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DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, TO WIT:

BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the Tenth day of August, in the Thirty Fifth year of the Independence of the United States of America, A. D. 1810, William Duane of the said district, hath deposited in this office, the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following, to wit: “A Military Dictionary; or, Explanation of the several systems of discipline of different kinds of Troops, Infantry, Artillery, and Cavalry; the Principles of Fortification, and all the Modern Improvements in the Science of Tactics: comprising the Pocket Gunner, or Little Bombardier; the Military Regulations of the United States; the Weights, Measures, and Monies of all Nations; the Technical Terms and Phrases of the Art of War in the French language. Particularly adapted to the use of the Military institutions of the United States: by William Duane, late lieutenant colonel in the army of the United States, and author of the American Military Library. An army without discipline is but a mob in uniform, more dangerous to itself than to its enemy. Should any one from ignorance not perceive the immense advantages that arise from a good discipline, it will be sufficient to observe the alterations that have happened in Europe since the year 1700. Saxe. I am fully convinced that the tactics of Frederic II. the causes of his superiority, of his system of battles and lines, and of his most skilful movements have been wholly misunderstood to the present time, and that the actions of this great man have been attributed to maxims diametrically opposite to his real principles. Jomini....1808.”

In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, intituled “an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned.” And also to the Act, entitled “an Act supplementary to an Act, entitled ‘an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned,’ and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints.”

When the editor first undertook to prepare a Military Library for general use, he was stimulated thereto by perceiving the total decay of military information, and the gross errors, in particulars the most simple and essential, which every where had superceded or obstructed useful knowlege. War at the moment seemed to be impending. There was no organization of the militia, nor any system established, excepting an incomplete elementary hand book, formed during the revolution, and adapted to fix those who had already some military experience of the first evolutions of a battalion, in a common method.

This book, no way calculated to teach the initiatory exercises, nor to give an idea of the combined manœuvres of larger bodies; nor any method of instruction, nor the duties of any other body than an infantry battalion, was improperly dignified with the name of a system. The most elevated in power as well as the most subordinate in military or militia duty, adopted this false notion of a system, without enquiring further than that it was established. When such a tract was held forth as sufficient by the authority of law and by the silent indifference of those who knew or ought to know better, it is not at all surprizing that every other object of military study was neglected, since every other was announced to be superfluous.

This state of general indifference or unacquaintance with the business of war, gave rise to the American Military Library; in which the editor intended originally to have comprehended a vocabulary of military terms; and had made so much progress in its preparation, as to discover that it would make a large book, and that any thing short of a minute and comprehensive Dictionary, would be leaving the undertaking still incomplete. The general want of knowlege on the subject, the inaccuracy of the notions which prevailed, and above all the great revolutions which modern times had produced in the whole economy and ordination of military science, decided the editor upon the necessity of rendering the undertaking as complete as practicable, by giving to the public a competent book of reference, so necessary to study in the acquisition of every species of knowlege.

After some numbers of the Library had been published, the French Military Dictionary of 1768, and the English Military Dictionary of major James, fell into the editor’s hands. These works rendered much of what had been already done superfluous, though not entirely useless; the French work had been antiquated long before the revolution, by the changes which took place in the French establishment in 1788 and 1791, and still more by the total renovation which it underwent during the revolution. The English Dictionary labored under difficulties of another nature; adapted to England alone, the military system of England, called by the name of Dundas, which was only a modification of the Prussian system of Saldern, and the French system formed in imitation of the Prussian after the seven years war, must necessarily be to a British officer the standard of a work published for the British army; accordingly, although major James, both from his fine understanding and experience, was well acquainted with the defects of that system, he was still under the necessity of making it his standard.

In undertaking to give a work to the American people, the publication of either the French or English Dictionary, though it might equally profit the bookseller, would be only imposing upon the public, instead of giving the best information and the most recent and approved principles and improvements in the art of war: it was necessary therefore almost to re-write, and to augment to a vast bulk the quantity of information. The whole has been, therefore, modelled[iv] and adapted throughout to the modern principles of discipline and general tactics. So much of what is old has been retained as may give some correct ideas of the systems of other nations; and the body of information, as well as of words of reference, renders this the most ample and particular Military Dictionary that has been published in the language.

To the general mass has been added the useful little work called the Little Bombardier, or Pocket Gunner, originally compiled for the British artillerists from the French Manuel de l’Artilleur of Durtubie. The measures of extent and capacity, and the monies of all foreign nations: under the words Tactics, Military Schools, Topographical Depot, Money, Weights and Measures, Valor, and generally throughout the work will be found a vast body of new information, particularly adapted to the communication of correct knowlege to all who wish to comprehend military subjects.

A too prevalent error, and the most fatal if we should ever be engaged in war, and not acquire more perfect and general knowlege, is, that the art of war requires neither study nor much attention to what is called discipline; and this error has obtained a sort of sanctity from the triumphs of our undisciplined yeomanry over the British, Hanoverian, Wurtemburg, and Hessian veterans in our revolution. Undoubtedly without an examination into the causes of the triumphs in a more particular manner than general history presents, the assumption is very imposing, and adapted to flatter self-love and national pride.

These natural and often useful passions must, nevertheless, be restrained like all others within the bounds of reason; and, in order to avoid the danger which may flow from our prejudices, we must endeavor to consider our own circumstances with eyes as dispassionate as we should those of strangers. We must enquire, what was the state of military knowlege in the armies of the invaders; whether they exhibited any of the great qualities which constitute well disciplined troops or great generals; whether the whole course of their military transactions was not a series of blunders, produced by their ignorance of our people and country; and even in a great degree owing to the want of talents in the officers of the enemy, to supply by their genius and spirit of enterprize, the disadvantages under which they labored. It would require only an enumeration of a few facts to shew, that although the patience with which the American troops endured hardships and privations, afford glorious examples of the military virtues; that even these great virtues, conducted as they were, by a general who united in himself the military qualities of a Fabius and a Scipio, could not have had so much success were it not for the want of a good discipline, and the utter incapacity of the generals of the British army.

In the modern wars of the French revolution, the like truths have been demonstrated as in the American contest. The British armies had been merely taught the duties of parade, and when they came into the field, had to learn by hard fighting and severe defeats, that their officers were generally ignorant of the art of war; for they were beaten once more by raw troops ably conducted to the field by experienced officers, who possessed skill, who had made military science their study; and, above all, who knew how to take advantage of the incompetency of the British leaders.

Mankind in every country, educated in the same way, varies very little in those points which are adapted to military services. It must, therefore, in a great measure depend upon the education which is applied to military affairs, in the discipline of armies, whether they are victors or vanquished. All nations profess to have acted upon this opinion, though there seems not to be that attention paid to the subject, nor to education of any kind, which the acknowleged importance of the case calls for. This indifference or heedlessness has at times infected all nations, and may be considered as a disease, which if not cured at a certain stage, ensures destruction.

The triumphs of Spain before the peace of Vervins in 1598, is a most important part of history for the study of men fond of military enquiries; the infantry of Spain was then the first in Europe; we have seen in the years 1808 and 1809, that the extinction, by the neglect of military knowlege, has left Spain, with ten millions of people, an easy conquest. Austria and Prussia have successively shone preeminent on the military theatre of Europe. The daily parades at Berlin, which Frederic II. conducted himself for many years, and from which strangers were excluded, were only lessons of experiment and instruction by which he formed his own mind to the conviction of the power of rapid movement, and close[v] evolutions by small divisions; divisions moving in different modes, and by different points, in apparent disorder but by the most exact laws, to one common point of action. Here it was that he contrived those methods which he accomplished in action afterwards, and which enabled him, with a force not equal to half the Austrian army, to baffle, defeat, and triumph over all Europe. It will be useful for the man of sense to consider, whether Frederic could have performed such wonders in the field, without this previous practice himself, and the previous discipline which rendered his armies of 40,000 as manageable as a battalion of 500 men. Perhaps we shall be told that Steuben’s tract renders all these considerations unnecessary.

The military triumphs of modern France have been ascribed to a multitude of causes; really, perhaps, the causes of her military successes may be reduced to two. First, the necessity which arose out of what has been preposterously called the balance of power in Europe, which under the pretence of maintaining an equality of nations, has been the real mask for reiterated wars, conquests, plunder, and desolation; Spain, Austria, and France, have been at different periods held up as aspiring to universal dominion; under the color of resisting the aggrandizement of either, they have been for two centuries constantly engaged in efforts to plunder each other. France, from her position, was from the passions of the age, forced to be prepared for the defensive; and in several successive wars had made conquests on her extremities, which rendered it daily more necessary to maintain a military establishment; and at length, after suffering great disasters, and thereby producing a succession of great generals, the passions and character of the people became military.

Taught by triumphs and disasters, the causes of success and failure, her generals and statesmen directed their attention to the perfection of all the branches of military institution; the management of weapons, the array of troops, the plans of marches, the supply of armies, the passage of rivers, and the simplification of every species of duty. Colleges were instituted, the sciences were enlisted in the military service, and it was difficult to tell in which class of citizens the greatest military enthusiasm prevailed....the nobles who alone could aspire to command, or the privates who composed the rank and file of armies.

It is to these institutions, through which the path to honor and renown lay, that France owes her present preeminence. Under several heads of this Dictionary will be found the facts upon which this opinion is sustained; other nations rather aped than emulated her institutions; while France pursued the spirit of the Romans who adopted every weapon which they found powerful in the hands of their enemies; France adopted the prolonged line of the Austrians, or abandoned it to pursue the concentric movements of Prussia; those echellons which under another name were among the manœuvres of Scipio and Gustavus Adolphus, and which so many have affected to laugh at as novelties, because they know neither their history nor their use; were recommended by Guibert in 1763, as the column had been before recommended by Folard; and each of whom had been calumniated and their tactics reprobated, by the enemies of innovation, or rather by the blockheads of their day, a class of beings of which some are to be found every where.

The rapid principles of Frederic, and the evolutions of the echellon and column adapted to the concentric method of movement, upon oblique as well as direct lines; and all executed with a combined precision before unusual, constitute the great features of the modern tactics. Simplicity of method in instruction is the key to it.

It must be evident to the humblest understanding, that a great part of the success of armies in war must depend as much upon the knowlege of the enemies’ mode of movement and action, as well as in the perfection, precision, and promptitude of execution in their own. Voltaire, whose history of Europe is alike admirable for its conciseness and authenticity, since all his information on military affairs was drawn from the military depot established at Versailles, speaking of the battle of Rosbach, attributes the defeat of the French under Soubise to their ignorance of the new methods of movement which had been introduced by Frederic II. The soldiers saw that the old method of battle was changed; they did not comprehend the motions of the Prussians, which were not merely novel, but as exact as the movements on a parade; they believed they saw their masters in the art of war, they were dismayed and fled.

[vi]

This anecdote, which has many resemblances in ancient history, is of great moment in directing the understanding to the consideration of military institution. It leaves no doubt of the necessity of knowing the art of war as it is practised by other nations, and especially the importance of practising that which has proved superior to all others.

A fatality has attended all the efforts which have been made for several years to introduce a suitable organization of the militia, and a correct military system. The genius of ignorance appears to have cast a spell over all the attempts that have been made. Like the projector who was so much occupied by the erection of a weathercock, that he set about it before the foundation for the steeple was laid, every attempt has been made at the wrong end; a part has been mistaken for a whole, composed of numerous parts, and the wrong part has always been chosen first. America, which has been so original in the revolution as to give rise to the institution of rifle corps, which have decided seven-eighths of the battles that have been fought in Europe since; has been led to resort constantly to the very system of which America proved the futility, for precepts and examples; instead of profiting by the march of science, we have gone for instruction to the worst military institutions of Europe. When any person intrusted with the military concerns of the U. States wants information, it is to authorities exploded and condemned by men of military knowlege, reference is made. A minister of England in addressing that nation in 1806, at the very moment when it was announced to that nation that the bellum ad internicionem had only then begun..... that “the war was now at the foot of her walls,” had the honesty, which times of danger extracts even from ministers, to declare....“The military system of England was equally in want of repairs, or rather a thorough rebuilding, even to its foundation stone.” There is no truth more certain, yet it is to this tattered and defenceless fabric we resort for models on every occasion. The bill for establishing a quarter-master general’s department, which was before congress in 1809-10, is a scion of this decayed tree; no doubt that as long as the present apology for a system exists, the proposed department may serve, as a crutch is of use to a body stricken with paralysis.

Military science even in France, where it has now reached the greatest perfection, has had to struggle with selfishness and the occasional and almost insuperable difficulties, which the appointment of ministers incompetent and inexperienced in military affairs, threw in their way. Folard is reputed to have died broken-hearted, by the persecution which he experienced from stupid generals and ministers who looked to nothing but official patronage. Levrilliere, whose admirable improvements in the various departments of artillery, to whom is owing the reduction of the length and the weight of metal of guns of the same calibre, was persecuted out of France, and obliged to take refuge in the army of Austria, where his services proved so formidable as to induce his recall, and the final adoption of his vast improvements; those improvements which, by lessening the weight of artillery, have led to the powerful institution of horse artillery.

Wise nations are never disposed to reject the useful because it is not of their own invention. The Austrians after the battle of Austerlitz immediately abolished their old discipline, and the archduke Charles instituted a better system upon the principles of the modern French. Even the French themselves, surrounded by triumphs, have not yet deemed the science of war perfect. New dispositions of the column were adopted in Egypt; it was only in 1808 that the regulations for the exercise and manœuvres of Cavalry were completed; and even since the campaign which closed with the battle of Wagram, they have made some important alterations in the arms of their cavalry, founded either on the experience of inconvenience in their own, or of some superior advantages in those of their enemy.

The conclusions which we draw from these facts are, that the prevalence of erroneous opinions on the military institutions is a subject of very serious concern; because it is evident, that so long as a nation or a government, which has the care of the national concerns, and a great influence over its opinions, suffers ignorance and prejudice to occupy the place of intelligence, a similar fate may be considered as the consequence, whenever the nation shall be attacked, as other negligent or ignorant nations have been, by a power of superior knowlege and capacity in the art of war.

[vii]

Nothing more plainly shews the misconception which generally prevails, especially in the legislatures of the Union and the several states, than the contradictory motives which are assigned for leaving the militia and military system in their present state of disorganization. Some plead that the art of war is laid down in Steuben; others that Steuben carried us through the revolution; when in fact both Burgoyne and Cornwallis were taken before Steuben’s tract was introduced; others are for arming our militia with pikes alone, forgetting that an open country is that for which pikes are best adapted; and that to render pikes effective there must be a most perfect discipline of manœuvre, which may render the line as potent and firm as the column, and as easily displayed, concentrated, and formed to various fronts as the best disciplined infantry; when the new modes of movement are mentioned, they are called novelties, though the principal of them are as old as the battle of Pharsalia, and were in practice at the battle of Lutzen; other exceptions are, that besides being new, the modern discipline is too difficult to learn, too perplexed and fatiguing; that the multiplied manœuvres require more time and labor, and must be in a great measure useless; and that so satisfied are the British of this that they have reduced them all to nineteen manœuvres. Nothing so truly depicts the want of judgment or a proper attention to the subject, as observations like these.....the truth is that the modern principles of instruction are fewer in number, more easily taught and understood, and less irksome to the soldier; better adapted to engage the soldier’s attention and afford him gratification; that the variety and number of evolutions is not more various than the eternal variety of ground by which military movements and dispositions are always governed; and that the new discipline, by teaching the first elements well, enables the military body to be moved by these principles on any ground, and not only to form any disposition that it is possible to form, but without having been previously formed in such new dispositions; the elementary principles of modern discipline being peculiarly adapted to the understanding, and the movements by small bodies, enabling every officer of a small portion of troops to move his particular corps by the mode best adapted to the ground.

It must always be the fault of the government if its military institutions are erroneous. If there were but a single regiment, that should be instructed according to the best principles, and made to practise whatever was most useful and necessary in the art of war. In a nation of freemen the regular force should constantly exhibit their exercises and evolutions, so that every citizen should be familiar with the best practice of the use of arms and of manœuvres. The eye may be said to have an infallible memory, it is above all other of the organs of sense the best medium of intelligence. The United States troops are usually cooped up in garrisons, as if they were, like the king of Prussia, forming a system in secret, while in fact there is nothing worthy of the name of discipline carried on, and in too many instances nothing understood. Perhaps the troops of the United States have not, as a part of discipline, fired a ball at a target for twenty years. Field artillery, or mortar practice, probably not more frequent. The maxim of economy is an important one in a free state, but there is an economy more destructive than the greatest profusion; and that is the economy of practical and useful knowlege.

We speak of these things reluctantly, but the evil is almost a disease, and requires the regard of the intelligent men in all parts of the nation.

What is then requisite for the United States?

It will be said that there is some difficulty in effecting any improvement. Unquestionably so it is, and so it ever will be. But the government is bound not to regard difficulties, when they are put in competition with the dangers which may flow from neglect. The government possesses the power, and the army is bound, and the country is anxious to possess a more complete system in lieu of the once useful but at present useless tract of baron Steuben. The difficulties are not so great as may be at first sight supposed, and may be surmounted in a way rather to serve as a pleasure than a difficulty to the army and militia. The elements of modern exercise might be first introduced, they are neither so numerous, so perplexed, nor so unnatural as the old forms; neither are they so tiresome to the teacher or the taught. They have also another advantage, that the soldier is not as heretofore stiffened and set up like an embalmed Egyptian mummy; the modern method takes any number from 10 to 100 men, and places them in an easy position erect without constraint of head, or limbs,[viii] or body; and proceeds by familiarizing the ear to equal time by the action of the feet of the whole squad or company; after which they are all taught to face to either hand or about, indifferently, and never in one routine; the mode of moving the limbs and the time of movement is ever the same; and the words of command few, simple, and plain; where they in any case differ from the usual words of common life the teacher’s duty is to explain them often, until the ears of all are familiar with their practical meaning.

The next process is advancing, at a given length of pace in equal times; and this is combined with facings, and at last with wheelings, in whole ranks, or in sections of any given numbers, always varying, diminishing, and augmenting at discretion the numbers of the sections, by drawing from the right of each successive section in the rear of the first, to the left of the leading section, a number sufficient to augment the first to the number required, and so of every section from front to rear; the drill is thus carried on always with moving feet at the time of gay dancing music, and when marching always at a pace of 24 inches.

After the squad of 20 or 100 is found complete in these minute branches of marking time, advancing at time, facing and wheeling, augmenting and diminishing sections, they are taught the oblique wheelings and facings, or as the modern words are half or quarter facing, or half or quarter wheeling; and to march dressed in these several orders, so as to form exactly in the same relative position to each other when wheeled or faced to their primitive position.

Thus much may be well taught, and comprehended, and practised in two or three weeks, employing only two or three hours at each drill, and twice each day.

The instruction of the pivots or flank men of ranks and sections, go along with the first wheelings; and as soon as the uses of the pivots are generally understood, then the whole are formed into double ranks; and the men are prepared to execute any of the modern evolutions or manœuvres; it being always calculated that the officers are equally diligent and as well drilled as the men, and competent not only to comprehend but to correct an error when it occurs.

At this stage, and not before, arms should be put into their hands; and a manual exercise of some kind taught, for it is not material what the motions are so that the firing and loading motions are taught to be performed with dexterity and ease. The drill is then manœuvred once a day with arms, and the officer who feels a proper sense of the importance of the habit of command, and the advantage of giving troops the practice of movement, will diversify his own pleasures and gratify his men, by moving them into all the various positions of column, line, echellons, movements by heads of sections, changing flanks and fronts, taking new alignements, countermarching in the various modes of which modern military works furnish such useful and abundant examples.

The elements of the first drills with minute instructions might be comprised in a hand book of one half the compass of Steuben’s tract; and this elementary work placed in the hands of all descriptions of troops, infantry, artillery, and cavalry, should be the first rule of practice for them all in common. This introduced, the government could at leisure prepare instructions for a more comprehensive course of manœuvres, and particularly hand books upon the same simple principles of drills for artillery, riflemen, and cavalry, in their particular branches of duty. It being to be understood as a fundamental principle, that as the movements and action of all kinds of troops are regulated by the movements of infantry; or in other words, as infantry compose the main body, line, or column; the riflemen, artillery, and cavalry must be governed in their movements by the main body, to which they are appendages or auxiliaries; and it is therefore required that they should know themselves how to execute the infantry manœuvres, in order that they should not, like the French at Rosbach, be confounded by movements of which they are ignorant.

The profound mathematician may look down from the elevation of abstract science upon the cold common place of syllabic combination and Arabic numerical notation; but he owes his first knowlege to the alphabet of language and arithmetic; here he must have begun, and here the military man of whatever grade must also begin. He must learn the alphabet of military knowlege at the drill, he must take his lessons and learn them; he must study and practice what he has learned there, in order to teach; and the officer must learn both to command others and to obey. There is no science which may not be attained by[ix] earnest application and practice. But no science or art can be acquired or understood without both; and the more carefully that study is pursued and the more frequently it is practised, the more efficient will it be in the individual and in the regular mass of individuals. But practice is above all requisite, careful, frequent, constant, obstinately pursued practice.

But this is not yet a system.

We have exhibited the elementary branch of military instruction first, merely because it is the point at which every military body must commence; because this is what is now most wanted, and because while it is carrying into practical use, the general system containing all the purposes and uses of an efficient military establishment may in the mean time be prepared and digested.

Having treated so much on this subject, its importance will excuse the discussion of it more at large. To the perfection of a military establishment for the U. States two things are essential.

The first is, that it should be such as to be equally applicable in its operation to the militia and to the army of the U. States, whenever the former are called forth.

The second, that every act and duty appertaining to the military establishment should be transacted by none other than men subject to military order, control, and responsibility; and liable to be put in motion or brought to account for delay or neglect in a military manner.

These two principles lead to the consideration of what would be an efficient military organization; and here we have a host of formidable enemies, ignorance, a disorderly mass; indolence and idleness, hanging on the flanks; the steady habits of old prejudice ever alarmed for its patronage or its place; all immediately exclaim, would there not be great confusion produced by abrogating some duties and introducing others. We shall not skirmish with this motley and unmilitary groupe; we shall come to the point. In considering the subject, it will be found that the present war department in fact corresponds with what is called the general staff in other countries; the president representing the commander in chief, the secretary at war chief of the staff. From this fact it will be perceived, that whatever improvements might take place in the system, it would at first consist only of defining and distributing the duties and details of service by the war department.

After defining and arranging the various heads of service, they should of course be classed according to analogy or the dependency of one kind upon another; so that there would be several heads, under each of which the inferior branches of duty might be distributed. At the head of one of the superior branches should be placed a responsible officer, who would have the superintendance of all the duties, and the direction and control of all those placed in the execution of the subordinate branches; this officer to be responsible to the executive directly in peace; and when the arrangements became necessarily distinct in the field, to become responsible to the commanding officer in the field. These heads of branches should be the efficient staff of the military institution, it is through the perfection of the organization of the staff, and the rigid responsibility for the due execution and for seeing all under them duly performed, that modern tactics is in an eminent degree indebted for its preeminency and its triumphs. Precision, promptitude, and provident foresight, are their invariable laws, and upon these being perfect depends all the success of modern military science; but it must be taken in connexion also with the disciplinary principles which go into action, where the same provident foresight, the same precision, and the same celerity of motion ensure success to all that is undertaken against any force, however numerous and brave, destitute of a system equally provident and combined in its operations.

To commence an efficient system we must take the outline upon the largest scale; that is, in preparing an establishment, of which the end is the defence of all the nation, we must not begin with a system which is only adapted to a peace; an assumption of this kind would render any military system nugatory. To form a system complete, it must be founded in its very nature on the supposition of an actual war. This would no doubt be reversing the present order of things; since it is not to be concealed, that as it is at present constituted, the war department is utterly incompetent to conduct a war; but such as would leave the mind of a general officer, in case of actual war, to labor under a most[x] hazardous and perplexing responsibility. Possibly economy may here take the alarm, we shall quiet this costly chimera.

A peace establishment of the military department we conceive should be treated as the incident; forming and fixing the principles of the institution would not necessarily call for its immediate completion, or the appointment even of a single officer, or the expenditure of a single dollar more than at present; the duties and functions should be defined, but no additional officers employed until occasion called for them, that is war. It is necessary to offer these precautionary ideas to prevent misapprehension, and lest the idea of the formation of a system, that is a coherent and comprehensive regulation for the military department, should be mistaken for a wish to immediately organize an army and staff, and put them into pay. It is barely meant that during peace provision should be made against war, which we do not know how soon we may be involved in.....we shall therefore proceed.

The military system may be said to consist of two principal branches, military operations, and subsistence, both of which must be within the full and ample command of the chief of an army. These two branches become the objects of duty distributed among the staff; which unfolds another important truth, that every officer who has the provision, or charge of procuring supplies of subsistence or clothing, should be responsible in a military manner for the execution of his duty, and liable to military penalties for the abuse or the neglect of that duty. This is a most important consideration; and it is apprehended the scandalous state of the clothing of the army of the U. States, which has been gradually becoming worse for several years past, is a strong exemplification of this necessity. There should not be a single officer of the war department, unless perhaps the accounting officers, who should be exempt from military control, in order to assure a due exercise of their duty between the public and the military establishment; as it would be in the power of men intrusted with the provision of clothing or subsistence at any time.... to betray the army to an enemy.

The beginning should be with the organization of the general staff, and this should be adapted, for the reasons given, to a state of war. The secretary of the war department being in fact the chief of the staff, the rest of the staff should consist of an able practical general officer, a capable chief officer of the artillery, an effective chief officer of the engineers, a vigilant and experienced quarter-master general, and an intelligent and experienced adjutant general, with one or two commissioned officers, as the service might require, attached to each of these several officers as aids, who should execute under a board of war the details of duty; these superior officers, with others called in, should constitute this council or board for the regulation of all the military details; appoint inspectors of reviews; and such other persons as might be required to aid in the service, such as surgeons, draftsmen, &c. They should divide their duties into the military and the administrative, and have cognizance and control over every branch, always subject to the chief of the staff or secretary at war; they should assemble and deliberate, and their consultations and measures, however minute, with their reasonings or objections, should be daily recorded; and these consultations should, whenever required, be presented to the secretary at war, to the president, or to congress when called for.

The military branch should be distributed under the heads following.....

MILITARY I.....PLANS AND MEANS OF DEFENSIVE OR OFFENSIVE WAR.

1. This should comprehend a topographical establishment; the preparation of complete maps and surveys of our own country; and a classification of the surface of the Union into districts of equal portions of three, five, or nine parts; and these again into lesser districts; designating all the passes, roads, rivers, &c., in each, with descriptive memoirs and references to each.
2. The police of armies.
3. Military exercises or discipline.
4. Military operations, marchings, and encampments.
5. Movements of troops by water.
6. Military chronology, or daily and other returns, of duties, actions, retreats, &c. &c.

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FISCAL II.....Subsistence, pecuniary and civil administration.

1. Pay, receipts, and expenditures, or the treasury branch.
2. Clothing, equipments, arms.
3. Provisions, meat, bread, grain, liquors, fuel.
4. Forage, hay, oats, straw, corn.
5. Hospitals and magazines.
6. Carriages and horses for stores and artillery.

Such is the outline of a military system adapted to the circumstances and necessities of the U. States. On a superficial glance, to timid or unreflecting men, this may appear to be surrounded with difficulties insuperable; there will be discordant opinions, envy, jealousy, folly will devise objections; no two men may concur, however equal and able; the objects are themselves too numerous and complex for any one man to prepare in time or in a satisfactory manner; the proposition itself will be said to arise from interested motives; from some lust of place or profit; it will require resolution to resist prejudice; and the requisite firmness to decide may not be found.

We shall close this part of our essay by stating generally, that whenever there shall appear a disposition to adopt this or any such system, means can be pointed out by which the insuperable difficulties shall be made appear easy to be overcome; discordant opinions reconciled and brought spontaneously to concurrence; envy, folly, and jealousy will be allowed to prey upon themselves, without danger of annoyance to the plan; the variety of the objects can be made subservient to render them more simple, practicable, and effective; and instead of the merit being ascribed to any one man, every officer in the army and the militia if they choose shall have an opportunity of laying his claim to a participation in the plan.

If the observations thrown out in this preface are well founded, the necessity of a work of this kind will be immediately perceived. Let it not however be imagined, says major James, that a Military Dictionary ought exclusively to belong to a camp or barrack, or be found in the closets or libraries of military men alone. The arts and sciences are so intimately connected together, that they eventually borrow language and resources from each other, and go hand in hand from the senate to the field, from the pulpit to the bar, and from the desk of the historian to the bureau of the statesman or politician.

We have a few words to say on certain parts of the work. The French phrases are adopted for their usefulness in reading, and often even in political reading: the words and phrases in the language of the East Indies, are adopted from the English Dictionary, in which however there were some errors which the editor of this work was enabled to correct, and to give more accurate explanations to many. Some subjects which might with more propriety be placed under one letter are placed under another; the course of reading which the editor commenced cotemporaneous with the preparation of the three first letters, not affording the illustrations until the letter to which they properly belonged had been printed. Thus under Valor will be found much of what would properly come under Courage; and under Topographical what would properly belong to Depot. There are several similar instances.

Should the disposition be manifested to cultivate the knowlege of military subjects generally, the editor proposes at some future day to publish gen. Grimoard’s treatise on the Staff of armies; the French Regulations for Cavalry of 1808; and the most modern and celebrated works on Tactics, the treatise of Jomini, the 4th volume of which was published in the beginning of 1810. All these works are already translated and ready to be put to press; beside a Dictionary of all the military actions recorded in ancient and modern history which is now in great forwardness.

Military men who may be desirous of adding to the stock of useful and correct knowlege, will oblige by pointing out any defects or errors, or recommending any additions that are pertinent to the nature of this work, addressed to the compiler.

July 4, 1810.

ABATIS, in a military sense, is formed by cutting down many entire trees, the branches of which are turned towards an enemy, and as much as possible entangled one into another. They are made either before redoubts, or other works, to render the attacks difficult, or sometimes along the skirts of a wood, to prevent an enemy from getting possession of it. In this case the trunks serve as a breast-work, behind which the troops are posted, and for that reason should be so disposed, that the parts may, if possible, flank each other.

ABLECTI, in military antiquity, a choice or select part of the soldiery in the Roman armies, picked out of those called extraordinarii.

ABOLLA, in military antiquity, a warm kind of garment, generally lined or doubled, used both by the Greeks and Romans, chiefly out of the city, in following the camp.

ABORD, Fr. attack, onset.

S’ABOUCHER, Fr. to parley.

ABOUT, a technical word to express the movement, by which a body of troops changes its front or aspect, by facing according to any given word of command.

Right About, is when the soldier completely changes the situation of his person, by a semi-circular movement to the right.

Left About, is when the soldier changes the situation of his person by a semi-circular movement to the left.

ABREAST, a term formerly used to express any number of men in front. At present they are determined by Files.

ABRI, Fr. shelter, cover. Etre à l’abri, to be under cover, as of a wood, hillock, &c.

ABSCISSA, in military mathematics, signifies any part of the diameter or axis of a curve, contained between its vertex or some other fixed point, and the intersection of the ordinate.

In the parabola, the abscissa is a third proportional to the parameter and the ordinate.

In the ellipsis, the square of the ordinate is equal to the rectangle under the parameter and abscissa, lessened by another rectangle under the said abscissa, and a fourth proportional to the axis, the parameter, and the abscissa.

In the hyperbola, the squares of the ordinates are as the rectangles of the abscissa by another line, compounded of the abscissa and the transverse axis.

But it must be remembered, that the two proportions relating to the ellipsis and hyperbola, the origin of the abscissas, or point from whence they began to be reckoned, is supposed to be the vertex of the curve, or, which amounts to the same thing, the point where the axis meets it; for if the origin of the abscissa be taken from the centre, as is often done, the above proportions will not be true.

ABSENT, a term used in military returns. It forms a part of regimental reports, to account for the deficiency of any given number of officers or soldiers; and is usually distinguished under two principal heads, viz.

Absent with leave, officers with permission, or non-commissioned officers and soldiers on furlough.

Absent without leave. Men who desert are frequently reported absent without leave, for the specific purpose of bringing their crime under regimental cognizance, and to prevent them from being tried capitally, for desertion.

ABSOLUTE Gravity, in philosophy, is the whole force by which a body, shell, or shot, is impelled towards the centre. See Gravity.

Absolute Number, in Algebra, is the known quantity which possesses entirely one side of the equation. Thus, in the equation, xx + 10x, = 64, the number 64, possessing entirely one side of the[2] equation, is called the absolute number, and is equal to the square of the unknown root x, added to 10x, or to 10 times x.

ABUTMENT. See Bridges.

ACADEMY, in antiquity, the name of a villa situated about a mile from the city of Athens, where Plato and his followers assembled for conversing on philosophical subjects; and hence they acquired the name of Academics.

The term Academy is frequently used among the moderns for a society, of learned persons, instituted for the cultivation and improvement of arts or sciences. Some authors confound academy with university; but, though much the same in Latin, they are very different things in English. An university is, properly, a body composed of graduates in the several faculties; of professors, who teach in the public schools; of regents or tutors, and students who learn under them, and aspire likewise to degrees; whereas an academy was originally not intended for teaching, or to profess any art, but to improve it; it was not for novices to be instructed in, but for those who were more knowing; for persons of distinguished abilities to confer in, and communicate their lights and discoveries to each other, for their mutual benefit and improvement. The first academy we read of, was established by Charlemagne, by the advice of Alcuin: it was composed of the chief wits of the court, the emperor himself being a member.

Military Academy. There are in England two royal military academies, one at Woolwich, and one at Portsmouth. The first was established by king George II. in 1741, endowed, and supported, for the instructing of the people belonging to the military branch of ordnance, in the several parts of mathematics necessary to qualify them for the service of the artillery, and the business of engineers. The lectures of the masters in theory were then duly attended by the practitioner-engineers, officers, serjeants, corporals, private men, and cadets. At present the gentlemen educated at this academy are the sons of the nobility and military officers. They are called gentlemen cadets, and are not admitted under 14 and not above 16 years of age. They are taught writing, arithmetic, algebra, Latin, French, mathematics, mechanics, surveying, levelling, and fortification, together with the attack and defence; gunnery, mining, laboratory works, geography, perspective, fencing, dancing, &c. The master-general of the ordnance is always captain of the company of gentlemen cadets, and some officer of merit is always captain-lieutenant. There is, besides, a first lieutenant, and two second lieutenants. They are further under the immediate care of a lieutenant-governor, and an inspector, who are officers of great abilities and experience; and the professors and masters are men of known talents and capacity. That at Portsmouth was founded by George I. in 1722, for teaching of the branches of the mathematics which more immediately relate to navigation.

For the American and French Military Academies, see School.

ACANZI, in military history, the name of the Turkish light-horse that form the van-guard of the Grand Signior’s army on a march.

ACCELERATED Motion on oblique or inclined-planes. See Motion.

Accelerated Motion of pendulums. See Pendulums.

Accelerated Motion of Projectiles. See Projectiles.

ACCENDONES, in military antiquity, a kind of gladiators, or supernumeraries, whose office was to excite and animate the combatants during the engagement.

ACCENSI, in antiquity, were officers attending the Roman magistrates; their business was to summon the people to the public games, and to assist the prætor when he sat on the bench.

Accensi, in military antiquity, was also an appellation given to a kind of adjutants appointed by the tribune to assist each centurion and decurion. According to Festus, they were supernumerary soldiers, whose duty it was to attend their leaders, and supply the places of those who were either killed or wounded. Livy mentions them as irregular troops, but little esteemed. Salmasius says, they were taken out of the fifth class of the poor citizens of Rome.

ACCESSIBLE, that which may be approached. We say, in a military stile, that place, or that fortress, is accessible from the sea, or land, i. e. it may be entered on those sides.

An accessible height or distance, in geometry, is that which may be measured by applying a rule, &c. to it: or rather, it is a height, the foot whereof may be approached, and from whence any distance may be measured on the ground.

Heights, both accessible, and inaccessible, may be taken with a quadrant. See Altitude; and the article on Field Fortifications in the American Military Library, Theorem 11, 12, 13, 14, 15.

One of the objects of surveying, is the measuring both accessible and inaccessible distances.

ACCLIVITY, in a military sense, is the steepness or slope of any work, inclined to the horizon, reckoned upwards. Some writers on fortification use acclivity as synonymous with talus; though talus is commonly used to denote all manner of slopes, either in its ascendent or descendent state.

ACCONTIUM, in ancient military writers, a kind of Grecian dart or javelin, somewhat resembling the Roman pilum.

ACCOUTREMENTS, in a military sense, signify habits, equipage, or furniture,[3] of a soldier, such as belts, pouches, cartridge-boxes, saddles, bridles, &c. Accoutrements should be made of stout leather, not of the spongy kind, which is always stretching, and difficult to clean. The belts are about 2¹⁄₄ inches broad, with two buckles to fix them to the pouch. Pouches are made of the stoutest blackened leather, especially the outside flaps, which are of such a substance as to turn the severest rain. Cartridge-boxes are made as light as possible, with holes in each, to hold cartridges. See Cartridge.

ACLIDES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of missive weapon, with a thong fixed to it, whereby it might be drawn back again. Most authors describe the aclides as a sort of dart or javelin: but Scaliger makes it roundish or globular, with a wooden stem to poise it by.

ACOLUTHI, in military antiquity, was a title in the Grecian empire, given to the captain or commander of the varangi, or body-guards, appointed for the security of the emperor’s palace.

ACTIAN games in antiquity, were games instituted, or at least restored, by Augustus, in memory of the famous victory, at Actium, over Mark Antony.

Actian years, in chronology, a series of years, commencing with the epocha of the battle of Actium, otherwise called the æra of Augustus.

ACTION, in the military art, is an engagement between two armies, or any smaller body of troops, or between different bodies belonging thereto. The word is likewise used to signify some memorable act done by an officer, soldier, detachment or party.

ACTIVITY, in a military sense, denotes laboriousness, attention, labor, diligence and study.

ACUTE angle. See Angle.

ADACTED applies to stakes, or piles, driven into the earth by large malls shod with iron, as in securing ramparts or pontoons.

ADDICE, a sort of axe which cuts horizontally. It is sometimes called an Adze.

ADIT, a passage under ground, by which miners approach the part they intend to sap. See Gallery.

ADJUTANT-GENERAL is a staff officer, who aids and assists a general in his laborious duties: he forms the several details of duty of the army, with the brigade-majors, and keeps an exact state of each brigade and regiment, with a roll of the lieutenant-generals, major-generals, colonels, lieutenant-colonels, and majors. He every day at head quarters receives orders from the general officer of the day, and distributes them to the majors of brigades, from whom he receives the number of men they are to furnish for the duty of the army, and informs them of any detail which may concern them. On marching days he accompanies the general to the ground of the camp. He makes a daily report of the situation of all the posts placed for the safety of the army, and of any changes made in their posts. In a day of battle he acts as aid to the general. In a siege he visits the several posts and guards of the trenches, and reports their situation, and how circumstanced: he gives and signs all orders for skirmishing parties (if time permit) and has a serjeant from each brigade to carry any orders which he may have to send. See American Mil. Lib. Article Staff.

ADJUTANT, an officer who aids the major in part of his duty, and performs it in his absence. He receives orders from the brigade-major, if in camp; and when in garrison, from the town-major: after he has carried them to his colonel or officer commanding the regiment, he then assembles the serjeant-major, drum-major and fife-major, with a serjeant and corporal of each company, who write the orders in an orderly book, to shew to their respective officers. If convoys, parties, detachments, or guards, are to be furnished, he gives the number which each company is to furnish, and hour and place for the assembling: he must keep an exact roster and roll of duties, and have a perfect knowlege of all manœuvres, &c. This post is usually given to an active subaltern.

ADMIRAL, on the European establishiments, when on shore, are entitled to receive military honors, and rank with generals in the army.

ADVANCE. See Pay in Advance.

ADVANCED signifies some part of an army in front of the rest, as in advanced guards, which always precede the line of march or operations of a body of troops; again, as when a battalion, or guns of a second line are brought up in front and before the first line. This term also applies to the promotions of officers and soldiers.

ADVANCEMENT, in a military sense, signifies honor, promotion, or preferment, in the army, regiment or company.

ADVANTAGE Ground, a ground that gives superiority, or an opportunity of annoyance or resistance.

ADVICE-Boat, a vessel employed for intelligence.

ADVOCATE General. See Judge Martial.

ÆNEATORES, in military antiquity, the musicians in an army; including those who sounded the trumpets, horns, litui, buccincæ, &c.

AFFAIR, in the military acceptation of the word, means any slight action or engagement.

Affair of Honor, a duel.

AFFAMER, une Place, Fr. to besiege[4] a place so closely as to starve the garrison and inhabitants. See Blockade.

AFFIDAVIT, in military law, signifies an oath taken before some person who is properly authorised to administer it; as first, when a soldier is inlisted, when it is stiled an attestation; secondly, by all officers appointed on a court-martial; thirdly, by the commissaries, or muster-masters.

AFFRONTER, Fr. to encounter or attack boldly.

AFFUT, the French name for a gun-carriage, and for which we have no appropriate name; the only distinction from all other carriages is, that it belongs to a gun. See Carriage.

AGA, in the Turkish army, is the same as a general with us.

AGE. A young man must be 14 years old before he can become an officer in the English army, or be entered as a cadet at Woolwich, in the English academy.

Persons are enlisted for soldiers from 17 to 45. After the latter age, every inhabitant is exempted from serving in the British militia.

By a late regulation in England, growing boys may be enlisted under 16 years of age. These recruits are chiefly intended for the East-India service.

In the United States 18 to 45 is the legal age for militia and regulars.

The Romans were obliged to enter themselves in the army at the age of 17 years; at 45 they might demand their dismission. Amongst the Lombards, the age of entry was between 18 and 19; among the Saxons, at 13.

AGEMA, in the ancient military art, a kind of soldiery chiefly in the Macedonian armies. The word is Greek, and literally denotes vehemence, to express the strength and eagerness of this corps. Some authors will have agema to denote a certain number of picked men, answering to a legion among the Romans.

AGENCY, a certain proportion of money which is ordered to be subtracted from the pay and allowances of the British army, for transacting the business of the several regiments composing it.

AGENT, a person in the civil department of the British army, between the paymaster-general and the paymaster of the regiment, through whom every regimental concern of a pecuniary nature must be transacted. He gives security to government for all monies which pass through his hands in the capacity of an Agent—and by the Mutiny Act, it was provided, That if an Agent shall withhold the Pay of Officers or Soldiers for the Space of one Month, he should be dismissed from his Office and forfeit 100l.

The army agency has since been incorporated with the British war office, and forms a special department.

Military Agent in the United States is a civil officer whose duty is the transporting of clothing and other articles; and the expenditures for other services attached to the military department; they act under direct orders from the War Department.

AGGER, in ancient military writers, denotes the middle part of a military road, raised into a ridge, with a gentle slope on each side, to make a drain for the water, and keep the way dry.

Agger is also used for the whole road, or military way. Where highways were to be made in low grounds, as between two hills, the Romans used to raise them above the adjacent land, so as to make them of a level with the hills. These banks they called aggeres. Bergier mentions several in the Gallia Belgica, which were thus raised 10, 15, or 20 feet above ground, and 5 or 6 leagues long. They are sometimes called aggeres calceati, or causeways.

Agger, also, denotes a work of fortification, used both for the defence and the attack of towns, camps, &c. in which sense agger is the same with what was otherwise called vallum, and in later times, agestum: and among the moderns, lines; sometimes, cavaliers, terrasses, &c.

The agger was usually a bank, or elevation of earth, or other matter, bound and supported with timber; having sometimes turrets on the top, wherein the workmen, engineers, and soldiery, were placed. It had also a ditch, which served as its chief defence. The height of the agger was frequently equal to that of the wall of the place. Cæsar tells us of one he made, which was 30 feet high, and 330 feet broad. Besides the use of aggers before towns, they generally used to fortify their camps with them; for want of which precaution, divers armies have been surprised and ruined.

There were vast aggers made in towns and places on the sea-side, fortified with towers, castles, &c. Those made by Cæsar and Pompey, at Brundusium, are famous. Sometimes aggers were even built across arms of the sea, lakes, and morasses; as was done by Alexander before Tyre, and by M. Antony and Cassius.

The wall of Severus, in the north of England, may be considered as a grand agger, to which belong several lesser ones. Besides, the principal agger or vallum, on the brink of the ditch, Mr. Horsley describes another on the south side of the former, about 5 paces distant from it, which he calls the south agger; and another larger one, on the north side of the ditch, called the north agger. This latter he conjectures to have served as a military way; the former, probably, was made for the inner defence, in case the enemy should beat them from any part of the principal vallum, or to protect the soldiers against any sudden attack from the provincial Britons.

Agger Tarquinii, was a famous fence built by Tarquinius Superbus, on the east side of Rome, to stop the incursions[5] of the Latins, and other enemies, whereby the city might be invested.

Agger is also used for the earth dug out of a ditch or trench, and thrown up on the brink of it: in which sense, the Chevalier Folard thinks the word to be understood, when used in the plural number, since we can hardly suppose they would raise a number of cavaliers, or terrasses.

Agger is also used for a bank or wall, erected against the sea, or some great river, to confine or keep it within bounds; in which sense, agger amounts to the same with what the ancients called tumulus and moles; the Dutch, dyke; and we, dam, sea-wall; the Asiatics call them bunds, &c.

AGIADES, in the Turkish armies, are a kind of pioneers, or rather field engineers, employed in fortifying the camp, &c.

AGUERRI, Fr. an officer or soldier experienced in war; a veteran.

AIDE-DE-CAMP, an officer appointed to attend a general officer, in the field, in winter-quarters, and in garrison; he receives and carries the orders, as occasion requires. He is taken from the line, and all aids-de-camp have extra pay allowed for their duty. This employment is of greater importance than has been generally believed: it has been, however, too often entrusted to young officers of little experience, and of as little capacity; but in the French service they bestow great attention on this article. Marshal de Puysegur mentions the loss of a battle through the incapacity of an aide-de-camp. On the English establishment, generals, being field marshals, have four, lieutenant-generals two, and major-generals and brigadier-generals one.

In the United States the number is established by law; though on service the number must necessarily be equal to the exigency, or the various points to which orders must be sent. See American Mil. Lib. Article Staff.

AIDE du Parc des Vivres, Fr. an officer in France, acting immediately under the commissary of stores and provisions.

AID-MAJOR. See Adjutant.

AIGREMORE, a term used by the artificers in the laboratory, to express the charcoal in a state fitted for the making of powder.

AIGUILLE, an instrument used by engineers to pierce a rock for the lodgement of powder, as in a mine; or to mine a rock, so as to excavate and make roads.

AILE, Fr. a wing or flank of an army or fortification.

AIM, the act of bringing the musquet, piece of ordnance, or any other missive weapon, to its proper line of direction with the object intended to be struck.

AIM FRONTLET, a piece of wood hollowed out to fit the muzzle of a gun, to make it of an equal height with the breech, formerly made use of by the gunners, to level and direct their pieces. It is not used at present.

AIR-GUN, a pneumatic machine for exploding bullets, &c. with great violence.

The common air-gun is made of brass, and has two barrels: the inside barrel is of a small bore, from whence the bullets are exploded; and a large barrel on the outside of it. There is likewise a syringe fixed in the stock of the gun by which the air is injected into the cavity between the two barrels through a valve. The ball is put down into its place in the small barrel with the rammer, as in any other gun. Another valve, being opened by the trigger, permits the air to come behind the bullet, so as to drive it out with great force. If this valve be opened and shut suddenly, one charge of condensed air may be sufficient for several discharges of bullets; but if the whole air be discharged on one single bullet, it will drive it out with uncommon force. This discharge is effected by means of a lock placed here, as usual in other guns; for the trigger being pulled, the cock will go down and drive the lever, which will open the valve, and let in the air upon the bullet: but as the expansive power of the condensed air diminishes at each discharge, its force is not determined with sufficient precision for the purposes of war. Hence it has been long out of use among military men.

In the air-gun, and all other cases where the air is required to be condensed to a very great degree, it will be necessary to have the syringe of a small bore, viz. not exceeding half an inch in diameter; because the pressure against every square inch is about 15 pounds, and therefore against every circular inch about 12 pounds. If therefore the syringe be one inch in diameter, when the atmosphere is injected, there will be a resistance of 12 pounds against the piston; and when 10 are injected, there will be a force of 120 pounds to be overcome; whereas 10 atmospheres act against the circular half-inch piston (whose area is only ¹⁄₄ part so large) with only a force equal to 30 pounds; or 40 atmospheres may be injected with such a syringe, as well as 10 with the other. In short, the facility of working will be inversely as the squares of the diameter of the syringe.

AIR-SHAFTS, in mining. See Mining.

ALARM, is a sudden apprehension upon some report, which makes men run to their arms to stand upon their guard; it implies either the apprehension of being suddenly attacked, or the notice given of such an attack being actually made; generally signified by the firing of a cannon, or rocket, the beat of a drum, &c.

Alarm-Post, in the field, is the ground appointed by the quarter-master general for each regiment to march to, in case of an alarm.

[6]

Alarm-Post, in a garrison, is the place allotted by the governor for the troops to draw up in, on any sudden alarm.

False-Alarms, are stratagems of war, frequently made use of to harrass an enemy, by keeping them perpetually under arms. They are often conveyed by false reports, occasioned by a fearful or negligent sentinel. A vigilant officer will sometimes make a false alarm, to try if his guards are strict upon duty.

Alarm Bell, the bell rung upon any sudden emergency, as a fire, mutiny, approach of an enemy, or the like, called by the French, Tocsin.

ALCANTARA, knights of a Spanish military order, who gained a great name during the wars with the Moors.

ALERT, originally derived from the French word alerte, which is formed of a and airte. The French formerly said airte for air; so that alerte means something continually in the air, and always ready to be put in action. A general is said to be alert when he is particularly vigilant.

To be kept upon the alert, is to be in continual apprehension of being surprised. Alerte, among the French, is an expression which is used to put soldiers upon their guard. It is likewise used by a post that may be attacked in the night, to give notice to the one that is destined to support it; and by a sentry to give warning when any part of the enemy is approaching. We have had an alert, is a military phrase.

ALGEBRA, a peculiar kind of arithmetic, in which every military man ought to be versed, but which is indispensibly necessary for officers in the ordnance department.

ALIEN, in law, implies a person born in a foreign country, in contradistinction to a natural born or naturalized person.

ALIGNEMENT, implies any thing strait—For instance, the alignement of a battalion means the situation of a body of men when drawn up in line. The alignement of a camp signifies the relative position of the tents, &c. so as to form a strait line, from given points.

ALLAY. See Alloy.

ALLÆ, in the ancient military art, the two wings or extremes of an army ranged in order of battle.

ALLEGIANCE, in law, implies the obedience which is due to the laws.

Oath of Allegiance, is that taken by an alien, by which he adopts America and renounces the authority of a foreign government. It is also applied to the oath taken by officers and soldiers in pledge of their fidelity to the state.

ALLEGIANT, loyal, faithful to the laws.

ALLEZER, to cleanse the mouth of a cannon or other piece of ordnance, and to increase the bore, so as to produce its determined calibre.

ALLEZOIR, a frame of timber firmly suspended in the air with strong cordage, on which is placed a piece of ordnance with the muzzle downwards. In this situation the bore is rounded and enlarged by means of an instrument which has a very sharp and strong edge made to traverse the bore by the force of machinery or horses, and in an horizontal direction.

ALLEZURES, the metal taken from the cannon by boring.

ALLIAGE, a term used by the French to denote the composition of metals used for the fabrication of cannon and mortars, &c.

ALLIANCE, in a military sense, signifies a treaty entered into by sovereign states, for their mutual safety and defence. In this sense alliances may be divided into such as are offensive, where the contracting parties oblige themselves jointly to attack some other power; and into such as are defensive, whereby the contracting powers bind themselves to stand by, and defend one another, in case of being attacked by any other power.

Alliances are variously distinguished, according to their object, the parties in them, &c. Hence we read of equal, unequal, triple, quadruple, grand, offensive, defensive alliances, &c.

ALLODIAL, independent; not feudal. The Allodii of the Romans were bodies of men embodied on any emergency, in a manner similar to our volunteer associations.

ALLOGNE, the cordage used with floating bridges, by which they are guided from one side of a river to the other.

ALLONGE, Fr. a pass or thrust with a rapier or small sword; also a long rein used in the exercising of horses.

ALLOY, is the mixture of metals that enter into the composition of the metal proper for cannon and mortars.

ALLY, in a military sense, implies any nation united to another—under a treaty, either offensive or defensive, or both.

ALMADIE, a kind of military canoe, or small vessel, about 24 feet long, made of the bark of a tree, and used by the negroes of Africa.

Almadie, is also the name of a long-boat used at Calcutta, often 80 to 100 feet long, and generally six or seven broad, they row from ten to thirty oars.

ALTIMETRY, the taking or measuring altitude, or heights.

ALTITUDE, height, or distance from the ground, measured upwards, and may be both accessible, and inaccessible.

Altitude of a figure, is the distance of its vertex from its base, or the length of a perpendicular let fall from the vertex to the base. See American Mil. Lib. Art. Field Fortification.

Altitude of a shot or shell, is the perpendicular height of the vertex above the horizon. See Gunnery and Projectiles.

Altitude, in optics, is usually considered as the angle subtended between a[7] line drawn through the eye, parallel to the horizon, and a visual ray emitted from an object to the eye.

Altitude, in cosmography, is the perpendicular height of an object, or its distance from the horizon upwards.

Altitudes are divided into accessible and inaccessible.

Accessible Altitude of an object, is that whose base you can have access to, i. e. measure the nearest distance between your station and the foot of the object on the ground.

Inaccessible Altitude of an object, is that when the foot or bottom of it cannot be approached, by reason of some impediment; such as water, or the like. The instruments chiefly used in measuring of altitudes, are the quadrant, theodolite, geometric quadrant, cross, or line of shadows, &c.

Altitude of the eye, in perspective, is a right line let fall from the eye, perpendicular to the geometrical plane.

Altitude of motion, a term used by some writers, to express the measure of any motion, computed according to the line of direction of the moving force.

AMAZON, one of those women who are fabled to have composed a nation of themselves, exclusive of males, and to have derived their name from their cutting off one of their breasts, that it might not hinder or impede the exercise of their arms. This term has often by modern writers been used to signify a bold daring woman, whom the delicacy of her sex does not hinder from engaging in the most hazardous attempts. The recent and former wars with France have furnished several instances of females who have undergone the fatigue of a campaign with alacrity, and run the hazards of a battle with the greatest intrepidity. Several cases occurred also in the American Revolution.

AMBIT, the compass or circuit of any work or place, as of a fortification or encampment, &c.

AMBITION, in a military sense, signifies a desire of greater posts, or honors. Every person in the army or navy, ought to have a spirit of emulation to arrive at the very summit of the profession by his personal merit.

AMBUSCADE, in military affairs, implies a body of men posted in some secret or concealed place, ’till they find an opportunity of falling upon the enemy by surprise; or, it is rather a snare set for the enemy, either to surprise him when marching without precaution; or by posting your force advantageously, and drawing him on by different stratagems, to attack him with superior means. An ambuscade is easily carried into execution in woods, buildings, and hollow places; but requires a more fertile imagination, and greater trouble, in a level country.

AMBUSH, a place of concealment for soldiers to surprise an enemy, by falling suddenly upon him.

AME, a French term, similar in its import to the word chamber, as applied to cannon, &c.

AMENDE honorable, in the old armies of France, signified an apology for some injury done to another, or satisfaction given for an offence committed against the rules of honor or military etiquette; and was also applied to an infamous kind of punishment inflicted upon traitors, parricides, or sacrilegious persons, in the following manner: the offender being delivered into the hands of the hangman, his shirt stripped off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand; then he was led into court, where he begged pardon of God, the court, and his country. Sometimes the punishment ended there; but sometimes it was only a prelude to death, or banishment to the gallies. It prevails yet in some parts of Europe.

AMMUNITION, implies all sorts of powder and ball, shells, bullets, cartridges, grape-shot, tin, and case-shot; carcasses, granades, &c.

Ammunition, or gun-powder, may be prohibited to be exported.

Ammunition, for small arms, in the British service, is generally packed in half barrels, each containing 1000 musket, or 1500 carbine cartridges. An ammunition waggon will carry 20 of these barrels, and an ammunition cart 12 of them: their weight nearly 1 cwt. each.

The cartouch boxes of the infantry are made of so many different shapes and sizes, that it is impossible to say exactly what ammunition they will contain; but most of them can carry 60 rounds. See the word Cartridges; and for artillery ammunition, see the word Artillery, for the field, for the siege, and the defence of a fortified place.

The French pack all their ammunition in waggons without either boxes or barrels, by means of partitions of wood. Their 12 Pr. and 8 Pr. waggons will contain each 14,000 musket cartridges, but their 4 Pr. waggons will contain only 12,000 each.

Ammunition bread, such as is contracted for by government, and served in camp, garrison, and barracks.

Ammunition shoes, stockings, shirts, stacks, &c. such of those articles as are served out to the private soldiers, by government. See Half-Mountings.

Ammunition waggon, is generally a four-wheel carriage with shafts; the sides are railed in with staves and raves, and lined with wicker-work, so as to carry bread and all sorts of tools. It is drawn by four horses, and loaded with 1200 pound weight. See Waggon.

Ammunition-cart, a two-wheel carriage with shafts; the sides of which, as well as the fore and hind parts, are inclosed with boards instead of wicker-work. See Caisson.

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AMMUZETTE. See the word Guns.

AMNESTY, in a military or political sense, is an act by which two belligerent powers at variance promise to forget and bury in oblivion all that is past.

Amnesty is either general and unlimited, or particular and restrained, though most commonly universal, without conditions or exceptions: such as that which passed in Germany at the peace of Osnaburg in the year 1648, and between the United States and Great Britain, in 1783.

Amnesty, in a more limited sense, denotes a pardon to persons rebellious, usually with some exceptions; such as was granted by Charles II. at his restoration.

AMNISTIE, Fr. See Amnesty.

AMORCE, an old military word for fine-grained powder, such as is sometimes used for the priming of great guns, mortars or howitzers; as also for small-arms, on account of its rapid inflammation. A port fire, or quick match.

AMPLITUDE of the range of a projectile. See Projectile.

AMPOULETTE, an old military term used by the French to express the stock of a musket, &c.

AMUSETTE, a species of offensive weapon which was invented by the celebrated Marshal Saxe. It is fired off in the same manner as a musquet, but is mounted nearly like a cannon. It has been found of considerable use during the war of the French revolution, especially among the French, who armed some of their horse artillery with it, and found it superior to the one adopted by the Prussians from Marshal Saxe.

ANABASII, in antiquity, were expeditious couriers, who carried dispatches of great importance, in the Roman wars.

ANACLETICUM, in the ancient art of war, a particular blast of the trumpet, whereby the fearful and flying soldiers were rallied and recalled to the combat.

ANCIENT, a term, used formerly to express the grand ensign or standard of an army.

ANCILE, in antiquity, a kind of shield, which fell, as was pretended, from heaven, in the reign of Numa Pompilius; at which time, likewise, a voice was heard, declaring, that Rome would be mistress of the world as long as she should preserve this holy buckler.

Authors are much divided about its shape: however, it was kept with great care in the temple of Mars, under the direction of twelve priests; and lest any should attempt to steal it, eleven others were made so like it, as not to be distinguished from the sacred one. These Ancilia were carried in procession every year round the city of Rome.

ANDABATÆ, in military antiquity, a kind of gladiators, who fought hoodwinked; having a sort of helmet that covered the eyes and face. They fought mounted on horse-back, or on chariots.

St. ANDREW, or the Thistle, a nominally military order of knighthood in Scotland. The occasion of instituting this order is variously related.

In 819, Achaius, king of Scotland, having formed a league, offensive and defensive, with Charlemagne, against all other princes, found himself thereby so strong, that he took for his device the Thistle and the Rue, which he composed into a collar of his order, and for his motto, Pour ma defense; intimating thereby, that he feared not the powers of foreign princes, seeing he leaned on the succour and alliance of the French. And though from hence may be inferred, that these two plants, the Thistle and the Rue, were the united symbols of one order of knighthood, yet Menenius divides them into two; making one whose badge was the thistle, whence the knights were so called; and the motto, Nemo me impune lacessit; another vulgarly called Sertum rutæ, or the garland of rue; the collar of which was composed of two branches or sprigs thereof, or else of several of its leaves: at both these collars hung one and the same jewel, to wit, the figure of St Andrew, bearing before him the cross of his martyrdom.

But though the thistle has been acknowleged for the badge and symbol of the kingdom of Scotland, even from the reign of Achaius, as the rose was of England, and the lily of France, the pomegranate of Spain, &c.; yet there are some who refer the order of the thistle to later times, in the reign of Charles VII. of France; when the league of amity was renewed between that kingdom and Scotland, by which the former received great succour from the latter, at a period of extraordinary distress. Others again place the foundation still later, even as low as the year 1500; but without any degree of certainty.

The chief and principal ensign of this order is a gold collar, composed of thistles, interlinked with annulets of gold, having pendent thereto the image of St Andrew with his cross, and this motto, Nemo me impune lacessit.

Knights of St. Andrew, is also a nominal military order instituted by Peter III. of Muscovy, in 1698; the badge of which is a golden medal, on one side whereof is represented St. Andrew’s cross; and on the other are these words, Czar Pierre monarque de toute la Russie. This medal, being fastened to a blue ribbon, is suspended from the right shoulder.

ANGARIA, in ancient military writers, means a guard of soldiers posted in any place for the security of it. Vide Vegetius, lib. i. c. 3. lib. ii. c. 19. lib. iii. c. 8.

Angaria, in civil law, implies a service by compulsion, as furnishing horses and carriages for conveying corn or other stores for the army.

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ANGE, a term used by the French to express chain shot.

ANGEL Shot. See Chain-Shot.

ANGLE, in geometry, is the inclination of two lines meeting one another in a point.

Sometimes angles are denoted by a single letter placed at the point of intersection; but when several lines meet at the same point, each particular angle is denoted by three letters, whereof the middle letter shews the angular point, and the other two letters the lines which form that angle.

The measure of an angle is the arch of a circle, described on the angular point, intercepted between the two lines which form the angle, and as many degrees, &c. as are contained in that arch, so many degrees, &c. the angle is said to consist of.

Angles are either right, acute, or obtuse.

A Right Angle, is that whose two legs are perpendicular to each other; and consequently the arch intercepted between them is exactly 90° or the quarter of a circle.

An Acute Angle, is that which is less than a right angle, or 90°.

An Obtuse Angle, is that which is greater than a right angle.

Adjacent Angles, are such as have the same vertex, and one common side contained beyond the angular point. The sum of the adjacent angles is always equal to two right angles (13. Eucl. 1.) and therefore, if one of them be acute, the other will be obtuse; and the contrary: whence, if either of them be given, the other is also given, it being the complement of the former to 180°.

Homologous Angles in similar figures are such as retain the same order, reckoning from the first in both figures.

Vertical Angles, are the opposite angles made by two lines cutting or crossing each other. When two lines cut or cross each other, the vertical angles are equal (15 Eucl. 1.)

Alternate Angles, are those cut or obtuse angles made by two lines cutting or crossing each other, and formed by a right line cutting or crossing two parallel lines. Alternate angles are always equal to each other (18. Eucl. 1.)

A rectilineal or right lined Angle, is made by strait lines, to distinguish it from the spherical or curvilineal angle.

Angles of contact. Angles of contact may be considered as true angles, and should be compared with one another, though not with right lined angles as being infinitely smaller.

Angle of elevation, in gunnery, is that which the axis of the hollow cylinder, or barrel of the gun, makes with a horizontal line. See Elevation.

Angles oblique are those which are greater than right angles.

Spherical Angle, is an angle formed by the intersection of two great circles of the sphere. All spherical angles are measured by an arch of a great circle described on the vertex as a pole, and intercepted between the legs which form the angle.

Angle lunular is an angle formed by the intersection of two curves, the one concave and the other convex.

Mixed-line Angle, is that comprehended between a right line and a curved line.

Curved-line Angle, is that intercepted between two curved lines meeting each other in one point, in the same plane.

Angle of a semi-circle is that which the diameter of a circle makes with the circumference.

Angle of Incidence, is that which the line of direction of a ray of light, &c. makes at the point where it first touches the body it strikes against, with a line erected perpendicular to the surface of that body.

Angle of interval between two places is that formed by two lines directed from the eye to those places.

Angle of Reflection, is the angle intercepted between the line of direction of a body rebounding, after it has struck against another body, and a perpendicular erected at the point of contact.

Angle at the centre, in fortification, is the angle formed at the middle of the polygon, by lines drawn from thence to the points of the two adjacent bastions.

That which is made by, and contained between the curtain and the flank.

Angle of the polygon, that which is made by the meeting of the two sides of the polygon, or figure in the centre of the bastion. See Fortification.

Angle of the triangle, is half the angle of the polygon.

That which is made by the two faces, being the utmost part of the bastion most exposed to the enemy’s batteries, frequently called the point of the bastion. See Fortification.

Diminished Angle, only used by some engineers, especially the Dutch, is composed of the face of the bastion, and the exterior side of the polygon.

Is formed by one face, and one flank of the bastion. See Fortification.

Is made by two lines fichant, that is, the faces of the two bastions extended till they meet in an angle towards the curtain, and is that which always carries its point towards the out-works. See Fortification.

Angle of the flank exterior, is that which is before the centre of the curtain, formed by the prolongation of the faces of the bastion, or by both the fichant lines[10] of defence, intersecting each other on planning a fortification.

Angle of the flank interior, is formed by the flanked line of defence and the curtain; being that point where the line of defence falls upon the curtain.

Angle of the line of defence, is that angle made by the flank, and the line of defence.

Angle of the face, is formed by the angle of the face and the line of defence produced till they intersect each other.

Angle of the base interior, is the half of the figure, which the interior polygon makes with the radius, when they join each other in the centre; intersecting the centre of the gorges of each bastion.

Angle of the base exterior, is an angle formed by lines drawn from the centre of the figure, to the angle of the exterior polygon, cutting the centre of the gorges of each bastion.

Angle of the gorge, is that angle formed by the prolongation of the curtains, intersecting each other, in the centre of the gorge, through which the capital line passes.

Angle of the ditch, is formed before the centre of the curtain, by the outward line of the ditch.

Angle of the mole, is that which is made before the curtain where it is intersected.

Flanked Angle. See Angle of the bastion.

Is that angle which points outwards, or towards the country. Such is the angle of the counterscarp before the point of a bastion.

An angle pointing inwards, as the saliant angle does outwards. Such is the angle of the counterscarp before the curtain.

Angle of the counterscarp, made by two sides of the counterscarp, meeting before the centre of the curtain.

Angle at the circumference of a circle, is an angle formed by two chords in the circumference of a circle.

Angle of the circumference, is the mixed angle formed by an arch, drawn from one gorge to another.

Re-entering Angle. See Entering Angle.

Angle of the complement of the line of defence, is the angle formed by the intersection of the two complements with each other.

Angles of a battalion, are made by the last men at the extremity of the ranks and files.

Front Angles, the two last men of the front rank.

Rear Angles, the two last men of the rear rank.

Dead Angle, is a re-entering angle, consequently not defended.

Angular, in a general sense, denotes something relating to angles, or that hath angles.

ANGON, in ancient military history, was a kind of dart of a moderate length, having an iron bearded head and cheeks; in use about the fifth century. This sort of javelin was much used by the French. The iron head of it resembles a fleur-de-lis; and it is the opinion of some writers, that the old arms of France were not fleurs-de-lis; but the iron point of the angon or javelin of the ancient French.

To ANIMATE, in a military sense, is to encourage, to incite, to add fresh impulse to any body of men who are advancing against an enemy, or to prevent them from shamefully abandoning their colours in critical situations. Soldiers may be encouraged and incited to gallant actions not only by words, but by the looks and gestures of the officers, particularly of their commanding one. It is by the latter alone, indeed, that any of these artificial means should be resorted to; for silence, steadiness, and calmness are the peculiar requisites in the characters of subordinate officers. Whatever their private feelings may be, a superior sense of duty should always prevent them from discovering the slightest symptom of perturbation. The best effects, however, may be sometimes produced by a sort of electrical shock which is communicated to the soldiery: as, when officers, being themselves animate and full of fire, give a sudden and unexpected utterance to their sentiments; make use of some particular expression by which the national ear is captivated, or by a happy waving of the hand, hat, or sword cause the most timid to become careless of danger, and keep up the enthusiasm of the bravest. Many battles, both in ancient and modern times, have taken a sudden turn from the most trivial circumstance of this nature.

The French are very susceptible of this species of animation. During the present war they have furnished several instances of the power of military animation. The success at Lodi, to which Bonaparte owes so much of his reputation, was the consequence of a bold and individual exertion, when he snatched the standard, and personally led the grenadiers across the bridge. A variety of instances might be enumerated wherein words and gestures have had the most happy result. As far back as the days of Cæsar there are examples that stand fresh upon record; and nothing proves more forcibly the influence which a great reputation has upon common minds, than the exclamation which Cæsar used when he was crossing a branch of the sea, between Brundusium and Dyrrachium. He embarked by night in the habit of a slave, and lay on the boards like an ordinary passenger. As they were to sail down the river Annius a violent storm arose, which quite overcame the art of the pilot, who gave orders to put back; but this, Cæsar would not[11] permit, who discovering himself, and taking the astonished pilot by the hand, bade him boldly go on and fear nothing, for, cried he, thou carried Cæsar and Cæsar’s fortune. “Cæsarem vebis fortunamque ejus.”

ANNALS, a species of military history, wherein events are related in the chronological order they happened. They differ from a perfect history, in being only a mere relation of what passes every year, as a journal is of what passes every day.

ANNUNCIADA, an order of military knighthood in Savoy, first instituted by Amadeus I. in the year 1409; their collar was of 15 links, interwoven one with another, and the motto F. E. R. T. signifying fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit. Amadeus VIII. changed the image of St. Maurice, patron of Savoy, which hung at the collar, for that of the Virgin Mary; and instead of the motto abovementioned, substituted the words of the angel’s salutation. Now extinct.

ANOLYMPIADES. See Olympiad.

ANSE des Pieces, a French term for the handles of cannon. Those of brass have two—Those of iron seldom any—these handles serve to pass cords, handspikes, or levers, the more easily to move so heavy a body, and are made to represent dolphins, serpents, &c.

ANSPESADE. See Lance Corporal.

ANTEMURAILLE, in the ancient military art, denoted what now the moderns generally call the outworks.

ANTESTATURE, in ancient fortification, signifies an intrenchment of pallisades or sacks of earth, thrown up in order to dispute the remainder of a piece of ground.

ANTHONY, or Knights of St. Anthony, a military order instituted by Albert, duke of Bavaria, Holland, and Zealand, when he designed to make war against the Turks in 1382. The knights wore a collar of gold made in the form of a hermit’s girdle, from which hung a stick like a crutch, with a little bell, as they are represented in St. Anthony’s pictures.

APPAREILLES, are those slopes that lead to the platform of the bastion. See Fortification.

APPAREILLEUR, Fr. an architect who superintends the workmen in the construction of fortifications, sluices, &c.

APPEAL, might formerly have been made, by the prosecutor or prisoner, from the sentence or jurisdiction of a regimental to a general court-martial.

APPEL, Fr. a roll call; a beat of drum for assembling; a challenge.

Appel, in fencing, a smart beat with your blade on that of your antagonist on the contrary side to that you have engaged, generally accompanied with a stamp of the foot, and used for the purpose of procuring an opening.

APPOINTE. This word was applicable to French soldiers only, during the old monarchy of France, and meant a man who for his long service and extraordinary bravery received more than common pay. There were likewise instances in which officers were distinguished by being stiled officiers appointés.

The word appointé was originally derived from it being said, that a soldier was appointed among those who were to do some singular act of courage, as by going upon a forlorn hope, &c.

APPOINTMENT, in a military sense, is the pay of the army; it likewise applies to warlike habiliments, accoutrements, &c.

APPREHEND, in a military sense, implies the seizing or confining of any person. According to the articles of war, every person who apprehends a deserter, and attests the fact duly before a magistrate, is entitled to receive a reward.

APPROACHES. All the works are generally so called that are carried on towards a place which is besieged; such as the first, second, and third parallels, the trenches, epaulements with and without trenches, redoubts, places of arms, saps, galleries, and lodgments. See these words more particularly under the head Fortification.

This is the most difficult part of a siege, and where most lives are lost. The ground is disputed inch by inch, and neither gained nor maintained without the loss of men. It is of the utmost importance to make your approaches with great caution, and to secure them as much as possible, that you may not throw away the lives of your soldiers. The besieged neglect nothing to hinder the approaches; the besiegers do every thing to carry them on; and on this depends the taking or defending of the place.

The trenches being carried to their glacis, you attack and make yourself master of their covered-way, establish a lodgment on the counterscarp, and effect a breach by the sap, or by mines with several chambers, which blow up their intrenchments and fougades, or small mines, if they have any.

You cover yourselves with gabions, fascines, barrels, or sacks; and if these are wanting, you sink a trench.

You open the counterscarp by saps to make yourself master of it; but, before you open it, you must mine the flanks that defend it. The best attack of the place is the face of the bastion, when by its regularity it permits regular approaches and attacks according to art. If the place be irregular, you must not observe regular approaches, but proceed according to the irregularity of it; observing to humor the ground, which permits you to attack it in such a manner at one place, as would be useless or dangerous at another; so that the engineer who directs the attack ought exactly to know the part[12] he would attack, its proportions, its force and solidity, in the most geometrical manner.

Approaches, in a more confined sense, signify attacks.

Counter Approaches, are such trenches as are carried on by the besieged, against those of the besiegers.

APPRENTI, Fr. Apprentice.

In France they had apprentices or soldiers among the artillery, who served for less pay than the regular artillery men, until they became perfect in their profession; when they were admitted to such vacancies as occurred in their respective branches. The system is changed.

APRON, in gunnery, a square plate of lead that covers the vent of a cannon, to keep the charge dry, and the vent clean and open.

Aprons—of lead for guns, according to Deturbie

Their dimensions are as follow, viz. for a 42, 32, and a 24 pounder, 15 inches by 13; for an 18, 12, and a 9 pounder, 12 inches by 10; for a 6, 5¹⁄₄, 3, and 1¹⁄₂ pounder, 10 inches by 8. They are tied fast by two strings of white marline, the length of which, for a 42 to a 12 pounder inclusive, is 18 feet, 9 feet each string; for a 9 to 1¹⁄₂ pounder, 12 feet, 6 feet for each.

APPUI—Pointe d’appui, or point of bearing, or direction, or support, is any particular given point or body, upon which troops are formed, or by which they are marched in line or column.

Aller à l’Appui, Fr. to go to the assistance of any body, to second, to back.

Hauteur d’Appui, Fr. breast-height.

AQUEDUCT, a channel to convey water from one place to another. Aqueducts, in military architecture, are generally made to bring water from a spring or river to a fortress, &c.; they are likewise used to carry canals over low ground, and over brooks or small rivers; they are built with arches like a bridge, only not so wide, and are covered above by an arch, to prevent dust or dirt from being thrown into the water—there are also subterranean aqueducts, such as pipes of wood, lead, or iron. See Muller’s Practical Fortification.

The Romans had aqueducts which extended 100 miles. That of Louis XIV. near Maintenon, which carries the river Bute to Versailles, is 7000 toises long.

ARAIGNEE, in fortification. See Gallery.

ARBALET, in the ancient art of war, a cross-bow, made of steel, set in a shaft of wood, with a string and trigger, bent with a piece of iron fitted for that purpose, and used to throw bullets, large arrows, darts, &c. Also a mathematical instrument called a Jacob’s Staff, to measure the height of the stars upon the horizon.

ARBALETE à jalet, a stone bow.

ARBALETRIER, Fr. a cross-bow man.

ARBALETRIER d’une Galére, Fr. that part of a galley where the cross-bowmen were placed during an engagement.

ARBORER, Fr. to plant. Arborer l’étendart, to plant the standard.

ARC, Fr. a bow; an arch in building.

ARCH, in military architecture, is a vault or concave building, in form of a curve, erected to support some heavy structure, or passage.

Triumphal Arch, in military history, is a stately monument or erection generally of a semicircular form, adorned with sculpture, inscriptions, &c. in honor of those heroes who have deserved a triumph.

ARCHERS, in military history, a kind of militia or soldiery, armed with bows and arrows. They were much used in former times, but are now laid aside, excepting in Turkey, and in some parts of Asia.

ARCHERY, is the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The ancient English were famous for being the best archers in Europe, and most of their victories in France were the purchase of the long-bow. The statutes made in 33 Hen. VIII. relative to this exercise, are worth perusal. It was forbidden, by statute, to shoot at a standing mark, unless it should be for a rover, where the archer was to change his mark at every shot. Any person above 24 years old was also forbidden to shoot with any prick-shaft, or flight, at a mark of eleven score yards or under. 33 Hen. VIII. chap. 9. The former was a provision for making good marksmen at sight; the latter for giving strength and sinews. The modern rifle has rendered the bow an useless weapon.

ARCHITECTURE, in a military sense, is the art of erecting all kinds of military edifices or buildings, whether for habitation or defence.

Military Architecture, instructs us in the method of fortifying cities, sea-ports, camps, buildings, powder magazines, barracks, &c. Military architecture is divided into regular and irregular fortification.

Regular fortification consists in having all its sides and angles equal among themselves.

Irregular fortification is composed of parts where the sides and angles are not equal or uniform among themselves. This species of fortification is permanent or temporary.

The permanent one is constructed for the purpose of remaining a long time, and for the protection of large towns.

The temporary one is that which is erected in cases of emergency. Under this denomination are contained all sorts of works which are thrown up to seize a pass or gain an eminence, or those which are[13] made in circumvallations and countervallations, viz. redoubts, trenches, and batteries. See Fortification.

Field Fortification is the art of forming temporary works of defence, such as trenches, redoubts, breastworks, epaulments, chevaux de frize, trous de loup, &c. See Field Fortification.

Naval Architecture, is the art of building the hull, or body of the ship, distinct from her machinery and furniture for sailing; and may properly be comprehended in three principal articles. 1. To give the ship such a figure, or outward form, as may be most suitable to the service for which she is intended. 2. To find the exact shape of the pieces of timber necessary to compose such a fabric. 3. To make convenient apartments for the artillery, ammunition, provisions, and cargo: together with suitable accommodations for the officers and men.

ARCHITRAVE, the master beam, or chief supporter, in any part of a subterraneous fortification.

AREA, the superficial content of any rampart, or other work of a fortification.

ARIGOT, Fr. a fife or flute.

ARM—Military writers use this word to signify a particular species of troops—thus the artillery is an arm, and the cavalry, and infantry, and rifle men are each called an arm; but this use of the word is now deemed quaint.

Arm, in geography, denotes a branch of the sea, or of a river.

Arm is also used figuratively to denote power.

To Arm, to take arms, to be provided against an enemy.

ARMADA, a Spanish term, signifying a fleet of men of war, applied particularly to that great one fitted out by the Spaniards, with an intention to conquer England in 1588, and which was first dispersed by a terrible storm, several of the ships wrecked on the coasts of England and Ireland, and many overtaken and defeated by the English fleet, under admirals Howard and Drake.

ARMADILLA, a Spanish term, signifying a small squadron.

ARMATURA, in ancient military history, signifies the fixed and established military exercise of the Romans, nearly in the sense we use the word exercise. Under this word is understood, the throwing of the spear, javelin, shooting with bows and arrows, &c.

Armatura is also an appellation given to the soldiers who were light-armed. Aquinus seems without reason, to restrain armatura to the tyrones, or young soldiers.

Armatura was also a denomination given to the soldiers in the Roman emperor’s retinue.

ARMED, in a general sense, denotes something provided with, or carrying arms.

An Armed body of men, denotes a military corps or detachment, provided with arms and ammunition, ready for an engagement.

Armed, in the sea language. A cross-bar-shot is said to be armed, when some rope-yarn, or the like, is rolled about the end of the iron bar which runneth through the shot.

Armed ship, is a vessel taken into the public service, and equipped in time of war, with artillery, ammunition, and warlike instruments: in the British service an armed ship is commanded by an officer who has the rank of master and commander in the navy, and upon the same establishment with sloops of war, having a lieutenant, master, purser, surgeon, &c.

ARMEE, Fr. See Army.

ARMEMENT, Fr. a levy of troops, equipage of war, either by land or sea.

ARMES a l’Epreuve, a French term for armor of polished steel, which was proof against the sword or small arms; but its weight so encumbered the wearer, that modern tacticians have wholly rejected its use.

Armes à la légére, Fr. light-troops, who were employed to attack in small bodies, as opportunity occurred. See Riflemen, &c.

Armes des Pieces de Canon, the French term for the tools used in practical gunnery, as the scoop, rammer, sponge, &c.

ARMET, Fr. a casque or helmet.

ARMIGER, an esquire or armor-bearer, who formerly attended his knight or chieftain in war, combat, or tournament, and who carried his lance, shield, or other weapons with which he fought.

ARMILUSTRIUM, in Roman antiquity, a feast observed among the Roman generals, in which they sacrificed, armed, to the sound of trumpets, and other war-like instruments.

ARMISTICE, a temporary truce, or cessation of arms for a very short space of time only.

ARMORY, a warehouse of arms, or a place where the military habiliments are kept, to be ready for use.

ARMOR, denotes all such habiliments as serve to defend the body from wounds, especially darts, a sword, a lance, &c. A complete suit of armor formerly consisted of a helmet, a shield, a cuiras, a coat of mail, a gantlet, &c. now almost universally laid aside.

ARMOR BEARER, he that carries the armor of another.

ARMORER, a person who makes or deals in armor, or arms; also a person who keeps them clean.

ARMS, in a general sense, signify all kinds of weapons, whether used for offence or defence.

Fire-Arms, are cannon, mortars, howitzers, grenades, firelocks, rifles, fusils, carbines, guns, and pistols; or any other machine discharged by inflamed powder.

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Arms may properly be classed under two specific heads—

Arms of offence, which include musquet, bayonet, sword, pistol, rifle, &c.

Arms of defence, which are shields, helmets, coats of mail, or any species of repulsive or impenetrable covering, by which the body of a man is protected.

Arms—Small.

In a legal sense, arms may extend to any thing that a man wears for his own defence, or takes in his hand, and uses in anger, to strike, throw at, or wound another. It is supposed, that the first artificial arms were of wood, and only employed against beasts; and that Belus, the son of Nimrod, was the first that waged war; whence, according to some, came the appellation bellum. Diodorus Siculus takes Belus to be the same with Mars, who first trained soldiers up to battle. Arms of stone, and even of brass, appear to have been used before they came to iron and steel. Josephus assures us, that the patriarch Joseph first taught the use of iron arms in Egypt, arming the troops of Pharaoh with a casque and buckler.

The principal arms of the ancients were hatchets, scythes, lances, swords, and bucklers: the Saxons used the halberd, bow, arrows, cross-bow, &c. By the ancient laws of England, every man was obliged to bear arms, except the judges and clergy. Under Henry VIII. it was expressly enjoined on all persons to be regularly instructed, even from their tender years, in the exercise of the arms then in use, viz. the long bow and arrows; and to be provided with a certain number of them.

But by the common law of England now it is an offence for persons to go or ride armed with dangerous weapons; but gentlemen, both in and out of the army, may wear common armor, according to their quality.

Arms of parade, or courtesy, were those used in the ancient justs and tournaments; which were commonly unshod lances, swords without edge or point, wooden swords, and even canes.

Bells of Arms, or Bell Tents, a kind of tents in the shape of a cone, where a company’s arms are lodged in the field. They are generally painted with the colour of the facing of the regiment; they have gone much out of use.

Pass of Arms, a kind of combat, when anciently one or more cavaliers undertook to defend a pass against all attacks.

Place of Arms. See Fortification.

Stand of Arms, a complete set of arms for one soldier.

Arms, in artillery, are the two ends of an axletree. See Axletree, under the word Carriage.

ARMY, a large number of soldiers, consisting of artillery, foot, riflemen, horse, dragoons, and hussars or light horse, completely armed, and provided with engineers, a train of artillery, ammunition, provisions, staff, forage, &c. and under the command of a general, having lieutenant-generals, major-generals, brigadier-generals, colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors, captains, and subalterns, and the suitable staff to each portion. An army is composed of legions, or corps, brigades, regiments, battalions, and squadrons; and is generally divided into three or more co-operating corps, and formed into three lines; the first of which is called the front line, a part of which forms the van-guard; the second, the main body; and the third, the rear-guard, or corps of reserve. The centre of each line is generally possessed by the foot; the cavalry and light troops form the right and left wings of each line; and sometimes a squadron of horse is posted in the intervals between the battalions. When an army is drawn up in order of battle, the horse are frequently placed at five feet from each other, and the foot at three. In each line the battalions are distant from each other about 180 feet, which is nearly equal to the extent of their front; and the same rule holds good of the squadrons, which have about 300 feet distance, being the extent of their own front. These intervals are left for the squadrons and battalions of the second line to range themselves against the intervals of the first, that both may more readily march through those spaces to the enemy. The front line is generally about 300 feet from the centre line; and the centre line as much from the rear, or corps of reserve; that there may be sufficient room to rally when the squadrons or battalions are broken. European armies anciently were[15] a sort of militia; composed chiefly of the vassals and tenants of the lords. When each company had served the number of days or months enjoined by their tenure, or the customs of the fees they held, they returned home.

Armies in general are distinguished by the following appellations—

The grand army, is that which is the principal of several armies acting at different points remote from each other.

An army is said to cover a place when it lies encamped or in cantonments for the protection of the different passes which lead to a principal object of defence.

An army is said to blockade a place, when, being well provided with heavy ordnance and other warlike means, it is employed to invest a town for the direct and immediate purpose of reducing it by assault or famine.

An Army of observation is so called because by its advanced positions and desultory movements it is constantly employed in watching the enemy.

An Army of reserve may not improperly be called a general depot for effective service. In cases of emergency the whole or detached parts of an army of reserve are generally employed to recover a lost day or to secure a victory. It is likewise sometimes made use of for the double purpose of secretly increasing the number of active forces and rendering the aid necessary according to the exigency of the moment, and of deceiving the enemy with respect to its real strength. Such was the army at Dijon, before Bonaparte entered Italy.

Flying Army, a strong body of horse and foot, commanded for the most part by a lieutenant-general, which is always in motion, both to cover its own garrisons, and to keep the enemy in continual alarm.

A naval or sea Army, is a number of ships of war, equipped and manned with sailors, mariners, and marines, under the command of a superior officer, with the requisite inferior officers under him.

ARNAUTS, Turkish light cavalry, whose only weapon was a sabre very much curved. Some are in the Russian service.

ARQUEBUSE a Croc, an old piece of fire-arms, resembling a musquet, but which is supported on a rest by a hook of iron, fastened to the barrel. It is longer than a musquet, but of larger calibre, and was formerly used to fire through the loop holes of antique fortifications.

ARQUEBUSIER, a French term, formerly applied to all the soldiery who fought with fire arms, whether cavalry or infantry.

ARRAY, order of battle. See Battle-Array.

ARRAYERS, officers who anciently had the charge of seeing the soldiers duly appointed in their armor.

ARREARS, in the army, were the difference between the full pay and subsistence of each officer, which was directed to be paid once a year by the agent. See Pay.

ARREST, a French phrase, similar in its import to the Latin word retinaculum. It consists of a small piece of steel or iron, which was formerly used in the construction of fire-arms, to prevent the piece from going off. Ce pistolet est en arret is a familiar phrase among military men in France. This pistol is in arrest, or is stopped.

ARREST, is the exercise of that part of military jurisdiction, by which an officer is noticed for misconduct, or put into a situation to prepare for his trial by a general court-martial.

ARRESTE of the glacis, is the junction of the talus which is formed at all the angles.

ARRIERE, Fr. the rear.

Arriere Ban, Fr. See Ban.

Arriere-garde, Fr. the rear-guard.

En Arriere—marche! Fr. to the rear—march!

ARROW, a missive weapon of offence, slender and pointed, made to be shot with a bow.

Arrow. See Fortification.

ARSENAL, is a large and spacious building, or number of buildings, in which are deposited all kinds of arms, and other warlike implements; such as cannon, mortars, howitzers, small arms, and every other kind of warlike engines and instruments of death.

ART. Military art may be divided into two principal branches. The first branch relates to the order and arrangement which must be observed in the management of an army, when it is to fight, to march, or to be encamped. This branch is called tactics, and derives its appellation from tactic, which signifies order.

The same appellation belongs to the other branch of military art, and includes the composition and the application of warlike machines.

ARTICLES OF WAR, are known rules and regulations for the better government of an army. The articles of war of the United States underwent an alteration in 1806, and are of date 10th April of that year; they consist of 103 articles; all that relates to the army not comprehended therein, are published in general orders or in established regulations, issued from time to time from the War Department, or by the commanding officer of the army, copies of which are delivered to the officers of the army. In England they may be altered and enlarged at the pleasure of their king. And in certain cases extend to civilians—as when[16] by proclamation any place shall be put under martial law; or when people follow a camp or army for the sale of merchandize, or serve in any civil capacity. It is ordained, that the articles of war shall be read in the circle of each regiment or company mustered once every month, or oftener if the commanding officer thinks proper. A recruit or soldier is not liable to be tried by a military tribunal, unless it can be proved that the articles of war have been duly read to him.

ARTIFICE, among the French, is understood as comprehending every thing which enters the composition of fire works; as the sulphur, salt-petre, charcoal, &c. See Fire Works.

ARTIFICER or Artificier, he who makes fire works, or works in the artillery laboratory, who prepares the fuses, bombs, grenades, &c. It is also applied to the military smiths, collar-makers, &c. and to a particular corps in an army.

ARTILLERY, in a general sense, signifies all sorts of great guns or cannon, mortars, howitzers, petards, and the like; together with all the apparatus and stores thereto belonging, which are not only taken into the field, but likewise to sieges, and made use of both to attack and defend fortified places. See Ordnance.

Artillery, in a particular sense, signifies the science of artillery or gunnery, which art includes a knowledge of surveying, levelling, geometry, trigonometry, conic sections, laws of motion, mechanics, fortification, and projectiles.

The Train of Artillery consists of an unlimited number of pieces of ordnance; such as 24 pounders, 18 pounders, 12, 9, 6, 4, and 3 pounders; mortars from 13 to 8 inches diameter; besides royals and cohorns; howitzers of every denomination, mounted on their proper carriages and beds, &c. There is moreover attached to the train a sufficient quantity of horses, spare carriages, spare mortar-beds, block-carriages, limbers, waggons for ammunition and stores, shells, round and grape shot, bullets, powder, cartridges, port-fires, intrenching-tools, artificers tools, miners tools, gins, capstans, forges, small stores, laboratory-stores, pontoons, pontoon-carriages, with their requisites; tumbrels, aprons of lead, budge-barrels, chevaux de frize, pallisades, platforms, chandeliers, blinds, prolonges, drag-ropes, flints, harness, powder-measures, fuze-engines, fuzes, tents, &c. The train of artillery is, or should be, divided into brigades, to which belong not only the officers of the regiments of artillery, but even the civil-list, such as comptrollers, commissaries of stores, clerks of stores, artificers of all denominations, conductors, store-keepers, waggon-masters, drivers, &c. The increase of artillery clearly demonstrates its great utility; for in the year 1500, an army of 50,000 men had only 40 pieces of cannon in the field; and in the year 1517, the same number of troops brought 200 pieces into the field, including mortars and howitzers.

At the battle of Jemappe, which was fought between the French and Austrians on the 6th of November, 1792, the latter had 120 pieces of cannon disposed along the heights of Framery, whilst their effective force in men did not exceed 28,000. The French on this occasion brought nearly the same quantity of ordnance, some indeed of extraordinary calibre, but their strength in men was above 40,000, and composed of young men who had never seen service, nor had any more than a few days discipline.

A Brigade of Artillery generally consists of 8 or 10 pieces of cannon, with all the machinery, and officers to conduct them, and all the necessary apparatus thereto belonging.

The Park of Artillery is that place appointed by the general of an army, to encamp the train of artillery, apparatus, ammunition, as well as the battalions of the artillery, appointed for its service and defence. The figure of the park of artillery, is that of a parallelogram, unless the situation of the ground renders another necessary.

The park of artillery is generally placed in the centre of the second line of encampment, and sometimes in the rear line, or corps of reserve. In both places the muzzles of the guns are in a line with the fronts of the serjeants tents of the regiments of artillery and infantry. Some generals choose to place the park about 300 paces before the centre of the front line of the army. But let the situation be where it will, the manner of forming the park is almost every where the same, except that some artillery officers differ in the disposition of the carriages; others again divide the equipage as well as the guns into brigades, placing the first in the front line, the second in the next, and so on. However the most approved method, is to divide the whole into brigades, placing the guns of the first to the right of the front line, and their ammunition behind them, in one or more lines. The different brigades should be all numbered, as well as every waggon belonging to them. Example, 1st brigade, front line, No 1, 2, &c. 1st brigade, 2d line, No. 1, 2, &c. 2d brigade, front line, No. 1, 2, &c. and so of all the rest. This method prevents confusion in the forming and breaking up of the park, as also on a march: besides, according to the numbers, the stores therein contained are known.

Artillery—The proportion of artillery and ammunition necessary to accompany an army in the field, to lay siege to a fortified place, or to defend one, must depend upon so many circumstances, that it is almost impossible, in a work of this kind, to lay down any positive rules as guides on the subject: the following principles are drawn from the best authorities:

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1st. Artillery for the Field.

Field Artillery is divided into Battalion Guns, Artillery of the Park, and Horse Artillery.

The Battalion Guns include all the light pieces attached to regiments of the line, which they accompany in all manœuvres, to cover and support them.

The following kinds of field ordnance are attached to battalions of infantry, by different powers in Europe:

The Artillery of the Park is composed of all kinds of field ordnance. It is destined to form batteries of position; that is to say, to occupy advantageous situations, from which the greatest effect may be produced, in supporting the general movements of an army, without following it, like the battalion guns, through all the detail of its manœuvres. The park of artillery attached to an army in the field, generally consists of twice as many pieces of different kinds, varied according to the country in which it is to act, as there are battalions in the army. Gribauvale proposes the following proportion between the different kinds of artillery for the park or reserve, viz. two-fifths of 12 Prs. two-fifths of 8 Prs. and one-fifth of 4 Prs. or reserve for battalion guns. In a difficult country he says, it may be ¹⁄₄ of 12 Prs. ¹⁄₂ of 8 Prs. and ¹⁄₄ of 4 Prs. and for every 100 pieces of cannon he allots 4 Howitzers; but this proportion of Howitzers is much smaller than what is generally given.

This proportion of ammunition and stores is carried in the following manner:

12 Pr. Medium—Has no limber boxes,[2] but has two waggons attached to it, and the ammunition and stores divided between them.

6 Pr. Heavy—Carries 36 round, and 14 case shot in limber boxes, with a proportion of the small stores; and the remainder is carried in one waggon.

6 Pr. Light—Carries 34 round, and 16 case shot on the limber, with a proportion of the small stores for immediate service; and, if acting separately, must have a waggon attached to it, to carry the remainder. But two 6 pounders attached to a battalion, have only one waggon between them.

5¹⁄₂ Howitzer, Light—Has 22 shells, 4 case shot, and two carcasses in the limber-boxes, with such of the small stores as are required for immediate service; and has two waggons attached to carry the rest.

One common pattern ammunition waggon carries the following numbers of rounds of ammunition of each kind:

The waggons, however, attached to the different parks of artillery in England, which have not been altered from the old establishment, are loaded with only the following number, and drawn by three horses:

The horse artillery having waggons of a particular description, carry their ammunition as follows:

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The following Proportion of Artillery, Ammunition, and Carriages, necessary for four French Armies of different Degrees of Strength, and acting in very different Countries, is attributed to Gribauvale, and is extracted from Durtubie, on Artillery.

This table contains, beside the proportion of ordnance with each army, also the quantity of ammunition with each piece of ordnance, and the number of rounds of musquet ammunition carried for the infantry; for each waggon in the French service, having its particular allotment of ammunition and stores, it needs but to know the number of waggons of each description, to ascertain the quantity of ammunition and stores with an army. The following is the number of waggons usually attached to each piece of field ordnance in the French service, and the quantity of ammunition carried with each.

The French horse artillery waggon, called the wurst, carries 57 rounds for 8 pounders; or 30 for 6 inch howitzers.

The following is a proportion of ammunition for one piece of field artillery of each kind, by different powers in Europe.

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Of the movements and positions of field artillery.

Battalion Guns; the following are the usual positions taken by battalion guns, in the most essential manœuvres of the battalion to which they are attached; but the established regulations for the movements of the infantry in the British service, take so little notice of the relative situations for the artillery attached to it, that they afford no authority for a guide on the subject. In review, both guns are to be placed, when in line, on the right of the regiment; unlimbered and prepared for action. The guns 10 yards apart, and the left gun 10 yards from the right of the battalion. Nos. 7 and 8 dress in line with the front rank of the regiment. The officer, at open order, will be in front of the interval between his guns, and in line with the officers of the regiment. When the regiment breaks into column, the guns will be limbered up and wheeled by pairs to the left: the men form the line of march, and the officer marches round in front of the guns. In the review of a single battalion, it is usual after marching round the second time, for one of the guns to go to the rear, and fall in at the rear of the column. Upon the regiment wheeling on the left into line, the guns, if separated, will be unlimbered to the right, but if they are both upon the right, they must be wheeled to the right, and then unlimbered; and afterwards run up by hand, as thereby they do not interfere with the just formation of the line, by obstructing the view of the pivots.

The usual method by which the guns take part in the firings while in line, is by two discharges from each piece, previous to the firing of the regiment; but this is usually regulated by the commanding officer, before the review. Though the guns when in line with a regiment in review, always remain in the intervals; in other situations of more consequence, every favorable spot which presents itself, from which the enemy can be more effectually annoyed, should be taken advantage of. In column, if advancing, the guns must be in front; if retreating, in the rear of the column. If in open column of more than one battalion, the guns in the centre must be between the divisions, and when the column is closed, these guns must move to the outward flank of that division of the column, which leads the regiment to which they are attached. In changing front, or in forming the line from column, should the guns be on that flank of the battalion on which the new line is to be formed, they will commence firing to cover the formation.

In retiring by alternate wings or divisions, the guns must be always with that body nearest the enemy. That is, they will not retire with the first half, but will remain in their position till the second half retires; and will then only retire to the flanks of the first half; and when it retires again, the guns will retire likewise, but only as far as the second half, and so on.

When in hollow square, the guns will be placed at the weakest angles, and the limbers in the centre of the square. In passing a bridge or defile in front, the guns will be the first to pass; unless from any particular position they can more effectually enfilade the defilé; and thereby better open the passage for the infantry. But in retiring through a defilé, the guns will remain to the last, to cover the retreat.

General rule—with very few variations, the guns should attend in all the movements of the battalion, that division of it, to which they are particularly attached; and every attention should be paid in thus adapting the movements of the guns to those of the regiment, that they be not entangled with the divisions of the line, and never so placed as to obstruct the view of the pivots, and thereby the just formation of the line; but should always seek those positions, from which the enemy can be most annoyed, and the troops to which they are attached, protected.

If at any time the battalion guns of several regiments should be united and formed into brigades, their movements will then be the same as those for the artillery of the park.

Artillery of the Park—The artillery of the park is generally divided into brigades of 4, 6 or 8 pieces, and a reserve, according to the force and extent of the from of an army. The reserve must be composed of about one-sixth of the park, and must be placed behind the first line. If the front of the army be extensive, the reserve must be divided.

The following are the principal rules for the movements and positions of the brigades of artillery: they are mostly translated from the Aide Mémoire, a new French military work.

In a defensive position, the guns of the largest caliber must be posted in those points, from whence the enemy can be discovered at the greatest distance, and from which may be seen the whole extent of his front.

In an offensive position, the weakest points of the line must be strengthened by the largest calibers; and the most distant from the enemy: those heights on which the army in advancing may rest its flanks, must be secured by them, and from which the enemy may be fired upon obliquely.

The guns should be placed as much as possible under cover; this is easily done upon heights, by keeping them so far back that the muzzles are only to be seen over them: by proper attention many situations may be found of which advantage may be taken for this purpose, such as banks, ditches, &c. every where to be met with.

A battery in the field should never be[21] discovered by the enemy till the very moment it is to open. The guns may be masked by being a little retired; or by being covered by troops, particularly cavalry.

To enable the commanding officer of artillery to choose the proper positions for his field batteries, he should of course be made acquainted, with the effect intended to be produced; with the troops that are to be supported; and with the points that are to be attacked; that he may place his artillery so as to support, but not incommode the infantry; nor take up such situations with his guns, as would be more advantageously occupied by the line. That he may not place his batteries too soon, nor too much exposed; that he may cover his front and his flanks, by taking advantage of the ground; and that he may not venture too far out of the protection of the troops, unless some very decided effect is to be obtained thereby.

The guns must be so placed as to produce a cross fire upon the position of the enemy, and upon all the ground which he must pass over in an attack.

They must be separated into many small batteries, to divide the fire of the enemy; while the fire from all these batteries, may at any time be united to produce a decided effect against any particular points.

These points are the débouchés of the enemy, the heads of their columns, and the weakest points in the front. In an attack of the enemy’s position, the cross fire of the guns must become direct, before it can impede the advance of the troops; and must annoy the enemy’s positions nearest to the point attacked, when it is no longer safe to continue the fire upon that point itself.

The shot from artillery should always take an enemy in the direction of its greatest dimension; it should therefore take a line obliquely or in flank; but a column in front.

The artillery should never be placed in such a situation, that it can be taken by an enemy’s battery obliquely, or in flank, or in the rear; unless a position under these circumstances, offers every prospect of producing a most decided effect, before the guns can be destroyed or placed hors de combat.

The most elevated positions are not the best for artillery, the greatest effects may be produced from a height of 30 or 40 yards at the distance of about 600, and about 16 yards of height to 200 of distance.

Positions in the rear of the line are bad for artillery, because they alarm the troops, and offer a double object to the fire of the enemy.

Positions which are not likely to be shifted, but from whence an effect may be produced during the whole of an action, are to be preferred; and in such positions a low breast work of 2 or 3 feet high may be thrown up, to cover the carriages.

Artillery should never fire against artillery, unless the enemy’s troops are covered, and his artillery exposed; or unless your troops suffer more from the fire of his guns, than his troops do from yours.

Never abandon your guns till the last extremity. The last discharges are the most destructive; they may perhaps be your salvation, and crown you with victory.

The parks of artillery in Great Britain are composed of the following ordnance: 4 medium 12 pounders; 4 desaguliers 6 pounders; and 4 light 5¹⁄₂ inch howitzers.

The following is the proposed line of march for the three brigades when acting with different columns of troops, as settled, in 1798.

2d. Artillery and Ammunition for a siege.

Necessary considerations in forming an estimate for this service.

The force, situation, and condition of the place to be besieged; whether it be susceptible of more than one attack; whether lines of circumvallation or countervallation will be necessary; whether it be situated upon a height, upon a rocky soil, upon good ground, or in a marsh; whether divided by a river, or in the neighborhood of one; whether the river will admit of forming inundations; its size and depth; whether the place be near a wood, and whether that wood can supply stuff for fascines, gabions, &c. whether it be situated near any other place where a depot can be formed to supply stores for the siege. Each of these circumstances will make a very considerable difference in proportioning the stores, &c. for a siege. More artillery will be required for a place susceptible[22] of two attacks, than for the place which only admits of one. For this last there must be fewer pieces of ordnance, but more ammunition for each piece. In case of lines being necessary, a great quantity of intrenching tools will be required, and a numerous field train of artillery. In case of being master of any garrison in the neighborhood of the besieged town, from whence supplies can readily be drawn, this must be regarded as a second park: and too great a quantity of stores need not be brought at once before the besieged place. The number of batteries to be opened before the place must determine the number of pieces of ordnance; and on the quantity or ordnance must depend the proportion of every species of stores for the service of the artillery.

There must be a battery to enfilade every face of the work to be besieged, that can in any way annoy the besiegers in their approaches. These batteries, at least that part of them to be allotted for guns, need not be much longer than the breadth of the rampart to be enfiladed, and will not therefore hold more than 5 or 6 heavy guns; which, with two more to enfilade the opposite branch of the covert way, will give the number of guns for each ricochet battery. As the breaching batteries, from their situation, effectually mask the fire of the first or ricochet batteries, the same artillery generally serves for both. Having thus ascertained the number of heavy guns, the rest of the ordnance will bear the following proportion to them:

Mortars. From 8 inch to 13 inch, about ¹⁄₃.

Small Mortars. About ¹⁄₄.

Heavy Howitzers. About ¹⁄₃.

The fewer kinds of ordnance which compose the demand the better, as a great deal of the confusion may be prevented, which arises from various kinds of ammunition and stores being brought together.

The carriages for the ordnance are generally as follows:

For 24 Prs. ⁵⁄₆ the number of guns.

For Mortars, ⁸⁄₉ the number of mortars.

For Howitzers, ³⁄₄ the number of howitzers.

For Stone Mortars, ⁶⁄₇ the number of mortars.

Ammunition for the ordnance.

24 Prs. At 1000 rounds per gun.

Mortars, howitzers, and stone mortars, at 800 rounds per piece of ordnance.

The following proportion of artillery and ammunition was demanded by a very able officer, for the intended siege of Lisle, in 1794, which place was thought susceptible of two attacks.

64—24 Prs, with carriages complete, at 50 round shot per gun, per day, for the whole siege; half of them en ricochet, with 2lbs. of powder; the other half with the full charge of 8lbs.

Case and Grape shot, at one round per gun, per day, of each: 6lbs. per charge.

Shells for guns, two rounds do.

Flannel cartridges, for the case, grape, and shells.

Tin tubes for the case and grape.

Quill tubes for the round shot.

Spare, one tenth.

28—10 Inch mortars, on iron beds, at 50 shells each per day, for the whole siege. 3lbs. of powder charge; 2lbs. 10 oz. for bursting.

Pound shot; 100 to a charge; 50 rounds per mortar each day for 10 mortars 7 days; 2lbs. of powder each.

Hand granades; 25 to a charge; the same as the pound shot.

Carcasses, round; 1 per mortar, per day.

8—8 Inch howitzers, on travelling carriages.

30 Shells for each per day, during the siege.

Case shot; 5 rounds per day each.

Carcasses; 1 per day each.

Powder; 1lb. per charge; 1lb. 14 oz. for bursting.

20—5¹⁄₂ Inch mortars, on wooden beds.

50 Shells for each, per day, for the whole siege; charge 8 oz.; 12 oz. for bursting.

Flannel cartridges, for ¹⁄₃ the number of rounds.

Tin tubes in the same proportion.

Portfires, one half the number of rounds with tubes.

Fuzes, one tenth to spare.

Match, 50 cwt.

Spare carriages for 24 Prs. seven.

2 Devil carriages.

6 Sling carts.

6 Block carriages.

3 Forge carts.

3 Store waggons, with iron and coals.

3 Triangle gins, complete.

6 Laboratory tents.

2 Small petards.

4 Grates for heating shot.

Of the arrangement of Artillery at a siege.

The first arrangement of the artillery at a siege is to the different batteries raised near the first parallel, to enfilade the faces of the work on the front attacked, which fire on the approaches. If these first batteries be favorably situated, the artillery may be continued in them nearly the whole of the siege; and will save the erection of any other gun batteries, till the besiegers arrive on the crest of the glacis. It however frequently happens, from local circumstances, that the besiegers cannot avail themselves of the most advantageous situations for the first batteries. There are four situations from which the defenses of any face may be destroyed; but not from all with equal facility. The best position for the first batteries, is perpendicular to the prolongation of the face of the work to be enfiladed. If this position cannot be attained, the next that[23] presents itself is, on that side of the prolongation which takes the face in reverse; and under as small an angle as possible. From both these positions the guns must fire en ricochet. But if the ground, or other circumstance, will not admit of either of these being occupied by ricochet batteries, the battery to destroy the fire of a face must be without the prolongation, so as to fire obliquely upon the outside of the face. The last position, in point of advantage, is directly parallel to the face. From these two last positions the guns must fire with the full charges.

The second, or breaching batteries at a siege, are generally placed on the crest of the glacis, within 15 or 18 feet of the covert way; which space serves as the epaulment: but if the foot of the revetement cannot be seen from this situation, they must be placed in the covert way, within 15 feet of the counterscarp of the ditch. These batteries must be sunk as low as the soles of the embrasures, and are in fact but an enlargement of the sap, run for the lodgment on the glacis or in the covert way. In constructing a battery on the crest of the glacis, attention must be paid that none of the embrasures open upon the traverses of the covert way. These batteries should consist of at least four guns; and if the breadth between the traverses will not admit of this number, at the usual distances, the guns must be closed to 15 or 12 feet from each other.

The mortars are generally at first arranged in battery, adjoining the first gun batteries, or upon the prolongation of the capitals of the works; in which place they are certainly least exposed. Upon the establishment of the half parallels, batteries of howitzers may be formed in their extremities, to enfilade the branches of the covert way; and upon the formation of the third parallel, batteries of howitzers and stone mortars may be formed to enfilade the flanks of the bastions, and annoy the besieged in the covert way. In the lodgement on the glacis, stone and other mortars may also be placed, to drive the besieged from their defences. A great object in the establishment of all these batteries, is to make such an arrangement of them, that they mask the fire of each other as little as possible; and particularly of the first, or ricochet batteries. This may very well be prevented till the establishment on the crest of the glacis, when it becomes in some degree unavoidable: however, even the operations on the glacis may be so arranged, that the ricochet batteries be not masked till the breaching batteries be in a great state of forwardness: a very secure method, and which prevents the soldiers in trenches being alarmed by the shot passing over their heads, is to raise a parados, or parapet, in the rear of the trenches, at such parts where the fire from the besieger’s batteries crosses them. For further details on this subject, and for the manner of constructing batteries, see the word Battery; also the words Ricochet, Breach, Magazine, Platform, &c.

3d. Artillery and Ammunition for the defence of a Fortified Place.

The guns will be of the following calibres: one-third of 18 prs.; one-third of 12 prs.; and one-third of 24, 9, and 4 pounders in equal proportions. If the place does not possess any very extraordinary means of defence, it will be very respectably supplied with 800 rounds of ammunition per gun for the two larger calibers, and 900 for each of the others.

Gun Carriages; one-third more than the number of guns.

Mortars; about one-fourth the number of guns in the three first classes; and one-fifth or one-sixth in the other classes. Of these two-fifths will be 13 or 10 inch mortars, and the rest of a smaller nature.

Howitzers; one-fourth the number of mortars.

Stone Mortars; one-tenth the number of guns.

Shells; 400 for each of the 10 and 13 inch mortars, and 600 for each of the smaller ones.

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Beds for mortars; one-third to spare.

Carriages for howitzers; one-third to spare.

Hand Grenades; 4 or 5000 for the two first classes; 2000 in the three following classes; and from 1500 to 600 in the three last classes.

Rampart Grenades; 2000 for the first class; 1000 for the four following classes; and 500 for the sixth class; none for the two last.

Fuzes; one-fourth more than the number of shells.

Bottoms of wood for stone mortars; 400 per mortar.

Sand Bags; 500 for every piece of ordnance in the large places, and one-fourth less in the small ones.

Handspikes; 10 per piece.

Tackle Falls for gins; 1 for every 10 pieces to spare.

Musquets; 1 per soldier, and the same number to spare.

Pistols, pairs; one half the number of musquets.

Flints; 50 per musquet, and 10 per pistol.

Lead or Balls for small arms; 30 pounds per musquet.

Powder for small arms; 5 pounds for every musquet in the garrison, including the spare ones.

The above proportions are taken from Durtubie’s Manuel De l’Artilleur.

The following method of regulating the management of the artillery, and estimating the probable expenditure of ammunition in the defence of a fortified place, is extracted from a valuable work on fortification lately published at Berlin. It is particularly applied to a regular hexagon: the siege is divided into three periods, viz.

1st. From the first investiture to the first opening of the trenches, about 5 days.

2d. From the opening of the trenches to the effecting a lodgement on the glacis, about 18 days.

3d. From this time to the capitulation, about 5 days.

First Period. Three guns on the barbette of each bastion and on the barbettes of the ravelins in front of the gate ways, half 24 prs. and half 18 prs.[4] three 9 prs. on the barbette of each of the other ravelins.

Twelve 12 prs. and twelve 4 prs. in reserve.

One 13 inch mortar in each bastion.

Six of 8 inch in the salient angles of the covert way.

Do. in reserve.

Ten stone mortars.

The 12 prs. in reserve, are to be ranged behind the curtain, on which ever side they may be required, and the 4 prs. in the outworks; all to fire en ricochet over the parapet. By this arrangement, the whole of the barbette guns are ready to act in any direction, till the side of attack is determined on; and with the addition of the reserve, 49 pieces may be opened upon the enemy the very first night they begin to work upon the trenches.

The day succeeding the night on which the trenches are opened, and the side to be attacked determined, a new arrangement of the artillery must take place. All the 24 and 18 prs. must be removed to the front attacked, and the other bastions, if required, supplied with 12 prs. The barbettes of the bastions on this front may have each 5 guns, and the twelve 18 prs. may be ranged behind the curtain. The six mortars in reserve must be placed, two in each of the salient angles of the covert way of this front, and with those already there mounted as howitzers,[5] to fire down the prolongations of the capitals. Three 4 pounders in each of the salient places of arms of the ravelins on the attacked fronts, to fire over the palisading, and five 9 prs. in the ravelin of this front. This arrangement will bring 47 guns and 18 mortars to fire on the approaches after the first night; and with a few variations will be the disposition of the artillery for the second period of the siege. As soon as the enemy’s batteries are fairly established, it will be no longer safe to continue the guns en barbette, but embrasures[6] must be opened for them; which embrasures must be occasionally masked, and the guns assume new directions, as the enemy’s fire grows destructive; but may again be taken advantage of, as circumstances offer. As the enemy gets near the third parallel, the artillery must be withdrawn from the covert way to the ravelins, or to the ditch, if dry, or other favorable situations; and, by degrees, as the enemy advances, to the body of the place. During this period of the siege, the embrasures must be prepared in the flanks, in the curtain which joins them, and in the faces of the bastions which flank the ditch of the front ravelins. These embrasures must be all ready to open, and the heavy artillery mounted in them, the moment the enemy attempts a lodgement on the glacis.

Every effort should be made to take advantage of this favorable moment, when the enemy, by their own works, must mask their former batteries, and before they are able to open their new ones.

The expenditure of ammunition will be nearly as follows:

First period of the siege; 5 rounds per gun, per day, with only half the full charge, or one-sixth the weight of the shot, and for only such guns as can act.

Second period; 20 rounds per gun, per[25] day, with one-sixth the weight of the shot.

Third-period; 60 rounds per gun, per day, with the full charge, or one-third the weight of the shot.

Mortars; at 20 shells per day, from the first opening of the trenches to the capitulation.

Stone Mortars; 80 rounds per mortar, for every 24 hours, from the establishment of the demi-parallels to the capitulation; about 13 days.

Light, and Fire balls; five every night, for each mortar, from the opening of the trenches to the eighth day, and three from that time to the end of the siege.

This proportion and arrangement is however made upon a supposition, that the place has no countermines to retard the progress of the besiegers, to a period beyond what is abovementioned; but the same author estimates, that a similar place, with the covert way properly countermined beforehand, and those countermines properly disputed, may retard a siege at least 2 months; and that if the other works be likewise effectually countermined and defended, the siege may be still prolonged another month.

The above proportion is therefore to be further regulated, as the strength of the place is increased by these or any other means. These considerations should likewise be attended to, in the formation of an estimate of ammunition and stores for the siege of a fortified place. See Carriage, Platform, Park, and the different kinds of artillery, as Gun, Mortar, Howitzer, &c.

The ammunition for small arms is estimated by this author as follows:

¹⁄₄ of a pound of gunpowder, or 10 rounds per day, per man, for all the ordinary guards.

1¹⁄₄ lbs. or 50 rounds per man, per 12 hours, for all extraordinary guards.

⁵⁄₈ of a pound, or 25 rounds for every man on picket, during the period of his duty.

Artillery, in a military acceptation of the term, signifies every species of light or heavy ordnance. It is classed under specific heads; the most important of which are—

Field Artillery, which includes every requisite to forward the operations of an army, or of any part of an army acting offensively or defensively in the field. Field artillery may be divided into two distinct classes—Field Artillery, commonly called the Park, and Horse Artillery.

Encampment of a regiment of Artillery. Regiments of artillery are always encamped, half on the right, and half on the left of the park. The company of bombardiers (when they are formed into companies, which they are in European nations excepting England) always takes the right of the whole, and they rate by seniority, so that the two youngest are next but one to the centre or park: the two companies next to the park, are the miners on the right, and the artificers on the left.

In the rear of, and 36 feet from the park, are encamped the civil list, commissioners, clerks, &c. all in one line.

The breadth between the front tent-pole of one company, and that of another, called the streets, will depend on the size and capacity of the tents; but according to the old mode during the revolution of 1776, when the American army had tents, 36 feet to each was the interval.

The army guard is in the front of the park, opposite the alarm-guns, in a line with the artillery quarter-guards, that are placed on the right and left of the artillery companies.

When there are bells of arms they front the poles of serjeants tents.

The colours are placed in the centre of the front line of guns, in the interval of the two alarm-guns, in a line with the bells of arms of the companies.

The lieutenant-colonels and majors tents[26] front the centres of the second streets from the right and left of the regiment.

The colonel’s tent is in a line with the colours and guard of the army, facing the same.

The staff-officers front the centres of the second streets, on the right and left of the angles of the park.

The bâtmen’s tents front towards their horses.

The rear-guard fronts outwards. The front poles are in a line with the centre of the bells of arms, and each is 18 feet distant. The parade of the rear-guard is 12 feet from the bells of arms.

In the rear of the rear guard, and 80 feet distant from their parade, the artillery-horses and drivers tents are placed, in two or more lines, parallel with the line of guns, extending from the right and left of the whole.

It sometimes happens, that a very large train of artillery is in the field, with two or more regiments: in that case the oldest takes the right of the park, the next oldest the left, and the youngest the centre: the centre or grand street is 63 feet broad, opposite to which the tent of the commanding officer is placed. In the centre of this street, the colours are placed in a line with the bells of arms, and the artillery quarter-guard is in the front of the colours at the same distance as before mentioned. For further particulars of camps, see American Mil. Lib. Vol. II. Art. Camps.

Regiment of Artillery. The corps of artillery, with all its dependencies, is, as it were, the general instrument of the army. It is impossible to attack fortified places, or to defend them, without artillery; and an army in the field, which wants artillery, can not so well make head against one that is well provided with it. for this reason it is, that at all times governments have taken great care to provide proper officers of learning and capacity to govern, repair and keep in order, this essential part of military force.

The strength of a regiment of artillery depends upon the circumstances of the country, the quantity of troops to maintain, the number of fortifications and points to be defended. It had always been the custom, to regulate the corps of artillery according to the French method; but, the celebrated king of Prussia fixed his regiments of artillery on another plan, and produced a great change, upon which the French have since improved, and are again followed by all nations. The British method, from which we borrowed in the revolution, may be useful to know as well as the Prussian.

In 1628, and probably long before, the artillery had sundry privileges, from which the rest of the army were excluded, viz. of having the first rank and the best quarters; neither could any carriage or waggon presume to march before theirs, except that belonging to the treasurer.

In 1705, we find the first mention made of English royal artillery, before that time it was only called the train of artillery. It then consisted only of 4 companies, under the command of general Borgard. From that period it gradually increased to 6 battalions, each battalion consisting of 10 companies, beside 1 invalid battalion equal in its establishment to the others, but confined in duty to the home garrisons, or to Jersey, Guernsey and Bermuda, commanded by a colonel commandant, 1 colonel en second, 2 lieutenant-colonels, 1 major, who have no companies. Each company in time of war generally consisted of 120 men, commanded by 1 captain, 1 captain lieutenant, 2 first, and 1 second lieutenant. In time of peace the companies were reduced to 50 men each.

Frederick the second of Prussia, found his army in a very good condition, excepting the corps of artillery and engineers, little esteemed by the rest of the army, and the officers without commissions. Knowing how necessary it was to have a good corps of artillery and engineers, and how impossible it was to secure that important object without having officers learned in every branch of military mathematics; immediately draughted all the illiterate officers into the garrison regiments, supplying their places with persons of capacity; and giving them all commissions, with rank equal to that of the officers of the guards, and an extraordinary pay. This method of proceeding established the use and reputation of that corps; induced the nobility and men of rank (provided they had capacity) to engage in it sooner than elsewhere; which brought it to that summit of high renown, it since enjoyed.

The Prussian army consisted of 12 battalions, 8 for the field, and 4 for garrison. Each battalion had 12 companies, namely, 1 company of bombardiers, 1 of miners, 1 of artificers, and 9 of artillerists. The first, or bombardier companies, were composed of 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 3 upper and 6 under fire-workers, 2 serjeants, 4 corporals, 2 drummers, and 60 bombardiers. The miners had the same commissioned officers, with 3 serjeants, 6 corporals, 2 drummers, 33 miners, and 33 sappers. The artificers had the same officers and non-commissioned officers as the miners, with 30 artificers, and 36 pontoneers. All the artillery companies had 3 commissioned and 6 non-commissioned officers, 2 drummers, and 60 artillerists. The colonel, lieutenant-colonel, and major’s companies, had each a captain-lieutenant; and each battalion had further, 1 chaplain, 1 auditor, 1 adjutant, 1 quarter-master, 1 doctor, 3 surgeons, 1 serjeant-major, 1 drum-major, 6 musicians, and 1 provost.

By the law of the 16th March, 1802, sect. 2, the United States artillery consists of five battalions, consisting of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 4 majors, 1 adjutant, 20 companies, each composed of 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 2 cadets, 4 serjeants, 4 corporals, 4[27] musicians, 8 artificers, and 56 privates; two teachers of music were added by the law of February 28, 1803.

March of the Artillery. The marches of the artillery are, of all the operations of war, the most delicate; because they must not only be directed on the object you have in view, but according to the movements the enemy make. Armies generally march in 3 columns, the centre column of which is the artillery: should the army march in more columns, the artillery and heavy baggage march nevertheless in one or more of the centre columns; the situation of the enemy determines this. If they are far from the enemy, the baggage and ammunition go before or behind, or are sent by a particular road; an army in such a case cannot march in too many columns. But should the march be towards the enemy, the baggage must absolutely be all in the rear, and the whole artillery form the centre column, except some brigades, one of which marches at the head of each column, with guns loaded and burning matches, preceded by a detachment for their safety. The French almost invariably place their baggage in the centre.

Suppose the enemy’s army in a condition to march towards the heads of your columns: the best disposition for the march is in 3 columns only; that of the centre for the artillery; for it is then easy to form it in order of battle. Hence it is equally commodious for each brigade of artillery to plant itself at the head of the troops, in the place marked for it, in such a manner, that the whole disposition being understood, and well executed, the line of battle may be quickly formed in an open country, and in the presence of any enemy, without risquing a surprise; by which method the artillery will always be in a condition to act as soon as the troops, provided it march in brigades.

If your march should be through a country full of defiles, some cavalry and other light troops must march at the head of the columns, followed by a detachment of grenadiers and a brigade of artillery; cannon being absolutely necessary to obstruct the enemy’s forming into order of battle.

When you decamp in the face of the enemy, you must give most attention to your rear-guard. On such occasions, all the baggage, ammunition, provisions, and artillery, march before the troops; your best light troops, best cavalry, some good brigades of infantry, together with some brigades of artillery, form the rear-guard. Cannon is of infinite use for a rear-guard, when you are obliged to pass a defile, or a river; and should be placed at the entry of such defile, on an eminence, if there be one, or on any other place, from whence they can discover the ground through which the enemy must march to attack the rear-guard.

A detachment of pioneers, with tools, must always march at the head of the artillery, and of each column of equipage or baggage.

If the enemy be encamped on the right flanks of the march, the artillery, &c. should march to the left of the troops, and vice versa. Should the enemy appear in motion, the troops front that way, by wheeling to the right or left by divisions; and the artillery, which marches in a line with the columns, passes through their intervals, and forms at the head of the front line, which is formed of the column that flanked nearest the enemy, taking care at the same time that the baggage be well covered during the action.

Though we have said armies generally march in 3 columns, yet where the country will allow it, it is better to march in a greater number; and let that number be what it will, the artillery must form the centre columns. See American Mil. Lib. on the march of troops.

Line of march of the Artillery for a large army, as established before the French revolution:

 1. A guard of the army; the strength of which depends on the commander in chief.

 2. The companies of miners (excepting a detachment from each, dispersed in various places, to mend the roads) with tumbrels of tools, drawn by 2 horses, assisted by pioneers.

 3. The brigades of artillery’s front-guard, with four light 6 pounders loaded, and matches burning.

 4. The trumpeters on horse-back.

 5. The flag-gun, drawn by 12 horses, and ten 12 pounders more, by 4 horses each.

 6. Twenty waggons with stores for the said guns, and 1 spare one, by 4 horses each.

 7. All the pontoons, with the waggons thereto belonging.

 8. Eight 9 pounders, by 3 horses each.

 9. Fifteen waggons with stores for said guns, by 4 horses each, and 2 spare ones.

10. Gins and capstans, with their proper workmen, 3 waggons, with 2 horses each.

11. A forge on four wheels, and 1 waggon, 4 horses each.

12. Twelve heavy 24 pounders, by 16 horses each.

13. Sixteen waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones, by 4 horses each.

14. A waggon with tools, and pioneers to mend the roads.

15. Nine light 24 pounders, by 8 horses each.

16. Twelve waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones, by 4 horses each.

17. A forge and waggon, by 4 horses each.

18. Nine 24 pounders, by 8 horses each.

19. Twelve waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

20. Twelve 12 pounders, by 8 horses each.

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21. Sixteen waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

22. Sixteen 5.8 inch mortars, by 2 horses each.

23. Twenty-five waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

24. Ten 8 inch mortars, by 4 horses each.

25. Twenty waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

26. Six 10 inch howitzers, by 6 horses each.

27. Twenty waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

28. A waggon with tools, and men to mend the roads.

29. A forge and waggon, by 4 horses each.

30. Ten 8 inch mortars, by 4 horses each.

31. Twenty waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one.

32. Sixteen 12 inch mortars, by 8 horses each.

33. Thirty waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

34. Eight 18 inch stone mortars, by 10 horses each.

35. Sixteen waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one.

36. Eight 9 pounders, by 3 horses each.

37. Sixteen waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one.

38. Twenty 6 pounders, by 2 horses each.

39. Twenty waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one.

40. Two sling-waggons, and 2 truck-carriages, 4 horses each.

41. Twenty 3 pounders, by 1 horse each.

42. Ten waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one.

43. A waggon with tools, &c.

44. A forge and waggon, by 4 horses each.

45. Twelve 2 and 1 pounders, by 1 horse each.

46. Six waggons with stores for ditto.

47. Sixteen 6 pounders, by 2 horses each.

48. Ten waggons with stores for ditto.

49. Twenty spare carriages, for various calibres.

50. Eighteen ditto.

51. Fifty spare limbers.

52. Ten 18 pounders, by 6 horses each.

53. Twenty waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

54. Twenty waggons with ammunition and stores.

55. Two 12 pounders, by 4 horses each.

56. Four waggons with stores for ditto.

57. Fifty waggons with stores.

58. A waggon with tools, and men to mend the roads.

59. A forge and waggon, by 4 horses each.

60. A hundred waggons with stores, and 4 spare ones.

61. Four 2 and 1 pounders, by 1 horse each.

62. A hundred waggons with stores, and 3 spare ones.

63. Two hundred waggons, and 2 spare ones.

64. Two hundred and fourteen waggons belonging to the artillery baggage; some with 4, 3, and 2 horses each.

65. The artillery rear-guard.

66. The rear-guard from the army.

Horse Artillery.—The French horse artillery consists of 8 Prs. and 6 inch Howitzers.

The English of light 12 Prs., light 6 Prs. and light 5¹⁄₂ inch Howitzers.

The Austrian and Prussian horse artillery have 6 Prs. and 5¹⁄₂ inch Howitzers.

The United States by a law of April 12, 1808, authorised the raising of a regiment of horse artillery of ten companies, of the same number of officers and men as the artillery regiment of the old establishment to the company.

Officers of Artillery. The commander of the army is commander in chief of the artillery; the colonels of artillery act under his orders; they are entrusted with one of the most laborious employments, both in war and peace, requiring the greatest ability, application, and experience. The officers in general should be good mathematicians, and engineers, should know all the powers of artillery, the attack and defence of fortified places; in a word, every thing which appertains to that very important corps.

ARTILLEUR, Fr. an officer belonging to the French service.

ARTILLIER, Fr. a man who works on pieces of ordnance as a founder; or one who serves them in action.

ARX, in the ancient military art, a fort, castle, &c. for the defence of a place.

ARZEGAGES, Fr. batons or canes with iron at both ends. They were carried by the Estradiots or Albanian cavaliers who served in France under Charles VIII. and Louis XII.

ASAPPES, or Azapes, auxiliary troops which are raised among the Christians subject to the Turkish empire. These troops are generally placed in the front to receive the first shock of the enemy.

ASCENT. See Gunnery.

ASPECT, is the view or profile of land or coast, and contains the figure or representation of the borders of any particular part of the sea. These figures and representations may be found in all the charts or directories for the sea coast. The Italians call them demonstratione. By means of this knowlege you may ascertain whether the land round the shore be high; if the coast itself be steep or sloping; bent in the form of an arc, or extended in strait lines; round at the top, or rising to a point. Every thing, in a word, is brought in a correct state before the eye, as far as regards harbors,[29] swamps, bogs, gulphs, adjacent churches, trees, windmills, &c. See Reconnoitring in Amer. Mil. Lib.

A menacing Aspect. An army is said to hold a menacing aspect, when by advanced movements or positions it gives the opposing enemy cause to apprehend an attack.

A military Aspect. A country is said to have a military aspect, when its general situation presents appropriate obstacles or facilities for an army acting on the offensive or defensive.

An imposing Aspect. An army is said to have an imposing aspect, when it appears stronger than it really is. This appearance is often assumed for the purpose of deceiving an enemy, and may not improperly be considered as a principal ruse de guerre, or feint in war.

ASPIC, Fr. a piece of ordnance which carries a 12 pound shot. The piece itself weighs 42-50 pounds.

ASSAILLIR, Fr. to attack; to assail. This old French term applies equally to bodies of men and to individuals.

ASSAULT, a furious effort to carry a fortified post, camp, or fortress, where the assailants do not screen themselves by any works. While an assault during a siege continues, the batteries cease, for fear of killing their own men. An assault is sometimes made by the regiments that guard the trenches of a siege, sustained by detachments from the army.

To give an Assault, is to attack any post, &c.

To repulse an Assault, to cause the assailants to retreat, to beat them back.

To carry by Assault, to gain a post by storm, &c.

ASSAUT, Fr. See Assault.

ASSIEGER, Fr. to besiege.

ASSEMBLEE, Fr. the assembling together of an army. Also a call, or beat of the drum. See Assembly.

ASSEMBLY, the second beating of the drum before a march; at which the men strike their tents, if encamped, roll them up, and stand to arms. See Drum.

ASSESSMENT, in a military sense, signifies a certain rate which is paid in England by the county treasurer to the receiver-general of the land-tax, to indemnify any place for not having raised the militia; which sum is to be paid by the receiver-general into the exchequer. The sum to be assessed is five pounds for each man, where no annual certificate of the state of the militia has been transmitted to the clerk of the peace: if not paid before June yearly it may be levied on the parish officers. Such assessment where there is no county rate is to be raised as the poor’s rate.

ASSIETTE, Fr. the immediate scite or position of a camp.

ASSOCIATION, any number of men embodied in arms for mutual defence in their district; and to preserve the public tranquility therein, against foreign or domestic enemies.

ASTRAGAL. See Cannon.

ATTACH. Officers and non-commissioned officers are said to be attached to the respective army, regiment, battalion, troop, or company with which they are appointed to act.

ATTACHE, Fr. the seal and signature of the colonel-general in the old French service, which were affixed to the commissions of officers after they had been duly examined.

ATTACK, any general assault, or onset, that is given to gain a post, or break a body of troops.

Attack of a siege, is a furious assault made by the besiegers by means of trenches, galleries, saps, breaches, or mines, &c. by storming any part of the front attack. Sometimes two attacks are carried on at the same time, between which a communication must be made. See Siege.

False Attacks are never carried on with that vigor and briskness that the others are; the design of them being to favor the true attack, by amusing the enemy and by obliging the garrison to severer duty in dividing their forces, that the true attack may be more successful.

Regular Attack, is that which is carried on in form, according to the rules of art. See Siege, Approaches, &c.

To Attack in front or flank, in fortification, means to attack the saliant angle, or both sides of the bastion.

This phrase is familiarly used with respect to bodies of men which attack each other in a military way.

Attack and Defence. A part of the drill for recruits learning the sword exercise, which is commenced with the recruit stationary on horseback, the teacher riding round him, striking at different parts as openings appear, and instructing the recruit how to ward his several attacks; it is next executed in a walk, and, as the learner becomes more perfect, in speed; in the latter under the idea of a pursuit. The attack and defence in line and in speed form the concluding part of the sword exercise when practised at a review of cavalry. It is to be observed, that although denominated in speed, yet when practising, or at a review, the pace of the horse ought not to exceed three quarters speed.

ATTENTION, a cautionary word used as a preparative to any particular exercise or manœuvre. Garde-á-vous, which is pronounced Gar-a-vous, has the same signification in the French service.

ATTESTATION, a certificate made by some justice of the peace of the enlistment of a recruit. This certificate is to bear testimony, that the recruit has been brought before him in conformity to law and has declared his assent or dissent to such enlistment; and, if according to the law he shall have been, and is duly enlisted,[30] that the proper oath has been administered to him by the said magistrate.

ATILT, in the attitude of thrusting with a spear, &c. as was formerly the case in tournaments, &c.

AVANT, Fr. foremost, most advanced toward the enemy, as

Avant-chemin couvert, Fr. The advanced covert-way which is made at the foot of the glacis to oppose the approaches of an enemy.

Avant-duc, Fr. The pile-work which is formed by a number of young trees on the edge or entrance of a river. They are driven into the ground with battering rams or strong pieces of iron, to form a level floor, by means of strong planks being nailed upon it, which serve for the foundation of a bridge. Boats are placed wherever the avant-duc terminates. The avant-duc is had recourse to when the river is so broad that there are not boats sufficient to make a bridge across. Avant-ducs are made on each side of the river.

Avant-fossé, Fr. The ditch of the counterscarp next to the country. It is dug at the foot of the glacis. See Fortification.

Avant-garde. See Van Guard.

Avant-train, Fr. The limbers of a field piece, on which are placed one or two boxes containing ammunition enough for immediate service.

AUDITOR, the person who audits regimental or other military accounts.

AVENUE, in fortification, is any kind of opening or inlet into a fort, bastion, or out-work.

AUGET, or Augette, Fr. A wooden pipe which contains the powder by which a mine is set fire to.

AULNE de Paris, a French measure, containing 44 inches, used to measure sand-bags.

AUTHORITY, in a general acceptation of the term, signifies a right to command, and a consequent right to be obeyed. The appointment of officers in the army of the United States is in the nomination by the president, and approved by a majority of the Senate. The president may however dismiss at his discretion. The king of Great-Britain has the power to exercise military authority without controul, as far as regards the army; and may appoint or dismiss officers at his pleasure.

AUXILIARY. Foreign or subsidiary troops which are furnished to a belligerent power in consequence of a treaty of alliance, or for pecuniary considerations. Of the latter description may be considered the Hessians that were employed by Great-Britain to enslave America.

AWARD, the sentence or determination of a military court.

AXLE-TREE, a transverse beam supporting a carriage, and on the ends of which the wheels revolve. See Carriages.

BACK-Step, the retrograde movement of a man or body of men without changing front; it is half the forward step.

BACKWARDS, a technical word made use of in the British service to express the retrograde movement of troops from line into column, and vice versa. See Wheel.

BAGGAGE, in military affairs, signifies the clothes, tents, utensils of divers sorts, and provisions, &c. belonging to an army.

Baggage-Waggons. See Waggons.

BAGPIPE, the name of a musical warlike instrument, of the wind kind, used by the Scots regiments, and sometimes by the Irish. Bagpipes were used by the Danes; by the Romans, and by the Asiatics at this day; there is in Rome a most beautiful bas-relievo, a piece of Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, which represents a bag-piper playing on his instrument exactly like a modern highlander. The Greeks had also an instrument composed of a pipe and blown-up skin. The Romans in all probability, borrowed it from them. The Italians still use it under the names of piva and cornumusa. The Bagpipe has been a favorite instrument among the Scots. There are two varieties: the one with long pipes, and sounded with the mouth; the other with short pipes, filled with air by a bellows, and played on with the fingers: the first is the loudest and most ear-piercing of all music, is the genuine highland pipe, and is well suited to the warlike genius of that people. It formerly roused their courage to battle, alarmed them when secure, and collected them when scattered: solaced them in their long and painful marches, and in times of peace kept up the memory of the gallantry of their ancestors, by tunes composed after signal victories. The other is the Irish bagpipe.

BAGS, in military employments, are used on many occasions: as,

Sand Bags, generally 16 inches diameter, and 30 high, filled with earth or sand to repair breaches, and the embrasures of batteries, when damaged by the enemies fire, or by the blast of the guns. Sometimes they are made less, and placed three together, upon the parapets, for the men to fire through.

Earth-Bags, containing about a cubical foot of earth, are used to raise a parapet in haste, or to repair one that is beaten down. They are only used when the ground is rocky, and does not afford earth enough to carry on the approaches.

BALANCE, Fr. a term used in the French artillery to express a machine in which stores and ammunition are weighed.

BALL, in the military art, comprehends all sorts of balls and bullets for fire-arms, from the cannon to the pistol.

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Balls of Lead, of different kinds.

Lead balls are packed in boxes containing each 1 cwt. About 4 pounds of lead in the cwt. are generally lost in casting. See Shot.

Cannon-Balls are of iron; and musket and pistol-balls are of lead. Cannon-balls are always distinguished by their respective calibres, thus,

of which there are various sorts, used for various purposes. Their composition is mealed powder 2, saltpetre 1¹⁄₂, sulphur 1, rosin 1, turpentine 2¹⁄₂. Sometimes they are made of an iron shell, sometimes a stone, filled and covered with various coats of the above composition, until it conglomerates to a proper size; the last coat being of grained powder. But the best sort in our opinion, is to take thick brown paper, and make a shell the size of the mortar, and fill it with a composition of an equal quantity of sulphur, pitch, rosin, and mealed powder; which being well mixed, and put in warm, will give a clear fire, and burn a considerable time.

When they are intended to set fire to magazines, buildings, &c. the composition must be mealed powder 10, saltpetre 2, sulphur 4, and rosin 1; or rather mealed powder 48, saltpetre 32, sulphur 16, rosin 4, steel or iron filings 2, fir-tree saw-dust boiled in saltpetre ley 2, birch-wood charcoal 1, well rammed into a shell for that purpose, having various holes filled with small barrels, loaded with musket-balls; and lastly the whole immerged in melted pitch, rosin and turpentine oil.

Smoke-Balls are prepared as above, with this difference, that they contain 5 to 1 of pitch, rosin and saw-dust. This composition is put into shells made for that purpose, having 4 holes to let out the smoke. Smoke-balls are thrown out of mortars, and continue to smoke from 25 to 30 minutes.

Stink-Balls are prepared by a composition of mealed powder, rosin, saltpetre, pitch, sulphur, rasped horses and asses hoofs, burnt in the fire, assa-fœtida, seraphim gum or ferula, and bug or stinking herbs, made up into balls, as mentioned in Light-Balls, agreeably to the size of the mortar out of which you intend to throw them.

Poisoned Balls. We are not sure that they have ever been used in Europe; but the Indians and Africans have always been very ingenious at poisoning several sorts of warlike stores and instruments. Their composition is mealed powder 4, pitch 6, rosin 3, sulphur 5, assa-fœtida 8, extract of toad’s poison 12, other poisonous substances 12, made into balls as above directed. At the commencement of the French Revolution poisoned balls were exhibited to the people said to have been fired by the Austrians, particularly at the siege of Lisle. We have seen some of this sort. They contained glass, small pieces of iron, &c. and were said to be concocted together by means of a greasy composition which was impregnated with poisonous matter. In 1792, they were deposited in the Archives of Paris.

Red-hot Balls are fired out of mortars, howitzers, or cannon. Use which you will, the ball must be made red-hot, which is done upon a large coal fire in a square hole made in the ground, 6 feet every way, and 4 or 5 feet deep. Some make the fire under an iron grate, on which the shell or ball is laid; but the best way is to put the ball into the middle of a clear burning fire, and when red-hot, all the fiery particles must be swept off. Whatever machine you use to throw the red-hot ball out of, it must be elevated according to the distance you intend it shall range, and the charge of powder must be put into a flannel cartridge, and a good wad upon that; then a piece of wood of the exact diameter of the piece, and about 3¹⁄₂ inches thick, to prevent the ball from setting fire to the powder; then place the ball on the edge of the mortar, &c. with an instrument for that purpose, and let it roll of itself against the wood, and instantly fire it off. Should there be a ditch or parallel before such a battery, with soldiers, the wood must not be used, as the blast of powder will break it to pieces, and its own elasticity prevent it from flying far; it would in that case either kill or wound your own people. For this deficiency the wad must be double. See American Mil. Lib. article Artillery.

Chain-Balls are two balls linked together by a chain of 8 or 10 inches long, and some have been made with a chain of 3 or 4 feet long; they are used to destroy the pallisadoes, wooden bridges, and chevaux-de-friezes of a fortification. They are also very destructive to the rigging of a ship.

Stang-Balls are by some called balls of two heads; they are sometimes made of two half-balls joined together by a bar of iron from 8 to 14 inches long; they are likewise made of two entire balls; they are for the same purpose as the before-mentioned.

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Anchor-Balls are made in the same way as the light-balls, and filled with the same composition, only with this addition, that these are made with an iron bar two-thirds of the ball’s diameter in length, and 3 or 4 inches square. One half is fixed within the ball, and the other half remains without; the exterior end is made with a grapple-hook. Very useful to set fire to wooden bridges, or any thing made of wood, or even the rigging of ships, &c. for the pile end being the heaviest, flies foremost, and wherever it touches, fastens, and sets all on fire about it.

Message-Balls. See Shells.

BALLIUM, a term used in ancient military history. In towns the appellation of ballium was given to a work fenced with pallisades, and sometimes to masonry, covering the suburbs; but in castles it was the space immediately within the outer wall.

BALLOON, a hollow vessel of silk, varnished over and filled with inflammable air, by which means it ascends in the atmosphere. It has during the war been used by the French in reconnoitering, and with great success at Fleurus.

BALOTS, Fr.. sacks or bales of wool, made use of in cases of great emergency, to form parapets or places of arms. They are likewise adapted for the defence of trenches, to cover the workmen in saps, and in all instances where promptitude is required.

BAN, or Bann, a sort of proclamation made at the head of a body of troops, or in the several quarters or cantonments of an army, by sound of trumpet, or beat of drum; either for observing martial discipline, or for declaring a new officer, or punishing a soldier, or the like. At present such kind of proclamations are given out in the written orders of the day.

BAN and Arriere Ban, a French military phrase signifying the convocation of vassals under the feudal system. Ménage, a French writer, derives the term from the German word ban, which means publication; Nicod derives it from another German term which signifies field. Borel from the Greek pan which means all, because the convocation was general. In the reign of Charles VII. the ban and arriere ban had different significations. Formerly it meant the assembling of the ordinary militia. After the days of Charles VII. it was called the extraordinary militia. The first served more than the latter; and each was distinguished according to the nature of its particular service. The persons belonging to the arriere-ban were at one period accoutred and mounted like light-horse; but there were occasions on which they served like the infantry. Once under Francis I. in 1545, and again under Lewis XIII. who issued out an order in 1637, that the Arriere-Ban should serve on foot.

Ban likewise signified during the ancient monarchy of France, a proclamation made by the sound of drums, trumpets, and tamborines, either at the head of a body of troops, or in quarters. Sometimes to prevent the men from quitting camp, at others to enforce the rigor of military discipline; sometimes for the purpose of receiving a new commanding officer, and at others to degrade a military character.

BANDER, Fr. to unite, to intrigue together for the purposes of insurrection.

BANDERET, in military history, implies the commander in chief of the troops of the canton of Berne, in Switzerland.

BANDES, Fr. bands, bodies of infantry.

Bandes Francoises. The French infantry was anciently so called. The term, however, become less general and was confined to the Prévôt des Bandes, or the Judge or Prevost marshal that tried the men belonging to the French guards.

BANDIERES, Fr. Une Armée rangée en front de bandieres, signifies an army in battle array. This disposition of the army is opposed to that in which it is cantoned and divided into several bodies.

BANDOLEER, in ancient military history, a large leathern belt worn over the right shoulder, and hanging under the left arm, to carry some kind of warlike weapon.

Bandoliers were likewise little wooden cases covered with leather, of which every musqueteer used to wear 12 hanging on a shoulder-belt; each of them contained the charge of powder for a musquet.

See Camp Colors.

BANDS, properly bodies of foot, though almost out of date.

Train-Bands. In England the militia of the City of London were generally so called. The third regiment of Foot or the Old Bulls were originally recruited from the Train bands, which circumstance gave that corps the exclusive privilege of marching through London with drums beating and colors flying. They lost their colors in America, which are now in the war-office at Washington.

Band of Music. The term band is applied to the body of musicians attached to any regiment or battalion, with wind instruments.

Band is also the denomination of a military order in Spain, instituted by Alphonsus XI. king of Castile, for the younger sons of the nobility, who, before their admission, must serve 10 years, at least, either in the army or during a war; and are bound to take up arms in defence of the Catholic faith, against the infidels.

BANERET, Fr. a term derived from Baniere. This appellation was attached to any lord of a fief who had vassals sufficient to unite them under one banier or banner, and to become chief of the troops or company.

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Un Chevalier Baneret, or a Knight Baneret gave precedence to the troop or company which he commanded over that of a baneret who was not a knight or chevalier; the latter obeyed the former, and the banner of the first was cut into fewer vanes than that of the second.

BANNERET, Knights-bannerets, according to the English acceptation of the term, are persons who for any particular act of valor were formerly knighted on the field of battle.

BANQUET. See Bridges.

BANQUETTE. See Fortification.

BAR, a long piece of wood or iron. Bars have various denominations in the construction of artillery carriages, as sweep and cross bars for tumbrils: fore, hind and under cross bars, for powder carts; shaft bars for waggons, and dowel bars used in mortar beds.

BAR Shot, two half bullets joined together by an union bar, forming a kind of double headed shot.

BARB, the reflected points of the head of an arrow. The armor for horses was so called. See Caparison.

BARBACAN, or Barbican, a watch-tower, for the purpose of descrying an enemy at a great distance: it also implies an outer defence, or sort of ancient fortification to a city or castle, used especially as a fence to the city or walls; also an aperture made in the walls of a fortress to fire through upon the enemy. It is sometimes used to denote a fort at the entrance of a bridge, or the outlet of a city, having a double wall with towers.

BARBETS were peasants of Piedmont, who abandoned their dwellings when an enemy has taken possession of them. They formed into bodies and defended the Alps.

Barbet-Battery, in gunnery, is when the breast-work of a battery is only so high, that the guns may fire over it without being obliged to make embrasures: in such cases, it is said the guns fire en barbette. See Battery.

BARDEES d’eau, Fr. a measure used in the making of saltpetre, containing three half-hogsheads of water, which are poured into tubs for the purpose of refining it. Four half-hogsheads are sometimes thrown in.

BARILLER, Fr. an officer employed among the gallies, whose chief duty was to superintend the distribution of bread and water.

BARRACKS, or Baracks, are places erected for both officers and men to lodge in; they are built different ways, according to their different situations. When there is sufficient room to make a large square, surrounded with buildings, they are very convenient, because the soldiers are easily contained in their quarters; and the rooms being contiguous, orders are executed with privacy and expedition; and the soldiers have no connection but with those who instruct them in their duty.

Barrack-Allowance, a specific allowance of bread, beer, wood, coals, &c. to the regiments stationed in barracks. See Ration.

Barrack-Guard, when a regiment is in barracks, the principal guard is the barrack-guard; the officer being responsible for the regularity of the men in barracks, and for all prisoners duly committed to his charge while on that duty.

Barrack-Master General, a staff officer at the head of the barrack department; he has a number of barrack-masters and deputies under him, who are stationed at the different barracks; he has an office and clerks for the dispatch of business; to this office all reports, &c. respecting the barrack department are made. This is a British sinecure office.

Barrack-Office: the office at which all business relating to the Barrack department is transacted.

BARRELS, in military affairs, are of various kinds.

Fire-Barrels are of different sorts: some are mounted on wheels, filled with composition and intermixed with loaded grenades, and the outside full of sharp spikes: some are placed under ground, which have the effect of small mines: others are used to roll down a breach, to prevent the enemy’s entrance.—Composition, corned powder 30lb. Swedish pitch 12, saltpetre 6, and tallow 3. Not used now.

Thundering-Barrels are for the same purpose, filled with various kinds of combustibles, intermixed with small shells, grenades, and other fire-works. Not used now.

Powder-Barrels are about 16 inches diameter, and 30 or 32 inches long, holding 100 pounds of powder.

Barrels for powder—Their dimensions.

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The whole barrels are made to contain 100 pounds, and the half barrels 50 pounds of powder; but of late only 90 pounds have been put into the barrels, and 45 into the half barrels; which, by leaving the powder room to be shifted, preserves it the better.

Budge Barrels, hold from 40 to 60 pounds of powder; at one end is fixed a leather bag with brass nails: they are used in actual service on the batteries, to keep the powder from firing by accident, for loading the guns and mortars.

Budge-Barrels contain 38 lbs.

Weight of barrel—copper hooped—10 lbs.

Weight of barrel—hazle hooped—6lbs.

Length of barrel—hazle hooped—10¹⁄₂ inches.

Diameter of barrel—hazle hooped—1 foot 1 inch.

BARRICADE. To barricade is to fortify with trees, or branches of trees, cut down for that purpose, the brushy ends towards the enemy. Carts, waggons, &c. are sometimes made use of for the same purpose, viz. to keep back both horse and foot for some time. Abatis.

BARRIER, in a general sense means any fortification, or strong place on the frontiers of a country. It is likewise a kind of fence composed of stakes, and transums, as overthwart rafters, erected to defend the entrance of a passage, retrenchment, or the like. In the middle of the barrier is a moveable bar of wood, which is opened and shut at pleasure. It also implies a gate made of wooden bars, about 5 feet long, perpendicular to the horizon, and kept together by two long bars going across, and another crossing diagonally: Barriers are used to stop the cut made through the esplanade before the gate of a town.

Barrier-Towns, in military history, were Menin, Dendermond, Ypres, Tournay, Mons, Namur, and Maestricht. These towns were formerly garrisoned half by French or Imperial, and half by Dutch troops.

BARM, or Berm. See Berm.

BASCULE, Fr. a counterpoise which serves to lift up the draw bridge of a town. Likewise a term used in fortification to express a door that shuts and opens like a trap door.

BASE, or Basis, in fortification, the exterior part or side of a polygon, or that imaginary line which is drawn from the flanked angle of a bastion to the angle opposite to it.

Base signifies also the level line on which any work stands that is even with the ground, or other work on which it is erected. Hence the base of a parapet is the rampart.

Base, an ancient word for the smallest cannon. See Cannon.

Base-line, the line on which troops in column move, the first division that marches into the alignement forms the base line, or appui which each successive division prolongs.

Base-ring. See Cannon.

BASILISK, an ancient name given to a 48 pounder. See Cannon.

BASIS, the same as Base.

BASKET-Hilt, the hilt of a sword, so made as to contain, and guard the whole hand.

BASKETS, in military affairs, are simple baskets, frequently used in sieges. They are filled with earth, and placed on the parapet of the trench, or any other part. They are generally about a foot and a half in diameter at the top, and eight inches at the bottom, and a foot and a half in height; so that, being placed on the parapet, a kind of embrasure is formed at the bottom, through which the soldiers fire, without being exposed to the shot of the enemy. See Gabion.

Baskets.—Ballast, ¹⁄₂ bushel—weight 5 lbs.

Diameter, 1 foot 6 inches—length 1 foot.

BASTILLE, Fr. any place fortified with towers.

Bastille, a state prison which stood near the Temple in Paris, and was deservedly destroyed by the inhabitants of that capital on the 14th of July, 1789.

BASTINADO, a punishment among the Turkish soldiers, which is performed by beating them with a cane or flat of a sword on the soles of their feet.

BASTION. See Fortification.

BASSE-Enceinte. See Fausse-Braye.

BASSINET, Fr. the pan of a musquet.

BASSON or BASSOON, a wind instrument blown with a reed, performing the base to all martial music, one or two of which are attached to each regimental band.

BAT de Mulet, a pack-saddle used on service when mules are employed to carry stores, &c.

BATAGE, Fr. the time employed in reducing gun-powder to its proper consistency. The French usually consumed 24 hours in pounding the materials to make good gun-powder; supposing the mortar to contain 16 pounds of composition, it would require the application of the pestle 3500 times each hour. The labour required in this process is less in summer than in winter, because the water is softer.

BATAILLE, Fr. a battle.

Cheval de Bataille, Fr. a war horse, or charger. This expression is used figuratively as a sheet anchor or last resource.

BATAILLER, Fr. to struggle hard.

BATARDE, French 8 pounders were so called.

BATARDEAU, in fortification, is a massive perpendicular pile of masonry, whose length is equal to the breadth of the ditch, inundation, or any part of a fortification where the water cannot be[35] kept in without the raising of these sorts of works, which are described either on the capitals prolonged of the bastions or half-moons, or upon their faces. In thickness it is from 15 to 18 feet, that it may be able to withstand the violence of the enemy’s batteries. Its height depends upon the depth of the ditch, and upon the height of the water that is necessary to be kept up for an inundation; but the top of the building must always be under the cover of the parapet of the covert way, so as not to be exposed to the enemy’s view. In the middle of its length is raised a massive cylindrical turret, whose height exceeds the batardeau 6 feet.

BATESME du Tropique, Fr. a christening under the line. This is a ridiculous ceremony which every person is obliged to go through the first time he crosses the Line on his passage to the East-Indies. Different methods of performing it are observed by different nations. Englishmen frequently buy themselves off. Among the French, the individual who was to be baptized or christened, swore that he would individually assist in forcing every person hereafter, who should be similarly situated, to go through the same ceremony. A barbarous usage.

are baggage horses belonging to the officers when on actual duty.

were originally servants hired in war time, to take care of the horses belonging to the train of artillery, bakery, baggage, &c. Men who are excused regimental duty, for the specific purpose of attending to the horses belonging to their officers, are called bat-men.

Knights of the BATH, an English military order of uncertain original. After long decay, this order was revived under George I. by a creation of a considerable number of knights. They wear a red riband, and their motto is, Tria juncta in uno, alluding to the three cardinal virtues which every knight ought to possess!

BATON, Fr. a staff. See Staff.

Baton a deux bouts, Fr. a quarter-staff.

Baton de commandement, Fr. an instrument of particular distinction which was formerly given to generals in the French army. Henry III. before his accession to the throne was made generalissimo of all the armies belonging to his brother Charles the IX. and publicly received the Baton, as a mark of high command.

Baton ferrat et non ferrat, Fr. all sorts of weapons.

Obténir son object par le tour du Baton, Fr. to accomplish one’s ends by equivocal means.

Etre bien assuré de son Baton, Fr. to be morally certain of a thing.

Etre reduit au Baton blanc, to be reduced to your last stake.

A Batons rompus, Fr. to do any thing by fits and starts, to be undecided in your plans of attack, &c.

BATOON, a truncheon, or marshal’s staff.

BATTAILOUS, a warlike or military appearance.

BATTALIA, Johnson adopts the word from Battaglia, Ital. and calls it the main body of an army, distinguished from its wings. It also implies an army or considerable detachment of troops drawn up in order of battle, or in any other proper form to attack the enemy. See Battle.

BATTALION, an undetermined body of infantry in regard to number, generally from 500 to 1000 men. In the United States the usage is various, as it is in all other countries. The United Stares regiment of artillery consists of 20 companies, which form five battalions; the other regiments infantry and artillery, consist of ten companies of each, so that each regiment must form two battalions of five companies each. The militia regiments in most of the states consist of 1000 men, composing two battalions of 500 men each, being perhaps the most perfect organization for a battalion.

The French call their military corps which answer to our regiments, demi brigades, these usually consist or three battalions of 1000 men each; when two of the battalions of a demi brigade are in the field the other is in quarters or recruiting and disciplining the young soldiers, who are thus drafted from their regimental depots.

On the British establishment the companies of grenadiers and light infantry-men having been detached from their several corps and formed into separate battalions; the British guards at present consist of 9 battalions. The different companies are likewise considerably augmented; so that it is impossible to affix any specific standard to their complement of men. The English royal regiment of artillery consists of 4 battalions. Sometimes regiments consist each of 1 battalion only; but if more numerous, are divided into several battalions, according to their strength; so that every one may come within the numbers mentioned. A battalion in one of the English marching regiments consists of 1000, and sometimes of 1200 men, officers and non-commissioned included. When there are companies of several regiments in a garrison to form a battalion, those of the eldest regiment post themselves on the right, those of the second on the left, and so on until the youngest fall into the centre. The officers take their posts before their companies, from the right and left, according to seniority. Each battalion is divided into 4 divisions, and each division into two sub-divisions, which are again divided into sections. The companies of grenadiers being unequal in all battalions, their post must be regulated by the commanding officer. See Regiment.

Triangular Battalion, in ancient military[36] history, a body of troops ranged in the form of a triangle, in which the ranks exceed each other by an equal number of men: if the first rank consists of one man only, and the difference between the ranks is only one, then its form is that of an equilateral triangle; and when the difference between the ranks is more than one, its form may then be an isoscele; having two sides equal, or scalene triangle. This method is now laid aside.

BATTER, a cannonade of heavy ordnance, from the 1st or 2d parallel of entrenchment, against any fortress or works.

To Batter in breach, implies a heavy cannonade of many pieces directed to one part of the revetement from the third parallel.

BATTERING, in military affairs, implies the firing with heavy artillery on some fortification or strong post possessed by an enemy, in order to demolish the works.

Battering-Pieces, are large pieces of cannon, used in battering a fortified town or post.

It is judged by all nations, that no less than 24 or 18 pounders are proper for that use. Formerly much larger calibres were used, but, as they were so long and heavy, and very troublesome to transport and manage, were for a long time rejected, till adopted among the French, who during the present war have brought 36 and 42 pounders into the field.

Battering-Train, a train of artillery used solely for besieging a strong place, inclusive of mortars and howitzers: all heavy 24, 18, and 12 pounders, come under this denomination; as likewise the 13, 10, and 8 inch mortars and howitzers.

Battering-Ram. See the article Ram.

BATTERIE de Tambour, a French beat of the drum similar to the general in the British service.

Batterie en roüage, Fr. is used to dismount the enemy’s cannon.

Batterie par camarades, Fr. the discharge of several pieces of ordnance together, directed at one object or place.

BATTERY, in military affairs, implies any place where cannon or mortars are mounted, either to attack the forces of the enemy, or to batter a fortification: hence batteries have various names, agreeably to the purposes they are designed for.

Gun-Battery, is a defence made of earth faced with green sods or fascines, and sometimes made of gabions filled with earth: it consists of a breast-work parapet, or epaulement, of 18 or 20 feet thick at top, and of 22 or 24 at the foundation; of a ditch 12 feet broad at the bottom, and 18 at the top, and 7 feet deep. They must be 7¹⁄₂ feet high. The embrasures are 2 feet wide within, and 9 without, sloping a little downwards, to depress the metal on occasion. The distance from the centre of one embrasure to that of the other is 18 feet; that is, the guns are placed at 18 feet distance from each other; consequently the merlons (or that part of solid earth between the embrasures) at 16 feet within, and 7 without. The genouilliers (or part of the parapet which covers the carriage of the gun) are generally made 2¹⁄₂ feet high from the platform to the opening of the embrasures; though this height ought to be regulated according to the semi-diameter of the wheels of the carriage, or the calibre of the gun. The platforms are a kind of wooden floors, made to prevent the cannon from sinking into the ground, and to render the working of the guns more easy; and are, strictly speaking, a part of the battery. They are composed of 5 sleepers, or joists of wood, laid lengthways, the whole length of the intended platform; and to keep them firm in their places, stakes must be driven into the ground on each side: these sleepers are then covered with sound thick planks, laid parallel to the parapet; and at the lower end of the platform, next to the parapet, a piece of timber 6 inches square, called a hurter, is placed, to prevent the wheels from damaging the parapet. Platforms are generally made 18 feet long, 15 feet broad behind, and 9 before, with a slope of about 9 or 10 inches, to prevent the guns from recoiling too much, and for bringing them more easily forward when loaded. The dimensions of the platforms, sleepers, planks, hurters, and nails, ought to be regulated according to the nature of the pieces that are to be mounted.

The powder magazines to serve the batteries ought to be at a convenient distance from the same, as also from each other; the large one, at least 55 feet in the rear of the battery, and the small ones about 25. Sometimes the large magazines are made either to the right or left of the battery, in order to deceive the enemy; they are generally built 5 feet under ground; the sides and roof must be well secured with boards, and covered with earth, clay, or something of a similar substance, to prevent the powder from being fired: they are guarded by centinels. The balls are piled in readiness beside the merlins between the embrasures.

The officers of the artillery ought always to construct their own batteries and platforms, and not the engineers, as is practised in the English service; for certainly none can be so good judges of those things as the artillery officers, whose daily practice it is; consequently they are the properest people to direct the situation and to superintend the making of batteries on all occasions.

Mortar-Battery. This kind of battery differs from a gun-battery, only in having no embrasures. It consists of a parapet of 18 or 20 feet thick, 7¹⁄₂ high in front, and 6 in the rear; of a berm 2¹⁄₂ or 3 feet broad, according to the quality of the earth; of a ditch 24 feet broad at the top, and 20 at the bottom. The beds[37] must be 9 feet long, 6 broad, 8 from each other, and 5 feet from the parapet: they are not to be sloping like the gun platforms, but exactly horizontal. The insides of such batteries are sometimes sunk 2 or 3 feet into the ground, by which they are much sooner made than those of cannon. The powder magazines and piles of shells are placed as is mentioned in the article Gun-Battery.

Ricochet-Battery, so called by its inventor M. Vauban, and first used at the siege of Aeth in 1697. It is a method of firing with a very small quantity of powder, and a little elevation of the gun, so as just to fire over the parapet, and then the shot will roll along the opposite rampart, dismounting the cannon, and driving or destroying the troops. In a siege they are generally placed at about 300 feet before the first parallel, perpendicular to the faces produced, which they are to enfilade. Ricochet practice is not confined to cannon alone; small mortars and howitzers may effectually be used for the same purpose. They are of singular use in action to enfilade an enemy’s ranks; for when the men perceive the shells rolling and bouncing about with their fuzes burning, expecting them to burst every moment, the bravest among them will hardly have courage to await their approach and face the havoc of their explosion.

Horizontal Batteries are such as have only a parapet and ditch; the platform being only the surface of the horizon made level.

Breach or Sunk Batteries are such as are sunk upon the glacis, with a design to make an accessible breach in the faces or saliant angles of the bastion and ravelin.

Cross Batteries are such as play athwart each other against the same object, forming an angle at the point of contact; whence greater destruction follows, because what one shot shakes, the other beats down.

Oblique Batteries or Batteries en Echarpe, are those which play on any work obliquely, making an obtuse angle with the line of range, after striking the object.

Enfilading Batteries are those that sweep or scour the whole length of a strait line, or the face or flank of any work.

Sweeping Batteries. See Enfilading-Batteries.

Redan Batteries are such as flank each other at the saliant and rentrant angles of a fortification.

Direct Batteries are those situated opposite to the place intended to be battered, so that the balls strike the works nearly at right angles.

Reverse Batteries are those which play on the rear of the troops appointed to defend the place.

Glancing Batteries are such whose shot strike the object at an angle of about 20°, after which the ball glances from the object, and recoils to some adjacent parts.

when several guns fire on the same object at the same time. When 10 guns are fired at once, their effect will be much greater than when fired separately.

Sunk Batteries are those whose platforms are sunk beneath the level of the field; the ground serving for the parapet; and in it the embrasures are made. This often happens in mortar, but seldom in gun-batteries. Battery sometimes signifies the guns themselves placed in a battery.

are batteries made of those machines, where sods are scarce, and the earth very loose or sandy. For a particular detail of all kinds of batteries, see Toussard’s Artillerist, No. I. c. 1.

Battery.—Dimensions of Batteries.

1. Gun Batteries.—Gun Batteries are usually 18 feet per gun. Their principal dimensions are as follow:

Note.—These dimensions give for a battery of two guns 3456 cubic feet of earth; and must be varied according to the quantity required for the epaulment.

Note.—The above breadths at top and bottom are for the worst soil; good earth will not require a base of more than 20 feet wide, which will reduce the breadth at top to 15 feet; an epaulement of these dimensions for two guns will require about 4200 cubic feet of earth, and deducting 300 cubic feet for each embrazure, leaves 3600 required for the epaulement. In confined situations the breadth of the epaulement may be only 12 feet.

Note.—Where the epaulement is made of a reduced breadth, the openings of the embrazures are made with the usual breadth within, but the exterior openings proportionably less. The embrazures are sometimes only 12 feet asunder, or even less when the ground is very confined. The superior slope of the epaulement need be very little, where it is not to be defended by small arms. The slope of the side of the embrasures must depend upon the height of the object to be fired at. The Berm is usually made 3 feet wide,[38] and where the soil is loose, this breadth is increased to 4 feet.

2. Howitzer Batteries.—The dimensions of howitzer batteries are the same as those for guns, except that the interior openings of the embrazures are 2 feet 6 inches, and the soles of the embrazures have a slope inwards of about 10 degrees.

3. Mortar Batteries.—Are also made of the same dimensions as gun batteries, but an exact adherence to those dimensions is not so necessary. They have no embrazures. The mortars are commonly placed 15 feet from each other, and about 12 feet from the epaulement.

Note.—Though it has been generally customary to fix mortars at 45°, and to place them at the distance of 12 feet from the epaulement, yet many advantages would often arise from firing them at lower angles, and which may be done by removing them to a greater distance from the epaulement, but where they would be in equal security. If the mortars were placed at the undermentioned distances from the epaulement, they might be fired at the angles corresponding:

over an epaulment of 8 feet high.

A French author asserts, that all ricochet batteries, whether for howitzers or guns, might be made after this principle, without the inconvenience of embrazures; and the superior slope of the epaulement being inwards instead of outwards, would greatly facilitate this mode of firing.

If the situation will admit of the battery being sunk, even as low as the soles of the embrazures, a great deal of labour may be saved. In batteries without embrazures, this method may almost always be adopted; and it becomes in some situations absolutely necessary in order to obtain earth for the epaulement; for when a battery is to be formed on the crest of the glacis, or on the edge of the counterscarp of the ditch, there can be no excavation but in the rear of the battery.

4. Batteries on a coast—generally consist of only an epaulement, without much attention being paid to the ditch; they are, however, sometimes made with embrazures, like a common gun battery; but the guns are more generally mounted on traversing platforms, and fire over the epaulement. When this is the case, the guns can seldom be placed nearer than 3¹⁄₂ fathoms from each other. The generality of military writers prefer low situations for coast batteries; but M. Gribauvale lays down some rules for the heights of coast batteries, which place them in such security, as to enable them to produce their greatest effect. He says the height of a battery of this kind, above the level of the sea, must depend upon the distance of the principal objects it has to protect or annoy. The shot from a battery to ricochet with effect, should strike the water at an angle of about 4 or 5 degrees at the distance of 200 yards. Therefore the distance of the object must be the radius, and the height of the battery the tangent to this angle of 4 or 5°; which will be, at the above distance of 200 yards, about 14 yards. At this height, he says, a battery may ricochet vessels in perfect security; for their ricochet being only from a height of 4 or 5 yards, can have no effect against the battery. The ground in front of a battery should be cut in steps, the more effectually to destroy the ricochet of the enemy. In case a ship can approach the battery so as to fire musquetry from her tops, a few light pieces placed higher up on the bank, will soon dislodge the men from that position, by a few discharges of case shot. It is also easy to keep vessels at a distance by carcasses, or other fire balls, which they are always in dread of.

Durtubie estimates, that a battery of 4 or 5 guns, well posted, will be a match for a first rate man of war.

To estimate the materials for a battery.

Fascines of 9 feet long are the most convenient for forming a battery, because they are easily carried, and they answer to most parts of the battery without cutting. The embrazures are however better lined with fascines of 18 feet. The following will be nearly the number required for a fascine battery of two guns or howitzers:

90 fascines of 9 feet long.

20 fascines of 18 feet—for the embrazures.

This number will face the outside as well as the inside of the epaulement, which if the earth be stiff, will not always be necessary; at least not higher than the soles of the embrazures on the outside. This will require five of 9 feet for each merlon less than the above.

A mortar battery will not require any long fascines for the lining of the embrazures. The simplest method of ascertaining the number of fascines for a mortar battery, or for any other plain breast work, is to divide the length of work to be fascined in feet, by the length of each fascine in feet, for the number required for one layer, which being multiplied by the number of layers required, will of course give the number of fascines for facing the whole surface. If a battery be so exposed as to require a shoulder to cover it in flank, about 50 fascines of 9 feet each will be required for each shoulder.

Each fascine of 18 feet will require 7 pickets.

Each fascine of 9 feet will require 4 pickets.

12 workmen of the line, and 8 of the artillery, are generally allotted to each gun.

If to the above proportion of materials, &c. for a battery of two guns, there be[39] added for each additional gun, 30 fascines of 9 feet, and 10 of 18 feet, with 12 workmen, the quantity may easily be found for a battery of any number of pieces.

The workmen are generally thus disposed: one half the men of the line in the ditch at 3 feet asunder, who throw the earth upon the berm: one fourth upon the berm at 6 feet asunder, to throw the earth upon the epaulement, and the other quarter on the epaulement, to level the earth, and beat it down. The artillery men carry on the fascine work, and level the interior for the platforms. This number of workmen may complete a battery in 36 hours, allowing 216 cubic feet to be dug and thrown up, by each man in the ditch in 24 hours.

Tools for the construction of the battery.

Intrenching—1¹⁄₂ times the number of workmen required; half to be pick axes, and half shovels or spades, according to the soil.

Mallets—3 per gun.

Earth Rammers—3 per gun.

Crosscut Saws—1 to every two guns.

Axes or Hatchets—2 per gun.

This estimate of tools and workmen, does not include what may be required for making up the fascines, or preparing the other materials, but supposes them ready prepared. For these articles, see the words Fascine, Gabion, Platform, &c. and for the construction of field magazines for batteries, see the word Magazine.

Note. The following estimate of the quantity of earth which may be removed by a certain number of workmen in a given time, may serve to give some idea of the time required to raise any kind of works. 500 common wheel barrows will contain 2 cubic toises of earth, and may be wheeled by one man, in summer, to the distance of 20 yards up a ramp, and 30 on a horizontal plain, in one day. In doing which he will pass over, going and returning, about 4 leagues in the first case, and 6 in the last. Most men, however, will not wheel more than 1³⁄₄ toise per day. Four men will remove the same quantity to four times the distance.

In a soil easy to be dug, one man can fill the 500 barrows in a day; but if the ground be hard, the number of fillers must be augmented, so as to keep pace with the wheel barrow man.

Battery-Planks are those planks or boards used in making platforms.

Battery-Boxes are square chests or boxes, filled with earth or dung; used in making batteries, where gabions and earth are not to be had. They must not be too large, but of a size that is governable.

Battery-Nails are wooden pins made of the toughest wood, with which the planks that cover the platforms are nailed. Iron nails might strike fire against the iron-work of the wheels, in recoiling, &c. and be dangerous.

Battery-Master, whose duty formerly it was to raise the batteries. This officer is now out of use.

BATTEURS d’Estrade. See Scouts.

BATTLE, implies an action, where the forces of two armies are engaged; and is of two kinds, general and particular, general where the whole army is engaged, and particular where only a part is in action; but as they only differ in numbers, the methods are nearly alike.

There is no action in war more brilliant than that of pitched battles. Their success sometimes decides the fate of nations. It is by this action a general acquires reputation. It is in battle that his valour, his force of genius, and his prudence, appear in their full extent; and where especially he has occasion for that firmness of mind, without which the most able general will hardly succeed.

Battles have ever been the last resource of good generals. A situation where chance and accident often baffle and overcome the most prudential and most able arrangements, and where superiority in numbers by no means ensures success, is such as is never entered into without a clear necessity for so doing. The fighting a battle only because the enemy is near, or from having no other formed plan of offence, is not the way of making war. Darius lost his crown and life by it: Harold, of England, did the same; and Francis I. at Pavia, lost the battle and his liberty. King John, of France, fought the battle of Poictiers, though ruin attended his enemy if he had not fought. The king of Prussia lost his country, and the reputation which Prussia acquired from Frederick II. by the battle of Jena.

A skilful general will give battle when his army’s situation cannot be worse, if defeated, than if it does not fight at all; and when the advantage may be great, and the loss little. Such was the duke of Cumberland’s at Hastenbeck, in 1757, and prince Ferdinand’s at Vellinghausen, in 1761. The reasons and situations for giving battle are so numerous, that to treat of them all would fill a large volume; the following are a few exigencies of state that require an army to attack the enemy at all events. Such were the causes of the battle of Blenheim, in 1704, of Zorndorff, in 1758, of Cunnersdorff, in 1759, and of Rosbach, in 1757, of Austerlitz, in 1805. An army is also obliged to engage when shut up in a post. An army may give battle to effect its junction with another army, &c.

The preparations for battle admit of infinite variety. By a knowlege of the detail of battles, the precept will accompany the example. The main general preparations are, to profit by any advantage of ground; that the tactical form of the army be in some measure adapted to it; and that such form be, if possible, a form tactically better than the enemy’s; and, in forming the army, to have a most careful attention to multiply resources, so[40] that the fate of the army may not hang on one or two efforts; to give any particular part of the army, whose quality is superior to such part in the enemy’s army, a position that ensures action; and finally, to have a rear by nature, or if possible, by art, capable of checking the enemy in case of disaster.

The dispositions of battles admit likewise of an infinite variety of cases; for even the difference of ground which happens at almost every step, gives occasion to change the disposition or plan; and a general’s expedience will teach him to profit by this, and take the advantage the ground offers him. It is an instant, a coup d’œil which decides this: for it is to be feared the enemy may deprive you of those advantages or turn them to his own profit; and for that reason this admits of no precise rule, the whole depending on the time and the occasion.

With regard to battles, there are three things to be considered; what precedes, what accompanies, and what follows the action. As to what precedes the action, you should unite all your force, examine the advantage of the ground, the wind, and the sun, (things not to be neglected) and chuse, if possible, a field of battle proportioned to the number of your troops.

You must post the different kinds of troops advantageously for each: they must be so disposed as to be able to return often to the charge; for he who can charge often with fresh troops, is commonly victorious. Your wings must be covered so as not to be surrounded, and you must observe, that your troops can assist each other without any confusion, the intervals being proportioned to the battalions and squadrons.

Great care must be taken about the regulation of the artillery, which should be disposed so as to be able to act in every place to the greatest advantage; for nothing is more certain than that, if the artillery be well commanded, properly distributed, and manfully served, it will greatly contribute to gaining the battle; being looked upon as the general instrument of the army, and the most essential part of military force. The artillery must be well supplied with ammunition, and each soldier have a sufficient number of cartridges. The baggage, provisions, and treasure of the army, should, on the day of battle, be sent to a place of safety.

In battle, where the attacks are, there is also the principal defence. If an army attacks, it forms at pleasure; it makes its points at will: if it defends, it will be sometimes difficult to penetrate into the designs of the enemy, but when once found, succour succeeds to the discovery. Ground and numbers must ever lead in the arrangement of battles; impression and resource will ever bid fairest for winning them.

The most remarkable on record are

the method and order of arranging the troops in order or line of battle; the form of drawing up the army for an engagement.[52] This method generally consists of three lines, viz. the front line, the rear line, and the reserve.

The second line should be about 300 paces behind the first, and the reserve at about 5 or 600 paces behind the second. The artillery is likewise divided along the front of the first line. The front line should be stronger than the rear line, that its shock may be more violent, and that, by having a greater front, it may more easily close on the enemy’s flanks. If the first line has the advantage, it should continue to act, and attack the enemy’s second line, terrified by the defeat of their first. The artillery must always accompany the line of battle in the order it was at first distributed, if the ground permit it; and the rest of the army should follow the motions of the first line, when it continues to march on after its first success.

Battle-Ax, an offensive weapon, formerly much used by the Danes, and other northern infantry. It was a kind of halbert, and did great execution when wielded by a strong arm.

Main-Battle. See Battle-Array.

BATTLEMENTS, in military affairs, are the indentures in the tops of old castles or fortified walls, or other buildings, in the form of embrasures, for the greater conveniency of firing or looking through.

BATTRE l’estrade, Fr. to send out scouts.

Battre la campagne, Fr. to scour the country or make incursions against an enemy.

Battre, Fr. to direct one or more pieces of ordnance in such a manner, that any given object may be destroyed or broken into by the continued discharge of cannon ball, or of other warlike materials; it likewise means to silence an enemy’s fire.

Battre de front, Fr. to throw cannon-shot in a perpendicular or almost perpendicular direction against any body or place which becomes an object of attack. This mode of attack is less effectual than any other unless you batter in breach.

Battre d’écharpe, Fr. to direct shot, so that the lines of fire make a manifest acute angle with respect to the line of any particular object against which cannon is discharged.

Battre en flanc, Fr. is when the shot from a battery runs along the length of the front of any object or place against which it is directed.

Battre a dos, Fr. to direct the shot from one or several pieces of cannon so as to batter, almost perpendicularly, from behind any body of troops, part of a rampart or intrenchment.

Battre de revers, Fr. to direct shot, in such a manner as to run between the two last mentioned lines of fire. When you batter from behind, the shot fall almost perpendicularly upon the reverse of the parapet. When you batter from the reverse side, the trajectories or lines of fire describe acute angles of forty five degrees or under, with the prolongation of that reverse.

Battre de bricole, Fr. This method can only be put in practice at sieges, and against works which have been constructed in front of others that are invested. A good billiard player will readily comprehend what is meant by the bricole or back stroke; it means simply the firing of shot against a wall so that the balls may rebound and in the rebound strike men or objects, that could not be struck directly.

Battre la Caisse, Fr. to beat a drum.

Mener battant, to overcome.

Mener quelqu’un au Tambour battant. To overcome by strokes of the drum. To disconcert, to confound, puzzle and perplex any body.

BAVINS, in military affairs, implies small faggots, made of brush-wood, of a considerable length, no part of the brush being taken off. See Fascines.

BAYARD, Fr. a provincial term used in ancient Languedoc and Roussillon to signify a wheel-barrow.

BAYONET, a kind of triangular dagger, made with a hollow handle, and a shoulder, to fix on the muzzle of a firelock or musket, so that neither the charging nor firing is prevented by its being fixed on the piece. It is of infinite service against horse. At first the bayonet was screwed into the muzzle of the barrel, consequently could not be used during the fire. It is said by some to have been invented by the people of Malacca, and first made use of on quitting the pikes. According to others, it was first used by the fusileers in France, and invented or used at Bayonne. At present it is given to all infantry.

BEACON, a signal for securing and guarding against dangers.

On certain eminent places of the country are placed long poles erect, whereon are fastened pitch-barrels to be fired by night, and smoke made by day, to give notice, in a few hours of an approaching invasion; the Irish are reported to have risen upon and extirpated the Danes by beacons or fires lighted on their hills.

BEAR, in gunnery. A piece of ordnance is said to bear, or come to bear, or brought to bear when pointed directly against the object; that is, pointed to hit the object.

BEARD, the reflected points of the head of an ancient arrow, particularly of such as were jagged.

BEAT, in a military sense, signifies to gain the day, to win the battle, &c.

To Beat a parley. See Chamade.

BEAVER, that part of the ancient helmet which covered the face, and which was moveable so as to expose the face without removing the beaver from the helmet.

[53]

BECHE, Fr. a spade used by pioneers.

BEDS, in the military language, are of various sorts, viz.

Mortar-Beds serve for the same purpose as a carriage does to a cannon: they are made of solid timber, consisting generally of 2 pieces fastened together with strong iron bolts and bars. Their sizes are according to the kind of mortar they carry.

Beds for Mortars.

Stool-Beds for guns.

Sea-Mortar-Beds, are made of solid timber, having a hole in the centre to receive the pintle or strong iron bolt, about which the bed turns. Sea-mortars are mounted on these beds, on board of the bomb-ketches.

These beds are placed upon very strong timber frames, fixed into the bomb-ketch, in which the pintle is fixed, so as the bed may turn about it, to fire any way. The fore part of these beds is an arc of a circle described from the same centre as the pintle-hole.

Stool-Bed, is a piece of wood on which the breech of a gun rests upon a truck-carriage, with another piece fixed to it at the hind end, that rests upon the body of the hind axle-tree; and the fore part is supported by an iron bolt. See Carriage.

BEEF-Eaters, the yeomen of the guard to the king of Great Britain are so called, being kept up rather for pageantry, than for any military service. Their arms are a sabre and lance; and the dress of the 13th century.

BEETLES, in a military sense, are large wooden hammers for driving down pallisades, and for other uses, &c.

BEETLESTOCK, the stock or handle of a beetle.

BELLIGERENT, in a state of warfare. Hence any two or more nations at war are called belligerent powers.

BELTS, in the army are of different sorts, and for various purposes, viz.

Sword-Belt, a leathern strap in which a sword hangs.

Shoulder-Belt, a leathern belt, which goes over the shoulder, and to which the pouch is fixed. It is made of stout leather. See Pouch.

Shoulder-Belts for the light cavalry and dragoons, 2¹⁄₂ inches broad. Regiments that have buff waistcoats, usually have buff-coloured accoutrements, and those which have white waistcoats, wear white.

Waist-Belts, are 1³⁄₄ inches; to have buckles or clasps.

Belts are known among the ancient and middle-age writers by divers names, as zona, cingulum, reminiculum, ringa, and baldrellus. The belt was an essential piece of the ancient armor, insomuch that we sometimes find it used to denote the whole armor. In latter ages the belt was given to a person when he was raised to knighthood: whence it has also been used us a badge or mark of the knightly order.

Belts among the aborigines of America, are the symbols of peace or war; they are made in a rude fanciful taste, of colored beads, and are usually presented at all conferences or talks.

BENDINGS, in military and sea matters, are ropes, wood, &c. bent for several purposes. M. Amontons gives several experiments concerning the bending of ropes. The friction of a rope bent, or wound round an immovable cylinder, is sufficient, with a very small power, to sustain very great weights. Divers methods have been contrived for bending timber, in order to supply crooked planks and pieces for building ships; such as by sand, boiling water, steam of boiling water, and by fire. See M. Du Hamel, in his book called Du Transport, de la Conservation, & de la Force des Bois. M. Delesme ingeniously enough proposed to have the young trees bent, while growing in the forest. The method of bending planks by sand-heat, now used in the British navy yards, was invented by captain Cumberland.

A method has been lately invented and practised for bending pieces of timber, so as to make the wheels of carriages without joints. The bending of boards, and[54] other pieces of timber for curved works in joinery, is effected by holding them to the fire, then giving them the figure required, and keeping them in this figure by tools for the purpose.

BENEFICIARII, in ancient military history, denotes soldiers who attend the chief officers of the army, being exempted from all other duty. In the American service called waiters; each commissioned officer being allowed one.

Beneficiarii were also soldiers discharged from the military service or duty, and provided with beneficia to subsist on.

BERM, in fortification, is a little space or path, of about 3, 4, 6, or 8 feet broad, according to the height and breadth of the works, between the ditch and the parapet, when made of turf, to prevent the earth from rolling into the ditch; and serves likewise to pass and repass.

To BESIEGE, to lay siege to or invest any place with armed forces.

BESIEGERS, the army that lays siege to a fortified place.

BESIEGED, the garrison that defends the place against the army that lays siege to it. See Siege.

To BETRAY, to deliver perfidiously any place or body of troops into the hands of the enemy. To discover that which has been entrusted to secrecy.

BETTY, a machine used for forcing open gates or doors. See Petard.

BICOQUE, Fr. a term used in France to signify a place ill-fortified and incapable of much defence. It is derived from a place on the road between Lodi and Milan, which was originally a gentleman’s country house surrounded by ditches. In the year 1522, a body of Imperial troops were stationed in it, and stood the attack of the whole French army, during the reign of Francis I. This engagement was called the battle of Bicoque.

BILBO, a rapier, or small sword, was formerly so called: from Bilboa in Spain, where excellent swords are made.

BILL or Bill-Hook, a small hatchet used for cutting wood for fascines, gabions, bavins, &c.

BILLET, in England is a ticket for quartering soldiers, which intitles each soldier, by act of parliament, to candles, vinegar, and salt, with the use of fire, and the necessary utensils for dressing and eating their meat. The allowance of small beer has been added by a late regulation.

BILLET de logement, Fr. a billet for quarters. This billet or ticket was formerly delivered out to the French troops upon the same general principles that it is issued in England.

Billeting, in the army, implies the quartering soldiers in the houses of any town or village.

BINACLE, a telescope with 2 tubes, so constructed, that a distant object might be seen with both eyes, now rarely used.

BIVOUAC, Biouac, Biouvac, or Biovac, Fr. [from the German weywacht, a double watch or guard.] A night-guard, or a detachment of the whole army, which during a siege, or in the presence of an enemy, marches out every night in squadrons or battalions to line the circumvallations, or to take post in front of the camp, for the purpose of securing their quarters, preventing surprises, and of obstructing supplies. When an army does not encamp, but lies under arms all night, it is said to bivoac. Thus before the battle of Austerlitz, Bonaparte was all night in bivoac, or with the advanced guard.

BIT, the bridle of a horse, which acts by the assistance of a curb. See Curb and Bridon.

BLACK-HOLE, a place of confinement for soldiers, in the English discipline, who may be confined therein by the commanding officer, but not by any inferior officer. In this place they are generally restricted to bread and water.

BLANKETS, are made of coarse paper steeped in a solution of saltpetre, and when dry are again dipt in a composition of tallow, resin, and sulphur. They are used only in fire-ships.

BLAST, and BLASTING. See Mine and Mining.

BLINDS, in military affairs, are wooden frames, composed of 4 pieces, either flat or round, two of which are 6 feet long, and the others 3 or 4 feet, which serve as spars to fasten the two first together: the longest are pointed at both ends, and the two others are fastened towards the extremities of the former, at about 10 or 12 inches from their points, the whole forming a rectangular parallelogram, the long sides of which project beyond the other about 10 or 12 inches. Their use is to fix them either upright, or in a vertical position, against the sides of the trenches or saps, to sustain the earth. Their points at the bottom serve to fix them in the earth, and those at top to hold the fascines that are placed upon them; so that the sap or trench is formed into a kind of covered gallery, to secure the troops from stones and grenades.

The term Blind is also used to express a kind of hurdle, made of the branches of trees, behind which the soldiers, miners, or labourers, may carry on their work without being seen. See Hurdle.

Blinds are sometimes only canvas stretched to obstruct the sight of the enemy. Sometimes they are planks set up, for which see Mantlet. Sometimes they are made of a kind of coarse basket-work; see Gabions. Sometimes of barrels, or sacks filled with earth. In short, they signify any thing that covers the labourers from the enemy.

Blind See Orillon and Fortification.

in military affairs, implies the surrounding a place with different bodies of[55] troops, who shut up all the avenues on every side, and prevent every thing from going in or out of the place; this is usually effected by means of the cavalry. The design of the blockade is to oblige those who are shut up in the town, to consume all their provisions, and by that means to compel them to surrender for want of subsistence.

Hence it appears that a blockade must last a long time, when a place is well provided with necessaries; for which reason this method of reducing a town is seldom taken, but when there is reason to believe the magazines are unprovided, or sometimes when the nature or situation of the place permits not the approaches to be made, which are necessary to attack it in the usual way.

Maritime towns, which have a port, are in much the same case as other towns, when their port can be blocked up, and the besiegers are masters of the sea, and can prevent succours from being conveyed that way into the place.

To Blockade, or to block up a place, is to shut up all the avenues, so that it cannot receive any relief either of men or provisions, &c.

To raise a Blockade, is to march from before a place, and leave it free and open as before.

To turn a siege into a Blockade, is to desist from a regular method of besieging, and to surround the place with those troops who had formed the siege.

To form a Blockade, is to surround the place with troops, and hinder any thing from going in or coming out.

A new species of Blockade has been discovered during the French Revolution, a blockade by proclamation.

BLOCUS, Fr. See Blockade.

BLOCK battery, in gunnery, a wooden battery for two or more small pieces, mounted on wheels, and moveable from place to place: very ready to fire en barbet, in the galleries and casemates, &c. where room is wanted.

Block-house, in the military art, a kind of wooden fort or fortification, sometimes mounted on rollers, or on a flat-bottomed vessel, serving either on the lakes or rivers, or in counter-scarps and counter-approaches. This name is sometimes given to a brick or stone building on a bridge, or the brink of a river, serving not only for its defence, but for the command of the river, both above and below.

BLUNDERBUSS, a well known fire-arm, consisting of a wide, short, but very large bore, capable of holding a number of musquet or pistol balls, very fit for doing great execution in a croud, making good a narrow passage, defending the door of a house, stair-case, &c. or repelling an attempt to board a ship.

BOARD of Ordnance. See Ordnance.

Board, also implies an office under the government, where the affairs of some departments are transacted; of which there are several sorts in England.

BOAT. See Advice-Boat, Pontoon-Boat, &c.

BODY, in the art of war, is a number of forces, horse or foot, united and marching under one commander.

Main Body of an army, sometimes means the troops encamped in the center between the two wings, and generally consists of infantry. The main body on a march, signifies the whole of the army, exclusive of the van and rear-guard.

Body of a Reserve. See Reserve.

Body of a place, is, generally speaking, the buildings in a fortified town; yet the inclosure round them is generally understood by it.

BOIS de remontage, Fr. every species of timber which is used to new mount cannon, or refit ammunition waggons, &c.

Bois de chauffage, Fr. the fuel which is distributed among French troops.

BOLT, an iron pin used for strengthening a piece of timber, or for fastening two or more articles together. Bolts in gunnery, being of several sorts, admit of various denominations, which arise from the specific application of them, as

small vessels, made very strong with large beams, particularly calculated for throwing shells into a town, castle, or fortification, from 13 and 10-inch mortars; two of which are placed on board of each ship. They are said to have been invented by M. Reyneau, a Frenchman, and to have been first put in action at the bombardment of Algiers in 1681: till then it had been judged impracticable to bombard a place from the sea.

Bomb Ketch. The old bomb-ketches carried one 13-inch and 1 10-inch mortar, with 8 six-pounders, besides swivels, for their own immediate defence. The modern bomb-vessels carry 2 10-inch mortars 4 68-pounders, and 6 18-pounders carronades; and the mortars may be fired at as low an angle as 20 degrees; though these mortars are not intended to be used at sea but on very particular occasions; their principal intention, at these low angles, being to cover the landing of troops, and protect coasts and harbours. A bomb-ketch is generally from 60 to 70 feet long from stem to stern, and draws 8 or 9 feet water. The tender is generally a brig, on board of which the party or artillery remain, till their services are required on board the bomb-vessel.

[56]

Instructions for their Management and Security in Action.

1. A Dutch pump, filled with water, must be placed in each round-top, one upon the forecastle, one on the main-deck, and one on the quarter-deck; and furnished with leather buckets, for a fresh supply of water.

2. The booms must be wetted by the pumps before the tarpaulins and mortar-hatches are taken off; and a wooden skreen, 5 feet square, is to be hung under the booms, over each mortar, to receive the fire from the vents.

3. The embrasures being fixed and properly secured, the port must be let down low enough to be covered by the sole of the embrasure. Previous to its being let down, a spar must be lashed across it, to which the tackles for raising it again must be fixed; this spar serves to project the tackles clear of the explosion.

4. The mortars must not be fired through the embrasures at a lower angle than 20 degrees, nor with a greater charge than 5 lbs. of powder.

5. Previous to firing, the doors of the bulkhead, under the quarter-deck, must be shut, to prevent the cabin being injured by the explosion.

6. The bed must be wedged in the circular curb, as soon as the mortar is pointed, to prevent re-action; the first wedge being driven tight, before the rear ones are fixed, in order to give the full bearing on the table, as well as the rear of the bed. The holes for dog-bolts must be corked up, to prevent the sparks falling into them.

7. When any shells are to be used on board the bomb, they must be fixed on board the tender, and brought from thence in boxes in her long-boat; and kept along side the bomb-ship till wanted, carefully covered up.

8. In the old constructed bomb-vessels it was necessary to hoist out the booms, and raft them along side previous to firing; but in these new ones, with embrasures, only the boats need be hoisted out; after which the mortars may be prepared for action in 10 minutes.

Proportion of Ordnance and Ammunition for a Bomb Ship, carrying two 10 inch Mortars, to fire at low angles, and at 45 degrees, four 68 Prs. and six 18 Prs. Carronades.

Bomb Tender, a small vessel of war laden with ammunition for the bomb-ketch, and from which the latter is constantly supplied.

BOMBARD, an ancient piece of ordnance, so called, very short, and very thick, with an uncommon large bore. There have been bombards which have thrown a ball or shell of 300 weight: they made use of cranes to load them. The Turks use some of them at present.

the act of assaulting a city or fortress, by throwing shells into it in order to set fire to and ruin the houses, churches, magazines, &c. and to do other mischief. As one of the effects of the shell results from its weight, it is never discharged as a ball from a cannon, that is, by pointing it at a certain object: but the mortars are fixed at an elevation of or about 45 degrees; that is, inclined so many degrees from the horizon, that the shell describes a curve, called the military projectile: hence a mortar, whose trunnions are placed at the breech, can have no point-blank range. Mortars should be so contrived, that they may be elevated to any degree required, as much preferable to those fixed at an angle of 45°; because shells should never be thrown at that angle but in one single case only, which seldom happens; that is, when the battery is so far off, that they cannot otherwise reach the works: for when shells are thrown from the trenches into the works of a fortification, or from the town into the trenches, they should have as little elevation as possible, in order to roll along, and not bury themselves; whereby the damage they do, and the terror they cause to the troops, is much greater than if they sink into the ground. On the contrary, when shells are thrown upon magazines, or any other buildings, with an intention to destroy them, the mortar should be elevated as high as possible, that the shells may acquire a greater force in their fall.

Shells should be loaded with no more powder than is requisite to burst them into the greatest number of pieces, and the length of the fuzes should be exactly calculated according to the required ranges; for, should the fuze set fire to the powder in the shell, before it falls on the place intended, the shell will burst in the air, and probably do more mischief to those who fired the mortar, than to those against whom it was discharged. To prevent this, the fuzes are divided into as many seconds as the greatest range requires, consequently may be cut to any distance, at an elevation of 45 degrees.

Mortars are not to be fired with two fires; for when the fuze is properly fixed, and both fuze and shell dredged with mealed powder, the blast of the powder in the chamber of the mortar, when inflamed by the tube, will likewise set fire to the fuze fixed in the shell.

BOMBARDIERS, artillery soldiers, who are employed in mortar and howitzer duty. They are to load them on all occasions; and in most services they load the shells and grenades, fix the fuzes, prepare the composition both for fuzes and tubes, and fire both mortars and howitzers on every occasion. In the English service, shells and grenades, composition for the same, fuzes, &c. are prepared in the laboratory by people well-skilled in that business.

In most other armies both officers and soldiers belonging to the companies of bombardiers, have an extraordinary pay, as it requires more mathematical learning to throw shells with some degree of exactness, than is requisite for the rest of the artillery. In the British service a specific number is attached to each company of artillery, and do not form a separate corps as in other countries.

BONAVOGLIE, Fr. a man that for[58] a certain consideration voluntarily engages to row.

BONNET, in fortification, implies a small but useful work, that greatly annoys the enemy in their lodgments. This work consists of two faces, which make a salient angle in the nature of a ravelin, without any ditch, having only a parapet 3 feet high, and 10 or 12 feet broad. They are made at the salient angles of the glacis, outworks, and body of the place, beyond the counterscarp, and in the faussebray. See Fortification.

Bonnet à Prêtre, or Priest’s Cap, in fortification, is an outwork, having three salient and two inward angles, and differs from the double tenaille only in having its sides incline inwards towards the gorge, and those of a double tenaille are parallel to each other. See Fortification.

BORDER, in military drawings, implies single or double lines, or any other ornament, round a drawing, &c.