Among numerous other objects, it is hoped that this expedition will elicit new results concerning the entombment and preservation of the mammoths.[113][96]

India. The obstacles which have existed in India, and which have retarded the extension of European civilization, will now be effectually removed by the noble step taken by Lord Hardinge, the Governor General, for promoting education in that country.[97] This benevolent and excellent man, whose well earned laurels on the field of battle are not more honorable than his philanthropic efforts in extending education among the natives of India, and in improving their social condition, "has directed the Council of Education and other authorities charged with the duty of superintending public instruction throughout the provinces subject to the government of Bengal, to submit returns of the students who may be fitted according to their degrees of merit and capacity, for such of the various public offices, as with reference to their age, abilities and other circumstances, they may be deemed qualified to fill." As this order recognizes no distinction of schools, or castes, or religion, it will have a great influence on the people, towards inducing them to give their children the benefit of a good education, which to a great extent must be obtained through the Christian missionaries. "It is," says the Friend of India, "the most powerful impulse which the cause of education has received during the last twenty-five years. It makes the seminaries the nursery of the service, and the service the stimulant of the seminaries. It introduces the enlightened principles adopted by European governments, of recruiting the public service in every department from those who have earned distinctions in the public schools. At the same time it will be found instrumental in the highest degree in the general elevation of the country. It will transplant into the interior that European knowledge and science which has hitherto been confined to Calcutta, and diffuse their influence through every district."

The renunciation of idolatry must necessarily follow the[114] first steps in this great work of reform, and we already see it noticed that in southern India, within the short period of three months, eight hundred and thirty-two persons renounced idolatry and embraced Christianity. This large number was a part of the population of seven villages.[98]

Such changes are not without their effects on the great mass of the natives, indeed it is only by removing from their minds the gross superstition in which they have been for ages immersed, that there can be a hope of improving their social condition. The wealthy Hindoos cling to their ancient religion with greater tenacity as it totters towards its downfall, than when in its most flourishing state. Alarmed at the innovations which European civilization and Christianity have made, they are printing by subscription, a series of popular religious books in monthly numbers, on their doctrines, rites, superstitions and idolatry. Fearing that the Europeans and such as have been taught to observe these things with ridicule, might controvert them, they have confined the subscription to Hindoos, and have directed that their books shall be rigidly kept from the hands of Christians.

The Mahommedans too, in Bengal, are greatly alarmed at the danger to which their religion is exposed. They have prepared tracts and books in opposition to Christianity, and have sent, or are sending emissaries in every direction, with a view to strengthen the tottering cause of their false prophet.[99] A Mahommedan merchant in Bombay has printed at his own expense, two thousand copies of the Koran for gratuitous distribution, at a cost of several thousand dollars.

In former times the efforts of the missionaries were directed to proselyting among the Hindoos and other idolaters of the East, without first making themselves acquainted[115] with the fabric which they were laboring so earnestly to demolish. Nursed and educated as the natives were in the doctrines and superstitions which for ages their forefathers had venerated and professed, the efforts of the missionaries and of others who labored to improve their condition were unattended with success—and a conflict between Oriental and European civilization—between Hindooism and Christianity—between the false science of the shastres and the enlightenment of Europe, for a long time existed; and it seemed doubtful whether truth or falsehood would triumph. Now, the system is changed, and a course is pursued which bids fair to produce the most wonderful effects on the people of India and China.

It has been asserted that the missionary enterprise in India was a failure, and did not warrant the large sums expended there. Those who are unfriendly to the cause do not see that more than half the amount there expended was for educating the people, for improving their social condition, for translating valuable books into their various languages and for establishing among them that mighty engine of civilization and reform, the printing press.[116][100]

But it is not merely in the translation and distribution of these books, that the missionaries have rendered so much service. In this labor it is true they have contributed greatly towards disseminating Christian truth and useful knowledge among a large class of people, and have improved their religious, their moral and their social condition. But to Europe and to the learned world they have also furnished a vast deal of philological knowledge, elucidating and developing languages scarcely known beyond the precincts of the several countries in which they were spoken. Many of these languages, too, were previously unwritten; and from this rude state the missionaries have trained and moulded them into forms adapted to written speech.

While speaking of the labors of the missionaries in the East, I should do great injustice to Catholics not to speak of their efforts to improve the moral and religious condition of the people in these distant countries. In the most[117] barbarous and secluded portions of the earth do we find these devoted men diligently laboring to elevate the condition of the natives. In many do we see a zeal and devotedness, an endurance of hardships, of the most severe privations, and often martyrdom itself, which has never been surpassed in the annals of missionary enterprise. Neither François Xavier, nor Ignatius Loyola, so famous among the pioneers of the Eastern missions, ever exhibited a greater zeal or devotedness than we now witness among the Catholic missionaries in Thibet, China, Corea, the islands of the Eastern Archipelago and Oceanica. They too have added much to our stock of knowledge of the inhabitants, their manners and customs, and their languages. Their narratives give us particular accounts of the productions of the countries in which they reside, their trade, commerce, and all that interests us.

Siam. An interesting fact connected with the progress of European civilization, and the extension of Christianity in the kingdom of Siam, seems deserving of notice in this place. It was communicated by the American Mission in that country.

"The king of Siam despatched one of his ships to Ceylon about the close of last year, to carry back some Ceylonese Boodhists whom he had invited to Siam, two or three years before, and also to send a fresh ecclesiastical embassy to that island—regarded by all Boodhists as very sacred—to make further religious researches in the primitive nursery of their faith. That embassy fulfilled its mission, and returned to Siam in June, bringing a letter to his Majesty from a high priest of Boodh in Ceylon, written in English, and stating in substance, that the religion of Boodh had become almost extinct in Ceylon, chiefly through the influence of the Christian religion, and the schools and seminaries of the missionaries and English residents in that part of the world; and that, if some aid from abroad could not be obtained to prop up crumbling Boodhism in that island, it must soon become utterly ex[118]tinct. The writer expressed much pain at the thought, that the very birth place of his religion should not have some permanent witness of it; and requested that his Majesty, in his pious zeal for Boodhism, would send him funds, with which he might build a Wat (Religious house) and support priests in honor of his god. He suggested that this would be a noble work for a great king, and one that would confer upon him the highest honors of Boodhism."[101]

COCHIN-CHINA, CHINA, MANCHURIA, COREA, AND JAPAN.

Cochin-China. M. Hedde has published a few notices of a visit to Turon in Annam in 1844, on his passage from Singapore to Macao.[102] He represents the country as altogether in a wretched, declining condition, misgoverned and beggared by despotic officers, presenting a painful[119] contrast in its general prosperity with the Chinese empire. The present monarch is named Thieufri (or Yuen-fuh-siuen in Chinese) and succeeded his father Ming-ming or Minh-menh in 1841, but no improvement in the domestic or foreign administration of the government has taken place. Several Cochin-Chinese youth have been educated at Singapore, and the king purchased two steamers several years ago from the Dutch, but the natives probably were too little acquainted with the machinery and motive power to make the least use of them, as nothing has since been heard of them. The country is highly favored by its natural advantages and navigable rivers for maintaining a large population, but oppression on the part of the rulers and ignorance among the people, vitiate the sources of national prosperity. The port of Turon alone, is open in Annam for foreign trade, but no American vessels have been there for a cargo since Lieut. White's unsuccessful voyage in the Franklin in 1804. Capt. Percival of the U.S. ship Constitution anchored there in May, 1845, but no official account of his visit has been published, which if the rumors of his firing upon the town are true, is not strange. The Peacock and Enterprize also anchored there in 1836, but Mr. Roberts, the American diplomatic agent, was too ill to have any communications with the authorities.

China. The late war between England and China has directed the attention of other nations towards that empire in an unusual degree. Except the immediate details of the contest and the personal incidents connected with it, however, the works of those officers who have written upon that war, have not contained so much information as was expected by some, but quite as much as could be collected under the circumstances. The war was almost wholly a maritime one, confined to attacks upon cities and forts upon the coast and rivers, by both the army and navy, and few or none of the officers were acquainted with the language of the people, so that little[120] information could be obtained from those natives whom suspicion or terror did not drive away. The region around Ningpo, Chusan and the mouth of the Yangtsz kiang, has been described with more minuteness than any other part of the maritime provinces; and the careful survey of the coast from Amoy to Shanghai, with the Chusan and Pescadore archipelagoes by Captains Collinson, and Kellet and others, has left little to be done for the navigator's benefit, in making known the hydrography of this part of China. The general topography of China is, however, but little better known now than it was at the close of the general survey of the Jesuits in 1714, and their maps form the basis of the best extant.

The embassy sent by the French government in 1844, under M. Th. de Lagrené, to form a commercial treaty with China, was furnished on a most liberal scale with everything necessary to make the greatest improvement of the opportunities offered to examine into the mechanical arts and productions of the land. Four gentlemen were attached to the ambassador's suite, to make inquiries into the various agricultural and mechanical arts of the Chinese, one of whom, M. Isidore Hedde, was especially designated to investigate everything relating to the growth and preparation of silk. In pursuance of this object, he visited the city of Tuchan fu, which lies a few miles northwest of Shanghai, and is the capital of the province of Kiangsu. This place is probably the second or third city in the empire, Canton or Hangchau fu being the only ones which can compete with it for wealth and beautiful manufactures. It lies in a highly cultivated region, and is connected with Peking and other large places, through the Grand canal and the Yangtsz kiang. M. Hedde went in a Chinese dress, and succeeded in visiting the principal buildings in the city, such as the provincial mint, the hall of examination, an establishment for the education of unhappy females destined for sale for the amusement of the opulent, and some manufactories.[121] The suburbs of Suchau, as is the case with most Chinese cities, exceed that part within the walls, and here he found most of the craftsmen in iron, ivory, gold, silver, wood, bone, horn, glass, earth, paper, cotton and silk. His errand being chiefly to examine the silken fabrics, he noticed whatever was peculiar in spinning, dyeing and weaving, in the shops he entered. The Chinese have no such immense establishments as are found in this country, where large buildings accommodate an immense quantity of machinery and numerous workmen, but all their products are made by manual labor in small establishments. M. Hedde was struck with the immense population of the city and its environs, including a floating suburb of great extent, the whole comprising a population of not far from two millions. The Chinese census gives an average of over nine hundred souls to a square mile in the province of Kiangsu, and every opportunity which has been offered for examining it, has added new evidence to the truth of this statement, though closer investigation and further travel is necessary before we can give implicit reliance to the assertions made on this subject.

Two English missionaries have lately gone long journeys into the interior, but as Protestants have no coadjutors among the people away from the ports, who would be willing to receive and conceal them; and as their system of operations aims rather to impart a true knowledge of Christianity than to make many converts to a form of worship, these excursions have not been frequently made. One of the two here referred to, was across the country from Ningpo to Canton, by the same route Lord Macartney came, and the other was up the Yangtsz kiang. Two American missionaries visited the large city of Changchau fu near Amoy in 1844, where they were received with civility though not with kindness.

Mr. Robert Fortune, sent out to China by the Horticultural Society, has lately returned to England, with new plants of great beauty, and a large collection of botanical[122] and ornithological specimens, among which are doubtless many not heretofore described. Mr. Fortune visited all the ports, and made excursions in their neighborhoods, and his reception among the people was generally kind. The people in the cities of Ningpo and Shanghai, and their vicinities, compare favorably for their kindness and general courtesy, with the coarse mannered natives of Canton.

The opening of this great empire to the commercial enterprise of western nations, has given rise to anticipations of an extensive trade, and the importation of cotton and woolen fabrics during the last few years has been increasing; and if it was not for the abominable traffic in opium, which is both impoverishing and destroying the Chinese, there would be every reason for believing the commerce with China would soon be one of the largest branches of trade. The principal articles in which it is most likely to increase are tea and silk, but there is a great assortment of other productions, which can be taken in exchange for the cloths, metals and wares of the west. Mr. Montgomery Martin for a short time colonial treasurer of Hongkong, has collected all the statistics bearing on this subject in his work, which will aid in forming an opinion on this point. Commercially, politically and religiously, the Chinese empire now presents a most interesting spectacle, and the experiment of regenerating it and introducing it into the family of nations, without completely disorganizing its present form of government and society, will constantly go on and attract still more and more the notice of Christendom. The probabilities at present are in favor of a successful issue, but it is impossible to contemplate the desolating effects of the use of opium, brought to the people in such quantities, without great apprehension as to the result. The lava like progress of the power of Great Britain in Asia, has just commenced on the borders of China, and when the country is drained of specie in payment for this drug, there is reason to fear[123] that the native government will be unable to carry on its operations and maintain its authority.

Corea. Since the extermination of the Catholic priests from Corea in 1839, the most rigid measures have been adopted to exclude all foreigners; in fact, the determination on the part of the government of Corea to prevent all intercourse between its people and those of other countries seems to have been adopted from its neighbor of Japan. These measures are even extended to the Chinese, against whom a strong natural antipathy exists, growing out of the persecutions formerly inflicted on the Coreans by them. Accurate descriptions of Europeans are kept at the various posts on the frontier, and from their well known characteristics they are easily distinguished. The Coreans themselves on leaving their country for China for purposes of trade, receive a passport, which on returning must be given back or they are not permitted to enter. Many Christians still remain in Corea, and though they are subject to persecution, the minds of the people are well disposed towards the Christian religion. The literary class hold it in the highest estimation, and seem only to be waiting for the moment when they will be free to declare in its favor.[103]

Farther accounts from this country have lately appeared in the Annals of the Propaganda Society,[104] in a letter from Keemay Kim a native of Corea, and a Christian, who had just completed his studies at Macao in China. He was sent on a mission to the Christians in Corea, but owing to the vigilance observed on the frontiers of that country, was unable to enter it. Determined to persevere in the attempt, he posted on to Hoong-tchoong, a small frontier town near the mouth of a river which separates Corea from Manchuria, where he waited until the period arrived when the great fair was to take place at Kee-eu-Wen, the nearest town in Corea, four leagues distant.[124] "They supply the Coreans with dogs, cats, pipes, leather, stag's horns, copper, horses, mules and asses; and receive in exchange, baskets, kitchen utensils, rice, corn, swine, paper, mats, oxen, furs and small horses." A few officers are permitted to trade every year, but they are closely guarded. All others who pass the frontier are made slaves or massacred at once. Our traveller here met a few Corean Christians in the immense crowd which had come to traffic, and whom he recognised by a badge previously agreed upon; but so great was the confusion and hurry on the occasion, added to the fear of being recognized, that the interview does not seem to have been productive of good, or increased our information of the people or country. Since the great persecution a few years since, the church had been at rest; and though a few converts had been made, the faithful had retired to the southern provinces for better security. They still entertained the idea of introducing a European missionary through the north, though with the knowledge that if discovered by the authorities, instant death would follow. Such is the zeal and perseverance with which these men pursue their philanthropic and Christian labors.

The fair to which allusion has been made, is thus described by our Corean. The traders cannot begin their operations until a signal is given, by hoisting a flag and beating the gong, "when the immense and densely packed crowd rush to the market place; Coreans, Chinese, and Manchus, are all mingled together. Each speaks in his own tongue, and so great is the uproar produced by this mass of people, that the echoes of the neighboring mountains repeat their discordant shouts."

"Four or five hours is the whole time allowed for buying and selling; consequently, the tumult which takes place, the quarrels which arise, the blows which are exchanged, and the plundering which goes on, give the place more the look of a city taken by storm and given up to pillage, than that of a fair." At evening, when the[125] signal is given, the strangers are driven out by the soldiers with the points of their lances.

Manchuria. The vast regions of Manchuria, lying north of Corea to the Hing-an or Yablonoi mountains, and east of the Sialkoi to the ocean, are inhabited by various tribes speaking different dialects and subsisting principally by hunting and fishing. The Manchus are now the dominant race, but some of the tribes near the sea and in Taraka island, bear no tributary relations to them, if indeed they are much acquainted. Since the conquest of China, the Manchus have gone on steadily improving this part of their possessions by stationing agricultural troops at the principal ports of observation, and collecting the hunters around these points as much as possible. Criminals are also constantly banished there, who carry with them their arts, and by their industry both maintain themselves and set an example to the nomads. The southern part called Shingking, has become well cultivated in many parts, and considerable trade is carried on at Kinchau with other parts of China.

Manchuria produces pulse, maize, (Indian corn), millet, barley and buckwheat; pulse, drugs and cattle, form the leading articles of trade. The climate of this country is so inhospitable, as to prove a serious obstacle in the way of its settlement and cultivation.

The Manchus have no national literature; all the books written in their language are translations of Chinese works, made under the superintendence of the Academies at Moukden and Peking. Their written characters are derived from the Mongols, but have undergone many changes. The emperors have taken great pains to elevate their countrymen by providing them with the best books in Chinese literature, and compelling them to go through the same examinations before they can attain any office; but the numerical superiority of the Chinese and their active habits, give them so much the advantage, that except in their own country, the Manchus find it[126] difficult to preserve their native tongue to the second generation.

Mongolia. The last volume of the Annals of the Propaganda Society contains an interesting narrative of a journey into Mongolia, by the Rev. Mr. Huc.[105] This vast country, covering a million of square miles, consists of barren deserts and boundless steppes. In the limits allotted each corps, there is seldom more than one town, where the chief resides. The people live in tents, without any permanent residence. They move from place to place, with the changes of the seasons, or when their immense herds of oxen, camels and horses have exhausted the grass around their encampment. To-day presents an animated scene of hundreds of tents, filled with an active population; the children playing as happy and contented as though surrounded with every luxury a civilized life affords; the women cooking their food and drawing water from a well just dug; and the men, mounted on horseback, are galloping over the plain, keeping their countless herds from straying away. To-morrow, this picturesque and animated scene will be changed to a dreary and forbidding desert. Men, flocks, and tents have vanished, and nought remains to mark the visit of this wandering race, but the curling smoke of their unquenched fires, or the birds of prey hovering over the carcase of some dying camel, or feeding on the remains of their late repast. The Mongols are irreclaimable nomads, though some tribes of them, as the Tsakhars, Ortous, and Solous, cultivate the soil. The four khanates of the Kalkas are called Outer Mongolia, and comprise within their borders, several well built towns, though none of any size, compared with the cities in China. Few Chinese have settled among the Mongols, except near the Great Wall, nor will they allow them to do so, as there is a deep antipathy between the two races. The Mongols of the present day have proba[127]bly made no advances in civilization over their ancestors in the days of Genghis and Kublai.

The approaches of the British power up the valley of the Sutlej, into the regions lying along the base of the western Himalayas, are such that they will ere long come in contact with Tibet through Ladak, and with Yarkand through Badakshan. But there is probably more geographical than ethnological information to be gained by traversing these elevated regions, where stupendous mountains and arid deserts offer nothing to tempt man from the fertile plains of India and China. Two Romish missionaries have lately arrived in Canton from H'lassa in Tibet, by the overland route through Patang in Sz'chuen to the capital of Kwangsi, and thence to Canton. This route has never been described by any traveller.

Lewchew Islands. This group of islands, including the Madjico sima, lying between it and Formosa, form a dependency of the principality of Satzuma, in the southwest of Japan, though the rulers are allowed a limited intercourse with China through Fuhchau fu. During the late war between England and China, the transport Indian Oak was lost on Lewchew,[106] August 14, 1840, and the crew were treated with great kindness, and provided with a vessel, in which they returned to Chusan. Every effort was made by the authorities to prevent the officers and men from examining the island, but their kindness to the unfortunate people thus cast on their shores, made such an impression, that a mission to the islanders was determined upon in London, by some naval gentlemen connected with the expedition, and a society formed. The Rev. B.J. Bettelheim was appointed to the post, and had reached Canton in March, 1846. He afterwards proceeded on his voyage, and his journal received at Hongkong, from Napa, contains a few details of interest, but shows plainly that the authorities are decided in refusing to allow foreigners to settle in their territories.[128]

An attempt has been made by the Romish missionaries to establish a mission in this group.[107] The Rev. W. Forcade and an associate were left on Lewchew in May, 1844, and after a residence of fifteen months were able to transmit some notices of their treatment to the directors, through Sir Edward Belcher, R.N. who stopped at Napa in August, 1845. On their arrival, M. Forcade and his companion were conducted to their dwelling, where they were surrounded by a numerous guard under the control of officers, and attended by domestics, as they were told, "to charm their leisure moments." Their table was bountifully supplied, and everything they could ask to make them comfortable was granted them, except their liberty. Whenever they went abroad, they were accompanied by a guard, but allowed to hold no intercourse with the natives; they had not been able to proceed beyond twelve miles into the interior, but as far as they had opportunities of conversing with the natives, found them simple and courteous in their manners, and disposed to talk when not under surveillance. It is probable, however, that under such restraint as these gentlemen were placed, it is not likely that they had attained to such fluency in the language as to be able to hold very ready communication with natives met in this hasty manner. The intentions of the government were plain, however, not to allow them to disseminate their doctrines, (if it had learned their real object), nor, by intercourse with the people, become acquainted with their character, or the state of the country. No assistance was granted them in learning the language, and they were forbidden to adopt the native costume. Notwithstanding this opposition, they had been able to acquire a partial knowledge of the language, and to compile a vocabulary of six thousand words. Permission to preach the Christian religion was not granted them, lest, as the authorities said, the Chinese, to whom they are[129] tributary, would break off all intercourse; but the real reason was doubtless their fear of the Japanese. Yet these obstacles did not dishearten them, and they seem determined to persevere in their attempts, though it is not unlikely that when Mr. Bettelheim arrives, the authorities will take measures for deporting them all.

The Lewchewans are intimately connected with the Japanese. The language is the same, with unimportant dialectical variations, and Chinese letters and literature are in like manner cultivated by both. In personal appearance, however, the two people are very unlike. The Lewchewans are not on an average over five feet four inches high, slightly built, and approach the Malayan cast of features more than the Chinese. They are darker than the Chinese, and their mild traits of character, unwarlike habits, and general personal appearance, suggests the idea that they are akin to the aborigines of Formosa and Luçonia by descent, while their proximity and subjugation to their powerful neighbors on the north and west, have taught them a higher civilization, and introduced arts and sciences unknown to their early conquerors. When Lewchew was subjugated by the Japanese, it was agreed that embassies with tribute might be sent to Peking, and according to the Chinese account, they come to that court twice in three years.[108] The secretary or deputy embassador in 1841, was drowned in his passage from Peking to Fuhchau. This embassy is a source of considerable profit to the Lewchewans, for their junks, which are built on the Chinese model, have free entrance to Fuhchau, and all the goods they import and export, are passed without duty. The travelling expenses of the embassy to and from the capital are also defrayed, and permission is given them to study Chinese when in the country. This intercourse is therefore both honorable and profitable to the Lewchewans, but the Chinese are not allowed to[130] trade there, and the only act of sovereignty the emperor exercises, according to M. Forcade, is to send a delegate to sanction the accession of a new incumbent of the throne—whom, however, it would be ridiculous for him to refuse. He adds, "In conversation, if one is a stranger, the Lewchewans will be continually dwelling on China, they will boast about it, they will relate its history, they will describe its provinces and its cities; but Japan is never mentioned! Such are the words, but the facts are quite another thing."

The real character of the connection between Lewchew and Japan is not well ascertained. No Japanese officers are seen on landing, and the officers appointed to attend the people of the Indian Oak, exhibited the greatest alarm when a few were seen at a distance, while the party were taking a walk. The trade between the two countries is confined to the ports of Napa and Kagosima, between which the vessels of both nations pass; the junks from other parts of Japan are not permitted to resort to Napa, but it is not probable that the prince of Satzuma has the right of appointing the residents, or whatever authorities are sent thither. M. Forcade says there were from ten to fifteen Japanese vessels in the port, but when the American ship Morrison was there, in 1837, there were only five. Lackered-ware, grass cloth, sugar, and earthen-ware, are exported to Kagosima, and a great assortment of metallic articles, cloths, provisions, and stationery taken in exchange. The country in the vicinity of Napa, and towards Shudi, the capital, is highly cultivated, and the people appear to be as well clothed, and possess as many of the comforts and elegancies of life as their neighbors. They still retain enough of their own customs, however, to distinguish them from the Japanese, even if their physical appearance did not point them out as distinct. M. Forcade says that there is reason for supposing Christianity to have been implanted in Lewchew at the same time it was introduced into Japan, but Lew[131]chew at that time seems to have been much less dependant upon Japan than subsequently; and it is not probable that much was done to proselyte its inhabitants. He mentions that a cross is cut on the end of the rampart where foreigners land, who are thus obliged to trample on this symbol; but no other visitors mention any such sculpture or custom. The landing place at Napa is a long stone jetty, stretching across the beach, which at low tide, prevents boats approaching the shore.

JAPAN.

This country has recently attracted increased attention on the part of commercial nations, and several foreign ships have lately appeared on the coasts, whose reception has only shown the vigilance of the authorities in taking every precaution neither to offend nor receive their unwelcome visitors. The Dutch and Chinese are still the only nations allowed to trade with the Japanese, and the news brought by the latter people of the troubles they have lately gone through with their foreign customers, has probably only more strongly convinced the siogoun and his ministers of the propriety of their seclusive policy. Nor is there much reason to doubt that the Chinese and Japanese have avoided the fate of the natives of Luçonia, Java, and India, by shutting out foreigners from free access and intercourse with their people, and owing to their seclusion, have remained independent to this day. The works of Siebold upon the natural history and political condition of the country and its inhabitants, are now slowly publishing in Paris, but with such luxury of execution as to place them beyond the reach of most persons who might be desirous to examine them. The visits of two American ships to the bay of Yedo, has directed the public eye again to the empire. The first was that of the whaler Manhattan, Captain Cooper, who was led to think[132] of going into the port by having taken eleven shipwrecked men off a small island near the Bonin islands, in April, 1845, lying southeast of Nippon. As he was going north, he fell in with a water-logged junk from Nambu, laden with rice and fish, from which he received eleven more, and soon after made the eastern coast in the principality of Simosa. Here he landed two men, and proceeding towards Cape King, landed two more, who made their way to Yedo. Owing to north winds, he was blown off the coast twice, and when he approached the estuary leading to the capital, he was taken in tow and carried up to the anchorage. Interpreters came off to the vessel, who could speak English sufficiently well to carry on an imperfect communication, who informed Captain Cooper that his wants would be supplied, but none of his company allowed to land. A triple cordon of boats was placed around the ship, consisting of upwards of a thousand small boats, displaying numerous flags, and containing as many armed men as if the country was in danger of attack. The ship was visited by crowds of natives of all ranks, who behaved with great decorum while gratifying their curiosity, but no trade was allowed. Many officers of high rank came on board and examined the ship, and took an inventory of every article belonging to the rescued seamen, before they were allowed to land. The ship was gratuitously supplied with provisions and a few spars, to the value of about $500, but the captain was again and again enjoined not to return there on any account. When he inquired what he should do if he again came across the siogoun's subjects in like distress, and exposed to a cruel death, he was told, "leave them to their fate, or take them where the Dutch can get them." The men rescued from starvation and death, were, however, deeply sensible of the kindness which had been shown them. After a stay of eight or ten days, Captain Cooper was towed out of the port, and down the bay to the coast, and the last injunction was only a repetition of the first order,[133] not to come again. This reception, though it presents no encouragement to hope for a relaxation of the policy, deemed by the siogoun at once his safety and his profit, is less likely to call for summary chastisement than the rude repulse the American ship Morrison received in 1837, when she entered the bay of Yedo on the same errand, and was driven away by cannon balls and armed gunboats.

Captain Cooper represents the country in this portion of it as clothed with verdure, and under a high state of cultivation. The proximity of the mountains in Idzu, produces constant showers, which covers the highest peaks with forests and shrubbery. Terrace cultivation is extensively practiced, and constant labor is demanded to supply subsistence to the dense population, who still at times suffer severely for want of food. The capital could not well be seen from the ship, and its enceinte was so filled with trees, that its dimensions could not accurately be defined. No towers or pagodas were seen elevating themselves above the dull monotony of the buildings. The harbor was covered with vessels, at anchor and moving about; some of them unwieldy, open-stern junks, designed for the coast trade, others light skiffs and boats, used for communicating with vessels in the harbor and the shore. The greatest part of the coasting trade centres at Yedo, owing to the large amount of taxes paid the siogoun in kind, and the supplies the princes receive from their possessions while they reside in the capital, both of which causes operate to develope the maritime skill of the people, and increase the amount of tonnage. The shortsighted policy which confines the energies and capital of a seagoing people like the Japanese, within their own shores is, however, less a matter of wonder than the despotic power which could compel them to stay at home two centuries ago, at a time when their merchants and agents were found from Acapulco to Bangkok.

The Japanese empire presents the greatest feudal gov[134]ernment now existing, and on that account is peculiarly interesting to the student of political science. In some respects, the people are superior to the Chinese, but are inferior in the elements of national wealth and progress. They belong to the Mongolian race, but are darker than the Chinese, and not as tall, though superior in stature to the Lewchewans. They approximate to the Kamtschatdales in their square build, short necks, large heads, and short lower limbs. They are of a light olive complexion, but seldom exhibit a florid, ruddy countenance.

Among the articles obtained from the junk by Captain Cooper, was a map of Japan, including part of Yesso. It is four feet square, drawn on the proportion of less than one degree to two inches, and contains the names of all the places there is room for. It is cut on wood, and painted to show the outlines of the chief principalities; the relative importance of the places is shown by writing their names in different shaped cartouches, but from the space occupied by the Chinese characters, there is probably not one-tenth of all the towns inserted. The distances between the principal points along the coast are stated, and on some of the leading thoroughfares inland. The map is evidently the original of Krusenstern's "Carte de Nippon," published by the Russian Board of Longitude, and is drawn up from trigonometrical surveys. The degrees of latitude bear the same numbers as upon European maps; the meridians are reckoned from Yedo. The existence of such maps among the people indicates that a good knowledge of their own country is far more extensively diffused than among the Chinese, whose common maps are a standing reproach to them, while they have others so much more accurate. The coast from Cape King northward to Simosa, for the space of two degrees, was found by captain Cooper to be better delineated upon this map than upon his own charts. These seas present a fine field for hydrographic surveys, and it would greatly advance the security of navigation on the eastern shores of[135] Asia, and redound to the honor of our own land, if the American government would despatch two small vessels to survey the seas and shores between Luçonia and Kamtschatka.

The visit of Commodore Biddle to the bay of Yedo, has added nothing to our knowledge of its shores. His polite dismissal, and the refusal of the government to entertain any commercial relations with the Americans, only add force to the injunction to captain Cooper the year before, not to return, and shows more strongly that while the Japanese rulers are determined to maintain their secluded policy, they wish to give no cause for retaliatory measures on the part of their unwelcome visitors, and mean to keep themselves as well informed as they can upon foreign politics. The subject of foreign intercourse between the two great nations of Eastern Asia and Europeans since it commenced three centuries since, is an instructive one; and the general impression left upon the mind of the candid reader, is that foreign nations have themselves chiefly to thank for their present seclusion from those shores, and the restrictions in their commerce. Rear-Admiral Cecille has also paid a visit to some part of Japan, quite recently, but met with no success in his endeavors to enter into negotiation.

The great object in view in making these attempts to improve the intercourse with Japan, is to find new markets for western manufactures. It is quite doubtful, however, whether the Japanese have many articles suitable for foreign markets. Their lackered-ware is exceedingly beautiful, but it would not be so prized when it became more common. Copper and tea would form the basis of exports, and perhaps some silk fabrics, but China furnishes now all that is wanted of them both, and can do so to any extent. Until a taste for such foreign manufactures, as woolens, cutlery, glass-ware, calicoes, &c., is created among them, and they are willing to adapt their own products to the tastes of their customers, it does not seem[136] likely that a trade at all proportioned to the estimated population and riches of the country, would soon be established. The Japanese are afraid of the probable results of a more extended intercourse, and deem it to be the safest course to run no risks; and if they read the pages of their early intercourse with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch, they must feel they would run many serious risks by granting a trade. If the siogoun and his advisers could be rightly informed, however, there are grounds for believing the present policy would be considerably relaxed.

Learning is highly honored in Japan, and books are as cheap and common as in China. The written language is a singular and most difficult mixture of Chinese characters, with the syllabic symbols adopted by the Japanese, rendering its perusal a great labor, more so than that of Chinese, because Chinese must first be mastered. The spoken language is polysyllabic and harmonious, and possesses conjugations, tenses, cases, &c., to facilitate its perspicuity, and increase its variety of expressions. The arts in which they chiefly excel are in the manufacture of silken and linen goods, copper-ware, lackered-ware, porcelain and basket work. Their cutlery is despicable, and the specimens of their carving, which are seen abroad, do not equal those produced by the Chinese. Agriculture is pursued on much the same system as in China—minute subdivision of the soil and constant manuring, together with frequent watering. Rice and fish are the staples of food; vegetables are used in great abundance, but meats only sparingly. The habits and sports of the people are influenced so much by the peculiar notions attending a feudal society, such as adherence to the local prince, and maintenance of his honor, wearing coats of arms, privileged orders, and hereditary titles, that there is little similarity in the state of society in Japan and China, notwithstanding a similar religion and literature. The Japanese were called the Spaniards of the East by Xavier,[137] and the comparison is good at this day. They have, perhaps, more genius and imagination than the Chinese, but are not as peaceable or industrious.

General view of the languages of the Japanese, Coreans, Chinese and Cochinchinese. The four nations here briefly noticed; viz., the Japanese, Coreans, Chinese and Cochinchinese, have been collectively called the Chinese language nations, from the peculiar relations and connections they have had through the medium of that language. The relation has throughout been one of a literary character, fostered to some extent by religious prejudices, but depending chiefly for its permanence and extension upon the superiority of the writings of the Chinese. It is, in some respects, without a parallel in the history of man. While European languages have all been indebted for many of their words to the two leading ancient tongues of that continent, their bases have been diverse, and the words they have imported from Greek and Latin have undergone various changes, so much so as sometimes hardly to be recognized. This is not the case with these four nations of eastern Asia. They have all adopted the characters used by the leading nation without alteration, and with them, of course, have to a very great degree, taken her authors, her books, her knowledge and her opinions, as their own.

One of the most observable features of the national character of the Chinese, is its conservative inclinations. Not only is it seen in the actions of government and in the writings of scholars, but still more in the habits of the people and their modes of thinking. It has been cherished by that government, as it is by all governments, as a sure and safe principle of preservation, but it is also advocated by the people. The geographical position of China has isolated it from all western nations, while the political, literary and social superiority of its people over the contiguous nations, has combined to foster their conceit and affectation of supremacy, and make them disinclined to[138] have any intimate or equal relations with others. But one of the strongest and most comprehensive of these conservative influences has arisen from the nature of the language, strengthened by the extent to which education has been diffused among the people. The language is of such a character, combining mystery and difficulty with elegance and ingenuity, as greatly to captivate a people who have time and inclination to trace out the marks and veins on the pavement in the temple of science, but not the invention or investigation to seek out and explore its hidden chambers. The character of this language and the nature of the connection between the nations who use it, may here be briefly exhibited.

The Chinese ascribe the invention of their characters to Tsang Kieh, one of the principal ministers or scholars in the reign of Hwangti, about 2650 years before Christ; and although there is no very certain information recorded respecting their origin, there is nothing which seems to be fabulous or supernatural. The characters first depicted were the common objects in nature and art, as the sun, rain, man, parts of the body, animals, a house, &c., and were probably drawn sufficiently accurate to be detected without much if any explanation. They were all described in outline, and generally with far less completeness than the Egyptian symbols. It is not known how many of the primitive characters were made, but one feature attached to them all,—none of them contained any clue to the sound. The inventors must necessarily, one would suppose, have soon perceived this radical defect in their symbols, but they either saw the incompatibility of uniting the phonetic and pictorial modes, or else were so pleased with their varied pictures and symbols, that they cared very little how the reader acquired the sounds. At first, too perhaps, the number of persons who spoke this language was so small, that there was little difficulty in making them all acquainted with the meaning of the symbols, and when once their meaning was learned, they[139] were of course called by the name of the thing represented, which everybody knew. The necessity of incorporating some clue to the sound of the thing, or idea denoted, became more and more evident, however, as the variety of the symbols multiplied, and the number of people increased. One of the strongest evidences, that the designing of these symbols was contemporary with the earliest days of the Chinese as a people, is deduced from the fact that they are all monosyllabic; the radical words in all languages are mostly of this character, but in nearly all others, the single sounds soon coalesce and combine, while in Chinese this has been prevented by the nature of the written language. There is not, so far as the nature of the case goes, any reason why the sounds of Chinese characters should all be monosyllabic, any more than the Arabic numerals. But not only was the increase of inhabitants, as we suppose, a reason for making the symbols phonetic, the need of reducing the labor of learning the ever growing list, and the difficulty of distinguishing between species of the same genus and things of the same sort, was a still stronger motive. This was done by the combination of a leading type with some other well understood character, chosen quite arbitrarily, but possessing the same sound as the new object to be represented. Thus, supposing a new fish called pih was to be represented by a character; by taking the symbol for fish and joining it to any well known character pronounced pih, no matter what was its meaning, the compound symbol clearly expressed, to those who understood its elementary parts, the fish pih. But neither does this compound contain any more clue to its sound to those unacquainted with the component elements, than its marks and hooks do of its meaning to those who have never learned them. When once the form and meaning of the primitive symbols have been learned, however, the meaning and sounds of the compound ones can, in many cases, be inferred to a greater or less degree; but so varied has been the prin[140]ciple of combination, that no dependence can be placed upon such etymologies for the meaning. In the various mutations the written language has undergone, the sound is not now so certain as it was probably at first; but in the majority of characters, it can be inferred with a considerable degree of certainty, though the idea is exhibited so indefinitely as to afford almost no assistance in guessing at it. A dictionary is indispensable in ascertaining the meaning, and almost as necessary to learn the sound of all Chinese characters. The meaning can be explained without any greater trouble than in other languages, but the sounds of characters can only be given by quoting other characters of the same sound, which the scholar is supposed to know, if he knows enough to use the dictionary.

These remarks will, perhaps, explain the general composition of Chinese characters. By far the greater part of them are now formed, either of the original pictorial symbols, greatly modified, indeed, and changed from their likeness to the things they stand for, or of those joined to each other in a compound character, partly symbolical and partly phonetic. The former part is called the radical, the latter the primitive. The Chinese divide the characters into six classes, viz., imitative symbols, or those original figures which bore a resemblance to the forms of material objects; indicative symbols, where the position of the two parts point out the idea; symbols combining ideas, a class not very unlike the preceding, but more complex; inverted symbols; metaphoric symbols, as that of the natural heart, denoting the affections; and lastly, phonetic symbols. Out of twenty-four thousand two hundred and thirty-five characters, (nearly all the different ones there are in the language), twenty-one thousand eight hundred and ten of them are phonetic, or as much so as the nature of their composition would allow, though there is no other clue to the sound than to learn the sound of the parts or of the whole, either from the people them[141]selves or from a dictionary. The Chinese tyro learns the sounds of most of the characters, as boys do the names of minerals, by tradition. As he stands before his master, he and the whole class hear from his mouth their names, and repeat them until they are remembered. Consequently, almost an infinite variety in the sounds of the characters arise from this mode of learning them, while the meanings remain fixed; though there still remains enough resemblance in the sounds to show their common origin, as, bien, meen, mien, and mee^ng, all meaning the face, and written with the same character. The local differences in pronunciation are so great within a few hundred miles, in some parts of China, that the people barely understand each other when they speak; and even in two towns fifty miles apart, the local patois can be detected, though the dissimilarity is not so great as to prevent their inhabitants conversing together. For purposes of intercourse among civilians, who being from distant parts of the empire, might otherwise find considerable difficulty in making themselves understood if each spoke his own local patois, there is a court dialect which not only civilians, but all educated men are obliged or expected to understand. This is the common pronunciation over the northeastern provinces of Chihli, Shantung, Nganhwui, and Kiangsu, and somewhat in the contiguous provinces also, though everywhere in these regions with some slight local variations. This dialect is called kwan hwa, and has been usually termed the mandarin [109] dialect, but it is properly the Chinese spoken language, and the variations from it are the dialects and patois. It is evident, how[142]ever, that one sound of a character is no more correct than another; for there being no sound in any character, each one calls it as he has been taught, while all give it the same meaning, exactly as Europeans do with the numerals. Of course, no one can read or write Chinese before he has studied it, and the apparent singularity of people from China, Japan, and Annam all being able to communicate by writing but not converse by speech, is easily explained by the different sounds they give the characters. It is, however, really no more singular than that scholars in all Christian nations understand each others' music and arithmetic, after they have learned those sciences and the mode of notation.

The diversity of pronunciations tends naturally to break up the nation into small communities, and the Chinese owe their present homogeneity and grandeur in no small degree to their written language; for, however, a man may differ in his speech, he is sure that he will be everywhere understood when he writes, and will understand every one who writes to him. It has also been a bond of union from its extensive literature, at once the pride of its own scholars, and the admiration of surrounding nations. It is perhaps owing to the fact that the literature of China contains the canons of the Budhist religion and the ethics of Confucius, that it was adopted by the Japanese, Coreans and Annamese. These nations have taken the characters of the Chinese language, and given them such names as pleased them. In Japan and Corea, there has been no uniform rule of adoption, but the Annamese, who formerly had more intimate connexions with China than at present, approach much nearer to the sounds spoken by the Chinese.

The nature of the relations between these three nations and China, therefore, somewhat resembles that which European nations, we may suppose, now would have towards ancient Greece and Rome, if they still existed as independent powers, and should be visited by scholars[143] from the shores of the Baltic, whose native countries, however, had risen no higher in civilization and morals than their source. The comparison is not complete in all respects, but near enough for analogy. The Japanese have never paid tribute to China, but have been invaded by her armies, and in their turn have ravaged the eastern coasts of the continent. The isolated policy their rulers have adopted, has prevented our tracing those philological comparisons between their original language and those of Siberia or central Asia, which would elucidate its origin. The Japanese up to the time of the sixteenth daïri, named Ouzin Tenwo, had no written character, all the orders of government being proclaimed viva voce. In the year B.C. 284, this monarch sent an embassy to the southern part of Corea, to obtain learned persons who could introduce the civilization and literature of China into his dominions, and obtained Wonin, who fulfilled the royal wishes so satisfactorily, that the Japanese have since accorded him divine honors. Since his day, the Chinese characters have been employed among the Japanese. However, as the construction of the Japanese language differs materially from that of the Chinese, and as the same Chinese character has many meanings, which would be expressed by different words in the native Japanese, confusion and difficulty arose in the use of the symbolic characters. But it was not until the eighth century, that a remedy was provided by the invention of a syllabary, a middle contrivance, partaking chiefly of the nature of an alphabet but containing some traces of hieroglyphics. The characters of this syllabary were formed by taking Chinese characters, either in whole or in part, and using them phonetically, but as indivisible syllables. Consequently, every one of them contained a vowel sound, rendering the language very euphonous. The characters in this syllabary were called katakana, i. e. "parts of letters." There were at first forty-seven, but another was added[144] some years after in order to express the final n, as ma-mo-ra-n, instead of ma-mo-ra-nu, making forty-eight, the present number. This syllabary and that invented for the Cherokees by Guess, are the only two in the world. The number of sounds has been increased from forty-eight to seventy-three, by the addition of diacritical marks to some of the syllables. This syllabary enabled the Japanese to express the sounds of their vernacular without difficulty. But the long use of the Chinese had already introduced a great number of sounds from that language into it, besides giving the people a liking for the elegant and ingenious combinations of that unwieldy medium of thought, so that the scholars in the country still cultivated the more difficult language, and wrote their books in it. The incorporation of Chinese sounds into the native Japanese, seems to have arisen from the necessity of distinguishing between the various meanings of the Chinese character, so that while the native word would express one, the original sound would express another, but the unchangeable symbol stand for both to the eye.

The admiration of the Chinese characters, led in time to the invention of a second syllabary, having the same sounds but far more difficult to learn from the number of characters in it and their complicated forms. It is called hirakana, or "equal writing," because it is intelligible without the addition of Chinese characters; it is now the common medium of communication, in epistolary composition of all kinds, story books, and other everyday uses. There are one hundred and one characters in the hirakana, or nearly three modes of writing each of the forty-eight syllables, and they are run together as rapidly and far more fancifully than in our own running-hand, when that is compared with the Roman character. The characters are mostly contractions of Chinese characters used simply as phonetic symbols, without any more reference to their meaning than in the katakana. The more ancient[145] of the two is now usually employed in dictionaries, by the side of Chinese characters in books to explain them to the reader, or at their bottom to indicate the case of the word. In reading a Chinese book, a good Japanese scholar makes a kind of running translation into his own vernacular, sometimes giving the sound, and sometimes giving the sense, and the katakana is used in the latter case, to indicate the tense, or case of the native word. Having the Chinese language as well as its native stores to draw from, the Japanese is both copious and flexible, and by its syllabic construction, also euphonious and mellifluous, in these respects being far superior to the Chinese. The following stanza is from one of the Dutch writers; it is written with thirty-one syllables.

There are still two other syllabaries, one called Manyo-kana, and the other Yamato-kana, both of which are formed of still more complicated Chinese characters, also used phonetically. Neither of these syllabaries is generally used entirely alone, but the three are joined together or interchanged somewhat according to the fancy of the writer, in a manner similar to Archdeacon Wrangham's famous echo poem. Such a complicated mode of writing has this unfortunate result, however, of so seriously obstructing the avenues to the temple of science, that the greatest part of the common people are unable to enter, and must be content with admiring the structure afar off. Most of them content themselves with learning to write and read in the hirakana, and get as much knowledge of Chinese as will enable them to read the names of places, signs, people, &c., for which those characters are universally used. Besides the phonetic use of Chinese characters[146] in these syllabaries, they are employed very extensively as words, with their own meanings, partly because they are more nervous and expressive in the estimation of the writer than the vernacular, and partly to show his learning and shorten his labor. Commonly, characters so used are called by their Japanese meanings, but sometimes too by their Chinese names.[110]

The connection between the Chinese and Japanese, therefore, is very intimate, and presents a curious instance of assimilation between a symbolic and syllabic language, though at the cost of much hard study and labor to acquire the mongrel compound. It is another example of Asiatic toil upon the media of thought, rather than investigations in the world of thought and science itself; for no people who possessed invention, research, or science, would ever have encumbered themselves with so burdensome a vehicle of communication. The Chinese do not attend to the Japanese language, and have no knowledge of its structure, or the principles on which it has combined with their own. Their intercourse with Japan is entirely commercial; that of the Japanese with them, chiefly literary.

The Coreans have also adopted the Chinese character, but without many of the elaborate modifications in use among the Japanese. They have had more intercourse with the Chinese, but have not been able to make their polysyllabic words assimilate with the monosyllables of the Chinese. They have invented an alphabet, the letters of which combine to form syllables, and these syllabic compounds are then used like the Japanese characters to express their own words. The original letters consist of fifteen consonants, called ka, na, ta, la or ra, ma or ba, pa, sa or sha, nga, tsa or cha, ts´a or ch´a, k´a, t´a, p´a, ha, and wa; and eleven vowels, a, ya, o, yo, oh, yoh, ú, yú, u, í, and âh. The combinations of these form altogether one hundred[147] and sixty-eight syllables, the last fourteen of which are triply combined by introducing the sound of w between the consonants and some of the vowels, as kwa, ts´hwo, &c. The sounds and meanings of Chinese characters are expressed in this syllabary in the duoglott works prepared by the Coreans for learning Chinese; while it is used by itself in works intended for the natives. The Coreans have not, like the Japanese, unnecessarily increased the difficulty of their own language by employing a great number of signs for the same sound, but are content with one series. It is to be hoped that this facility results in a greater diffusion of knowledge among the people. The Japanese have the inflections of cases, moods, tenses and voices, in their language; but these features are denoted in Corean by the collocation of the words, and the words themselves remain unchanged as in Chinese. The sounds of the Corean are pleasant, and both it and the Japanese allow many alterations and elisions for the sake of euphony. Further investigation will probably show some connection originally between the Corean and Manchu languages, though the former of these has been more modified by the Chinese than the latter.[111]

The people of Annam have adopted the Chinese characters without making a syllabary or alphabet to express their own vernacular. The inhabitants of this country are evidently of the same race as the Chinese, and now acknowledge a nominal subjection to the emperor of China by sending a triennial embassy to Peking, partly commercial and partly tributary. The sounds given to the Chinese characters are, however, so unlike those given them in China, that the two nations cannot converse with each other. The Annamese have many sounds in their spoken language which no Chinese can enunciate. The court dialect is learned by educated men, and books are written and printed in Chinese. The sounds given to the[148] characters are all monosyllabic, and slight analogies can be traced running through the variations; but they offer very little assistance to any one, who, knowing only one mode of pronunciation, wishes to learn the other.

Much of the interest connected with the investigation of the Chinese and its cognate tongues, arises from the immense multitudes which speak and write them; and from the influence which China has, through the writings of her sages, exerted over the minds and progress of her neighbors. There is nothing like it in European history; but the spell cast over the intellects of the millions in eastern Asia, by the writings of Confucius, Mencius, and their disciples, is likely erelong to be broken by the infusion of Christian knowledge, the extension of commerce, and a better understanding of their political and social rights by the multitudes who now adopt them.

For much of the information embraced in this memoir on China, Japan, and the adjacent countries, I am indebted to the Chinese Repository, (a monthly journal printed at Canton), and more especially to one of its accomplished editors, Mr. S. Wells Williams. This gentleman during a residence of twelve years in China, has made himself familiar with the written and spoken language of the Chinese, and is ranked, by some of the eminent Sinologists of Europe, among the profoundest adepts in that branch of literature and philology. Mr. Williams has also studied the Japanese language, which he reads and speaks; and is probably the only man in America familiar with the languages of China and Japan. Several natives of Japan, driven by adverse winds from their native shores, found their way to China, and were subsequently taken by an American ship to Yedo, but were not permitted to land. From these men, Mr. Williams has learned the spoken Japanese, and as much of the written language as they could impart. This gentleman is at present in New York making arrangements for getting founts of Chinese, Japanese, and Manchu type, for printing in these languages.[149]

The Chinese Repository is a monthly journal, printed at Canton, and is edited by the Rev. Dr. Bridgman and Mr. Williams. It contains much valuable information relating to China, Japan, and the eastern Archipelago, and frequently memoirs, translated from the Japanese and Chinese. On the whole, it may with truth be said to embody more information than any other work extant, on these countries.

Mr. Williams has now in press a new work on the Chinese empire, which will contain an account of its general political divisions, including Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili and Tibet, their geographical and topographical features. The natural history of China; its government, laws, literature, language, science, industry and arts. Social and domestic life—History and Chronology—Religion; Christian missions; intercourse with other nations; and a full account of the late war with England.

The history of the introduction of Christianity into China, in the seventh century of the Christian era, the traces of which still exist; and of the Jews in China, are subjects which are now attracting attention. It would occupy too much space to give any particulars in this brief memoir. In the list of late works on China, will be found references to such books as treat of the subject, to which the attention of the reader is directed.

The Syrian monument which has been often referred to, is one of great interest, and is believed by all who have examined the subject, to be genuine. This monument was discovered by some Chinese workmen, in the year 1625, in or near the city of Singan, the capital of the province of Shensi, and once the metropolis of the empire. The monument was found covered with rubbish, and was immediately reported to the magistrate, who caused it to be removed to a pagoda, where it was examined by both natives and foreigners, Christians and Pagans. It was a slab of marble, about ten feet long and five broad. It contained on one side a Chinese inscription, which was[150] translated by Father Kircher into Latin, and by Dalquié into French. Mr. Bridgman has given an English translation, and has published the three versions, accompanied by the original Chinese, with explanatory notes. This inscription commemorates the progress of Christianity in China, and was erected in the year of the Christian era 718. Mr. Bridgman who is one of the most learned in the Chinese language, says in conclusion, that "there are strong internal evidences of its being the work of a professor of Christianity, and such we believe it to be."[112]

Other portions of this memoir might be very much enlarged, but would extend it beyond the bounds of the resumé, which it is intended to give. There are besides other countries and people, accounts of which it would be desirable to give place to, particularly those of Central Asia, but they are unavoidably passed over from the space that would be required to do them justice. The object of this paper is to awaken the attention of readers to the geographical and ethnographical discoveries made within the last few years, all of which have a bearing on the history and progress of the human race. If the author has succeeded in so doing, he will feel abundantly repaid for his labor.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In a paper read by Mr. Schoolcraft before the American Ethnological Society, it was clearly shown by existing remains, in Michigan and Indiana, plans of which were exhibited, that vast districts of country, now covered by forests and prairies, bear incontestable proofs of having been subject to cultivation at a remote period and before the forest had begun its growth.

[2] This figure of an extended hand is the most common of all the symbols of the aboriginal tribes of America. It is found on the ancient temples, and within the tombs of Yucatan. At the earliest period it was used by the Indians, in the United States, and at the present time, it is employed by the roving bands and large tribes from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, and from Texas northward.

[3] "Bottoms" and "bottom lands," are terms applied to the flat lands adjoining rivers. In the State of New York they are called "flats"—as the "Mohawk flats."

[4] Second Note sur une pierre gravée trouvé dans un ancien tumulus Americain, et à cette occasion, sur l'idiome Libyen, par M. Jomard. 8vo. Paris, 1846.

[5] See Mr. Catherwood's paper on the Thugga monument and its inscriptions, in the Ethnolg. Trans. Vol. I. p. 477.

[6] Notes on Africa. p.

[7] The essay here alluded to, was the reply of Mr. Jomard to a note addressed to him by Mr. Eugene Vail, in 1839, announcing the discovery of the inscribed tablet in the Grave-creek mound, and requesting his opinion in relation to it. In this reply, Mr. Jomard stated that they were of the same character with the inscriptions found by Major Denham in the interior of Africa, as well as in Algiers and Tunis. This note was inserted in Mr. Vail's work entitled "Notice sur les Indiens de l'Amerique du Nord." Paris, 1840. This work is scarcely known in the United States.

[8] I am aware that many believe the sculptures on the Dighton rock to contain several alphabetic characters. Prof. Rafn in his learned and ingenious memoir on this inscription, supports this view. In fact, Mr. Jomard himself hints at their Phœnician origin.

[9] Histoire Naturelle des Canaries. Tom. I. p. 23

[10] Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, &c., by a New Englander. p. 198.

[11] Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, California, &c. by a New Englander. p. 180.

[12] Auburn (New York) Banner, 1837.

[13] Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 315. (London ed. in 4 vols. 8vo.)

[14] Life and Travels in California. p. 372.

[15] Dr. Lyman states, that "in the autumn of 1841, an American trader with thirty-five men, went from Bents fort to the Navijo country, built a breastwork with his bales of goods, and informed the astonished Indians, that he had 'come into their country to trade or fight, which ever they preferred.' The campaigns of the old trappers were too fresh in their memory to allow hesitation. They chose to trade, and soon commenced a brisk business."

[16] Humboldt's Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 316. On the testimony of the missionaries of the Collegio de Queretaro, versed in the Aztec language, M. Humboldt states, that the language spoken by the Moqui Indians is essentially different from the Mexican language. In the seventeenth century, missionaries were established among the Moquis and Navijos, who were massacred in the great revolt of the Indians in 1680.

[17] Clavigero, Hist. Mexico. Vol. 1, p. 151. Humboldt's Polit. Essay on New Spain, Vol. 2. p. 300. A more detailed account of these remains, may be found in the Appendix to Castaneda's "Relation du Voyage de Cibola en 1540," published in the "Relations et memoirs originaux" of Ternaux-Compans. The state of the country, the manners and customs of the Indians, and their peculiar state of civilization are given at length, and are interesting in this enquiry. The notice of the "Grande Maison, dite de Moctezuma," is extracted from the journal of Father Pedro Font, who traversed this country to Monterey, on the Pacific, in 1775.

[18] Report to the Royal Geographical Society, London, Nov. 9, 1846.

[19] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Feb. 1846. p. 146.

[20] London Athenæum, Aug. 8, 1846, in which is a condensed account of this journey.

[21] Simmond's Colonial Magazine. Vol. V. p. 87.

[22] There is evidently some mistake in these dimensions, which would give a mass of masonry many times larger than the great pyramid at Ghizeh.

[23] London Athenæum, Nov. 9. 1846.

[24] Journal of the Geographical Society. Vol. 16.

[25] Missionary Herald, vol. 41. p. 218.

[26] London Athenæum, March 7, 1846.

[27] Ibid. Oct. 31, 1846.

[28] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Rapport par M. Roger. 1846. p. 321.

[29] London Athenæum, July 4, 1846.

[30] London Athenæum, July, 1845.

[31] The Geography of N'Yassi, or the Great Lake of Southern Africa, investigated, with an account of the overland route from the Quanza, in Angola, to the Zambezi, in the government of Mozambique, by Wm. Desbrough Cooley, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, London. Vol. xv.

[32] Notes on African Geography, by James M'Queen.—Ibid. Contributions towards the Geography of Africa, by James McQueen, in Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Vol. vi.

[33] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 15, p. 371.

[34] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages: May, 1846, p. 139.

[35] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de France, for 1845, p. 251.

[36] Notice sur le Progrès des découvertes Géographiques pendant l'année, 1845, par V. de St. Martin. Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, p. 245.

[37] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Notes Ethnologiques, sur la race blanche des Aures. Par M. Guyon. Janvier, 1846, p. 116.

[38] Comptes-Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 29 Dec. 1845.

[39] Revue Archæologique, Nov. 1845.

[40] The incident which led to the discovery of this alphabet is deserving of notice. An Algerine named Sidy-Hamdan-Ben-Otsman-Khodja, who had gained the confidence of the Duke of Rovigo, then Governor of Algiers, was in correspondence with the Bey of Constantine. The Hadji Ahmed, to render this correspondence more sure, wrote his letters in conventional signs, known among certain Arabs by the name of romouz.

Ali the son of Sidy-Hamdan, who was the bearer of these Missives, had lived a long time in France as an officer in the employ of the Sublime Porte; and in his hands M. Boisonnet one day discovered the letters of Hadji Ahmed. On glancing his eye over one of these documents he discovered at the top (en vedette) two groups of signs, which, from their situation, he readily imagined might be the equivalents of the Arab sacramental words, Praise be to God, with which all good Musselmen generally begin an epistle. With this supposition he applied the alphabetic value to each character, and thus obtained the value of six of these strange cyphers. The next day he obtained two of these documents or letters from Ali, who little suspected what use he intended making of them. With these materials he diligently applied himself, and on the following morning sent him a complete translation of the letters. Ali was greatly alarmed that Mr. Boisonnet had solved the enigma, but more so that he had thereby become acquainted with the correspondence.

Struck with the analogy between these characters and the Lybian characters on the Thugga monument, he applied the alphabet discovered by him, and the result is known.—Revue Archæologique, November, 1845.

[41] See De Saulcy. Revue des deux Mondes, June, 1846.

[42] The accident which led to this second discovery deserves to be mentioned. The person into whose hands the manuscript fell, while examining the leaves which were remarkably thick, accidentally spilt a tumbler of water on it. In order to dry it he placed it in the sun in a window, when the parchment that was wet separated. He opened the leaves which had been sealed and found the Pagan manuscript between them. A farther examination showed that the entire volume was similarly formed.

[43] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 233.

[44] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 59.

[45] Missionary Herald, vol. 42, p. 100.

[46] Letter to the Hon. C.J. Ingersoll, chairman of the committee on foreign affairs, containing some brief notices respecting the present state, productions, trade, commerce, &c. of the Comoro Islands, Abyssinia, Persia, Burma, Cochin China, the Indian Archipelago, and Japan; and recommending that a special mission be sent by the government of the United States, to make treaties and extend our commercial relations with those countries: by Aaron H. Palmer, councillor of the Supreme Court of the United States.

[47] See "China Mail" newspaper, for March 26, 1846.

[48] Frazer's Magazine, 1846. In this Magazine is an article of much interest on the commercial relations of the Indian Archipelago.

[49] Annals of the Propagation of the Faith. Sept. 1846.

[50] London Evangelical Magazine, August, 1846.

[51] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, 1846. Extrait d'une description de l'archipel des îles Solo, p. 311.

[52] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, for 1846, p. 365.

[53] Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land.

[54] Address of Lord Colchester to Count Strzelecki on presenting him with the medal.

[55] Discoveries in Australia, vol. 1. p. 252.

[56] p. 394.

[57] vol. 2. p. 10.

[58] London Athenæum, July 25, 1846. Ibid. Aug. 8, 1846.

[59] Report of Dr. Leichardt's Expedition, Simmonds' Colonial Magazine, vol. 2, 1845.

[60] London Athenæum. Nov. 3, 1846.

[61] Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Nov. 1846.

[62] Herodotus, in speaking of the subjugation of Lycia, by Cyrus and Harpagus, says; "When Harpagus led his army towards Xanthus, the Lycians boldly advanced to meet him, and, though inferior in numbers, behaved with the greatest bravery. Being defeated and pursued into their city, they collected their wives, children and valuable effects, into the citadel, and there consumed the whole in one immense fire.... Of those who now inhabit Lycia, calling themselves Xanthians, the whole are foreigners, eighty families excepted."—Clio, 176. See also Clio, 171-173.

Herodotus further states that the Lycians originated from the Cretans, a branch of the Hellenic race; and Strabo, in a fragment preserved from Ephorus, states that the Lycians were a people of Greek origin, who had settled in the country previously occupied by the barbarous tribes of Mylians and Solymi.

Homer briefly alludes to the Lycians, who, at the siege of Troy, assisted the Trojans under certain rulers whose names are mentioned.—Iliad, b. v. and xii.

[63] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol. IX.

[64] Ibid. Vol. XV. p. 104.

[65] Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, Vol. I. p. 92.

[66] Particulars read to the meeting of Royal Geographical Society of London, November 9, 1846.—London Ath.

[67] Les Steppes de la mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimée et la Russie méridionale; voyage Pittoresque, Historique et Scientifique; par X. Hommaire de Hell. 3 vols. royal 8vo. and folio atlas of Plates. Paris, 1845.

[68] I feel warranted in going back and tracing the progress of these discoveries, as so little is known of it by English readers. The translation of Grotefend's essay in Heeren's Researches, was the only accessible original treatise on the subject, until the recent publications of Major Rawlinson and Prof. Westergaard. In Germany, much has been written and some in France. These papers are chiefly in antiquarian or philological Transactions and are scarcely known here. A full account of the discovery in question, of its progress and present state, seems therefore necessary.

[69] Grotefend's Essay on the cuneiform inscriptions, in Heeren's Asiatic Nations. Vol. II. p. 334.

[70] The Zendavesta is one of the most ancient as well as remarkable books that has come down to us from the East. It was first made known in Europe in the year 1762, by Anquetil du Perron, who brought it from Surat in India, whither he went expressly to search for the ancient books of the East. He spent many years (seventeen it is said) in making a translation, which he accompanied with valuable notes, illustrative of the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in elucidation of the Zend language, in which this book was written. A great sensation was produced in Europe among the learned at the appearance of the work. Examined as a monument of the ancient religion and literature of the Persians, it was differently appreciated by them. Sir William Jones [A] and others, not only questioned its authenticity, but denounced the translator in very harsh terms. But later writers, among these some of the most distinguished philologists of Europe, are willing to let it rank among the earliest books of the East, and as entitled to an antiquity at least six centuries anterior to the Christian era.

The Zendavesta (from zend living, and avesta word, i. e. "the living word") consists of a series of liturgic services for various occasions, and bears the same reference to the books of Zoroaster that our breviaries and common-prayer books do to the Bible. It embraces five books. 1. The Izechné, "elevation of the soul, praise, devotion;" 2. the Vispered, "the chiefs of the beings there named;" 3. the Vendidad, which is considered as the foundation of the law; 4. the Yeshts Sades, or "a collection of compositions and of fragments;" 5. the book Siroz, "thirty days," containing praises addressed to the Genius of each day; and which is a sort of liturgical calendar.[B]

The doctrines inculcated in the Zendavesta are "the existence of a great first principle. Time without beginning and without end. This incomprehensible being is the author of the two great active powers of the universe—Ormuzd the principle of all good, and Ahriman the principle of all evil. Ormuzd is the first creative agent produced by the Self-Existent. He is perfectly pure, intelligent, just, powerful, active, benevolent,—in a word, the precise image of the Element; the centre and author of the perfections of all nature." Ahriman is the opposite of this. He is occupied in perverting and corrupting every thing good; he is the source of misery and evil. "Ordained to create and govern the universe, Ormuzd received the Word, which in his mouth became an instrument of infinite power and fruitfulness."[C]

"The first created man was composed of the four elements,—fire, air, water, and earth. "Ormuzd to this perishable frame added an immortal spirit, and the being was complete." The soul of man consists of separate parts, each having peculiar offices. "1. The principle of sensation. 2. The principle of intelligence. 3. The principle of practical judgment. 4. The principle of conscience. 5. The principle of animal life." After death, "the principle of animal life mingles with the winds," the body being regarded as a mere instrument in the power of the will. The first three are accountable for the deeds of the body, and are examined at the day of judgment. "This law or religion is still professed by the descendants of the Persians, who, conquered by the Mohammedans, have not submitted to the Koran; they partly inhabit Kirman and partly the western coast of India, to the north and south of Surat."[D] The traces which are apparent in the Zendavesta of Hindoo superstitions, indicate that its author borrowed from the sacred books of India, while its sublime doctrines evidently point to the Pentateuch.

Mr. Eugene Burnouf is now publishing at Paris a new translation of the Zendavesta from a Sanscrit version under the title of "Commentaire sur le Yaçna," in which he has embodied a vast deal of oriental learning, illustrative of the geography, history, religion and language of ancient Persia. The first volume was published in 1833.

[A] Sir William Jones's Works. Vol. X. p. 403.

[B] See note to the "Dabistan." Pub. for the Oriental Translations Fund. Vol. I. p. 225.

[C] Frazer's History of Persia. p. 150-157.

[D] Note to the "Dabistan." Vol. 1. p. 222. by its editor, A. Troyer.

[71] The modern title of the sovereign of Persia, Shah, is at once recognised in the ancient name Kshe or Ksha of the monuments.

[72] Mémoire sur deux Inscriptions cuneiforms, trouvées près d'Hamadan. Paris, 1836.

[73] Die Alt-Persischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Bonn, 1836. The other papers of Prof. Lassen may be found in the "Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes," a periodical work published at Bonn, exclusively devoted to Oriental subjects. It is the most learned work on Oriental Philology and Archæology published in Europe.

[74] While Major Rawlinson was occupied in Persia, the subject was attracting much attention among the Orientalists of Europe. Burnouf and Lassen, as we have seen, then published the results of their investigations, which were afterwards found to be almost identical with those of Major R. Neither of these scholars was aware at the time of the others' labors. This is an interesting fact, and establishes the correctness of the conclusions at which they eventually arrived.

[75] The Zend language is known to us chiefly by the "Zendavesta." Of its antiquity there is doubt. Some philologists believe that it grew up with the decline of the old Persian, or was formed on its basis, with an infusion from the Sanscrit, Median, and Scythic languages. It was used in the time of Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 550, at which period Zoroaster lived, who employed the Zend in the composition of the "Zendavesta." Its antiquity has formed the subject of many memoirs; but late writers, among whom are Rask, Eugene Burnouf, Bopp, and Lassen, have decided from the most severe tests of criticism, that the Zend was an ancient language derived from the same source as the Sanscrit, and that it was spoken before the Christian era, particularly in the countries situated west of the Caspian Sea, in Georgia, Iran proper, and northern Media. Note to the Dabistan, Vol. I. p. 222. The only specimen of this language yet known, with the exception of a few MSS. of little importance among the Parsees, is the Zendavesta. Major Rawlinson [A] adopts views at variance with those of the distinguished German philologists, in regard to the antiquity of the Zend language. Its "very elaborate vocalic organization," he thinks, "indicates a comparatively recent era for the formation of its alphabet;" and of the Zend-Avesta, he is of opinion that "the disfigurement of authentic history affords an argument of equal weight against the antiquity of its composition." He fully agrees, however, with all others as to the very remote composition of the books generally ascribed to Zoroaster. In fact this is beyond all question, for Plato mentions them (Pol. B. XXX.). Clemens of Alexandria says they were known in the 5th century B.C. and many other ancient writers could be cited in proof of the same.[B]

[A] See Rawlinson. Memoir on Cuneiform Inscriptions. Note to page 42.

[B] See a note to the "Dabistan," Vol. I. p. in which is given a list of all the ancient writers who mention Zoroaster and his works.

[76] On the Decyphering of the Median species of Arrow-headed Writing, by N.L. Westergaard, in the Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1844.

[77] Memoir on the Cuneiform Inscriptions, p. 20.

[78] Ibid. p. 28.

[79] On the Median variety of Arrow-headed Writing. Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires du Nord, for 1844. p. 272.

[80] Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 1844-45. Prof. Westergaard has also published his paper in English, in the Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhagen, 1844, prefixing to it Lassen's alphabet of the first sort of Persepolitan writing. He was probably induced to do this by observing the limited extent to which the German language is cultivated by English scholars, insomuch that even Rawlinson complains that he was unable to read any more of Lassen's papers than his translations of the inscriptions, which are in Latin.

[81] Memoir on the Persian cuneiform inscriptions. p. 47.

[82] Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1844 '45.

[83] For inscription see Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, plate 24, and page 254.

[84] Revue Archæologique. October, 1844.

[85] Westergaard in Mém. de la Socié. Royale des Antiq. du Nord, p. 419. Ibid. p. 423.

[86] Lettres de M. Botta sur les découvertes à Khorsabad, près de Ninive; publiées par M.J. Mohl.

[87] London Times, June, 1846. Two interesting letters from Mr. Layard, dated August 12, 1846, to Mr. Kellogg, of Cincinnati, were read before the American Ethnological Society, at its meeting in February, giving further accounts of his discoveries.

[88] See London Athenæum, Oct. 10, 1846, a letter from Constantinople dated Sept. 10.

[89] The prophet Daniel in his vision of four beasts says, "The first was like a lion, and had eagles' wings; I beheld till the wings thereof were plucked, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made stand upon the feet as a man." Daniel, ch. VII. v. 4. The resemblance between the animal of Daniel's vision and those recently discovered at Nineveh is striking.

[90] Richardson in the Preface to his Persian Dictionary.

[91] Preface to the "Dabistan" published by the Oriental Trans. Fund:—by A. Troyer. Vol. I. p. 30.

[92] Annales des Voyages, April, 1845, p. 58.

[93] Ld. Colchester's Address, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1846.

[94] Address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at its meeting, September, 1846.

[95] The Royal Geographical Society of London has conferred its Victoria Gold Medal on Prof. Middendorff for his successful exploration.

[96] Lord Colchester's Address before the Royal Geog. Society. London, 1846.

[97] Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 138.

[98] Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 206.

[99] English Baptist Missionary Report for 1845. p. 9.

[100] It appears that the Baptist Missionary Society in the year ending in March, 1845,[A] expended in India $29,500, of which sum nearly $15,000, or rather more than one half, was expended in making translations of books into various languages. The remainder was for the support of the missionaries, their outfits and passages, the support of native teachers—schools &c. The languages and dialects which have been studied and elucidated and into which books have been translated may be summed up as follows.

32 languages and dialects in India,
4 do. do. in Persia and the Caucasian countries,
5 do. in China and the Indo-Chinese countries,
4 do. in Polynesia.

The translations consist of the whole or portions of the Scriptures; books on religious or moral subjects; elementary works on Science, popular Histories, geography, &c. Elementary books in the several departments of Science and History constitute the greater variety, though of the whole number of works distributed, the Bible and Testament constitute by far the greatest part. For example, the English Baptist Missionary Society printed and issued in the year ending March 1845, fifty-five thousand copies of the Bible and Testament in the Sanscrit, Bengali, Hindostani, and Armenian languages. The number of books printed and distributed in India by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions was as follows.

Madras Mission. In the Tamil and English languages: The Scriptures or portions of them—books of a religious character—elementary school books—tracts—periodicals and reports of benevolent associations bearing on the cause of Christianity and the social and intellectual improvement of the population of India, there were printed at this single establishment, within a fraction of twenty-seven millions of pages—or, if in volumes of two hundred and seventy pages each, one hundred thousand volumes; but as there were many tracts, the number was doubtless double or treble. Besides this there are six other large establishments in Southern India, where books in the Tamil language are printed, all under the control of Missionary Societies.

Ceylon Mission. In the Tamil and English languages were printed during the year, twenty-three thousand seven hundred and forty-four volumes, and one hundred and forty-five thousand tracts, amounting to six million one hundred and fifty-six thousand pages.

Siam Mission. In the Siamese language were printed in two years two million four hundred and sixty-two thousand pages.

When so much is accomplished by one Society, how vast must be the influence exerted by the various Missionary and Tract Societies engaged in the same cause.

[A] Report of the English Baptist Missionary Society for 1845.

[101] Missionary Herald, Vol. XLV. p. 47.

[102] Chinese Repository. Vol. XV. p. 113.

[103] Annals of the Propaganda for 1846. p. 55.

[104] Ibid. July, 1846.

[105] Annals of the Propaganda for September, 1845.

[106] Chinese Repository, Vol. xii. p. 78.

[107] Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, July, 1846.

[108] Chinese Repository, Vol. xiv. p. 155.

[109] It is desirable that this word be expunged from all works on China and eastern Asia, and the proper words officers, authorities, magistrates, &c., be used instead. Every officer, from a prime minister to a constable or tide-waiter, is called a mandarin by foreigners, partly because those who write do not know the rank of the person, and partly from the common custom of calling many things in China by some peculiar term, as if they were unlike the same things elsewhere.

[110] Chinese Repository, Vol. X, pp. 205-215.

[111] Chinese Repository. Vol. I., p. 276; Vol. II., pp. 135-138.

[112] Chinese Repository. Vol. XIV. p. 202.

The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Progress of Ethnology

THE

PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY

AN ACCOUNT OF RECENT

ARCHÆOLOGICAL, PHILOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL

RESEARCHES

IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE.

TENDING TO ELUCIDATE

THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

BY

JOHN RUSSELL BARTLETT,

COR. SEC. OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, AND FOREIGN COR. SEC. OF THE NEW YORK HIST. SOCIETY.

SECOND EDITION.

NEW YORK:
BARTLETT & WELFORD, 7 ASTOR HOUSE.
1847.

NEW YORK:
WILLIAM VAN NORDEN, PRINTER,
NO. 39 WILLIAM STREET.

CONTENTS.

THE PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

NORTH AMERICA.

SOUTH AMERICA.

AFRICA.

ALGIERS.

EGYPT.

EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.

ASIA.

ARABIA.

ASSYRIA AND PERSIA.

COCHIN-CHINA, CHINA, MANCHURIA, COREA, AND JAPAN.

JAPAN.

FOOTNOTES:

Transcriber's Notes:

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Progress of Ethnology

THE

PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY

AN ACCOUNT OF RECENT ARCHÆOLOGICAL, PHILOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL

RESEARCHES

IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE. TENDING TO ELUCIDATE

THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

BY

JOHN RUSSELL BARTLETT,

COR. SEC. OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, AND FOREIGN COR. SEC. OF THE NEW YORK HIST. SOCIETY. SECOND EDITION. NEW YORK: BARTLETT & WELFORD, 7 ASTOR HOUSE. 1847.

NEW YORK: WILLIAM VAN NORDEN, PRINTER, NO. 39 WILLIAM STREET.

CONTENTS.

THE PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

NORTH AMERICA.

SOUTH AMERICA.

AFRICA.

ALGIERS.

EGYPT.

EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.

ASIA.

ARABIA.

ASSYRIA AND PERSIA.

COCHIN-CHINA, CHINA, MANCHURIA, COREA, AND JAPAN.

JAPAN.

FOOTNOTES:

Transcriber's Notes:

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

AN ACCOUNT OF RECENT

ARCHÆOLOGICAL, PHILOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL

IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE.

TENDING TO ELUCIDATE

COR. SEC. OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, AND FOREIGN COR. SEC. OF THE NEW YORK HIST. SOCIETY.

SECOND EDITION.

NEW YORK:
BARTLETT & WELFORD, 7 ASTOR HOUSE.
1847.

NEW YORK:
WILLIAM VAN NORDEN, PRINTER,
NO. 39 WILLIAM STREET.