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Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Amiel to Atrauli

Author: Various

Release date: October 15, 2010 [eBook #34074]
                Most recently updated: January 7, 2021

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEW GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA. AMIEL TO ATRAULI ***




Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net





Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
are listed at the end of the text.

       *       *       *       *       *


Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron";
[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above";
[n.] "n with dot below"; and so forth.

THE

NEW . GRESHAM

ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME . I . PART . 2

[Illustration]

_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
COMPANY . _Limited_

66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
LONDON W.C.2.
1922

       *       *       *       *       *







LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS

       *       *       *       *       *

VOLUME I PART 2

       *       *       *       *       *

PLATES

                                                                  Page

  ANATOMY (Human Skeleton and Muscles)                            153

  ARCHÆOLOGY (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages)    220

  ARCHITECTURE                                                    224


MAPS IN COLOUR

  ASIA                                                            274

       *       *       *       *       *







KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

       *       *       *       *       *

The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--

VOWELS

[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.

ä, as in _a_lms, Fr. _â_me, Ger. B_a_hn = á of Indian names.

[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.

a, as in f_a_t.

[a:], as in f_a_ll.

_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
in Indian names.

[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.

e, as in m_e_t.

[.e], as in h_e_r.

[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.

i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
French and Italian words.

_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eû_ne = Ger. long _ö_, as in S_ö_hne,
G_ö_the (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _ö_ short.

[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.

o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.

ö, as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.

[=u] as in t_u_be.

u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.

[u:], as in b_u_ll.

ü, as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _û_ as in d_û_, Ger. _ü_ long as in gr_ü_n,
B_ü_hne.

[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
M_ü_ller.

oi, as in _oi_l.

ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.

CONSONANTS

Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
explanation are the following:--

ch is always as in ri_ch_.

_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.

g is always hard, as in _g_o.

_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
similar gutturals.

[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.

r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in _s_o.

th, as _th_ in _th_in.

_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.

w always consonantal, as in _w_e.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
l[=e]ny).

zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.

       *       *       *       *       *

AMIEL´, Henri Frédéric, French-Swiss philosophical writer and poet, born at
Geneva, 1821, died there 1881. Educated at Geneva, he resided a
considerable time abroad, especially in Germany, and was much influenced by
German thought and science. On his return he first held the chair of
æsthetics, and then that of philosophy. He published several volumes of
poetry as well as other works, but he is best known by his _Journal
Intime_, published after his death, and translated into English (1885),
with a critical study by Mrs. Humphry Ward. It shows great critical and
philosophical power, but is pessimistic.

AMIENS ([.a]-m[=e]-a[n.]), a town of France, capital of the department of
Somme, on the railway from Boulogne to Paris. It has a citadel, wide and
regular streets, and several large open areas; a cathedral, one of the
largest and finest Gothic buildings in Europe, founded in 1220 by Bishop
Evrard, after designs made by the architect Robert de Luzarches. Having
water communication with the sea by the Somme, which is navigable for small
vessels, it has a large trade and numerous important manufactures,
especially cotton and woollen goods. It was taken by the Germans in 1870,
and again in 1914, by General von Kluck. Pop. (1911) 93,207.--The _Peace of
Amiens_, concluded between Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Batavian
Republic, 27th March, 1802, put an end for a time to the great war which
had lasted since 1793.

AMIR. See _Emir_.

AMIRANTE ISLANDS ([.a]-m[=e]-r[.a]n´t[=a]), a group of eleven small islands
in the Indian Ocean, lying south-west of the Seychelles, and forming a
dependency of Mauritius.

AMLWCH (am´lö_h_), a seaport in North Wales, Island of Anglesey. Pop.
(1921), 2694 (urb. dist.).

AMMANA´TI, Bartolomeo, a sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 1511,
died 1592; executed the _Leda_ at Florence, a gigantic _Neptune_ for St.
Mark's Place at Venice, a colossal _Hercules_ at Padua, and after the
inundation in 1557, which destroyed all the bridges of the Arno, built the
celebrated Trinity Bridge at Florence, finished in 1570. He was an imitator
of Michael Angelo without his inspiration and genius.

AMMERGAU ([.a]m´er-gou), a district in Upper Bavaria, having its centre in
the villages of Ober and Unter Ammergau. The former village is famous on
account of the Passion Play which is performed there, at intervals usually
of ten years.

[Illustration: Ammeter.--Front removed to show details.

A. Large magnet. B. Soft-iron keeper magnetized by magnet and acting as
resistance. D. Cylinder turning within B, and actuated by current entering
at C1, and flowing through spiral wire (not shown) at base of D, and
through coil on cylinder to terminal C2. E. Hair-spring regulating pointer.
F. Pointer stops.]

AM´METER (short for ampere-meter), an instrument used for the measurement
of electric currents. For commercial use the scale is marked so as to read
amperes directly, but for experimental purposes it is usual to have a scale
with divisions numbered in tens, in which case the reading multiplied by a
suitable constant gives the value of the current in amperes. By employing
suitable shunts this admits of the one instrument being used for a number
of ranges.

The types of ammeter and the principles upon which they work are as
follows: (_a_) _Soft-iron type_, the action of a magnetic field on a piece
of soft iron; (_b_) _moving-coil type_ and _dynamometer type_, the action
of a magnetic field on a current-carrying coil; (_c_) _hot-wire type_, the
expansion of a conductor due to the heating produced by the current; (_d_)
_induction type_, the action of a magnetic field on the eddy currents
produced in a metal disc.

The "soft-iron" ammeter can be used for both direct and alternating
currents, is inexpensive, and is sufficiently accurate for commercial use.

For direct-current measurements where a high degree of accuracy is of first
importance, a "moving-coil" ammeter is invariably used.

In alternating-current circuits its place is taken by the dynamometer type,
which reads both direct and alternating currents.

In cases where absence of inductance in the instrument is important, e.g.
in the measurements in wireless-telegraph and telephone circuits, the
"hot-wire" ammeter is used. It measures both direct and alternating
currents, and, when properly used, has a high degree of accuracy.

The "induction" type cannot be used for direct currents, and has the
limitation that with alternating currents it will read correctly only at
the frequency for which it is calibrated.

Almost invariably an ammeter gives its full-scale reading when a small
current, say of the order of one-tenth of an ampere, is passing through the
instrument itself. In order to read larger currents a device is employed
whereby a definite fraction of the current to be measured passes through
the instrument.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Fleming, _A Handbook for the
Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room_ (2 vols.); G. D. Aspinall Parr,
_Electrical Measuring Instruments_.

AMMIA´NUS MARCELLI´NUS, a Roman historian, born at Antioch in Syria about
320, died about 390. He wrote in 31 books (of which the first 13 are lost)
a history of the Cæsars, from Nerva to Valens, which was highly thought of
by Gibbon for its fidelity. His MS. was printed for the first time at Rome
in 1474.

[Illustration: Ammon.]

AM´MON (often called AMMON-RA, i.e. Ammon-Sun), an ancient Egyptian deity,
one of the chief gods of the country, identified by the Greeks with their
supreme god Zeus, while the Romans regarded him as the representative of
Jupiter; represented as a ram, as a human being with a ram's head,
ornamented with the solar disc, or simply with the horns of a ram. There
was a celebrated temple of Ammon in the Oasis of Siwah in the Libyan
desert.

AMMON, Oasis of. See _Siwah_.

AMMO´NIA, an alkaline substance, which differs from the other alkalies by
being gaseous, and is hence sometimes called the _volatile alkali_. It is a
colourless pungent gas, composed of nitrogen and hydrogen; formula, NH_3.
It was first prepared by Priestley, who termed it _alkaline air_. He
obtained it from sal-ammoniac by the action of lime, by which method it is
yet generally prepared. It is used for many purposes, both in medicine and
scientific chemistry; not, however, in the gaseous state, but frequently in
solution in water, under the names of _liquid ammonia_, _aqueous ammonia_,
or _spirits of hartshorn_. It is generally prepared from the ammoniacal
liquor obtained as a by-product on distilling coal. Combined with acids,
ammonia forms salts which are of immense value to agriculture. The
well-known odour of farmyard manure is very largely due to the formation of
ammonia during the rotting of the dung. Many animal substances, such as
bones, clippings and shavings of horn, hoof, &c., and certain vegetable
matters yield ammonia when heated. Sal-ammoniac is ammonium chloride.

AMMONI´[)A]CUM, a gum-resinous exudation from an umbelliferous plant, the
_Dor[=e]ma ammoni[)a]cum_. It has a fetid smell, is inflammable, soluble in
water and spirit of wine; used as an antispasmodic, stimulant, and
expectorant in chronic catarrh, bronchitic affections, and asthma; also
used for plasters.

AMMO´NIAPHONE, an instrument, consisting of a metallic tube containing some
substance saturated with ammonia, peroxide of hydrogen, and a few
flavouring compounds, fitted with a mouthpiece to breathe through, which is
said to render the voice strong, clear, rich, and ringing by the inhalation
of the ammoniacal vapour. It was invented by Dr. Carter Moffat, and was
suggested by the presence of ammonia in some quantity in the atmosphere of
Italy--the country of fine singers.

[Illustration: Ammonites obtusus. Ammonites varians]

AM´MONITES, a group of fossil cephalopods, now divided into a large number
of genera, ranging from the Coal Measures (Texas) to the uppermost
cretaceous strata. The ammonites differ from the nautili in having the tube
connecting the chambers placed on the outer margin of the coiled shell,
while the calcareous neck where it passes through the partitions is
directed forwards. The partitions are much folded, producing markings like
the fronds of ferns where they meet the inner wall of the shell. The name
arises from confusion with a coiled gastropod, which was held to resemble
the horns of the Egyptian deity Jupiter Ammon.

AM´MONITES, a Semitic race frequently mentioned in Scripture, descended
from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (_Gen._ xix, 38), often spoken of in
conjunction with the Moabites. A predatory and Bedouin race, they inhabited
the desert country east of Gad, their chief city being Rabbath-Ammon
(Philadelphia). Wars between the Israelites and the Ammonites were
frequent; they were overcome by Jephthah, Saul, David, Uzziah, Jotham, &c.
They appear to have existed as a distinct people in the time of Justin
Martyr, but have subsequently become merged in the aggregate of nameless
Arab tribes.

AMMO´NIUM, the name given to the hypothetical radicle (formula, NH_4) of
ammonium salts. It functionates as a metal, has not been isolated, but it
is believed to exist in an amalgam with mercury.

AMMO´NIUS SAC´CAS, a Greek philosopher who lived about A.D. 175-240.
Originally a porter in Alexandria, he derived his epithet from the carrying
of _sacks_ of corn. The son of Christian parents, he abandoned their faith
for the polytheistic philosophy of Greece. His teaching was historically a
transition stage between Platonism and Neo-Platonism. Among his disciples
were Plotinus, Longinus, Origen, &c. The books often attributed to him are
by a Christian philosopher of the same name.

AMMUNI´TION, another form of the word munition, with a more restricted
meaning. It is now taken to include cartridges of all sorts for guns,
howitzers, rifles, and all fire-arms. Ammunition comprises both cartridges
in which explosive and missiles are combined to form one compact article,
and also other forms of projectiles of which the explosive agent forms one
portion and the actual missile the other. Bombs, grenades, shells, powder,
and bullets are all included in the generic term ammunition. As a
qualifying word used adjectivally it is found in ammunition-wagon,
ammunition-carrier, ammunition-mules, ammunition-column, &c. In the British
service the Royal Army Ordnance Corps is entrusted with the provision of
supplies of ammunition generally, while the actual distribution in the
field is the duty of the ammunition-column, a Royal Artillery organization.

AM´NESTY (Gr. _amnestia_, forgetfulness), the releasing of a number of
persons who have been guilty of political offences from the consequence of
these offences. The earliest recorded amnesty in history is that of
Thrasybulus at Athens, and the last act of amnesty passed in Britain was
that of 1747, after the second Jacobite rebellion.

AM´NION, the innermost membrane surrounding the fetus of mammals, birds,
and reptiles.--In botany, a gelatinous fluid in which the embryo of a seed
is suspended, and by which it is supposed to be nourished.

AMO´AFUL, village near Kumassi, West Africa, at which the Ashanti were
defeated by British troops under Wolseley, 31st Jan., 1874.

[Illustration: Amoeba proteus.]

AMOE´BA, a microscopic genus of rhizopodous Protozoa, of which _A.
diffl[)u]ens_, common in freshwater ponds and ditches, is the type. It
exists as a mass of protoplasm, and pushes its body out into finger-like
processes or pseudopodia, and by means of these moves about or grasps
particles of food. There is no distinct mouth, and food is engulfed within
any portion of the soft sarcode body. Reproduction takes place by fission,
or by a single pseudopodium detaching itself from the parent body and
developing into a separate amoeba.

AMOEBE´AN POETRY, poetry in which persons are represented as speaking
alternately, as in some of Virgil's _Eclogues_.

AMOL´, a town of Northern Persia, 76 miles N.E. of Teheran. Extensive ruins
tell of former greatness, the most prominent being the mausoleum of Seyed
Quam-u-deen, who died in 1378. Pop. in winter estimated at about 40,000.

AMO´MUM, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Zinziberaceæ (ginger, &c.),
natives of warm climates, and remarkable for the pungency and aromatic
properties of their seeds. Some of the species yield Cardamoms, others
Grains of Paradise.

AMONTILLA´DO, a dry kind of sherry wine of a light colour, highly esteemed.

AMOOR. See _Amur_.

A´MOR, the god of love among the Romans, equivalent to the Gr. _Er[=o]s_.

AMOR´GO (ancient AMORGOS), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the
Eastern Cyclades, 22 miles long, 5 miles broad; area, 106 sq. miles; it has
a town of the same name, with a castle and a large harbour. Pop. 3561.

AM´ORITES, a powerful Canaanitish tribe at the time of the occupation of
the country by the Israelites; occupied the whole of Gilead and Bashan, and
formed two powerful kingdoms--a northern, under Og, who is called King of
Bashan; and a southern, under Sihon, called King of the Amorites; first
attacked and overthrown by Joshua; subsequently subdued, and made tributary
or driven to mingle with the Philistines and other remnants of the
Canaanitish nations.

AMORPHOUS ROCKS or MINERALS, those having no regular structure, or without
crystallization, even in the minutest particles.

AMORPHOZO´A, a term applied to some of the lower groups of animals, as the
sponges and their allies, which have no regular symmetrical structure.

AMORTIZA´TION, in law, the alienation of real property to corporations
(that is, in _mortmain_), prohibited by several English statutes.

A´MOS, one of the minor prophets; flourished under the Kings Uzziah of
Judah and Jeroboam II of Israel (810 to 784 B.C. by the common chronology).
Though engaged in the occupations of a peasant he must have had a
considerable amount of culture, and his book of prophecies has high
literary merits. It contains denunciations of Israel and the surrounding
nations, with promises of the Messiah.

AMOY´, an important Chinese trading port, on a small island off the
south-east coast opposite Formosa; has a safe and commodious harbour, and
its merchants are among the wealthiest and most enterprising in China; one
of the five ports opened to foreign commerce by the treaty of Nanking in
1842. The privilege was confirmed and extended by the treaty of Tien-tsin
in 1858, and the port is now open to all countries. Pop. 114,000.

AMPEL´IDÆ. See _Chatterers_.

AMPÈRE ([.a][n.]-p[=a]r), André-Marie, a celebrated French mathematician
and philosopher, founder of the science of electro-dynamics, born at Lyons
in 1775, died at Marseilles in 1836; professor of mathematical analysis at
the Polytechnic School, Paris, and of physics at the College of France.
What is known as _Ampère's Theory_ is that magnetism consists in the
existence of electric currents circulating round the particles of magnetic
bodies, being in different directions round different particles when the
bodies are unmagnetized, but all in the same direction when they are
magnetized.

AMPÈRE, Jean-Jacques-Joseph-Antoine, historian and professor of French
literature in the College of France; the only son of André-Marie Ampère;
born at Lyons 1800, died 1864; chief works: _Histoire Littéraire de la
France avant le 12^{_e_} siècle_ (1839); _Introduction à l'Histoire de la
Littérature française au moyen âge_ (1841); _Littérature, Voyages et
Poésies_ (1833); _La Grèce, Rome et Dante, Études Littéraires d'après
Nature; l'Histoire romaine à Rome_ (4 vols. 8vo, 1856-64); _Promenades en
Amérique_ (1855); _César, Scènes historiques_ (1859), full of hostile
allusions to the French Empire.

AMPERE (am´p[=a]r), in electricity, the unit employed in measuring the
strength or intensity of an electric current, being equivalent to the
current produced by the electro-motive force of one volt in a wire having
the resistance of one ohm. The name (cf. _Farad_, _Coulomb_, _Watt_, &c.)
is derived from that of the well-known physicist, Ampère. An _ampere-meter_
or _ammeter_ is an instrument by which the strength of an electric current
is given in amperes.

AMPHIB´IA, a class of vertebrate animals, which in their early life breathe
by gills or branchiæ, and afterwards partly or entirely by lungs. The Frog,
breathing in its tadpole state by gills and afterwards throwing off these
organs and breathing entirely by lungs in its adult state, is an example of
the latter phase of amphibian existence. The Proteus of the underground
caves of Central Europe exemplifies forms in which the gills of early life
are retained throughout life, and in which lungs are developed in addition
to the gills. A second character of this group consists in the presence of
two occipital 'condyles', or processes by means of which the skull
articulates with the spine or vertebral column; Reptiles possessing one
condyle only. The class is divided into four orders: the Ophiomorpha (or
serpentiform), represented by the Blindworms, in which limbs are wanting
and the body is snake-like; the Urodela or 'Tailed' Amphibians, including
the Newts, Proteus, Siren, &c.; the Anoura, or Tailless Amphibia,
represented by the Frogs and Toads; and the Labyrinthodontia, which
includes the extinct forms known as Labyrinthodons. The term Amphibia was
originally employed by Linnæus in his _Systema Naturæ_, and adopted by
Cuvier in his _Tableau Elémentaire_. See _Batrachia_.

AMPHIBOL´OGY, in logic, an equivocal phrase or sentence, not from the
double sense of any of the words, but from its admitting a double
construction, as 'The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose'.

AMPHIC´TYONIC LEAGUE (or COUNCIL), in ancient Greece, a confederation of
tribes for the protection of religious worship, but which also discussed
questions of international law, and matters affecting their political
union. The most important was that of the twelve northern tribes which met
alternately at Delphi and Thermopylæ. The tribes sent two deputies each,
who assembled with great solemnity; composed the public dissensions, and
the quarrels of individual cities, by force or persuasion; punished civil
and criminal offences, and particularly transgressions of the law of
nations, and violations of the temple of Delphi. Its calling on the States
to punish the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the Sacred Wars,
595-586, 448-447, 357-346 B.C.

AMPHI´ON, in Greek mythology, son of Zeus and Anti[)o]p[=e], and husband of
Ni[)o]b[=e]. He had miraculous skill in music, being taught by Mercury, or,
according to others, by Apollo. In poetic legend he is said to have availed
himself of his skill when building the walls of Thebes--the stones moving
and arranging themselves in proper position at the sound of his lyre. See
_Zethus_.

AMPHIOXUS. See _Lancelet_.

[Illustration: Amphipoda

1. Shore-jumper (_Orchestia littoralis_), 2. Portion showing the
respiratory organs _a a a_.]

AMPHIP´ODA, an order of sessile-eyed malacostracan crustaceans, with feet
directed partly forward and partly backward. Many species are found in
springs and rivulets, others in salt water. The sand-hopper and
shore-jumper are examples.

AMPHIP´ROSTYLE, in architecture, said of a structure having the form of an
ancient Greek or Roman oblong rectangular temple, with a prostyle or
portico on each of its ends or fronts, but with no columns on its sides or
flanks.

AMPHISBÆ´NA (Gr., from _amphis_, both ways, and _bainein_, to go), a genus
of serpentiform, limbless, lacertilian reptiles; body cylindrical,
destitute of scales, and divided into numerous annular segments; the tail
obtuse, and scarcely to be distinguished from the head, whence the belief
that it moved equally well with either end foremost. There are several
species, found in tropical America. They feed on ants and earthworms, and
were formerly, but erroneously, deemed poisonous. In Greek mythology the
amphisbæna was a serpent believed to possess two heads.

AMPHIS´CII (Gr. _amphi_, on both sides, and _skia_, shadow), a term
sometimes applied to the inhabitants of the intertropical regions, whose
shadows at noon in one part of the year are cast to the north and in the
other to the south, according as the sun is in the southern or northern
signs.

[Illustration: Amphitheatre at Pompeii]

AMPHITHE´ATRE, an ancient Roman building of an oval form without a roof,
having a central area (the _arena_) encompassed with rows of seats, rising
higher as they receded from the centre, on which people used to sit to view
the combats of gladiators and of wild beasts, and other sports. The first
amphitheatre at Rome was that constructed by C. Scribonius Curio, 59 B.C.
The Colosseum at Rome is the largest of all the ancient amphitheatres,
being capable of containing 100,000 persons, 87,000 of whom occupied
numbered and reserved seats. That at Verona is one of the best examples
remaining. Its dimensions are 502 feet by 401, and it is 98 feet high. The
name means 'both-ways theatre', or 'theatre all round', the theatre forming
only a semicircular building.

AMPHITRI´T[=E], in Greek mythology, daughter of Oce[)a]nus and Tethys, or
of Nereus and Doris, and wife of Poseidon (or Neptune), represented as
drawn in a chariot of shells by Tritons, with a trident in her hand. In the
Homeric poems she is the personification of the Sea, and her marriage to
Poseidon is alluded to in a number of scenes depicted on ancient monuments.
Such are a bas-relief in the glyptothek at Munich and a mosaic in the
museum at Naples.

AMPHIT´RYON, in Greek legend, King of Thebes, son of Alcæus, and husband of
Alcmena. Plautus, and after him Molière, have made an amour of Jupiter with
Alcmena the subject of amusing comedies.

AMPHIU´MA, a genus of amphibians which frequent the lakes and stagnant
waters of North America. The adults retain the clefts at which the gills of
the tadpole projected.

[Illustration: Amphora
From a Roman specimen in the British Museum]

AM´PH[)O]RA, a vessel used by the Greeks and Romans for holding liquids;
commonly tall and narrow, with two handles and a pointed end which fitted
into a stand or was stuck in the ground to enable it to stand upright; used
also as a cinerary urn, and as a liquid measure--Greek = 9 gallons; Roman =
6 gallons.

AMPLEX´ICAUL, in botany, said of a leaf that embraces and nearly surrounds
the stem.

AM´PLITUDE, in astronomy, the distance of any celestial body (when referred
by a secondary circle to the horizon) from the east or west points.

AMPTHILL, a market-town of England, Bedfordshire, about 7 miles south-west
of Bedford. Pop. (1921), 2269.

AMPUL´LA, the Latin name for a vessel bellying out like a jug, which
contained unguents for the bath; also a vessel for drinking at table. The
ampulla has also been employed for ceremonial purposes, such as holding the
oil or chrism used in various Church rites and for anointing monarchs at
their coronation. The ampulla of the English sovereigns now in use is an
eagle, weighing about 10 oz., of the purest chased gold, which passed
through various hands to the Black Prince. The ampulla of the French kings,
kept at Rheims in the tomb of St. Remy, was destroyed in 1793.

AMPUTA´TION, in surgery, that operation by which a member is separated from
the body.

AMRA´OTI, a town of British India in Berár; it is celebrated for its
cotton, and is a place of good trade. Pop. 35,000. The district has an area
of 4733 sq. miles. Pop. 876,000.

AM´RITSIR, or AMRITSAR ('the pool of immortality'), a flourishing
commercial town of India, capital of a district of the same name, in the
Punjab, the centre of the Sikh religion since the end of the sixteenth
century. It has considerable manufactures of shawls and silks; and receives
its name from the sacred pond constructed by Ram Das, the apostle of the
Sikhs, in which the Sikhs and other Hindus immerse themselves that they may
be purified from all sin. Pop. 152,756.--The district of Amritsir has an
area of 1601 sq. miles. Pop. 900,000.

AM´RU, originally an opponent, and subsequently a zealous supporter of
Mahomet, and one of the ablest of the Mahommedan warriors. He brought Egypt
under the power of the Caliph Omar in 638, and governed it wisely till his
death in 663. The burning of the famous Alexandrian Library has been
generally attributed to him, though only on the authority of a writer who
lived six centuries later.

AM´STERDAM (that is, 'the dam of the Amstel'), one of the chief commercial
cities of Europe, capital of Holland (but not the residence of the
sovereign), situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Y or Ij, an
arm of the Zuider-Zee. On account of the lowness of the site of the city
the greater part of it is built on piles. It is divided by numerous canals
into about 90 islands, which are connected by nearly 300 bridges. Many of
the streets have a canal in the middle with broad brick-paved quays on
either side, planted with rows of trees; the houses are generally of brick,
many of them six or seven stories high, with pointed gables turned to the
streets. Among the public buildings are the old stadthouse, the work of
Jacob van Kempen, commenced in 1648 and finished in 1655, which is now a
royal palace, the interior being decorated by the Dutch painters and
sculptors of the seventeenth century with their masterpieces; the
justiciary hall, an imitation of a Greek temple; the town hall (fourteenth
century); the exchange, a handsome building, constructed in 1836 on the
site of the old bourse built in 1608; the Palace of National Industry; the
national museum; and the central railway station. The old church is a
structure of the fourteenth century with stained-glass windows painted by
Digman in the fifteenth century. The chief educational institutions of the
kingdom are here, including the city university, a free university,
gymnasiums and other secondary schools, the national picture gallery or
museum, containing many masterpieces of Dutch artists, &c. Among its
numerous industries may be mentioned as a speciality the cutting and
polishing of diamonds. It has also factories and workshops dealing with
wool, cotton, silk, tobacco, leather, machinery, and metal goods, glass,
liqueurs, cocoa, &c. The harbour, formed by the Y, lies along the whole of
the north side of the city, and is surrounded by various docks and basins.
The trade is very great, being much facilitated by the great ship-canal (15
miles long, opened 1876, admitting the largest vessels) connecting the Y
directly with the North Sea at Y-Muiden, where the entrance is between two
long piers projecting into the sea. Another canal of much less importance,
the North Holland Canal (46 miles long, 20 feet deep), connects Amsterdam
with the Helder. Between the harbour and the Zuider Zee the Y is now
crossed by a great dam in which are locks to admit vessels and regulate the
amount of water in the North Sea Canal. The oversea trade of Amsterdam has
immensely increased since the opening of the great canal, and the foreign
trade of the kingdom practically centres in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. There
is also a large trade with the interior by railway, river, and canal. In
the beginning of the thirteenth century Amsterdam was but a fishing
village. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries it had attained some
importance, especially through the Baltic trade. The ruin of Antwerp
through the troubles with Spain was greatly to its advantage, and during
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Amsterdam was one of the
wealthiest and most flourishing cities in the world. Its forced alliance
with France ruined its trade, but since 1813 its commerce has revived.
Amsterdam is the birthplace of Spinoza and of the painters van de Velde and
van der Neer. Pop. (1919), 647,120.

AMSTERDAM, a town of New York State, United States, on the Mohawk River and
the Erie Canal, 33 miles N.W. of Albany; a busy manufacturing town. Pop.
(1920), 33,524.

AMSTERDAM, New, a town in British Guiana, on the east side of the River
Berbice, near the sea, with some trade as a seaport. Pop. 8903.

AMSTERDAM ISLAND, a small and almost inaccessible island in the Indian
Ocean, about halfway in a direct line between the Cape of Good Hope and
Tasmania. It is sparsely provided with vegetation, and inhabited only by
sea-birds, but it was taken possession of by France in 1893, along with the
neighbouring St. Paul. It was discovered by the Dutch in 1633.

AMSTETTEN, a town in Lower Austria, on the Ybbs, and on the railway from
Vienna to Linz. In 1805 a victory was gained here by the French under Murat
over the Russians under Bagration. Pop. 3760.

AMUCK´, or AMUK, to run, a phrase applied to natives of the Eastern
Archipelago, who are occasionally seen to rush out in a frantic state of
temporary mental derangement, making indiscriminate and murderous assaults
on all that come in their way.

AMU-DARYA. See _Oxus_.

AMU-DARYA, district. See _Turkestan_.

AM´ULET, a piece of stone, metal, &c., marked with certain figures or
characters, which people in some countries wear about them, superstitiously
deeming them a protection against diseases, enchantments, witchcraft, &c.
According to Pliny the elder, the _bulla_, or amulet, was first hung by
Tarquinius Priscus on the neck of his son. Articles that archæologists have
decided to be amulets have been found dating from prehistoric times, and
they were commonly worn in ancient times by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans,
as they still are by Persians, Arabs, and many other peoples. See _Charms_.

AMUNDSEN, Captain Roald, Norwegian polar explorer, born at Borge, Norway,
16th July, 1872. He was first-lieutenant on the _Belgica_ during the
Belgian south polar expedition, 1897-9. He then planned an expedition to
the area of the north magnetic pole and a north-west passage by water. On
17th June, 1903, he embarked from Christiania on the small sailing vessel
the _Gjöa_, with a company of six men, and reached King William Land, where
the vessel remained for two years. Here he made his headquarters, and by
numerous excursions was able to prove that the north magnetic pole has no
stationary position, but is in continual movement. On 11th July, 1906, his
vessel reached the Behring Strait, and on 30th August entered the Pacific.
After his return Amundsen began his preparations for an Antarctic
expedition, and on 9th August, 1910, he sailed from Norway on Nansen's
ship, the _Fram_, and reached the South Pole on 7th March, 1912. He
published an account of his North-West Passage expedition, entitled
_Sydpolen. Den norske Sydpolsfaerd med_ Fram _1910-12_. An English
translation was published in 1913. Amundsen started on a North Polar
Expedition in 1918.

AMUR´, or AMOOR´, one of the largest rivers of Eastern Asia, formed by the
junction of the Rivers Shilka and Argun; flows first in a south-eastern and
then in a north-eastern direction till it falls into an arm of the Sea of
Okhotsk, opposite the Island of Sakhalin, after a course of 1500 miles. It
forms, for a large portion of its course, part of the boundary-line between
the Russian and the Chinese dominions, and is navigable throughout for four
months in the year.--_Amoor Territory._ In 1858 Russia acquired from China
the territory on the left bank of the Upper and Middle Amoor, together with
that on both banks of the Lower Amoor. The western portion of the territory
was organized as a separate province, with the name of the Amoor (area,
154,795 sq. miles. Pop. 261,500). The eastern portion was joined to the
Maritime Province of Eastern Siberia.

AM´URATH, or MURAD, the name of several Ottoman sultans. See _Ottoman
Empire_.

AMYCLÆ (a-m[=i]´kl[=e]), a town of ancient Greece, the chief seat of the
Achæans in Laconia, a short distance from Sparta, by which it was conquered
about 800 B.C.

AMYG´DALOID (Gr. _amygdal[=e]_, an almond), meaning 'almond-shaped', a term
used in anatomy and geology.

AMYG´DALUS, the genus to which the almond belongs.

AM´YL, in chemistry, a hypothetic radicle believed to exist in many
compounds, especially the fusel-oil series, and having the formula
C_5H_{11}.--_Amyl Nitrite_, or _Nitrite of Amyl_, an amber-coloured fluid,
smelling and tasting like essence of pears, which has been employed as an
anæsthetic and also in relieving cardiac distress, as in angina pectoris.

AM´YLENE (C_5H_{10}), an ethereal liquid with an aromatic odour, prepared
from fusel-oil. It possesses anæsthetic properties, and has been tried as a
substitute for chloroform, but is very dangerous.

AMYL´IC ALCOHOL, one of the products of the fermentation of grain, &c.,
commonly known by the name of fusel-oil (q.v.).

AMYOT (ä-mi-[=o]), Jacques, French writer and scholar, whose translations
from the Greek have themselves become classics, was born in 1513, and died
Bishop of Auxerre in 1593, having been for twelve years a professor of
classics at Bourges, and having enjoyed the patronage of Margaret of
Navarre and Henry II. His chief translations are those of Plutarch's
_Lives_ and his _Morals_, the _Aethiopica_ of Heliodorus, and the _Daphnis
and Chloe_ of Longus. Sir Thomas North's English translation of Plutarch
(1575), of which Shakespeare made much use, was derived from that of Amyot.

AMYRIDA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees or shrubs,
the leaves, bark, and fruit of which abound in fragrant resinous and
balsamic juices. Myrrh, frankincense, and the gum-elemi of commerce are
among their products. Among the chief genera of the order are _Amyris_,
_Balsamodendron_, _Boswellia_, and _Canarium_.

A´NA, the neuter plural termination of Latin adjectives in _-[=a]nus_,
often forming an affix with the names of eminent men to denote a collection
of their memorable sayings--thus _Scaligeriana_, _Johnsoniana_, the sayings
of Scaliger, of Johnson; or to denote a collection of anecdotes, or gossipy
matter, as in _boxiana_. Hence, as an independent noun, books recording
such sayings; the sayings themselves.

ANABAP´TISTS (from the Gr. _anabaptizein_, to rebaptize), a name given to a
Christian sect by their adversaries, because, as they objected to infant
baptism, they rebaptized those who joined their body. Their doctrine is
based upon the words of Christ in _St. Mark_, xvi, 16. The founder of the
sect appears to have been Nicolas Storch, a disciple of Luther's, who seems
to have aimed also at the reorganization of society based on civil and
political equality. Gathering round him a number of fiery spirits, among
whom was Thomas Münzer, he incited the peasantry of Suabia and Franconia to
insurrection--the doctrine of a community of goods being now added to their
creed. This insurrection was quelled in 1525, when Münzer was put to the
torture and beheaded. After the death of Münzer the sectaries dispersed in
all directions, spreading their doctrines wherever they went. In 1534 the
town of Münster in Westphalia became their centre of action. Under the
leadership of Bockhold and Matthias their numbers increased daily, and
being joined by the restless spirits of the adjoining towns, they soon made
themselves masters of the town and expelled their adversaries. Matthias
became their prophet, but he fell in a sally against the Bishop of Münster,
Count Waldeck, who had laid siege to the city. Bockhold then became leader,
assuming the name of John of Leyden, King of the New Jerusalem, and Münster
became a theatre of all the excesses of fanaticism, lust, and cruelty. The
town was eventually taken (June, 1535), and Bockhold and a great many of
his partisans suffered death. This was the last time that the movement
assumed anything like political importance. In the meantime some of the
apostles, who were sent out by Bockhold to extend the limits of his
kingdom, had been successful in various places, and many independent
teachers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active in the work of
founding a new empire of pure Christians. It is true that they rejected the
practice of polygamy, community of goods, and intolerance towards those of
different opinions which had prevailed in Münster; but they enjoined upon
their adherents the other doctrines of the early Anabaptists, and certain
heretical opinions in regard to the humanity of Christ, occasioned by the
controversies of that day about the sacrament. The most celebrated of those
Anabaptist prophets were Melchior Hoffmann, the founder of the Hoffmannists
or Millenarians; Galenus Abrahamssohn, from whom the sect of the Galenists
were called; and Simon Menno, founder of various sects known as Mennonites.
Menno's principles are contained in his _Principles of the True Christian
Faith_ (1556), a work which is held as authoritative on points of doctrine
and worship among the Baptist communities at the present day. The
application of the term Anabaptist to the general body of Baptists
throughout the world is unwarranted, because these sects have nothing in
common with the bodies which sprung up in various countries of Europe
during the Reformation, except the practice of adult baptism. The Baptists
themselves repudiate the name Anabaptist, as they claim to baptize
according to the original institution of the rite, and never repeat baptism
in the case of those who in their opinion have been so baptized. It is
under the designation of Mennonites that they exist to-day, principally in
Holland, Germany, and the United States.

AN´ABAS. See _Climbing-perch_.

ANAB´ASIS (Gr. _anabasis_, a march up country), the title of Xenophon's
celebrated account of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his
brother Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The title is also given to Arrian's
work which records the campaigns of Alexander the Great.

AN´ABLEPS, a genus of fishes of the perch family, found in the rivers of
Guiana, consisting of but one species, remarkable for a peculiar structure
of the eyes, in which there is a division of the iris and cornea, by
transverse ligaments forming two pupils, and making the whole eye appear
double. The young are brought forth alive.

ANABOLISM (Gr. _ana_, up, and _bolé_, a throw), a biological term suggested
by Michael Foster, and used by Gaskell in 1886, and meaning the building-up
of organic life, or the process by which a substance is transformed into
another which is more complex. Anabolism is the constructive phase of
metabolism (q.v.).

ANACANTHI´NI (Gr. neg. prefix _an_, and _akantha_, a spine), an order of
osseous fishes, including the cod, plaice, &c., with spineless fins,
cycloid or ctenoid scales, the ventral fins either absent or below the
pectorals, and ductless swim-bladder.

ANACARDIA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees and
shrubs which secrete an acrid resinous juice, which is often used as a
varnish. Mastic, Japan lacquer, and Martaban varnish are some of their
products. The cashoo or cashew (genus Anacardium), the pistacia, sumach,
mango, &c., are members of the order.

ANACH´ARIS, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Hydrocharidaceæ, the species of
which grow in ponds and streams of fresh water; water-thyme or water-weed.
It appeared in Britain in the nineteenth century. _A. Alsinastrum_ has been
introduced from North America into European rivers, canals, and ponds, and
by its rapid growth in dense tangled masses tends to choke them so as
materially to impede navigation. The plants in our canals perfect no seed,
their spread being due to vegetative vigour only.

ANACH´RONISM, an error of chronology by which things are represented as
coexisting which did not coexist; applied also to anything foreign to or
out of keeping with a specified time. Thus it is an anachronism when
Shakespeare, in _Troilus and Cressida_, makes Hector quote Aristotle. There
are anachronisms in the _Cid_ and the _Nibelungenlied_, and also in Dante's
_Inferno_, when the poet introduces pagan mythology into the Christian
hell.

ANACOLU´THON, a want of grammatical and logical sequence in the structure
of a sentence.

[Illustration: Anaconda (_Python tigris_)]

ANACON´DA, the popular name of two of the largest species of the serpent
tribe, viz. a Ceylonese species of the genus Python (_P. tigris_), said to
have been met with 33 feet long; and _Eunectes mur[=i]nus_, a native of
tropical America, allied to the boa-constrictor, and the largest of the
serpent tribe, attaining the length of 40 feet. They frequent swamps and
rivers, are without poison fangs, and kill their victims by constriction.

ANACONDA, a town of the United States, Montana, with the largest
copper-smelting works in the world. Pop. (1920), 11,668.

ANAC´REON, an amatory lyric Greek poet of the sixth century B.C., native of
Teos, in Ionia. Only a few fragments of his works have come down to us; the
collection of odes that usually passes under the name of Anacreon is mostly
the production of a later time, the poetry of the real Anacreon being much
less frivolous.

ANADYOM´[)E]N[=E] (Gr., 'she who comes forth'), a name given to
Aphrodit[=e] (Venus) when she was represented as rising from the sea, as in
the celebrated painting by Apelles, painted for the temple of Æsculapius at
Cos, and afterwards in the temple of Julius Caesar at Rome.

ANADYR ([.a]-nä´d[=e]r), the most easterly of the larger rivers of Siberia
and of all Asia; rises in the Stanovoi Mountains, and falls into the Gulf
of Anadyr; length, 600 miles.

ANÆ´MIA (Gr., 'want of blood'), a medical term applied to an unhealthy
condition of the body, in which there is a diminution of the red corpuscles
which the blood should contain. The principal symptoms are paleness and
general want of colour in the skin, languor, emaciation, want of appetite,
fainting, palpitation, &c.

ANÆSTHE´SIA, or ANÆSTHE´SIS, a state of insensibility to pain, produced by
inhaling chloroform, or by the application of other anæsthetic agents.

ANÆSTHET´ICS are medical agents chiefly used in surgical operations for the
abolition of pain. They are divided into (1) _general anæsthetics_, those
in which complete unconsciousness is produced; (2) _local anæsthetics_,
those which act upon the nerves of a limited area alone.

The earliest record of attempts to produce anæsthesia is to be found in the
thirteenth century. Since then many agents have been tried. The first
scientific effort was in 1800, when Sir Humphry Davy experimented with
nitrous oxide, but without practical result. In 1844 Wells, an American
dentist, used nitrous oxide, also without result. In 1846 Morton, another
American dentist, used ether, and from that time it was increasingly used
in America. In the same year the first operation under ether was performed
in University College Hospital, London. In 1847 Sir James Simpson
(Edinburgh) introduced chloroform. Through his influence it was soon
largely used throughout England and Scotland, and continued to be the chief
anæsthetic till about the end of the nineteenth century, when ether again
became popular in England. To-day, in England, as always in the United
States, ether is the most widely-used anæsthetic. Much controversy exists
regarding the respective merits of ether and chloroform. The general
opinion is, that ether is on the whole safer, but more liable, in the
British climate, to be followed by bronchitis; while there are various
conditions when chloroform is still preferable. They are frequently
combined in use. _Nitrous-oxide gas_ (laughing gas) is much used in
dentistry. Lately, nitrous oxide has been used with ether; while ether and
oxygen together were much used with the British Expeditionary Force in
France during the European War (1914-8). The administration of all
anæsthetics is helped when the patient is given a hypodermic injection of
morphia shortly before. _Twilight sleep_, increasingly used in childbirth,
is the production of a partial anæsthesia by the administration of
scopolamin morphine. _Local anæsthetics_ are much used in minor surgery,
and with proper technique act effectively. Cocaine was the first of these,
and is still widely used. Of later developments, eucaine and novocaine are
best known. Spinal anæsthesia is the injection of stovaine or similar
substance into the spinal cord, producing anæsthesia of a large part of the
body, varying according to the site of the injection.

ANAGAL´LIS, a genus of the nat. ord. Primulaceæ, to which belongs the
Pimpernel, the 'poor man's weather-glass'. See _Pimpernel_.

ANAGNI ([.a]-nän´y[=e]), a town of Italy, province of Rome; the seat of a
bishopric erected in 487. Pop. 10,400.

AN´AGRAM, the transposition of the letters of a word or words so as to form
a new word or phrase, a connection in meaning being frequently preserved;
thus, _evil_, _vile_; _Horatio Nelson_, _Honor est a Nilo_ (honour is from
the Nile). The seventeenth century was the golden age of the anagram, but
it was employed by the Hebrews and the Greeks.

ANAHUAC ([.a]-n[.a]-w[.a]k´; Mex., 'near the water'), an old Mexican name
applied to the plateau of the city of Mexico, from the lakes situated
there, generally elevated from 6000 to 9000 feet above the sea.

AN´AKIM, the posterity of Anak, the son of Arba, noted in sacred history
for their fierceness and loftiness of stature. Their stronghold was
Kirjath-arba or Hebron, which was taken and destroyed by Caleb and the
tribe of Judah.

ANAKOLU´THON. See _Anacoluthon_.

ANALEP´TIC, a restorative or invigorating medicine or diet.

AN´ALOGUE, in comparative anatomy an organ in one species or group having
the same function as an organ of different structure in another species or
group, as the wing of a bird and that of an insect, both serving for
flight. Organs in different animals having a similar anatomical structure,
development, and relative position, independent of function or form, such
as the arm of a man and the wing of a bird, are termed _homologues_.

ANAL´OGY is the mode of reasoning from resemblance to resemblance. When we
find on attentive examination resemblances in objects apparently diverse,
and in which at first no such resemblances were discovered, a presumption
arises that other resemblances may be found by further examination in these
or other objects likewise apparently diverse. It is on the belief in a
unity in nature that all inferences from analogy rest. The general
inference from analogy is always perfectly valid. Wherever there is
resemblance, similarity or identity of cause somewhere may be justly
inferred; but to infer the particular cause without particular proof is
always to reason falsely. Analogy is of great use and constant application
in science, in philosophy, and in the common business of life.

ANAL´YSIS, the resolution of an object, whether of the senses or the
intellect, into its component elements. The word was introduced by Boyle in
the seventeenth century. In philosophy it is the mode of resolving a
compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider them more
distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the whole. It is
opposed to _synthesis_, by which we combine and class our perceptions, and
contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to represent their several
divisions, classes, and relations.

Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and
development of the functions of quantities by calculation; in a narrower
sense the resolving of problems by algebraic equations. The analysis of the
ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of geometrical
assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of the moderns,
which extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in equations the
mutual dependence of magnitudes. Analysis is divided into lower and higher,
the lower comprising, besides arithmetic and algebra, the doctrines of
functions, of series, combinations, logarithms, and curves, the higher
comprising the differential and integral calculus, and the calculus of
variations.

In chemistry, analysis is the process of decomposing a compound substance
with a view to determine either (_a_) what elements it contains
(_qualitative analysis_), or (_b_) how much of each element is present
(_quantitative analysis_). Thus by the first process we learn that water is
a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and by the second that it consists of
one part of hydrogen by weight to eight parts of oxygen. As a means of
testing soils and feeding-stuffs, analysis has given important results; it
has enabled Liebig to solve the problem of plant-nutrition.

ANAM. See _Annam_.

ANAMOR´PHOSIS, a term denoting a drawing executed in such a manner as to
present a distorted image of the object represented, but which, when viewed
from a certain point, or reflected by a curved mirror or through a
polyhedron, shows the object in its true proportions.

AN´[)A]NAS. See _Pine-apple_.

ANAPA´, a seaport of Russia in province Kuban, on the Black Sea, 50 miles
south-east of Kertsh, constructed by the Turks in 1781, and formerly
fortified. Pop. about 7000.

AN´APÆST, in prosody, a foot consisting of two short and one long syllable,
or two unaccented and one accented syllable, e.g.

   )  )  ___  )    )   __    )   )   __   )  )   __
  The As-syr-ian came down like the wolf on the fold.
          --(Byron´s _The Destruction of Sennacherib_.)

AN´APLASTY, a surgical operation to repair superficial lesions, or make up
for lost parts, by the employment of adjacent healthy structure or tissue.
Artificial noses, &c., are thus made.

ANARAJAPOO´RA, or ANURADHAPURA, a ruined city, the ancient capital of
Ceylon, built about 540 B.C., and said to have covered an area of 300 sq.
miles, doubtless a great exaggeration. There are still several dagobas in
tolerable preservation, but the great object of interest is the sacred
Bo-tree planted over 2000 years, and probably the oldest historical tree in
the world, but shattered by a storm in 1887.

AN´ARCHISTS, a revolutionary sect or body setting forth as the social ideal
the extreme form of individual freedom, holding that all government is
injurious and immoral, and that the destruction of every social form now
existing must be the first step to the creation of a new social system.
According to Herbert Spencer, anarchism is the doctrine of _laisser faire_.
Anarchists usually look upon Diderot as one of their pioneers, and quote
his lines: "La nature n'a fait ni serviteurs ni maîtres. Je ne veux ni
donner ni reçevoir de lois." Historically, however, it is Proudhon who may
be considered as the father of anarchism. The recognition of the anarchists
as an independent sect may be dated from the secession of Bakunin and his
followers from the Social Democrats at the congress of the Hague in 1872,
since which they have maintained an active propaganda. Their principal
journals have been _La Révolte_ (Paris), the _Freiheit_ (New York),
_Liberty_ (Boston), and the _Anarchist_ (London). Among modern philosophers
of anarchism are Elisée Reclus and Prince Kropotkin.

ANARTHROP´ODA, one of the two great divisions (the Arthropoda being the
other) of the Annulosa, or ringed animals, in which there are no
articulated appendages. It includes the leeches, earth-worms, tube-worms,
&c.

A´NAS, a genus of web-footed birds, containing the true ducks.

ANASARCA. See _Dropsy_.

ANASTA´SIUS I, Emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, A.D. 491, at the age of
sixty. He was a member of the imperial life-guard, and owed his elevation
to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, whom he married forty days after the death of
her husband. He distinguished himself by suppressing the combats between
men and wild beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices, building
the fortifications  of Constantinople, &c. His support of the heretical
Eutychians led to a dangerous rebellion. He died A.D. 518.

ANASTAT´ICA, a genus of cruciferous plants, including the Rose of Jericho
(_A. hierochuntica_). See _Rose of Jericho_.

ANASTATIC PRINTING, a process by which the perfect facsimile of a page of
type or an engraving, old or new, can be reproduced and printed in the
manner of a lithograph. The print or page to be transferred is dipped in
diluted nitric acid, and, while moist with dilute acid, it is laid face
downwards on a polished zinc plate and passed through a roller-press. The
zinc is immediately corroded by the acid contained in the paper, excepting
on those parts occupied by the ink of the type or engraving. The ink, while
rejecting the acid, is loosened by it, and deposits a thin film on the
zinc, thus protecting it from the action of the acid. The result is that
those parts are left slightly raised in relief and greasy. The plate is
then treated as in ordinary lithographic printing (q.v.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
F. H. Collins, _Authors' and Printers' Dictionary_; C. T. Jacobi,
_Printing_; J. Southward, _Modern Printing_.

ANASTOMO´SIS, in animals and plants, the inosculation of vessels, or the
opening of one vessel into another, as an artery into another artery, or a
vein into a vein. By means of anastomosis, if the course of a fluid is
arrested in one vessel it can proceed along others. It is by anastomosis
that circulation is re-established in amputated limbs, and in aneurism when
the vessel is tied.

ANATH´EMA, originally a gift hung up in a temple (Gr., _anatith[=e]mi_, to
lay up), and dedicated to some god, a votive offering; but it gradually
came to be used for _expulsion_, _curse_. The Roman Catholic Church
pronounces the sentence of anathema against heretics, schismatics, and all
who wilfully pursue a course of conduct condemned by the Church. The
subject of the anathema is declared an outcast from the Church, all the
faithful are forbidden to associate with him, and the utter destruction of
his body and soul is foretold.

ANAT´IDÆ, a family of swimming birds, including the Ducks, Swans, Geese,
&c.

ANATO´LIA (from Gr. _anatol[=e]_, the sunrise, the Orient), the modern name
of Asia Minor (q.v.).

ANATOLIAN RAILWAY. See _Bagdad Railway, Turkey_.

ANATOMY

[Illustration]

ANAT´OMY, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but is now
generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating
the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view
to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science
which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. By means of the
dissection of the human body the surgeon and physician acquire the
knowledge of the geography of the territory in which all their professional
operations are carried on. _Comparative anatomy_ is the science which
compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of
man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes. The anatomy of an
animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the
succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult
form (_developmental_ or _embryotical anatomy_); with reference to the
general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (_general
anatomy_, _histology_); with reference to the changes in structure of
organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (_morbid_
or _pathological anatomy_); or with reference to the function, use, or
purpose performed by the organs or parts (_teleological_ or _physiological
anatomy_). According to the parts of the body described, the different
divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, _osteology_, the
description of the bones; _myology_, of the muscles; _arthrology_, of the
ligaments and sinews; _splanchnology_, of the viscera or internal organs,
in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver,
spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, &c. _Angiology_ describes the vessels
through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the
blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic
vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are
distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and
carrying them back into the blood. _Neurology_ describes the system of the
nerves and of the brain; _dermatology_ treats of the skin.--Among
anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and
preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be
preserved (1) by macerating the body so as to obtain the bones of the
skeleton; or (2) by treating the body or some part of it with alcohol,
formalin, or other preservative, which renders its tissues imperishable.

Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned
Hippocrates the younger (460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.),
Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.), Celsus (53
B.C.-A.D. 37), and Galen of Pergamus (A.D. 130-200), the most celebrated of
all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the revival
of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its
progress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed
dissection, and published a _System of Anatomy_ which was a textbook in the
schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of
Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and
many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth
century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered
the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the
circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the
Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned anatomists of later times we can only
mention Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and John Hunter, the younger Meckel,
Bichat, Rosenmüller, Quain, Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Joh. Müller,
Gegenbaur, Owen, and Huxley.

Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for
enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for
dissection. An Act of some years previously had, it is true, empowered a
criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly-qualified persons
the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was
far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high
prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice
of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the
notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a
statute was passed in 1832, which was intended to make provision for the
wants of surgeons, students, or other duly-qualified persons, by
permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of
persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, &c. The Act also
appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and
required persons practising the operations to obtain a licence. Relatives
may effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though
the deceased had expressed a desire for it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. J.
Cunningham, _Textbook of Anatomy_; J. Quain, _Elements of Anatomy_; A. M.
Buchanan, _Manual of Anatomy_; A. Thomson, _Anatomy for Art Students_.

ANAXAG´ORAS, an ancient Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, born at
Clazomenæ, in Ionia, probably about 500 B.C. When only about twenty years
of age he settled at Athens, and soon gained a high reputation, and
gathered round him a circle of renowned pupils, including Pericles,
Euripides, Socrates, &c. At the age of fifty he was publicly charged with
impiety and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual
banishment. He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where he died about 428.
Anaxagoras belonged to the atomic school of Ionic philosophers. He held
that there was an infinite number of different kinds of elementary atoms,
and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a state
of chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, immaterial, spiritual,
elementary being, _Nous_ (Intelligence), from which motion the world was
produced. His conception of _Nous_ as the first cause of movement marks a
great advance in the history of philosophical thought, for he thus placed
spirit above matter. The stars were, according to him, of earthy materials;
the sun a glowing mass, about as large as the Peloponnesus; the earth was
flat; the moon a dark, inhabitable body, receiving its light from the sun;
the comets wandering stars.

ANAXIMAN´DER, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, was born at Miletus in
611 B.C., and died 547. The fundamental principle of his philosophy is that
the source of all things is an undefined substance infinite in quantity.
The firmament is composed of heat and cold, the stars of air and fire. The
sun occupies the highest place in the heavens, has a circumference
twenty-eight times larger than the earth, and resembles a cylinder, from
which streams of fire issue. The moon is likewise a cylinder, nineteen
times larger than the earth. The earth has the shape of a cylinder, and is
placed in the midst of the universe, where it remains suspended. His
philosophy is thus a step in advance of the theories of Thales, the
conception of the Infinite, however vague, being superior to the idea of
water constituting the first principle of all things. Anaximander occupied
himself a great deal with mathematics and geography. To him is credited the
invention of geographical maps and the first application of the _gnomon_ or
style fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes.

ANAXIMENES (an-aks-im´e-n[=e]z) OF MILETUS, an ancient Greek (Ionic)
philosopher, according to whom air was the first principle of all things.
Finite things were formed from the infinite air by compression and
rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and heat and cold
resulted from varying degrees of density of the primal element. He
flourished about 550 B.C.

ANBURY (an´be-ri) (called also CLUB-ROOT and FINGERS AND TOES), a disease
in turnips, in which knobs or excrescences are formed on the root, which is
then useless for feeding purposes. Some authorities distinguish anbury
proper from 'fingers and toes' in turnips, setting it down as a distinct
disease due to a fungus, while in the other case the roots simply assume a
bad habit of growth through some unknown influence.

ANCACHS ([.a]n-k[.a]ch´), a department of Peru, between the Andes and the
Pacific; area, 16,562 sq. miles. Capital Hararaz. Pop. 500,000.

ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, an ancient and widespread practice, displayed in its most
characteristic form in modern China and ancient Rome, which apparently was
based upon the belief that dead parents or ancestors, represented by images
or 'ancestral tablets', could be revived by appropriate ceremonies, such as
burning incense or offering libations, and give the benefit of their wisdom
to their descendants who performed the vitalizing ritual and asked for
their advice upon, or their sanction for, actions affecting the welfare of
the family. The earliest deity was a dead king (Osiris), whose advice was
sought by his son and successor. Hence in primitive religions, in which an
endless variety of modifications of these more ancient beliefs has arisen,
ancestor-worship may take the form of pious devotion to an actual ancestor
or to a supernatural deity. As many of the most ancient gods were
identified with animals, the dead ancestor, or his soul, is believed by
many peoples to become incarnate in the appropriate animal, which is
accorded the special veneration of a god or supernatural adviser, and set
apart as sacred. Ancestor-worship still survives in a great variety of
forms among various peoples.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive
Culture_; F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_; D. G.
Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_.

ANCHISES (an-k[=i]´s[=e]z), the father of the Trojan hero Æneas, who
carried him off on his shoulders at the burning of Troy and made him the
companion of his voyage to Italy. This voyage, which is not mentioned in
the Homeric legend, is described by Virgil in his _Æneid_. He died at
Drepanum, in Sicily.

[Illustration: Modern Stockless Anchor (Hall's Patent)]

AN´CHOR, an implement for holding a ship or other vessel at rest in the
water. In ancient times large stones or crooked pieces of wood heavily
weighted with metal were used for this purpose. The anchor now used is of
iron, formed with a strong _shank_, at one extremity of which is the
_crown_, from which branch out two _arms_, terminating in broad _palms_ or
_flukes_, the sharp extremity of which is the _peak_ or _bill_; at the
other end of the shank is the _stock_ (fixed at right angles to the plane
of the arms), behind which is the _ring_, to which a cable can be attached.
The principal use of the stock is to cause the arms to fall so as one of
the flukes shall enter the ground. Many anchors are made nowadays without a
stock. The anchors of the largest size carried by men-of-war are the _best_
and _small bowers_, the _sheet_, and the _spare_, to which are added the
_stream_ and the _kedge_, which are used for anchoring in a stream or other
sheltered place and for warping the vessel from one place to another. Many
improvements and novelties in the shape and construction of anchors have
been introduced within recent times. The principal names connected with
those alterations are those of Lieutenant Rodgers, who introduced the
_hollow-shanked anchor_ with the view of increasing the strength without
adding to the weight; Porter, who made the arms and flukes movable by
pivoting them to the stock instead of fixing them immovably, causing the
anchor to take a readier and firmer hold, and avoiding the chance of the
cable becoming foul; Trotman, who further improved on Porter's invention;
and M. Martin, whose anchor is of very peculiar form, and is constructed so
as to be self-canting, the arms revolving through an angle of 30° either
way, and the sharp points of the flukes being always ready to enter the
ground.

[Illustration: Type of Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, &c.]

AN´CHORITES, or AN´CHORETS (Gr. _anachor[=e]tai_, persons who have
withdrawn themselves from the world), in the early Church a class of
religious persons who generally passed their lives in cells, from which
they never removed. Their habitations were, in many instances, entirely
separated from the abodes of other men, sometimes in the depth of
wildernesses, in pits or caverns; at other times several of these
individuals fixed their habitations in the vicinity of each other, but they
always lived personally separate. The continual prevalence of fierce wars,
civil commotions, and persecutions at the beginning of the Christian era
must have made retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of
quiet and contemplative minds. This spirit, however, soon led to fanatical
excesses; many anchorites went without proper clothing, wore heavy chains,
and we find at the close of the fourth century Simeon Stylites passing
thirty years on the top of a column without ever descending from it, and
finally dying there. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity became blended
with the Grecian philosophy and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions
of the East, the anchorites were most numerous; in Europe there were
comparatively few, and on the development and establishment of the monastic
system they completely disappeared. See _Asceticism_.

ANCHOVY (an-ch[=o]´vi), a small fish of the Herring family, all the
species, with exception of the common anchovy (_Engraulis
encrasich[)o]lus_) and _E. meletta_ (both Mediterranean species),
inhabitants of the tropical seas of India and America. The common anchovy,
so esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavour, is not much larger than the
middle finger. It is caught in vast numbers in the Mediterranean, and
frequently on the coasts of France, Holland, and the south of England, and
pickled for exportation. A favourite sauce is made by pounding the pickled
fish in water, simmering for a short time, adding a little cayenne pepper,
and straining the whole through a hair-sieve.

ANCHO´VY-PEAR (_Grias caulifl[=o]ra_), a tree of the nat. ord. Myrtaceæ, a
native of Jamaica, growing to the height of 50 feet, with large leaves and
large white flowers, and bearing a fruit somewhat bigger than a hen's egg,
which is pickled and eaten like the mango, and strongly resembles it in
taste.

ANCHU´SA. See _Alkanet_.

ANCHYLO´SIS. See _Ankylosis_.

ANCIENT LIGHTS, in English law, windows or other openings which have been
in existence for at least twenty years, and during that time have enjoyed
the access of light without interruption, go that a right is established
against the obstruction of the light by a neighbouring proprietor.

ANCILLON ([.a][n.]-s[=e]-y[=o][n.]), Jean Pierre Frédéric, an author and
statesman of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1767 (where his father
was pastor of the French reformed church); died there in 1837. He became
professor of history in the military academy at Berlin, and in 1806 he was
charged with the education of the crown-prince. He successively occupied
several important offices of state, being at last appointed Minister of
Foreign Affairs. He wrote on philosophy, history, and politics, partly in
French, partly in German.

ANCKARSTRÖM. See _Ankarström_.

ANCO´NA, a seaport of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, on
the Adriatic, 130 miles N.E. of Rome, with harbour works begun by Trajan,
who built the ancient mole or quay. A triumphal arch of white marble,
erected in honour of Trajan, stands on the mole. Ancona is a station of the
Italian fleet, and the commerce is increasing. The town is indifferently
built, but has some remarkable edifices, among others, the cathedral. There
is a colossal statue of Count Cavour. Ancona is said to have been founded
about four centuries B.C., by Syracusan refugees. It fell into the hands of
the Romans in the first half of the third century B.C., and became a Roman
colony. Pop. 68,430. The province has an area of 748 sq. miles. Pop.
333,381.

ANCONA FOWL. See _Poultry_.

ANCRE (ä[n.]-kr), Concino Concini, Marshal and Marquis d', was a native of
Florence, and on the marriage of Marie de' Médici to Henri IV, in 1600,
came in her suite to France, where he obtained rapid promotion, more
especially after the assassination of the king (1610). He became
successively Governor of Normandy, Marshal of France, and last of all,
Prime Minister. Being thoroughly detested by all classes, at last a
conspiracy was formed against him, and he was shot dead on the bridge of
the Louvre in 1617.

ANCRE, BATTLE OF. This battle was the final one in the British offensive in
France in 1916. It began on 13th Nov. after a two day's preliminary
bombardment of the German salient, on both sides of the River Ancre, from
Beaumont-Hamel to St. Pierre Divion. One area of extraordinary strength was
the Y ravine which stretches from Beaumont-Hamel plateau towards the river.
The assaults on both banks of the river were vigorous and determined. A
fierce struggle was waged in the Y ravine, which Scottish troops ultimately
cleared with the bayonet. Beaumont-Hamel having fallen, the British line
was extended well beyond it. Further gains were made on the following day.
The prisoners captured numbered 7200. This brilliant action paved the way
for further successes in the spring.

AN´CUS MAR´CIUS, according to the traditionary history of Rome the fourth
king of that city, who succeeded Tullus Hostilius, 638, and died 614 B.C.
He was the son of Numa's daughter, and sought to imitate his grandfather by
reviving the neglected observances of religion. He is said to have built
the wooden bridge across the Tiber known as the Sublician, constructed the
harbour of Ostia, and built the first Roman prison.

ANCY´RA. See _Angora_.

ANDALU´SIA (Sp. _Andalucia_), a large and fertile district in the south of
Spain, bounded N. by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia, S. by the
Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Portugal and the Atlantic; area, about 33,777
sq. miles, comprising the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, Jaen,
Cordova, Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. It is traversed throughout its whole
extent by ranges of mountains, the loftiest being the Sierra Nevada, many
summits of which are covered with perpetual snow (Mulahacen is 11,678
feet). Minerals abound, and several mines have been opened by English
companies, especially in the province of Huelva, where the Tharsis and Rio
Tinto copper-mines are situated. The principal river is the Guadalquivir.
The vine, myrtle, olive, palm, banana, carob, &c., grow abundantly in the
valley of the Guadalquivir. Wheat, maize, barley, and many varieties of
fruit grow almost spontaneously; besides which, honey, silk, and cochineal
form important articles of culture. The horses and mules are the best in
the Peninsula; the bulls are sought for bull-fighting over all Spain; sheep
are reared in vast numbers. Agriculture is in a backward state, and the
manufactures are by no means extensive. The Andalusians are descended in
part from the Moors, of whom they still preserve decided characteristics.
Andalusia is still famous for its bull-fighters. Pop. 3,828,916.

ANDALUSIAN FOWL. See _Poultry_.

AN´DAMANS, a chain of islands on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, the
principal being the North, Middle, South, and Little Andamans. Middle
Andaman is about 60 miles long, and 15 or 16 miles broad; North and South
Andaman are each about 50 miles long. The Andamanese, about 1315 in number
(1911), are mostly in a state of nature, living almost naked in the rudest
habitations. They are small (generally much less than 5 feet), well-formed,
and active, skilful archers and canoeists, and excellent swimmers and
divers. These islands have been used since 1858 as a penal settlement by
the Indian Government, the settlement being at Port Blair, on South
Andaman. Here rice, coffee, pineapples, nutmegs, &c., are grown, while the
jungle has been cleared off the neighbouring hills. The natives in the
vicinity of the settlement have become to some extent civilized. The
climate is humid, but the settlement is healthy. Pop. 18,000.

ANDANTE ([.a]n-d[.a]n´t[=a]; It., 'at a walking pace'), in music, denotes a
movement somewhat slow, graceful, distinct, and soothing. The word is also
applied substantively to that part of a sonata or symphony having a
movement of this character. In Handel's music one often meets the
expression _andante allegro_, which is equivalent to _andante con moto_.

ANDELYS, LES (l[=a]z ä[n.]d-l[=e]z), two towns in France called
respectively Grand and Petit Andely, distant half a mile from each other,
in the department of Eure, on the right bank of the Seine, 19 miles S.E. of
Rouen. Grand Andely dates from the sixth century, its church, built in the
thirteenth century, is one of the finest in the department. Petit Andely
owes its origin to Richard Coeur de Lion, who, in 1195, built here the
Château Gaillard, in its time one of the strongest fortresses in France,
but now wholly a ruin. Pop. 5530.

ANDENNE´, a town of Belgium, province of Namur, on the right bank of the
Meuse and 10 miles east of Namur; manufactures delftware, porcelain,
tobacco-pipes, paper, &c. Pop. 7803.

ANDERNACH ([.a]n´der-n[.a]_ch_), a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the left
bank of the Rhine, 10 miles N.W. of Coblentz, partly surrounded with walls.
Pop. 9800.

AN´DERSEN, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy
tales, was born of poor parents at Odense, 2nd April, 1805. He learned to
read and write in a charity school, from which he was taken when only nine
years old, and was put to work in a manufactory in order that his earnings
might assist his widowed mother. In his leisure time he eagerly read
national ballads, poetry, and plays, and wrote several tragedies full of
sound and fury. In 1819 he went to Copenhagen, but failed in getting any of
his plays accepted, and in securing an appointment at the theatre, having
to content himself for some time with unsteady employment as a joiner. His
abilities at last brought him under the notice of Councillor Collin, a man
of considerable influence, who procured for him free entrance into a
Government school at Slagelse. From this school he was transferred to the
university, and soon became favourably known by his poetic works. Through
the influence of Oehlenschläger and Ingermann he received a royal grant to
enable him to travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his impressions of
which he published in _The Improvvisatore_ (1835)--a work which rendered
his fame European. The scene of his following novel, _O. T._, was laid in
Denmark, and in _Only a Fiddler_ he described his own early struggles. In
1835 appeared the first volume of his _Fairy Tales_, of which successive
volumes continued to be published year by year at Christmas, and which have
been the most popular and widespread of his works. Among his other works
are _Picture-books without Pictures_--conversations of the author with the
moon, who came to visit the poet in his garret; _A Poet's Bazaar_--the
result of a voyage in 1840 to the East; and a number of dramas. In 1845 he
received an annuity from the Government. He visited England in 1848, and
acquired such a command of the language that his next work, _The Two
Baronesses_, was written in English. In 1855 he published an autobiography,
under the title _My Life's Romance_, an English translation of which,
published in 1871, contained additional chapters by the author, bringing
the narrative to 1867. Among his later works we may mention, _To Be or Not
To Be_ (1857); _Tales from Jutland_ (1859); _The Ice Maiden_ (1863). He
died 4th Aug, 1875, having had the pleasure of seeing many of his works
translated into most of the European languages.

ANDERSON, a town of the United States, Indiana, on the west branch of White
River, 32 miles north-east of Indianapolis, with various manufacturing
works. Pop. 23,856.

ANDERSON, Elizabeth Garrett, M.D., born in 1836, maiden name Garrett,
married Mr. J. S. Anderson of the Orient Line of steamers. She studied
medicine, but met with many obstacles, the study of medicine by women being
then discouraged on all hands; at last she was licensed to practise by the
Apothecaries' Society in 1865, and afterwards passed examinations at the
University of Paris and obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine. From
1866 to 1890 she was senior physician to the New Hospital for Women; from
1876 to 1898 lecturer on medicine in the London School of Medicine for
Women. She did much to aid in opening the medical profession to women. In
1908 she was elected Mayor of Aldeburgh, being the first woman to hold the
position of mayor in England. She died on 17th Dec., 1917. Her daughter
Louisa Garrett Anderson, born in 1873, went to France in 1914 as Joint
Organiser of and Chief Surgeon to the Women's Hospital Corps, Voluntary
Unit.

ANDERSON, James, a Scottish writer on political and rural economy, born at
Hermiston in 1739, died in 1808. In 1790 he started the _Bee_, which ran to
eighteen volumes, and contains many useful papers on agricultural,
economical, and other topics. Some of his other publications, _Recreations
in Agriculture_, _Natural History_, &c., contain anticipations of theories
afterwards propounded by Malthus and Ricardo.

ANDERSON, John, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy in the University
of Glasgow, born 1726, died 1796. By his will he directed that the whole of
his effects should be devoted to the establishment of an educational
institution in Glasgow, to be denominated _Anderson's University_, for the
use of the unacademical classes. According to the design of the founder,
there were to be four colleges--for arts, medicine, law, and
theology--besides an initiatory school. As the funds, however, were totally
inadequate to the plan, it was at first commenced with only a single course
of lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry. The institution gradually
enlarged its sphere of instruction, coming nearer and nearer to the
original design of its founder, the medical school in particular possessing
a high reputation. In 1886 it was incorporated with other institutions to
form the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College (now Glasgow Royal
Technical College), Anderson's College medical school, however, retaining a
distinct position.

ANDERSON, Joseph, Scottish antiquary, born in 1832, became a school
teacher, was for some years newspaper editor, and in 1870 was appointed
keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. His chief works
embody the lectures delivered by him as Rhind lecturer in archæology to the
Society of Antiquaries of Scotland: _Scotland in Early Christian Times_,
_Scotland in Pagan Times_, and the _Early Christian Monuments of Scotland_.
He also edited _The Orkneyinga Saga_, _The Oliphants in Scotland_, and
Drummond's _Ancient Scottish Weapons_. He died in 1916.

ANDERSON, Robert, M.D., Scottish biographical writer, born 1750, died 1830.
He furnished biographical and critical notices for _A Complete Edition of
the Poets of Great Britain_ (1792-5), and was for a time editor of the
_Edinburgh Magazine_.

ANDERSSON, Carl Jan, an African traveller, born in Sweden in 1827, died in
the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa, in July, 1867. He published
_Lake Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa_ (London, 2 vols., 1856), and
_The Okavango River_ (London, 1861). The observations of his last voyage
were published in 1875 in _Notes of Travel in South Africa_.

ANDES (an´d[=e]z), or, as they are called in Spanish South America,
CORDILLERAS (ridges) DE LOS ANDES, or simply CORDILLERAS, a range of
mountains stretching along the whole of the west coast of South America,
from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama and the Caribbean Sea. In absolute
length (4500 miles) no single chain of mountains approaches the Andes, and
only a certain number of the higher peaks of the Himalayan chain rise
higher above the sea-level; which peak is the highest of all is not yet
settled. Several main sections of this huge chain are distinguishable. The
Southern Andes present a lofty main chain, with a minor chain running
parallel to it on the east, reaching from Tierra del Fuego and the Straits
of Magellan, northward to about lat. 28° S., and rising in Aconcagua to a
height of 23,080 feet. North of this is the double chain of the Central
Andes, enclosing the wide and lofty plateaus of Bolivia and Peru, which lie
at an elevation of more than 12,000 feet above the sea. The mountain system
is here at its broadest, being about 500 miles across. Here are also
several very lofty peaks, as Illampu or Sorata (21,484 feet), Sahama
(21,054 feet), Illimani (21,024 feet). Farther north the outer and inner
ranges draw closer together, and in Ecuador there is but a single system of
elevated masses, generally described as forming two parallel chains. In
this section are crowded together a number of lofty peaks, most of them
volcanoes, either extinct or active. Of the latter class are Pichincha
(15,918 feet), with a crater 2500 feet deep; Tunguragua (16,685 feet);
Sangay (17,460 feet); and Cotopaxi (19,550 feet). The loftiest summit here
appears to be Chimborazo (20,581 feet); others are Antisana (19,260 feet)
and Cayambe (19,200 feet). Northward of this section the Andes break into
three distinct ranges, the east-most running north-eastward into Venezuela,
the westmost running north-westward to the Isthmus of Panama. In the
central range is the volcano of Tolima (17,660 feet). The western slope of
the Andes is generally exceedingly steep, the eastern much less so, the
mountains sinking gradually to the plains. The whole range gives evidence
of volcanic action, but it consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks.
Thus mountains may be found rising to the height of over 20,000 feet, and
fossiliferous to their summits (as Illimani and Sorata or Illampu). There
are about thirty volcanoes in a state of activity. The loftiest of these
burning mountains seems to be Gualateïri, in Peru (21,960 feet). The
heights of the others vary from 13,000 to 20,000 feet. All the districts of
the Andes system have suffered severely from earthquakes, towns having been
either destroyed or greatly injured by these visitations. Peaks crowned
with perpetual snow are seen all along the range, and glaciers are also met
with, more especially from Aconcagua southwards. The passes are generally
at a great height, the most important being from 10,000 to 15,000 feet.
Railways have been constructed to cross the chain at a similar elevation.
The Andes are extremely rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, copper,
platinum, mercury, and tin all being wrought; lead and iron are also found.
The llama and kindred species--the guanaco, vicuña, and alpaca--are
characteristic of the Andes. Among birds, the condor is the most
remarkable. The vegetation necessarily varies much according to elevation,
latitude, rainfall, &c., but generally is rich and varied. Except in the
south and north little rain falls on the western side of the range, and in
the centre there is a considerable desert area. On the east side the
rainfall is heavy in the equatorial regions, but in the south is very
scanty or altogether deficient. From the Andes rise two of the largest
water systems of the world--the Amazon and its affluents, and the La Plata
and its affluents. Besides which, in the north, from its slopes flow the
Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries to the Orinoco. The
mountain chain pressing so close upon the Pacific Ocean, no streams of
importance flow from its western slopes. The number of lakes is not great;
the largest and most important is that of Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau.
In the Andes are towns at a greater elevation than anywhere else in the
world, the highest being the silver-mining town of Cerro de Pasco (14,270
feet), the next being Potosi.

AN´DESIN, a kind of felspar containing both soda and lime, and named from
being first obtained in the Andes.

AN´DESITE, a name given to a crystalline volcanic rock or group of rocks of
very wide occurrence, consisting mostly of felspar mixed with other
ingredients, especially hornblende and augite, often also hypersthene and
mica, the four chief varieties being named accordingly. Andesite is often
porphyritic in character, with large crystals of felspar scattered through
it. These rocks are commonly eruptive products of volcanoes of the tertiary
or more recent periods, and the name was given by C. L. von Buch on account
of their prevalence in the lavas of volcanoes of the Andes. The Ochils and
other hills of middle Scotland largely consist of andesite.

ANDIJAN´, a town of Russian Turkestan, Ferghana, south of the Syr-Darya, a
terminus of the Transcaspian Railway, 73 miles north-east of Khokand. Pop.
82,235.

ANDI´RA, a genus of leguminous American trees, with fleshy plum-like
fruits. The wood is suitable for building purposes. The bark of _A.
inermis_, or cabbage tree, is narcotic, and is used as an anthelminthic
under the name of _worm-bark_ or _cabbage bark_. The powdered bark of _A.
arar[=o]ba_ is used as a remedy in certain skin diseases, as herpes.

ANDIRON (and´[=i]-[.e]rn), a horizontal iron bar raised on short legs, with
an upright standard at one end, used to support pieces of wood when burning
in an open hearth, one andiron being placed on either side of the hearth.

ANDKHOO, or ANDKHOUI ([.a]nd-_h_ö´, [.a]nd-_h_ö´i), a town of Afghanistan,
about 200 miles south of Bokhara, on the commercial route to Herat. Pop.
estimated at 15,000.

ANDOCIDES (an-dos´i-d[=e]z), an Athenian orator, born about 440 B.C., died
about 393 B.C. He took an active part in public affairs, and was four times
exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, for profaning the Eleusinian
mysteries. Several of his orations are extant, one called _On the
Mysteries_ being the best.

ANDOR´RA, or ANDORRE´, a small nominally independent State in the Pyrenees,
south of the French department of Ariége, with an area of about 191 sq.
miles. It has been a separate State for six hundred years, is governed by
its own civil and criminal codes, and has its own courts of justice, the
laws being administered by two judges, one of whom is chosen by France, the
other by the Bishop of Urgel, in Spain. The little State pays an annual due
of 960 francs to France, and 460 pesetas to the Bishop of Urgel. The chief
industry is the rearing of sheep and cattle. The commerce is largely in
importing contraband goods into Spain. The inhabitants, who speak the
Catalan dialect of Spanish, are simple in their manners, their wealth
consisting mainly of cattle and sheep. The village of Old Andorra is the
capital. Pop. 5231.

AN´DOVER, a town in England, in Hants, 12 miles north by west of
Winchester, with a fine church, and a trade in corn, malt, &c. Interesting
Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. Pop. (1921), 8569.

AN´DOVER, a town in Massachusetts, 25 miles N.N.W. of Boston, chiefly
remarkable for its literary institutions--Phillip's Academy, founded in
1778; the Andover Theological Seminary, founded in 1807; and Abbot Academy,
a girls' school, founded in 1829. Pop. 7300.

ANDRASSY ([.a]n-drä´sh[=e]), Count Julius, Hungarian statesman, born 1823,
died in 1890. He took part in the revolution of 1848, was condemned to
death, but escaped and went into exile. He was appointed Premier when
self-government was restored to Hungary in 1867; became imperial Minister
for Foreign Affairs in 1871, but retired from public life in 1879.

ANDRASSY, Julius, Hungarian statesman, son of the preceding. He was born in
1860, and entered the Reichstag in 1884. He became Minister of the Interior
in 1906, and retained that office until 1909. In 1912 he represented
Austria at the conference on the Balkan question. In 1918 he was appointed
Minister for Foreign Affairs, but soon resigned.

ANDRÉ (an´dr[=a]), Major John, adjutant-general in the British army during
the American revolutionary war. Employed to negotiate the defection of the
American general Arnold, and the delivery of the works at West Point, he
was apprehended in disguise, 23rd Sept., 1780, within the American lines;
declared a spy from the enemy, and hanged 2nd Oct., 1780. His remains were
brought to England in 1821 and interred in Westminster Abbey, where a
monument has been erected to his memory.

ANDREA DEL SARTO. See _Sarto_.

ANDREÆ ([.a]n´dre-[=a]), Johann Valentin, German author, born 1586, died
1654. He was the author of numerous tracts, several of them of an amusing
and satirical character. He was long believed to be the founder of the
celebrated Rosicrucian order, an opinion that received a certain support
from some of his works, but in all probability the real intention of the
writer was to ridicule the folly of contemporary alchemists.

AN´DREASBERG, ST., a mining town of the Harz Mountains, in Prussia, 57
miles S.S.E. of Hanover. Pop. about 4000.

ANDREEV, Leonid Nicolaievitsh, Russian author, born in 1871, died in 1919.
He studied law at the Universities of Moscow and Petrograd, but finding his
practice unremunerative he became a police-court reporter for a daily
paper. At the age of twenty-three he attempted suicide, driven to it by his
miserable circumstances and struggle for existence. His first story, _About
a Poor Student_, based upon his own experiences, attracted but little
attention, and his literary career really began when Gorky discovered his
talent. He was one of the most prolific Russian writers, the short story
being his speciality. He was a mystic and a fatalist, like so many of his
compatriots. His works include: _The Red Laugh_ (1905); _The Seven who were
Hanged_ (1909); _Judas Iscariot and the Others_ (1910); _A Dilemma_ (1910);
_Silence and Other Stories_, &c. His works have been translated into many
European languages.

ANDREW, ST., brother of St. Peter, and the first disciple whom Christ
chose. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Thrace and Asia Minor,
and in Achaia (Greece), and according to tradition he was crucified by
order of the Roman governor Ægeas at Patræ, now Patras, in Achaia, on a
cross of the form X (decussate cross), now known as a St. Andrew's cross.
The Russians revere him as the apostle who brought the gospel to them; the
Scots, as the patron saint of their country. The day dedicated to him is
30th Nov. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted by Peter the Great
in 1698. For the Scottish Knights of St. Andrew or the Thistle, see
_Thistle_.

AN´DREWES, Lancelot, an eminent and learned bishop of the English Church,
born in London in 1555, died at Winchester 1626; was high in favour both
with Queen Elizabeth and James I. In 1605 he became Bishop of Chichester;
in 1609 was translated to Ely, and appointed one of the king's
privy-councillors; and in 1618 he was translated to Winchester. He was one
of those engaged in preparing the authorized version of the Scriptures. He
left sermons, lectures, and other writings.

AN´DREWS, ST., an ancient city and parliamentary burgh in Fifeshire,
Scotland, 31 miles north-east from Edinburgh; was erected into a royal
burgh by David I in 1140, and after having been an episcopal, became an
archiepiscopal see in 1472, and was for long the ecclesiastical capital of
Scotland. The cathedral, now in ruins, was begun about 1160, and took 157
years to finish. The old castle, founded about 1200, and rebuilt in the
fourteenth century, is also an almost shapeless ruin. In it James III was
born and Cardinal Beaton assassinated, and in front of it George Wishart
was burned. There are several other interesting ruins. The trade and
manufactures are of no importance, but the town is in favour as a
watering-place. Golf is much played here. Pop. 7597.--The _University of
St. Andrews_, the oldest of the Scottish universities, founded in 1411,
consists of the united colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard and the
college of St. Mary, both at St. Andrews, and embraces also University
College, Dundee. In 1579 the colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard were
restricted to the teaching of arts and medicine, and that of St. Mary to
theology. In 1747 the two former colleges were united by Act of Parliament.
University College, Dundee, was founded in 1880. The united college of St.
Salvator and St. Leonard has a principal (who is also principal of the
university) and twelve professors, and the college of St. Mary has a
principal and four professors. Degrees, open to women as well as men, are
conferred in arts, divinity, science, medicine, and law; and the university
also confers the diploma and title of L.L.A. (Lady Literate in Arts). The
number of students is 420. In connection with the university is a library,
founded in 1612 and containing about 150,000 printed volumes and 150 MSS.
The university unites with the other three Scottish universities in
returning three members to Parliament. Madras College or Academy, founded
by Dr. Bell of Madras, the principal secondary school of the place,
provides accommodation for upwards of 1500 scholars.

AN´DREWS, Thomas, chemist, was born at Belfast in 1813; studied chemistry
at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson, and for a short time in Paris; then
medicine at Belfast, Dublin, and Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. at
the last place. After practising and teaching chemistry for ten years in
Belfast, he became vice-president of the Northern College there, which in
1849 was converted into Queen's College, and Andrews now became professor
of chemistry in the college, a post which he held till 1879. He died in
1885, having received various academic distinctions in the course of his
life. His name is associated with valuable researches on the heat of
chemical combustion, and on the nature of ozone, but especially with the
discovery of the existence of a critical temperature for every gas, above
which it cannot be liquefied by any pressure, however great. He wrote many
scientific papers, which have been published in a collective form by P. G.
Tait and A. Crum Brown.

AN´DRIA, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, with a fine cathedral,
founded in 1046; the Church of Sant' Agostino, with a beautiful Pointed
Gothic portal; a college; manufactures of majolica, and a good trade. Pop.
53,274.

ANDROCLUS, or ANDROCLES, a Roman slave who once pulled a thorn out of a
lion's paw and dressed the wound. Androclus was afterwards condemned to be
thrown to the lions in the Circus Maximus, and encountered the same lion
that he had helped; the beast, instead of attacking him, fawned on him and
caressed him. The story is told by Aulus Gellius, _Noctes Atticæ_, v, 14.

ANDROE´CIUM, in botany, the male system of a flower; the aggregate of the
stamens.

ANDROMACHE (an-drom´a-k[=e]), in Greek legend, wife of Hector, and one of
the most attractive women of Homer's _Iliad_. The passage describing her
parting with Hector, when he was setting out to battle, is well known and
much admired (_Iliad_, vi, 369-502). Euripides and Racine have made her the
chief character of tragedies.

ANDROM´[)E]DA, in Greek mythology, daughter of the Ethiopian king Cepheus
and of Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia having boasted that her daughter surpassed
the Nereids, if not H[=e]ra (Juno) herself, in beauty, the offended
goddesses prevailed on their father, Poseid[=o]n (Neptune), to afflict the
country with a horrid sea-monster, which threatened universal destruction.
To appease the offended god, Andromeda was chained to a rock, but was
rescued by Perseus; and after death was changed into a constellation. The
legend forms the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Sophocles, and Ovid
introduced it into his _Metamorphoses_.

ANDROM´EDA. See _Ericaceæ_.

ANDRONI´CUS, the name of four emperors of Constantinople.--ANDRONICUS I,
Comnenus, born 1110, murdered 1185.--ANDRONICUS II, Palæologus, born 1258,
died 1332. His reign is celebrated for the invasion of the
Turks.--ANDRONICUS III, Palæologus the Younger, born 1296, died
1341.--ANDRONICUS IV, Palæologus, reigned in the absence of John IV. In
1373 he gave way to his brother Manuel, and died a monk.

ANDRONI´CUS, Livius, the most ancient of the Latin dramatic poets;
flourished about 240 B.C.; by origin a Greek, and long a slave. A few
fragments of his works have come down to us.

ANDRONI´CUS of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher who lived at Rome in the
time of Cicero. He arranged Aristotle's works in much the same form as they
retain in present editions.

ANDRONI´CUS CYRRHESTES (sir-es´t[=e]z), a Greek architect about 100 B.C.,
who constructed at Athens the Tower of the Winds, an octagonal building,
still standing. On the top was a Triton, which indicated the direction of
the wind. Each of the sides had a sort of dial, and the building formerly
contained a clepsydra or water-clock.

ANDROPO´GON, a large genus of grasses, mostly natives of warm countries.
_A. Schoenanthus_ is the sweet-scented lemon-grass of conservatories.
Others also are fragrant.

AN´DROS (now ANDRO), one of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, the
most northerly of the Cyclades; about 25 miles long and 6 or 7 broad; area,
100 sq. miles. A considerable trade is done in silk, wine, olives, figs,
oranges, and lemons. Andro or Castro, the capital, has a good port. Pop.
18,809.

ANDROS ISLANDS, a group of isles belonging to the Bahamas, lying south-west
of New Providence, not far from the east entrance to the Gulf of Florida.
The passages through them are dangerous. Pop. 7545.

ANDRUSSOVO, a Russian village in the government of Smolensk. A treaty was
signed here between Poland and Russia (1667).

ANDUJAR ([.a]n-_d_ö-_h_är´), a town in Spain, in Andalusia, 50 miles E.N.E.
of Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, which is here crossed by a fine bridge;
manufactures a peculiar kind of porous earthen water-bottles and jugs
(_alcarazas_). Pop. 16,500.

AN´ECDOTE, originally some particular about a subject not noticed in
previous works on that subject; now any particular or detached incident or
fact of an interesting nature; a single passage of private life.

ANEGA´DA, a British West Indian island, the most northern of the Virgin
group, 10 miles long by 4½ broad; contains numerous salt ponds, from which
quantities of salt are obtained. Pop. 200.

ANELECTRIC, a body not easily electrified.

ANELECTRODE, the positive pole of a galvanic battery.

[Illustration: Beckley's Improved Robinson Cup Anemometer]

ANEMOM´ETER (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind, _metron_, measure), an instrument for
measuring the force and velocity of the wind. This force is usually
measured by the pressure of the wind upon a square plate attached to one
end of a spiral spring (with its axis horizontal), which yields more or
less according to the force of the wind, and transmits its motion to a
pencil which leaves a trace upon paper moved by clockwork. Various
instruments have been devised for this purpose, but the one most commonly
adopted by meteorological stations is after the type invented by Dr.
Robinson of Armagh. It consists of four hemispherical cups A attached to
the ends of equal horizontal arms, forming a horizontal cross which turns
freely about a vertical axis B. By means of an endless screw carried by the
axis a train of wheelwork is set in motion; and the indication is given by
a hand which moves round a dial; or in some instruments by several hands
moving round different dials like those of a gas-meter. It is found that
the centre of each cup moves with a velocity which is almost exactly
one-third of that of the wind. There are various other forms of the
instrument, one of which is portable, and is especially intended for
measuring the velocity of currents of air passing through mines, and the
ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public buildings. The direction
of the wind as indicated by a vane can also be made to leave a continuous
record by various contrivances; one of the most common being a pinion
carried by the shaft of a vane, and driving a rack which carries a pencil.

ANEM´[)O]N[=E] (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind), wind-flower, a genus of plants
belonging to the Buttercup family (Ranunculaceæ), containing about ninety
species, found in temperate regions, three of them occurring in Britain:
the white-flowered (_A. nemor[=o]sa_), the only one truly native; the
blue-flowered (_A. apenn[=i]na_); and the yellow-flowered (_A.
ranunculoides_), a common European species naturalized in some parts of
Britain. Several species are cultivated as florists' flowers.

ANEMOPH´ILOUS, said of flowers that are fertilized by the wind conveying
the pollen.

ANEM´OSCOPE, any contrivance indicating the direction of the wind;
generally applied to a vane which turns a spindle descending through the
roof to a chamber where, by means of a compass-card and index, the
direction of the wind is shown.

ANEROID BAROMETER. See _Barometer_.

ANE´THUM, a genus of plants; dill.

ANEU´RIN, a poet and prince of the Cambrian Britons who flourished in the
seventh century, author of an epic poem, the _Gododin_, relating the defeat
of the Britons of Strathclyde by the Saxons at the battle of Cattraeth. See
_Celtic Literature_.

AN´EURISM, or ANEURYSM (Gr. _aneurysma_, a widening), the dilatation or
expansion of some part of an artery. Aneurisms arise partly from the too
violent motion of the blood, and partly from degenerative changes occurring
in the coats of the artery, diminishing their elasticity. They are
therefore more frequent in the great branches; in particular, in the
vicinity of the heart, in the arch of the aorta, and in the extremities,
where the arteries are exposed to frequent injuries by stretching, violent
bodily exertions, thrusts, falls, and contusions. An internal aneurism may
burst and cause death.

ANGARA´, a Siberian river which flows into Lake Baikal at its N. extremity,
and leaves it near the S.W. end, joining the Yenisei as the Lower Angara or
Upper Tunguska.

ANGEL (Gr. _angelos_, a messenger), one of those spiritual intelligences
who are regarded as dwelling in Heaven and employed as the ministers or
agents of God. To these the name of good angels is sometimes given, to
distinguish them from bad angels, who were originally created to occupy the
same blissful abode, but lost it by rebellion. The Old Testament represents
them as messengers of the Divine will, and Christ spoke of them more than
once (_St. Matt._ xviii, 10; _St. Luke_, xv, 10). Generally, however,
Scripture speaks of angels with great reserve, Michael and Gabriel alone
being mentioned by name in the canonical books, while Raphael is mentioned
in the Apocrypha. The angels are represented in Scripture as in the most
elevated state of intelligence, purity, and bliss, ever doing the will of
God so perfectly that we can seek for nothing higher or better than to aim
at being like them. There are indications of a diversity of rank and power
among them, and something like angelic orders--Michael, Gabriel, Raphael,
Uriel, &c., seraphim and cherubim. They are represented as frequently
taking part in communications made from heaven to earth, as directly and
actively ministering to the good of believers, and shielding or delivering
them from evils incident to their earthly lot. That every person has a good
and a bad angel attendant on him was an early belief, and is held to some
extent yet. Roman Catholics, since St. Ambrosius, who died in 397, show a
certain veneration or worship to angels, and beg their prayers and their
kind offices. The New Testament, however, formally forbidding such
veneration (_Col._ ii, 18, &c.), Protestants consider this unlawful.

[Illustration: Angel of Queen Elizabeth]

ANGEL, a gold coin introduced into England in the reign of Edward IV, and
coined down to the Commonwealth, so named from having the representation of
the archangel Michael piercing a dragon upon it. It had different values in
different reigns, varying from 6s. 8d. to 10s.

ANGEL-FISH, a fish, _Squat[=i]na ang[)e]lus_, nearly allied to the sharks,
very ugly and voracious, preying on other fish. It is from 6 to 8 feet
long, and takes its name from its pectoral fins, which are very large,
extending horizontally like wings when spread. This fish connects the rays
with the sharks, but it differs from both in having its mouth placed at the
extremity of the head. It is common on the south coasts of Britain, and is
also called _Monk-fish_ and _Fiddle-fish_.

ANGEL´ICA, a genus of umbelliferous plants, one of which, _A. sylvestris_,
a tall plant bearing large umbels of white flowers tinged with pink, is
common in wet places in Britain, and was formerly believed to possess
_angelic_ properties as an antidote to poison, a specific against
witchcraft, &c. The name is also given to an allied plant, the
_Archangelica officin[=a]lis_, found on the banks of rivers and ditches in
the north of Europe, once generally cultivated as an esculent, and still
valued for its medicinal properties. It has a large fleshy aromatic root,
and a strong-furrowed branched stem as high as a man. It is cultivated for
its agreeable aromatic odour and carminative properties. Its blanched
stems, candied with sugar, form a very agreeable sweetmeat, possessing
tonic and stomachic qualities.

ANGELICO ([.a]n-jel´i-k[=o]), FRA, the common appellation of _Fra Giovanni
da Fiesole_, one of the most celebrated of the early Italian painters. Born
1387, he entered the Dominican order in 1407, and was employed by Cosmo de'
Medici in painting the monastery of St. Mark and the church of St.
Annunziata with frescoes. These pictures gained him so much celebrity that
Pope Nicholas V invited him to Rome to ornament his private chapel in the
Vatican, and offered him the archbishopric of Florence, which Angelico
declined. He died at, Rome 1455. He has been called the 'painter of
seraphic dreams'. His works were considered unrivalled in finish and in
sweetness and harmony of colour, and were made the models for religious
painters of his own and succeeding generations.

ANGELN ([.a]ng´eln), a district in Schleswig of about 300 sq. miles,
bounded N. by the Bay of Flensburg, S. by the Schlei, E. by the Baltic, the
only continental territory which has retained the name of the Angles.

ANGELO ([.a]n´je-l[=o]), Michael. See _Buonarotti_.

AN´GELUS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a short form of prayer in honour of
the incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles and responses, the angelic
salutation three times repeated, and a collect, so named from the word with
which it commences, '_Angelus_ Domini' (Angel of the Lord). Hence, also,
the bell tolled in the morning, at noon, and in the evening to indicate the
time when the angelus is to be recited. The prayer is attributed to St.
Bonaventura, and in Germany and Italy it is called 'Ave Maria'.

ÅNGERMANN (ong´er-m[.a]n), a Swedish river which falls into the Gulf of
Bothnia, noted for its fine scenery. It is navigable for nearly 70 miles
for vessels of 600 tons.

ANGERMÜNDE ([.a]ng´er-mün-de), a town in Prussia, on Lake Münde, 42 miles
north-east of Berlin. Pop. 8200.

ANGERS ([.a][n.]-zh[=a]), a town and river-port of France, capital of the
department of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the province of Anjou, on the
banks of the Maine, 5½ miles from the Loire, 150 miles south-west of Paris.
It has an old castle, built by Louis IX, once a place of great strength,
now used as a prison, barrack, and powder-magazine; a fine cathedral of the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with very fine old painted windows; is
the seat of a bishop, and has a school of arts and manufactures; a public
library, an art-gallery, a large modern hospital, the remains of a hospital
founded by Henry II of England in 1155; courts of law, theatre, &c. It
manufactures sail-cloth, hosiery, leather, and chemicals; foundries, &c. In
the neighbourhood are immense slate-quarries. Pop. 83,786.

ANGEVINS (an´je-vins), natives of Anjou, often applied to the race of
English sovereigns called Plantagenets (q.v.). Anjou became connected with
England by the marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, with Geoffrey V,
Count of Anjou. The Angevin kings of England were Henry II, Richard I,
John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II.

ANGILBERT, ST., the most celebrated poet of his age, secretary and friend
of Charlemagne, whose daughter, Bertha, he married. In the latter part of
his life he retired to a monastery, of which he became abbot. Died 814.

ANGINA PECTORIS (an´ji-na pek´to-ris), or HEART-SPASM, a disease
characterized by an extremely acute constriction, felt generally in the
lower part of the sternum, and extending along the whole side of the chest
and into the corresponding arm, a sense of suffocation, faintness, and
apprehension of approaching death: seldom experienced by any but those with
organic heart-disease. The disease rarely occurs before middle age, and is
more frequent in men than in women. Those liable to attack must lead a
quiet, temperate life, avoiding all scenes which would unduly rouse their
emotions. The first attack is occasionally fatal, but usually death occurs
as the result of repeated seizures. The paroxysm may be relieved by
opiates, or the inhalation, under due precaution, of anæsthetic vapours.

ANGIOSPERM (an´ji-o-sp[.e]rm), a term for any plant which has its seeds
enclosed in a seed-vessel. Exogens are divided into those whose seeds are
enclosed in a seed-vessel, and those with seeds produced and ripened
without the production of a seed-vessel. The former are _angiosperms_, and
constitute the principal part of the species; the latter are _gymnosperms_,
and chiefly consist of the Coniferæ and Cycadaceæ.

[Illustration]

ANGLE, the point where two lines meet, or the meeting of two lines in a
point. A _plane rectilineal angle_ is formed by two straight lines which
meet one another, but are not in the same straight line; it may be
considered the degree of opening or divergence of the two straight lines
which thus meet one another. A _right angle_ is an angle formed by a
straight line falling on another perpendicularly, or an angle which is
measured by an arc of 90 degrees. When a straight line, as A B (fig. 1),
standing on another straight line C D, makes the two angles A B C and A B D
equal to one another, each of these angles is called a _right angle_. An
_acute angle_ is that which is less than a right angle, as E B C. An
_obtuse angle_ is that which is greater than a right angle, as E B D. Acute
and obtuse angles are both called _oblique_, in opposition to right angles.
_Exterior_ or _external angles_, the angles of any rectilineal figure
without it, made by producing the sides; thus, if the sides A B, B C, C A
of the triangle A B C (fig. 2) be produced to the points F D E, the angles
C B F, A C D, B A E are called _exterior_ or _external angles_. A _solid
angle_ is that which is made by more than two plane angles meeting in one
point and not lying in the same plane, as the angle of a cube. A _spherical
angle_ is an angle on the surface of a sphere, contained between the arcs
of two great circles which intersect each other.

ANGLER (_Lophius piscatorius_), also from its habits and appearance called
FISHING-FROG and SEA-DEVIL, a remarkable fish often found on the British
coasts. It is from 3 to 5 feet long; the head is very wide, depressed, with
protuberances, and bearing long separate movable tendrils; the mouth is
capacious, and armed with formidable teeth. Its voracity is extreme, and it
is said to lie concealed in the mud, and attract the smaller fishes within
its reach by gently waving the filamentous appendages on its head.

ANGLES, a Low German tribe who in the earliest historical period had their
seats in the district about Angeln, in the duchy of Schleswig, and who in
the fifth century and subsequently crossed over to Britain along with bands
of Saxons and Jutes (and probably Frisians also), and colonized a great
part of what from them has received the name of England, as well as a
portion of the Lowlands of Scotland. The Angles formed the largest body
among the Germanic settlers in Britain, and founded the three kingdoms of
East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.

ANGLESEY (ang´gl-s[=e]), or ANGLESEA ('the Angles' Island'), an island and
county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, separated from the mainland by the
Menai Strait; 20 miles long and 17 miles broad; area, 176,630 acres. The
surface is comparatively flat, and the climate is milder than that of the
adjoining coast. The chief agricultural products are oats and barley,
wheat, rye, potatoes, and turnips. Numbers of cattle and sheep are raised.
Anglesey yields a little copper, lead, silver, ochre, &c. The Menai Strait
is crossed by a magnificent suspension-bridge, 580 feet between the piers
and 100 feet above high-water mark, and also by the great Britannia Tubular
Railway Bridge. The chief market-towns are Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni,
and Amlweh. The county returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921),
51,695.

ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, Marquess of, English soldier and statesman,
was the eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, and was born in 1768.
He was educated at Oxford, and in 1790 entered Parliament as member for the
Carnarvon boroughs. In 1793 he entered the army, and in 1794 he took part
in the campaign in Flanders under the Duke of York. In 1808 he was sent
into Spain with two brigades of cavalry to join Sir John Moore, and in the
retreat to Coruña commanded the rear-guard. In 1812 he became, by his
father's death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon's escape from Elba he was
appointed commander of the British cavalry, and at the battle of Waterloo,
by the charge of the heavy brigade, overthrew the Imperial Guard. For his
services he was created Marquess of Anglesey. In 1828 he became
Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and made himself extremely popular, but was
recalled in consequence of favouring Catholic Emancipation. He was again
Lord-Lieutenant in 1830, but lost his popularity by his opposition to
O'Connell and his instrumentality in the passing of the Irish Coercion
Acts; and he quitted office in 1833. From 1846-52 he was Master-General of
the Ordnance. He died in 1854.

ANGLICANISM, the term is capable of a wider use, but is usually employed as
descriptive of the type of doctrine formulated by the Church of England in
the period of the Protestant Reformation. The two most notable formularies
of that period are the Confession of Faith, known as the Thirty-nine
Articles, which assumed its present shape in 1571, and the Liturgy, known
as the Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1559 in what was substantially its
present shape. By the Clerical Subscription Act of 1865 assent is required
to both Prayer Book and Articles. The Articles are not and never were
binding upon laymen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mgr. Moyes, _Aspects of Anglicanism_;
F. Y. Kinsman, _Principles of Anglicanism_.

ANGLING, the art of catching fish with a hook or _angle_ (A. Sax. _angel_)
baited with worms, small fish, flies, &c. We find occasional allusions to
this pursuit among the Greek and Latin classical writers; it is mentioned
several times in the Old Testament, and it was practised by the ancient
Egyptians. The first reference to angling in England is a passage in a
tract, entitled _Piers Fulham_, supposed to have been written about the
year 1420. The oldest work on the subject in English is the _Treatyse of
Fysshinge with an Angle_, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with a
treatise on hunting and hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana
Berners or Barnes, prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. Walton's
inimitable discourse on angling was first printed in 1653. The chief
appliances required by an angler are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods
are made of various materials, and of various sizes. The cane rods are
lightest, and where fishing-tackle is sold they most commonly have the
preference; but in country places the rod is often of the angler's own
manufacture. Rods are commonly made in separate joints, so as to be easily
taken to pieces and put up again. They are made to taper from the butt end
to the top, and are usually possessed of a considerable amount of
elasticity. In length they may vary from 10 feet to more than double that
length, with a corresponding difference in strength--a rod for salmon being
necessarily much stronger than one suited for ordinary burn trout. The
_reel_, an apparatus for winding up the line, is attached to the rod near
the lower end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. The best are usually
made of brass, are of simple construction, and so made as to wind or unwind
freely and rapidly. That part of the line which passes along the rod and is
wound on the reel is called the _reel line_, and may vary from 20 to 100
yards in length, according to the size of the water and the habits of the
fish angled for; it is usually made of twisted horse-hair and silk, or of
oiled silk alone. The casting line, which is attached to this, is made of
the same materials, but lighter and finer. To the end of this is tied a
piece of fine gut, on which the hook, or hooks, are fixed. The casting or
gut lines should decrease in thickness from the reel line to the hooks. The
hook, of finely-tempered steel, should readily bend without breaking, and
yet retain a sharp point. It should be long in the shank and deep in the
bend; the point straight and true to the level of the shank; and the barb
long. Their sizes and sorts must of course entirely depend on the kind of
fish that is angled for. Floats formed of cork, goose and swan quills, &c.,
are often used to buoy up the hook so that it may float clear of the
bottom. For heavy fish or strong streams a cork float is used; in slow
water and for lighter fish quill floats. _Baits_ may consist of a great
variety of materials, natural or artificial. The principal natural baits
are worms: common garden worms, brandlings, and red worms, maggots, or
gentles (the larvæ of blow-flies such as are found on putrid meat),
insects, small fish (as minnows), salmon roe, &c. The artificial flies so
much used in angling for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, furs, and
wools of every variety, mingled with pieces of feathers, and secured
together by plaited wire, or gold and silver thread, marking-silk, wax, &c.
The wings may be made of the feathers of domestic fowls, or any others of a
showy colour. Some angling authorities recommend that the artificial flies
should be made to resemble as closely as possible the insects on which the
fish is wont to feed, but experience has shown that the most capricious and
unnatural combinations of feather, fur, &c., have been often successful
where the most realistic imitations have failed. Artificial minnows, or
other small fish, are also used by way of bait, and are so contrived as to
spin rapidly when drawn through the water in order to attract the notice of
the fish angled for. Angling, especially with the fly, demands a great deal
of skill and practice, the casting of the line properly being the initial
difficulty. Nowhere is the art pursued with greater success and enthusiasm
than in Britain and the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Fishing_ (vol. i),
_Salmon and Trout_ (vol. ii), _Pike and Coarse Fish_ (Badminton Library);
H. G. Hutchinson, _Fishing_ (2 vols., Country Life series); Viscount Grey,
_Fly Fishing_; Gathorne-Hardy, _The Salmon_; Marquess of Granby, _The
Trout_; H. T. Sheringham, _Elements of Angling_; W. M. Gallichan, _The
Complete Fisherman_.

ANGLO-CATHOLIC, a term sometimes used to designate those churches which
hold the principles of the English Reformation, the Anglican or Established
Church of England and the allied churches. The term is also applied to that
party in the English Church which favours doctrines and religious forms
closely approaching those of the Roman Catholic Church, objects to be
called Protestant, and corresponds closely with the _Ritualistic_ section
of the Church.

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. See _Sudan_.

[Illustration: Saxon Architecture. Doorway, Earl's Barton, Northampton]

ANGLO-SAXONS, the name commonly given to the nation or people formed by the
amalgamation of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain in
the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ, the Anglo-Saxons being simply
the English people of the earlier period of English history. The tribes who
were thus the ancestors of the bulk of the English-speaking nationalities
came from North Germany, where they inhabited the parts about the mouths of
the Elbe and Weser, and the first body of them who gained a footing in
Britain are said to have landed in 449, and to have been led by Hengist and
Horsa. From the preponderance of the Angles the whole country came to be
called _Engla-land_, that is, the land of the Angles or English.

Many scholars object to the term 'Anglo-Saxon' as being inaccurate and open
to misinterpretation. Correctly used, Anglo-Saxon means _English-Saxon_, as
distinguished from the Old-Saxon of the Continent; incorrectly used, as it
has been too frequently, it is taken as = Angle + Saxon, a union of Angle
and Saxon. Camden (1551-1623) is responsible for the widespread use of the
term; ignorance is responsible for the misuse. Many scholars prefer to
apply the term 'Old English' to the language and people of England before
A.D. 1100, partly because this term is more accurate and partly because its
use helps to emphasize the essential continuity of the language.

The whole Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken of as consisting of
the _eorls_ and the _ceorls_, or the nobles and common freemen. The former
were the men of property and position, the latter were the small
landholders, handicraftsmen, &c., who generally placed themselves under the
protection of some nobleman, who was hence termed their _hláford_ or lord.
Besides these there was the class of the serfs or slaves (_theówas_), who
might be either born slaves or freemen who had forfeited their liberty by
their crimes, or whom poverty or the fortune of war had brought into this
position. They served as agricultural labourers on their masters' estates,
and were mere chattels, as absolutely the property of their master as his
cattle.

The king (_cyning_, _cyng_) was at the head of the State; he was the
highest of the nobles and the chief magistrate. He was not looked upon as
ruling by any Divine Right, but by the will of the people, as represented
by the _witan_ (wise men) or great council of the nation. The new king was
not always the direct and nearest heir of the late king, but one of the
royal family whose abilities and character recommended him for the office.
He had the right of maintaining a standing army of household troops, the
duty of calling together the _witan_, and of laying before them public
measures, with certain distinctions of dress, dwelling, &c., all his
privileges being possessed and exercised by the advice and consent of the
_witena-gemót_ or parliament (literally, 'meeting of the wise'). Next in
rank and dignity to the king were the _ealdormen_, who were the chief witan
or counsellors, and without whose assent laws could not be made, altered,
or abrogated. They were at the head of the administration of justice in the
shires, possessing both judicial and executive authority, and had as their
officers the _scír-geréfan_ or sheriffs. The ealdormen led the _fyrd_ or
armed force of the county, and the ealdorman, as such, held possession of
certain lands attached to the office, and was entitled to a share of fines
and other moneys levied for the king's use and passing through his hands.
The whole executive government may be considered as a great aristocratical
association, of which the ealdormen were the members, and the king little
more than the president. The ealdorman and the king were both surrounded by
a number of followers called _thegnas_ or thanes, who were bound by close
ties to their superior. The king's thanes were the higher in rank; they
possessed a certain quantity of land, smaller in amount than that of an
ealdorman, and they filled offices connected with the personal service of
the king or with the administration of justice. The _scir-geréfa_
(shire-reeve or sheriff) was also an important functionary. He presided at
the county court along with the ealdorman and bishop, or alone in their
absence; and he had to carry out the decisions of the court, levy fines,
collect taxes, &c. The shires were divided into hundreds and tithings, the
latter consisting of ten heads of families, who were jointly responsible to
the State for the good conduct of any member of their body. For the trial
and settlement of minor causes there was a hundred court held once a month.
The place of the modern Parliament was held by the _witena-gemót_. Its
members, who were not elected, comprised the æthelings or princes of the
blood royal, the bishops and abbots, the ealdormen, the thanes, the
sheriffs, &c.

One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon society was the _wergyld_,
which was established for the settling of feuds. A sum, paid either in kind
or in money, was placed upon the life of every freeman, according to his
rank in the State, his birth, or his office. A corresponding sum was
settled for every wound that could be inflicted upon his person; for nearly
every injury that could be done to his civil rights, his honour, or his
domestic peace, &c. From the operation of this principle no one from king
to peasant was exempt.

[Illustration: Ploughing
From an Anglo-Saxon Calendar in the British Museum.]

Agriculture, including especially the raising of cattle, sheep, and swine,
was the chief occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Gardens and orchards are
frequently mentioned, and vineyards were common in the southern counties.
The forests were extensive, and valuable both from the mast they produced
for the swine, and from the beasts of the chase which they harboured.
Hunting was a favourite recreation among the higher ranks, both lay and
clerical. Fishing was largely carried on, herrings and salmon being the
principal fish caught; and the Anglo-Saxon whaling vessels used to go as
far as Iceland. The manufactures were naturally of small moment. Iron was
made to some extent, and some cloth, and saltworks were numerous. In
embroidery and working of gold the English were famous over Europe. There
was a considerable trade at London, which was frequented by Normans,
French, Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse towns. Our Anglo-Saxon
forefathers were notorious for their excess in eating and drinking, and in
this respect formed a strong contrast to their Norman conquerors. Ale,
mead, and cider were the common beverages, wine being limited to the higher
classes. Pork and eels were favourite articles of food. The houses were
rude structures, but were often richly furnished and hung with fine
tapestry. The dress of the people was loose and flowing, composed chiefly
of linen, and often adorned with embroidery. The men wore their hair long
and flowing over their shoulders. Christianity was introduced among the
Anglo-Saxons in the end of the sixth century by St. Augustine, who was sent
by Pope Gregory the Great, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.
Kent, then under King Ethelred, was the first place where it took root, and
thence it soon spread over the rest of the country. The Anglo-Saxon Church
long remained independent of Rome, notwithstanding the continual efforts of
the Popes to bring it under their power. It was not till the tenth century
that this result was brought about by Dunstan. Many Anglo-Saxon
ecclesiastics were distinguished for learning and ability, but the
Venerable Bede holds the first place.

_Anglo-Saxon Language._--The Anglo-Saxon language, which is simply the
earliest form of English, claims kinship with Dutch, Icelandic, Danish,
Swedish, and German, especially with the Low German dialects (spoken in
North Germany). It was called by those who spoke it _Englisc_ (English).
The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature show different dialects, of
which the northern and the southern were the principal. The former was the
first to be cultivated as a literary language, but afterwards it was
supplanted in this respect by the southern or that of Wessex. It is in the
latter that the principal Anglo-Saxon works are written. The Anglo-Saxon
alphabet was substantially the same as that which we still use, except that
some of the letters were different in form, while it had two characters
either of which represented the sounds of _th_ in _thy_ and in _thing_.
Nouns and adjectives are declined much as in German or in Latin. The
pronouns of the first and second person had a dual number, 'we two' or 'us
two' and 'you two', besides the plural for more than two. The infinitive of
the verb is in _-an_, the participle in _-ende_, and there is a gerund
somewhat similar in its usage to the Latin gerund. The verb had four
moods--indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, but only two
tenses, the present (often used as a future) and the past. Other tenses and
the passive voice were formed by auxiliary verbs. Anglo-Saxon words
terminated in a vowel much more frequently than the modern English, and
altogether the language is so different that it has to be learned quite
like a foreign tongue. Yet, notwithstanding the large number of words of
Latin or French origin that our language now contains, and the changes it
has undergone, its framework, so to speak, is still Anglo-Saxon. Many
chapters of the New Testament do not contain more than 4 per cent of
non-Teutonic words, and as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7.

The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in
prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period,
one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to
England. The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is the ancient epic of
_Beowulf_, extending to more than 6000 lines. Beowulf is a Scandinavian
prince, who slays a monster named Grendel, after encountering supernatural
perils, and is at last slain in a contest with a frightful dragon. Its
scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia. Its date is uncertain;
parts of it may have been brought over at the emigration from Germany,
though in its present form it is much later than this. The poetical remains
include a number of religious poems, or poems on sacred themes;
ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of saints and versified chronicles;
psalms and hymns; secular lyrics; allegories, gnomic poems, riddles, &c.
The religious class of poems was the largest, and of these Cædmon's
(flourished about 660) are the most remarkable. His poems consist of
paraphrases of considerable portions of the Bible history, and treat of the
creation, the temptation, the fall, the exodus of the Israelites, the story
of Daniel, the incarnation, and the harrowing of hell, or release of the
ransomed souls by Christ. Other most interesting poems are those ascribed
to Cynewulf, the _Christ_, _Elene_, and _Juliana_, the subjects
respectively being Christ, the finding of the cross by the Empress Helena,
and the life of Juliana. Rhyme was not used in Anglo-Saxon poetry,
alliteration being employed instead, as in the older northern poetry
generally. The style of the poetry is highly elliptical, and it is full of
harsh inversions and obscure metaphors.

[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Brooch

Ornament on front (left) is formed by means of plates of thin gold and
wire, with bosses of ivory and red glass.]

The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of translations of portions of the
Bible, homilies, philosophical writings, history, biography, laws, leases,
charters, popular treatises on science and medicine, grammars, &c. Many of
these were translations from the Latin. The Anglo-Saxon versions of the
Gospels, next to the Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest scriptural translations
in any modern language. The Psalms are said to have been translated by
Bishop Aldhelm (died 709), and also under Alfred's direction; and the
_Gospel of St. John_ by Bede; but it is not known who were the authors of
the extant versions. A translation of the first seven books of the Bible is
believed to have been the work of Ælfric, who was Abbot of Ensham and lived
about the beginning of the eleventh century. We have also eighty homilies
from his pen, several theological treatises, a Latin grammar, &c. King
Alfred was a diligent author, besides being a translator of Latin works. We
have under his name translations of Boethius' _De Consolatione
Philosophiæ_, the _Universal History_ of Orosius, Bede's _Ecclesiastical
History_, the _Pastoral Care_ of Gregory the Great, &c. The most valuable
to us of the Anglo-Saxon prose writings is the _Saxon Chronicle_, as it is
called, a collection of annals recording important events in the history of
the country, and compiled in different religious houses. Of this
_Chronicle_ there are seven MSS. in existence, and the latest text comes
down to 1154. A considerable body of laws remains, as well as a large
number of charters. The whole of the literature has never yet been printed.
For Anglo-Saxon history, see _England_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: (History) H. M.
Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge); (Language) Sweet,
_Anglo-Saxon Primer_ and _Reader_; (Literature) B. ten Brink, _Geschichte
der Englischen Litteratur_; Stopford A. Brooke, _English Literature, from
the beginning to the Norman Conquest_; Henry Morley, _English Writers_
(vols. i and ii).

ANGLO-SAXON LAW. Series of laws written in the vernacular, and unique among
Teutonic peoples, were issued from the seventh century onwards by
Æthelberht, Hlothhere, Eadric, and Withraed, Kings of Kent, by Ine, King of
Wessex, by Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund, Edgar, Æthelred,
and Canute, in addition to a number of important by-laws and regulations of
various kinds, which bear no king's name. We hear, also, of laws issued by
other kings which have been lost, and there must have been a considerable
body of traditional law which was never committed to writing. What laws are
extant, show us a society mainly agricultural, divided by birth into a
noble, a free peasant, and a servile class. There was also a dependent
class in Kent, intermediate between the freeman and the slave. The
strongest social ties were those of the kindred, and the relationship
between lord and man.

The laws were issued by the king and his councillors. Cases were decided by
the production of oaths which varied in value according to the rank of the
swearer, or by the several forms of the ordeal. No distinction was made
between civil and criminal law, and even homicide could be atoned for by
payment of a sum varying according to the social status of the dead man.
The object of the laws was to restrict private vengeance, to prevent and
punish theft (primarily of cattle), to stop dishonest trading, to secure
the persons and residences of the people, to enforce the mutual obligations
of relatives, and masters and men, to provide adequate defence for the
kingdom by means of garrisoned boroughs and a well-armed mounted infantry,
to protect the helpless, and to safeguard the rights of the Church and its
servants.

The early laws present considerable difficulty owing to their antiquity.
The laws of Æthelberht are the earliest records in the English language,
though, like many of the other laws, they are only preserved in a MS. of
the twelfth century. The standard edition is Liebermann's _Gesetze der
Angelsachsen_ (Halle, A. S. Max Niemeyer).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pollock and
Maitland, _History of English Law_; H. M. Chadwick, _Studies in Anglo-Saxon
Institutions_.

ANGO´LA, a Portuguese territory in Western Africa, south of the Congo,
extending from the sea to Rhodesia, and from about lat. 6° S. to lat. 17°
S. (area, 484,800 sq. miles; pop. 4,119,000). It is a country of varied
features, and its resources, as yet hardly known, are probably very great.
The province is rich in malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, and salt;
rubber supplies are becoming exhausted. The Coanza (Kwanza) is the largest
river. The capital is the seaport of Loanda; other ports are Benguella (or
Benguela) and Mossamedes. Three railways now run inland from these places.
It exports coffee, hides, gum, rubber, wax, &c.

ANGOLA PEA (_Caj[=a]nus indicus_). See _Pigeon Pea_.

ANGO´NILAND, a district of South Africa, lying to the west of the southern
half of Lake Nyassa, and partly in British Central Africa, partly in
Rhodesia. It is a plateau with an average height of 4000 feet, the name
being derived from the Angoni, a race of mixed Zulu blood, who used to make
murderous raids on their neighbours, and have given much trouble to the
missionaries and others.

ANGO´RA (ancient, ANCY´RA), a town in Asia Minor, 215 miles E.S.E. of
Constantinople, with considerable remains of Byzantine architecture, and
relics of earlier times, both Greek and Roman, such as the remnants of the
Monumentum Ancyranum, raised in honour of the Emperor Augustus, and giving
us much valuable information about his public life and work. All the
animals of this region are long haired, especially the goats (see _Goat_),
sheep, and cats. This hair forms an important export as well as the fabric
called camlet here manufactured from it; other exports being goats' skins,
dye-stuffs, gums, honey and wax, &c. A railway connects it with Skutari.
Pop. 32,000. In 1920 Kemal Pasha set up a National Government at Angora,
and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sèvres. A treaty concluded with
France was ratified by the Angora Government on 23rd Oct., 1921.

ANGOSTU´RA, or CIUDAD BOLIVAR, a city of Venezuela, capital of the province
of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, about 240 miles from the sea, with governor's
residence, a college, a handsome cathedral, and a considerable trade,
steamers and sailing-vessels ascending to the town. Exports: gold, cotton,
indigo, tobacco, coffee, cattle, &c.; imports: manufactured goods, wines,
flour, &c. Pop. 17,535.

ANGOSTURA BARK, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly from
_Galip[=e]a officin[=a]lis_, a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, growing in the
northern regions of South America; nat. ord. Rutaceæ. The bark is valuable
as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used for a kind of bitters. From this
bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes entirely replaced, by the
poisonous bark of _Strychnos Nux-Vomica_, its use as a medicine has been
almost given up.

ANGOULÊME ([.a][n.]-gö-l[=a]m), an ancient town of Western France, capital
of department Charente, on the Charente, 60 miles N.N.E. of Bordeaux, on
the summit of a rocky hill. It has a fine old cathedral, built in the
twelfth century and restored in 1875, a beautiful modern town hall, built
in 1858, a lyceum, public library, natural history museum, &c. There are
manufactures of paper, woollens, and linens; distilleries, sugar-works,
tanneries, &c. Calvin lived here for three years (1527-30). Pop. 38,211.

ANGRA DO HEROISMO, the chief seaport of Terceira, one of the Azores, with
the only convenient harbour in the whole group. It has a cathedral, a
military college and arsenal, &c., and is the residence of the
Governor-General of the Azores, and of the foreign consuls. Pop. 10,057.

ANGRA PEQUENA ([.a]n´gr[.a] pe-k[=a]´n[.a]; Port. 'little bay'), a bay on
the coast of former German S.W. Africa, where the Bremen commercial firm
Lüderitz in 1883 acquired a strip of territory and established a trading
station. In 1884, notwithstanding some weak protests of the British,
Germany took under her protection the whole coast territory from the Orange
River to 26° S. lat., and soon after extended the protectorate to the
Portuguese frontier, but not including the British settlement of Walvis
Bay. Angra Pequena, called by the Germans Lüderitzbucht, was captured by
the South African forces in Sept., 1915. See _South-West Africa_.

ANGRI ([.a]n´gr[=e]), a town of Southern Italy, 12 miles N.W. of Salerno,
in the centre of a region which produces grapes, cotton, and tobacco in
great quantities. In the vicinity of Angri, Teias, King of the Ostrogoths,
was defeated by Narses. Pop. 11,574.

ANGUILLA (an-gwil´la). See _Eel_.

ANGUILLA (ang-gil´a), or SNAKE ISLAND, one of the British West India
Islands, 60 miles N.E. of St. Kitts; about 20 miles long, with a breadth
varying from 3 to 1¼ miles; area, 35 sq. miles. A little sugar, cotton,
tobacco, and maize is grown. There is a saline lake in the centre, which
yields salt. Pop. 4075, of whom 100 are white.

ANGUIS (ang´gwis). See _Blind-worm_.

ANGUS (ang´gus), a name of Forfarshire.

AN´HALT, formerly a duchy of North Germany, lying partly in the plains of
the Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys and uplands of the Lower Harz,
and almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; area, 888 sq. miles. All sorts
of grain, wheat especially, are grown in abundance; also flax, rape,
potatoes, tobacco, hops, and fruit. Excellent cattle are bred. The
inhabitants are principally occupied in agriculture, though there are some
iron-works and manufactures of woollens, linens, beet-sugar, tobacco, &c.
The dukes of Anhalt traced their origin to Bernard (1170-1212), son of
Albert the Bear. In time the family split up into numerous branches, and
the territory was afterwards held by three dukes (Anhalt-Köthen,
Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau). In 1863 the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau
became sole heir to the three duchies. The united principality,
incorporated in the German Empire, had one vote in the Bundesrath and two
in the Reichstag. The executive power, previous to the changes resulting
from the European War, was vested in the duke, and the legislative in a
Diet of thirty-six members. The reigning duke in 1918 was Eduard, who
succeeded his brother on 21st April, 1918. With the outbreak of the
revolution in Germany in 1918 Anhalt became a republic, but its status in
the German Republic still remains to be determined. Pop. (1919), 331,258,
almost all Protestants. The chief towns are Dessau, Bernburg, Köthen, and
Zerbst.

AN´HOLT, an island belonging to Denmark, in the Cattegat, midway between
Jutland and Sweden, 7 miles long, 4½ broad, largely covered with
drift-sand, and surrounded by dangerous banks and reefs. Pop. 300.

ANHY´DRIDE, a chemical term synonymous with acidic oxide (see _Chemistry_)
and applied to those oxides which unite with water to form acids. They were
formerly called _anhydrous acids_.

ANHY´DRITE, anhydrous sulphate of calcium, a mineral presenting several
varieties of structure and colour. The _vulpinite_ of Italy possesses a
granular structure, resembling a coarse-grained marble, and is used in
sculpture. Its colour is greyish-white, intermingled with blue.

ANI (ä´n[=e]), a ruined city in Armenia, formerly the residence of the
Armenian dynasty of the Bagratidæ, having in the eleventh century a
population of 100,000 and 1000 churches. In the thirteenth century it was
taken by the Tartars, and was destroyed by an earthquake in 1319.

ANICHE ([.a]-n[=e]sh), a town or village in the French department Nord,
arrondissement Douai, with coal-mines, glass-works, chemical-works, &c.
Pop. 6927.

ANIENE ([.a]-n[=e]-[=a]´n[=a]). See _Anio_.

AN´ILINE, C_6H_5NH_2, is an extremely important substance as it forms the
starting-point in the preparation of a large number of substances. It was
first prepared by Unverdorben, in 1826, by distillation of indigo. Aniline
is present in small quantity in coal-tar, and is prepared commercially from
benzene by transforming it by means of nitric acid into nitro-benzene and
reducing this with scrap-iron and hydrochloric acid. The substance can also
be prepared by reducing nitro-benzene electrolytically. It is a liquid of
peculiar odour, boiling at 182° C., colourless when quite pure, but rapidly
darkening in colour on standing, so that commercial aniline is usually
dark-brown. It is a basic substance, and forms crystalline salts with
acids. The salts, like aniline itself, become coloured on exposure to air.
Aniline contains the characteristic chemical group NH_2, the amino group,
and substances containing this group react with nitrous acid at 0° C.,
forming diazonium compounds; these combine readily with phenols, naphthols,
and other amino compounds to form azo compounds, highly-coloured compounds
many of which are dyes. Many dyes are prepared from aniline, e.g.
rosaniline, magenta, methylene blue, aniline blue, &c., also some
explosives, e.g. tetranitraniline, which is a powerful explosive prepared
by nitrating aniline and the substance tetranitromethylaniline, "tetryl",
used in detonators. Several medicinal substances are also prepared from
aniline, for instance, antifebrin and atoxyl.

AN´ILISM, aniline poisoning, a name given to the aggregate of symptoms
which often show themselves in those employed in aniline works, resulting
from the inhalation of aniline vapours. It may be either acute or chronic.
In a slight attack of the former kind, the lips, cheeks, and ears become of
a bluish colour, and the person's walk may be unsteady; in severe cases
there is loss of consciousness. Chronic anilism is accompanied by
derangement of the digestive organs and of the nervous system, headaches,
eruptions on the skin, muscular weakness, &c.

ANIMAL, an organized and sentient living being. Life in the earlier periods
of natural history was attributed almost exclusively to animals. With the
progress of science, however, it was extended to plants. In the case of the
higher animals and plants there is no difficulty in assigning the
individual to one of the two great kingdoms of organic nature, but in their
lowest manifestations the vegetable and animal kingdoms are brought into
such immediate contact that it becomes almost impossible to assign them
precise limits, and to say with certainty where the one begins and the
other ends. From _form_ no absolute distinction can be fixed between
animals and plants. Many animals, such as the sea-shrubs, sea-mats, &c., so
resemble plants in external appearance that they were, and even yet
popularly are, looked upon as such. With regard to _internal structure_ no
line of demarcation can be laid down, all plants and animals being, in this
respect, fundamentally similar; that is, alike composed of molecular,
cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither are the chemical characters of
animal and vegetable substances more distinct. Animals contain in their
tissues and fluids a larger proportion of nitrogen than plants, whilst
plants are richer in carbonaceous compounds than the former. In some
animals, moreover, substances almost exclusively confined to plants are
found. Thus the outer wall of the Sea-squirts contains _cellulose_, a
substance largely found in plant-tissues; whilst _chlorophyll_, the
colouring-matter of plants, occurs in Hydra and many other lower animals.
_Power of motion_, again, though broadly distinctive of animals, cannot be
said to be absolutely characteristic of them. Thus many animals, as
oysters, sponges, corals, &c., in their mature condition are rooted or
fixed, while the embryos of many plants, together with numerous
fully-developed forms, are endowed with locomotive power by means of
vibratile, hair-like processes called cilia. The distinctive points between
animals and plants which are most to be relied on are those derived from
the _nature and mode of assimilation of the food_. Plants feed on
_inorganic matters_, consisting of water, ammonia, carbonic acid, and
mineral matters. They can only take in food which is presented to them in a
_liquid_ or _gaseous_ state. The exceptions to these rules are found
chiefly in the case of plants which live _parasitically_ on other plants or
animals, in which cases the plant may be said to feed on organic matters,
represented by the juices of their hosts. Animals, on the contrary, require
_organized_ matters for food. They feed either upon plants or upon other
animals. But even carnivorous animals can be shown to be dependent upon
plants for subsistence; since the animals upon which Carnivora prey are in
their turn supported by plants. Animals, further, can subsist on _solid_
food in addition to liquids and gases; but many animals (such as the
Tapeworms) live by the mere imbibition of fluids which are absorbed by
their tissues, such forms possessing no distinct digestive system. Animals
require a due supply of _oxygen gas_ for their sustenance, this gas being
used in respiration. Plants, on the contrary, require _carbonic acid_. The
animal exhales or gives out carbonic acid as the part result of its
tissue-waste, whilst the plant, taking in this gas, is enabled to decompose
it into its constituent carbon and oxygen. The plant retains the former for
the uses of its economy, and liberates the oxygen, which is thus restored
to the atmosphere for the use of the animal. Animals receive their food
into the interior of their bodies, and assimilation takes place in their
internal surfaces. Plants, on the other hand, receive their food into their
external surfaces, and assimilation is effected in the external parts, as
is exemplified in the leaf-surfaces under the influence of sunlight. Cf.
T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, _Text-Book of Zoology_; _Cambridge Natural
History_.

ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. See _Chemistry_.

ANIMALCULE (an-i-mal´k[=u]l), a general name given to many forms of animal
life from their minute size. The larger examples are just visible to the
naked eye, but most of them are strictly microscopic. Some are pigmented,
but the majority are colourless. The term is not applicable to a particular
zoological type, but it is customary to confine it to the 'Protozoa',
'Rotifera', or 'Wheel Animalcules'.

ANIMAL HEAT. All animals possess a certain amount of heat or temperature
which is necessary for the performance of vital action. The only classes of
animals in which a constantly-elevated temperature is kept up are birds and
mammals. The bodily heat of the former varies from 39.4° to 43.9° C., and
of the latter from 35.5° to 40.5° C. The mean or average heat of the human
body is about 99° F., and it never falls much below this in health. Below
birds, animals are named 'cold-blooded', this term meaning in its
strictly-physiological sense that their temperature is usually that of the
medium in which they live, and that it varies with that of the surrounding
medium. The temperature of 'warm-blooded' animals is remarkably constant,
although there are individual variations. In man this variation is slight,
amounting only to fractions of a degree. The cause of the evolution of heat
in the animal body is referred to the union (by a process resembling
ordinary combustion) of the carbon and hydrogen of the system with the
oxygen taken in from the air in the process of respiration.

ANIMAL MAGNETISM. See _Hypnotism_, _Mesmer_.

ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO, an offence against which societies have been formed
and laws passed in England and other countries. According to English law,
if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, overdrive, abuse, or torture
any domestic animal, he shall forfeit a sum not exceeding £5 for every such
offence. Bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the like are also prohibited.
Provision is also made for the punishment of persons unlawfully and
maliciously killing, maiming, or wounding cattle, dogs, birds, beasts, and
other animals.

ANIMAL WORSHIP, a practice found to prevail, or to have prevailed, in the
most widely-distant parts of the world, both the Old and the New, but
nowhere to such an amazing extent as in ancient Egypt, notwithstanding its
high civilization. Nearly all the more important animals found in the
country were regarded as sacred in some part of Egypt, and the degree of
reverence paid to them was such that throughout Egypt the killing of a hawk
or an ibis, whether voluntary or not, was punished with death. The worship,
however, was not, except in a few instances, paid to them as actual
deities. The animals were merely regarded as sacred to the deities, and the
worship paid to them was symbolical.

AN´IMA MUN´DI. See _Pantheism_.

ANIMÉ (an´i-me), a resin obtained from the trunk of an American tree
(_Hymenæa Courbaril_). It is of a transparent amber colour, has a light,
agreeable smell, and is soluble in alcohol. It strongly resembles copal,
and, like it, is used in making varnishes. See _Copal_.

AN´IMISM, the system of medicine propounded by Stahl, and based on the idea
that the soul (_anima_) is the seat of life. In modern usage the term is
applied to express the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual
beings, and especially to the tendency, common among savage races, to
attribute souls or spirits to inanimate things, and to explain phenomena
not due to obvious natural causes by attributing them to spiritual agency.
Amongst the beliefs of animism is that of a human apparitional soul,
bearing the form and appearance of the body, and living after death a sort
of semi-human life.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_;
Andrew Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_.

ANIO (now ANI[=E]NE or TEVER[=O]NE), a river in Italy, a tributary of the
Tiber, which it enters from the east a short distance above Rome, renowned
for the natural beauties of the valley through which it flows, and for the
remains of ancient buildings there situated, as the villas of Mæcenas and
the Emperor Hadrian.

ANISE (an´is; _Pimpinella An[=i]sum_), an annual plant of the nat. ord.
Umbelliferæ, a native of Eastern Asia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean coasts,
and cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, Malta, &c., whence the fruit,
popularly called _aniseed_, is imported. This fruit is ovate, with ten
narrow ribs, between which are oil-vessels. It has an aromatic smell, and
is largely employed to flavour liqueurs (aniseed or anisette), sweetmeats,
&c. _Star-anise_ is the fruit of an evergreen Asiatic tree (_Illicium
anis[=a]tum_), nat. ord. Magnoliaceæ, and is brought chiefly from China.
Its flavour is similar to that of anise, and it is used for the same
purposes. An essential oil is obtained from both kinds of anise, and is
used for scenting soaps and in the preparation of cordials.

ANJOU ([.a][n.]-zhö), an ancient province of France, now forming the
department of Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the departments of
Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe; area, about 3000 sq. miles. In 1060
the province passed into the hands of the House of Gatinais, of which
sprang Count Godfrey V, who, in 1127, married Matilda, daughter of Henry I
of England, and so became the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings. Anjou
remained in the possession of the English kings up to 1204, when John lost
it to the French king Philip Augustus. In 1226 Louis VIII bestowed this
province on his brother Charles; but in 1328 it was reunited to the French
Crown. John I raised it to the rank of a duchy, and gave it to his son
Louis. Henceforth it remained separate from the French Crown till 1480,
when it fell to Louis XI.

ANKARSTRÖM ([.a]n´k[.a]r-streum), Jan Jakob, the murderer of Gustavus III
of Sweden, was born about 1762, and was at first a page in the Swedish
Court, afterwards an officer in the royal bodyguard. He was a strenuous
opponent of the sovereign's measures to restrict the privileges of the
nobility, and joined Counts Horn and Ribbing in a plot to assassinate
Gustavus. The assassination took place on 15th March, 1792. Ankarström was
tried, tortured, and executed in April, dying boasting of his deed.

ANKER, an obsolete measure used in Britain for spirits, beer, &c.,
containing 8½ imperial gallons. A measure of similar capacity was used in
Germany and elsewhere in Europe.

AN´KLAM, a town in Prussia, province of Pomerania, 47 miles north-west of
Stettin, on the River Peene, which is here navigable. Shipbuilding, woollen
and cotton manufactures, soap-boiling, tanning, &c., are carried on. Pop.
15,280.

ANKO´BAR, or ANKO´BER, a town in Abyssinia, former capital of Shoa, on a
steep conical hill 8200 feet high. Pop. 2000.

ANKYLO´SIS, or ANCHYLO´SIS, stiffness of the joints caused by a more or
less complete coalescence of the bones through ossification, often the
result of inflammation or injury. False ankylosis is stiffness of a joint
when the disease is not in the joint itself, but in the tendinous and
muscular parts by which it is surrounded.

ANKYLOSTOMI´ASIS, a 'worm disease' to which miners are subject in some
localities, is caused by vast numbers of small parasitic worms
(_Ankylostoma_ or _Anchylostoma duodenale_) in the duodenum or upper
portions of the intestinal canal. Deriving their sustenance from the
system, these worms produce anæmia or bloodlessness (that is, deficiency of
the red corpuscles of the blood), the sufferers being pallid, feeble,
short-breathed, liable to faint, and unequal to any laborious work, and
death may result if a cure is not effected. Fortunately the disease is not
difficult to cure if the remedies are applied--remedies such as will expel
the worms from the intestine. The disease is said to be common in tropical
and sub-tropical countries all over the world. In Europe it was perhaps
first observed in 1879 in the case of workmen engaged in excavating the St.
Gothard tunnel. Since 1896 it has been well known in some of the German
mines; and in 1903 it was detected among the miners engaged in the Dolcoath
mine in Cornwall. The eggs of the worms are carried from the body with the
fæces; under favourable circumstances they develop into larvæ, which may
gain entrance again into the human body by the mouth (perhaps in
drinking-water), to attain full development in the intestine. Careful
sanitary arrangements are a preventive of the disease, which is also known
as 'miner's worm', 'miner's anæmia', &c.

ANN, or ANNAT, in Scottish law, the half-year's stipend of a living, after
the death of the clergyman, payable to his family or next of kin. The right
to the ann is not vested in the clergyman himself, but in his
representatives; and, accordingly, it can neither be disposed of by him nor
attached for his debts.

ANNA, an Anglo-Indian money of account, the sixteenth part of a rupee, and
of the value of one penny; it is divided into four pice.

AN´NABERG, a town in Saxony, 47 miles south-west of Dresden. Mining (for
silver, cobalt, iron, &c.) is carried on, and there are manufactures of
lace, ribbons, fringes, buttons, &c. Pop. 17,025.

ANNA COMNE´NA, daughter of Alexius I, Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. She was
born 1083, and died 1148. After her father's death she endeavoured to
secure the succession for her husband, Nicephorus Briennius, but was
baffled by his want of energy and ambition. She wrote (in Greek) a life of
her father Alexius (_The Alexiad_, a work in fifteen books). She is a
character in Sir Walter Scott's _Count Robert of Paris_.

ANNA IVANOV´NA, Empress of Russia, born in 1693, the daughter of Ivan, the
elder half-brother of Peter the Great. She was married in 1710 to the Duke
of Courland, in the following year was left a widow, and in 1730 ascended
the throne of the tsars on the condition proposed by the senate, that she
would limit the absolute power of the tsars, and do nothing without the
advice of the council composed of the leading members of the Russian
aristocracy. But no sooner had she ascended the throne than she declared
her promise null, and proclaimed herself autocrat of all the Russias. She
chose as her favourite Ernest John von Biren or Biron, who was soon
all-powerful in Russia, and ruled with great severity. Several of the
leading nobles were executed, and many thousand men exiled to Siberia. In
1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose Biren as their duke, and
nominated him at her death regent of the empire during the minority of
Prince Ivan (of Brunswick). Anna died in 1740. See _Biren_.

AN´NALS, a history of events in chronological order, each event being
recorded under the year in which it occurred. The name is derived from the
first annual records of the Romans, which were called _ann[=a]les
pontificum_ or _ann[=a]les max[)i]mi_, drawn up by the _pontifex maximus_
(chief pontiff). The practice of keeping such annals was afterwards adopted
also by various private individuals, as by Fabius Pictor, Calpurnius Piso,
and others. The name hence came to be applied in later times to historical
works in which the matter was treated with special reference to
chronological arrangement, as to the _Annals_ of Tacitus.

ANNAM´, a country of Asia occupying the east side of the South-eastern or
Indo-Chinese Peninsula, along the China Sea. It comprises Tonquin in the
north, Annam (in a narrower sense), and Cochin-China farther south; with
the inland territory of the Laos tribes: together, area, 170,000 sq. miles;
pop. 15,000,000, 9,000,000 being in Tonquin. In the narrow sense Annam now
denotes the country between Tonquin and French Cochin-China, under the
nominal rule of a native king (the present ruler, Khai-Dinh, succeeded to
the throne in 1916). Annam has an area of 52,100 sq. miles. Pop. (1919),
5,952,000, including 2117 Europeans. The coast is considerably indented,
especially at the mouths of the rivers, where it affords many commodious
harbours. Tonquin is mountainous on the north, but in the east is nearly
level, terminating towards the sea in an alluvial plain yielding good crops
of rice, cotton, fruits, ginger, and spices, and a great variety of varnish
trees, palms, &c. The principal river is the Song-ka, which has numerous
tributaries, many of them being joined together by canals, both for
irrigation and commerce. Tonquin is rich in gold, silver, copper, and iron.
Annam (in the narrow sense) is, generally speaking, unproductive, but
contains many fertile spots, in which grain, leguminous plants, sugar-cane,
cinnamon, &c., are produced in great abundance. Agriculture is the chief
occupation, but many of the inhabitants are engaged in the spinning and
weaving of cotton and silk into coarse fabrics, the preparation of varnish,
iron-smelting, and the construction of ships or junks. The inhabitants are
said to be the ugliest of the Mongoloid races of the peninsula, being under
the middle size and less robust than the surrounding peoples. Their
language is monosyllabic, and is connected with the Chinese. The religion
of the majority is Buddhism, but the educated classes hold the doctrines of
Confucius. The principal towns are Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, and Huë,
the capital of the kingdom and formerly of the whole empire. Annam was
conquered by the Chinese in 214 B.C., but in A.D. 1428 it completely won
its independence. The French began to interfere actively in its affairs in
1847 on the plea of protecting the native Christians. By the treaties of
1862 and 1867 they obtained the southern and most productive part of
Cochin-China, subsequently known as French Cochin-China; and in 1874 they
obtained large powers over Tonquin, notwithstanding the protests of the
Chinese. Finally, in 1883, Tonquin was ceded to France, and next year Annam
was declared a French protectorate. After a short period of hostilities
with China the latter recognized the French claims, and Tonquin is now a
French colony, while the kingdom of Annam is, since 1886, entirely under
French direction. Cf. F. R. Eberhardt, _Guide de l' Annam_.

ANNAMABOE (-b[=o]´), a seaport in Western Africa, on the Gold Coast, 10
miles east of Cape Coast Castle, with some trade in gold-dust, ivory,
palm-oil, &c. Pop. about 5000.

AN´NAN, a royal and police burgh in Scotland, on the Annan, a little above
its entrance into the Solway Firth, one of the Dumfries district of burghs.
Pop. 3928.--The River _Annan_ is a stream 40 miles long running through the
central division of Dumfriesshire, to which it gives the name of
_Annandale_.

ANNAP´OLIS, the capital of Maryland, United States, on the Severn, near its
mouth in Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college (St. John's), a state-house,
and the United States Naval Academy. Pop. (1920), 11,214.

ANNAP´OLIS, a small town in Nova Scotia, on an inlet of the Bay of Fundy,
with an important traffic by railway and steamboat. It is one of the oldest
European settlements in America, dating from 1604.

ANN ARBOR, a town of Michigan, United States, on the Huron River, about 40
miles west of Detroit; the seat of the State university. It has
flour-mills, and it manufactures woollens, iron, and agricultural
implements. Pop. 19,516.

ANNATES (an´n[=a]ts), a year's income claimed for many centuries by the
Pope on the death of any bishop, abbot, or parish priest, to be paid by his
successor. In England they were at first paid to the Archbishop of
Canterbury, but were afterwards appropriated by the Popes. In 1532 the
Parliament gave them to the Crown; but in 1703 Queen Anne restored them to
the Church by applying them to the augmentation of poor livings. See _Queen
Anne's Bounty_.

[Illustration: Annatto (_Bixa Orell[=a]na_)]

ANNAT´TO, or ANNATO, an orange-red colouring matter, obtained from the pulp
surrounding the seeds of _Bixa Orell[=a]na_, a shrub native to tropical
America, and cultivated in Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East Indies. It is
sometimes used as a dye for silk and cotton goods, though it does not
produce a very durable colour, but it is much used in medicine for tinging
plasters and ointments, and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving
a rich colour to milk, butter, and cheese. The colour given by annatto
approaches very nearly the natural colouring matter of milk fat. It is
guaranteed to preserve the same colour throughout the year, and is
considered to be a legitimate colouring matter.

ANNE, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland was born at Twickenham, near
London, 6th Feb., 1664. She was the second daughter of James II, then Duke
of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. With her
father's permission she was educated according to the principles of the
English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince George, brother of King
Christian V of Denmark. On the arrival of the Prince of Orange in 1688,
Anne wished to remain with her father; but she was prevailed upon by Lord
Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) and his wife to join the
triumphant party. After the death of William III in 1702 she ascended the
English throne. Her character was essentially weak, and she was governed
first by Marlborough and his wife, and afterwards by Mrs. Masham. Most of
the principal events of her reign are connected with the war of the Spanish
Succession. The only important acquisition that England made by it was
Gibraltar, which was captured in 1704. Another very important event of this
reign was the union of England and Scotland under the name of Great
Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. Anne seems to have long cherished
the wish of securing the succession to her brother James, but this was
frustrated by the internal dissensions of the cabinet. Grieved at the
disappointment of her secret wishes, she fell into a state of weakness and
lethargy, and died, 20th July, 1714. The reign of Anne was distinguished
not only by the brilliant successes of the British arms, but also on
account of the number of admirable and excellent writers who flourished at
this time, among whom were Pope, Swift, and Addison. Anne bore her husband
many children, all of whom died in infancy, except one son, the Duke of
Gloucester, who died at the age of twelve.

ANNE (of Austria), daughter of Philip III of Spain, was born at Madrid in
1602, and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII of France. Richelieu, fearing
the influence of her foreign connections, did everything he could to humble
her. In 1643 her husband died, and she was left regent, but placed under
the control of a council. But the Parliament overthrew this arrangement,
and entrusted her with full sovereign rights during the minority of her son
Louis XIV. Having brought upon herself the hatred of the nobles by her
boundless confidence in Cardinal Mazarin, she was forced to flee from Paris
during the wars of the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and
was able in 1661 to transmit to her son unimpaired the royal authority. She
spent the remainder of her life in retirement, and died 20th Jan., 1666.

ANNEALING (an-[=e]l´ing), a process to which many articles of metal and
glass are subjected after making, in order to render them more tenacious
and which consists in heating them and allowing them to cool slowly. When
the metals are worked by the hammer, or rolled into plates, or drawn into
wire, they acquire a certain amount of brittleness, which destroys their
usefulness, and has to be remedied by annealing. The tempering of steel is
one kind of annealing. Annealing is particularly employed in glass-houses,
and consists in putting the glass vessels, as soon as they are formed and
while they are yet hot, into a furnace or oven, in which they are suffered
to cool gradually. The toughness is greatly increased by cooling the
articles in oil.

ANNECY ([.a]n-s[=e]), an ancient town in France, department of
Haute-Savoie, situated on the Lake of Annecy, 21 miles s. of Geneva;
contains a cathedral and a ruinous old castle once the residence of the
counts of Genevois; manufactures of cotton, leather, paper, and hardware.
Pop. 15,622.--The lake is about 9 miles long and 2 broad.

[Illustration: Lobworm (one of the Annelida)]

ANNEL´IDA, or ANNULATA, an extensive division or class of Annulosa or
articulate animals, so called because their bodies are formed of a great
number of small rings, the outward signs of internal segmentation. The
earth-worm, the lobworm, the nereis, and the leech belong to this division.
They have red, rarely yellow or green, blood circulating in a double system
of contractile vessels, a double ganglionated nervous cord, and respire by
external branchiæ, internal vesicles, or by the skin. Their organs of
motion consist of bristles or _setæ_, which are usually attached to the
lateral surfaces of each segment, the bristles being borne on 'foot
processes' or _parapodia_. The number of body segments varies. As many as
400 may be found in some sea-worms. A complete digestive system is
developed, consisting of a mouth--armed with horny jaws and a protrusible
proboscis--gizzard, stomach, and intestine. See _Earth-worm_, _Leech_, &c.

ANNEXATION, a term applied to the acquisition by a State of territory
previously belonging to another Power, or independent. It is applicable not
only to the extension of a State's sovereignty over adjoining territory,
but also to an acquisition of a remote territory. The inhabitants of the
annexed territory are absolved from their allegiance to their former
sovereign. Such annexations in modern history were those of Alsace-Lorraine
by Germany in 1871, of California by the United States, of Bosnia and
Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, and of the Boer Republics by Great Britain.

ANNFIELD PLAIN, a straggling colliery town (urban district) of England,
Durham, about 7 miles south-west of Gateshead. Pop. (1921), 16,524.

ANNOBON´, or ANNOBOM, a beautiful Spanish island of Western Africa, south
of the Bight of Biafra, about 4 miles long by 2 miles broad, and rising
abruptly to the height of 3000 feet, richly covered with vegetation. Pop.
2000.

ANNONAY ([.a]n-o-n[=a]), a town in southern France, department of Ardèche,
37 miles S.S.W. of Lyons, in a picturesque situation. It is the most
important town of Ardèche, manufacturing paper and glove leather to a large
extent, also cloth, felt, silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, chemical manures,
glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate, and candles. There is an obelisk in
memory of Joseph Montgolfier of balloon fame. Pop. 16,660.

AN´NUAL, in botany, a plant that springs from seed, grows up, produces
seed, and then dies, all within a single year or season. Among annual
grasses may be noted all our cereals, barley, wheat, rye, and oats.

AN´NUAL, in literature, the name given to a class of publications which at
one time enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and were distinguished by
great magnificence both of binding and illustration, which rendered them
much sought after as Christmas and New Year presents. Their contents were
chiefly prose tales and ballads, lyrics, and other poetry. The earliest was
the _Forget-me-not_, started in 1822, and followed next year by the
_Friendship's Offering_. The _Literary Souvenir_ was commenced in 1824, and
the _Keepsake_ in 1827. Among the names of the editors occur those of
Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S. C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessington,
Mary Howitt, &c. The popularity of the annuals reached its zenith about
1829, when no less than seventeen made their appearance; in 1856 the
_Keepsake_, the last of the series, ceased to exist.

ANNUAL REGISTER, an English publication commenced in 1758 by Dodsley, the
publisher, and since continued in yearly volumes down to the present day.
There was also an _Edinburgh Annual Register_, the historical part of which
was for several years contributed by Sir Walter Scott and afterwards by
Robert Southey. It commenced in 1808 and came to a close in 1827.

ANNU´ITY, a periodical payment, made annually, or at more frequent
intervals, and continuing either a certain number of years, or for an
uncertain period, to be determined by a particular event, as the death of
the recipient or annuitant, or that of the party liable to pay the annuity;
or the annuity may be perpetual. An annuity is usually raised by the
present payment of a certain sum as a consideration whereby the party
making the payment, or some other person named by him, becomes entitled to
an annuity, and the rules and principles by which this present value is to
be computed have been the subjects of careful investigation. The present
value of a perpetual annuity is evidently a sum of money that will yield an
interest equal to the annuity, and payable at the same periods; and an
annuity of this description, payable quarterly, will evidently be of
greater value than one of the same amount payable annually, since the
annuitant has the additional advantage of the interest on three of the
quarterly payments until the expiration of the year. In other words, it
requires a greater present capital to be put at interest to yield a given
sum per annum, payable quarterly, than to yield the same annual sum payable
at the end of each year. The present value of an annuity for a limited
period is a sum which, if put at interest, will at the end of that period
give an amount equal to the sum of all the payments of the annuity and
interest; and, accordingly, if it be proposed to invest a certain sum of
money in the purchase of an annuity for a given number of years, the
comparative value of the two may be precisely estimated, the rate of
interest being given. But annuities for uncertain periods, and particularly
life annuities, are more frequent, and the value of the annuity is computed
according to the probable duration of the life by which it is limited. Such
annuities are often created by contract, whereby the Government or a
private annuity office agrees, for a certain sum advanced by the purchaser,
to pay a certain sum in yearly, quarterly, or other periodical payments to
the person advancing the money, or to some other named by him, during the
life of the annuitant. Or the annuity may be granted to the annuitant
during the life of some other person, or during two or more joint lives, or
during the life of the longest liver or survivor among a number of persons
named. If a person having a certain capital, and intending to spend this
capital and the income of it during his own life, could know precisely how
long he should live, he might lend his capital at a certain rate during his
life, and by taking every year, besides the interest, a certain amount of
the capital, he might secure the same annual amount for his support during
his life in such manner that he should have the same sum to spend every
year, and consume precisely his whole capital during his life. But since he
does not know how long he is to live, he agrees with the Government or an
annuity office to take the risk of the duration of his life, and they agree
to pay him a certain annuity for life in exchange for the capital which he
proposes to invest in this way. The probable duration of his life therefore
becomes a subject of computation; and for the purpose of making this
calculation tables of longevity are made by noting the proportion of deaths
at certain ages in the same country or district. Founding on a comparison
of many such tables, the British Government has empowered the
Postmaster-General to grant annuities at the following rates, which are
probably more closely adjusted to their actual value than those of
insurance companies and other dealers in annuities: To secure an immediate
annuity of £100, the cost is, for males of 20 years, £2279, 3s. 4d.; for
females of same age, £2482, 10s.; for males of 30 years, £2045, 8s. 4d.,
for females, £2258, _6s._ 8d.; for males of 40 years, £1789, 6s. 8d.; for
females, £1990; for males of 60, £1148, 6s. 8d.; females, £1275, 8s. 4d.;
and so on. _Deferred_ annuities, that is, such as have their first payments
postponed for a greater or less number of years, are also granted. We give
the rates for an annuity of £100 deferred 20 years: Males aged 20, £848,
6s. 8d.; females, £1014, 13s. 4d.; males aged 35, £557, 1s. 8d.; females,
£697, 1s. 8d.; and so on. If a person on whose life the deferred annuity is
to depend should die before payment commences, the purchase-money may be
returned to his or her representatives, provided that an agreement to that
effect had been made in the first instance, but in this case the
purchase-money is necessarily higher. See _Insurance_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Baily, _Life Annuities and Assurances_; J. Henry, _Government Life Annuity
Commutation Tables_.

ANNULOI´DA, one of Professor Huxley's eight primary groups, a division
(sub-kingdom) of animals, including the Rotifera, Scolecida (tape-worms,
&c.), all which are more or less ring-like in appearance, and the
Echinodermata, whose embryos show traces of annulation.

ANNULO´SA, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals regarded by some as
synonymous with the Arthropoda or Articulata; according to other
systematists, including both the Articulata and Annulata or worms.

ANNUNCIATION, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary
informing her that she was to become the mother of our
Lord.--_Annunciation_ or _Lady Day_ is a feast of the Church in honour of
the annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of March.--The Italian order of
_Knights of the Annunciation_ was instituted by Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy,
in 1360. The king is always grand-master. The knights must be of high rank,
and must already be members of the order of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus.
The decoration of the order consists of a golden shield suspended from a
chain or collar of roses and knots, the letters F. E. R. T. being inscribed
on the roses, and standing for _Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit_ (its bravery
held Rhodes).--There are two orders of _nuns of the Annunciation_, one
originally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna of Valois; the other Italian,
founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa.

ANNUNZIO ([.a]n-n[u:]nt´sy[=o]), Gabriele d', Italian poet, novelist, and
dramatist, born at Pescara in 1863, his patronymic being Rapagnetta. He was
educated at Prato and in Rome, and early took to literature and journalism.
In 1898 he was elected a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in
which he joined the Socialist party. He came before the public when a
schoolboy with a volume of verse called _Primo Vere_, to which
others--naturally much more mature--were subsequently added. Several of his
novels have been published in English, as: _The Child of Pleasure_, _The
Victim_, _The Triumph of Death_, _The Virgin of the Rocks_, _The Fire of
Life_. Some of these have been very successful, though disfigured to some
extent by coarse realism and voluptuousness. He began to write plays later
in life. Among them _Gioconda_, _The Dead City_, and _Francesca da Rimini_
may be read in English versions, and _Gioconda_ and _Francesca_ have been
performed on the English stage. His more recent works include: _Le Martyr
de Saint Sebastien_ (1911), _Le Chèvrefeuille_ (1914), _La Beffa di
Buccari_ (1918), _Notturno_ (1918). D'Annunzio is the most prominent
Italian writer of the present day, and in wealth of language and
distinction of style stands far ahead of all others. He served in the
European War from 1915-18, and was wounded. In Sept., 1919, he led a raid
and occupied the port of Fiume. See _European War_ and _Fiume_.

AN´OA, an animal (_Anoa depressicornis_) closely allied to the buffalo,
about the size of an average sheep, very wild and fierce, inhabiting the
rocky and mountainous localities of the Island of Celebes. The horns are
straight, thick at the root, and set nearly in a line with the forehead.

ANO´BIUM, a genus of coleopterous insects, the larvae of which often do
much damage by their boring into old wood. By means of their heads they
produce a loud, ticking sound in the wood, the so-called _death-watch_
ticking. _A. stri[=a]tum_, a common species, when frightened, is much given
to feigning death.

AN´ODE, (Gr. _ana_, up, _hodos_, way), the positive pole of the voltaic
current, being that part of the surface of a decomposing body which the
electric current enters: opposed to _cathode_ (Gr. _kata_, down, _hodos_,
way), the way by which it departs.

AN´ODON, or ANODON´TA, a genus of lamellibranchiate bivalves, including the
fresh-water mussels, without or with very slight hinge-teeth. See _Mussel_.

AN´ODYNE, a medicine, such as an opiate or narcotic, which allays pain.

ANOINTING, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often perfumed.
From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the habit of
anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. The Greeks and
Romans anointed themselves after the bath. Wrestlers anointed themselves in
order to render it more difficult for their antagonists to get hold of
them. In Egypt it was common to anoint the head of guests when they entered
the house where they were to be entertained. In the Mosaic law a sacred
character was attached to the anointing of the garments of the priests, and
things belonging to the ceremonial of worship. The Jewish priests and kings
were anointed when inducted into office, and were called the _anointed of
the Lord_, to show that their persons were sacred and their office from
God. In the Old Testament also the prophecies respecting the Redeemer style
him _Messias_, that is, the _Anointed_, which is also the meaning of his
Greek name Christ. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman
Catholic Church in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of
believers and the sacrament of extreme unction. The ceremony is also
frequently a part of the coronation of kings.

[Illustration: Anomalure (_Anomalurus Peli_)]

ANOM´ALURE (_Anomal[=u]rus_), a genus of rodent animals inhabiting the west
coast of Africa, resembling the flying-squirrels, but having the under
surface of the tail furnished for some distance from the root with a series
of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the trunk of a tree, may
subserve the same purpose as those instruments with which a man climbs up a
telegraph pole to set the wires.

ANOM´ALY, a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy, the angle which a
line drawn from a planet to the sun has passed through since the planet was
last at its perihelion or nearest distance to the sun. The _anomalistic
year_ is the interval between two successive times at which the earth is in
perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes 48 seconds. In consequence of
the advance of the earth's perihelion among the stars in the same direction
as the earth's motion, and of the precession of the equinoxes, which
carries the equinoxes back in the opposite direction to the earth's motion,
the anomalistic year is about 4 minutes 40 seconds longer than the sidereal
year, and about 25 minutes longer than the tropical or common year. The
time of a complete revolution of the perihelion is computed at 108,000
years.

ANOMU´RA, a section of the crustaceans of the ord. Decapoda, with irregular
tails not formed to assist in swimming, including the hermit-crabs and
others.

[Illustration: Anona or Sour-sop (_An[=o]na muric[=a]ta_)]

ANO´NA, a genus of plants, the type of the nat. ord. Anonaceæ. _A.
squam[=o]sa_ (sweet-sop) grows in the West Indian Islands, and yields an
edible fruit having a thick, sweet, luscious pulp. _A. muric[=a]ta_
(sour-sop) is cultivated in the West and East Indies; it produces a large
pear-shaped fruit, of a greenish colour, containing an agreeable
slightly-acid pulp. The genus produces other edible fruits, as the common
custard-apple or bullock's heart, from _A. reticul[=a]ta_, and the
cherimoyer of Peru, from _A. Cherimolia_.

ANONA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of trees and shrubs, having simple, alternate
leaves, destitute of stipules, by which character they are distinguished
from the Magnoliaceæ, to which they are otherwise closely allied. They are
mostly tropical plants of the Old and the New World, and are generally
aromatic. See _Anona_.

ANOPLOTHE´RIUM, an extinct genus of the Ungulata or Hoofed Quadrupeds,
forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many respects
intermediate between the swine and the true ruminants. These animals were
pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with two
rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a guinea-pig, others as
large as an ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars
existed in each jaw, the series being continuous, no interval existing in
the jaw. _A. comm[=u]ne_, from the Eocene rocks, is a familiar species.

ANOPLU´RA, an order of apterous insects, of which the type is the genus
Pedic[)u]lus or louse,

ANOPSHEHR. See _Anupshahr_.

ANOREXIA. See _Appetite_.

ANOS´MIA, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction of the power
of smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most frequently caused by strong
and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves.

ANOURA. See _Anura_.

ANQUETIL-DUPERRON ([.a]nk-t[=e]l-d[.u]-p[=a]-ro[n.]), Abraham Hyacinthe, a
French orientalist, born 1731, died 1805. He studied theology for some
time, but soon devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian.
His zeal for the Oriental languages induced him to set out for India, where
he prevailed on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him in the Zend and
Pehlevi and to give him some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he returned
to France with a valuable collection of MSS. In 1771 he published his
_Zend-Avesta_, a translation of the _Vendidad_, and other sacred books,
which aroused much interest. Among his other works are _L'Inde en rapport
avec l'Europe_ (1790), and a selection from the _Vedas_. His knowledge of
the Oriental languages was by no means exact.

ANSBACH. See _Anspach_.

AN´SELM, St., a celebrated Christian philosopher and theologian, born at
Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033, died at Canterbury 1109. At the age of
twenty-seven (1060) he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy, whither he had
been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years later he was
elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he remained for
fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his first
philosophical and religious works: the dialogues on _Truth_ and
_Free-will_, and the treatises _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_; and at the
same time his influence made itself so felt among the monks under his
charge that Bec became the chief seat of learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm
was offered by William Rufus the archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted
it, though with great reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands
belonging to the see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with
the archbishop, who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in
acknowledging Pope Urban II in opposition to the antipope Clement. William
ultimately had to give way. He acknowledged Urban as Pope, and conferred
the pallium upon Anselm. The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so
great were Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to
consult with the Pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did
not venture really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though
William had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized
on the revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death
in 1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his
celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitled _Cur Deus Homo_ (_Why God
was made Man_). When William was succeeded by Henry I Anselm was recalled;
but Henry insisted that he should submit to be reinvested in his see by
himself, although the Popes claimed the right of investing for themselves
alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did not surrender his claims
till 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf of the rights of the
Church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a deep and original
thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety. Anselm's great
achievement in philosophy was his ontological argument for the existence of
God; and his importance in the ecclesiastical history of England cannot be
exaggerated. The chief of his writings are the _Monologion_, the
_Proslogion_, and the _Cur Deus Homo_. The first is an attempt to prove
inductively the existence of God by pure reason without the aid of
Scripture or authority; the second is an attempt to prove the same by the
deductive method; the _Cur Deus Homo_ is intended to prove the necessity of
the incarnation. Among his numerous other writings are more than 400
letters. His life was written by his domestic chaplain and companion,
Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, and is edited by M. Rule for the 'Rolls
Series'. See _Scholasticism_. Cf. Père Ragey, _Histoire de Saint Anselme_;
J. M. Rigg, _Anselm of Canterbury_.

ANS´GAR, or ANSHAR, called the _Apostle of the North_, born in 801 in
Picardy, died in 864 or 865. He took the monastic vows while still in his
boyhood, and in the midst of many difficulties laboured as a missionary in
Denmark and Sweden. He died with the reputation of having made, if not the
first, the most successful attempts to propagate Christianity in the North.

AN´SON, George, Lord, celebrated English navigator, born 1697, died 1762.
He entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in 1722, and
captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina station. In
1740 he was made commander of a fleet sent to the South Sea, directed
against the trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition consisted of five
men-of-war and three smaller vessels, which carried 1400 men. After much
suffering and many stirring adventures he reached the coast of Peru, made
several prizes, and captured and burned the city of Paita. His squadron was
now reduced to one ship, the _Centurion_, but with it he took the Spanish
treasure galleon from Acapulco, and arrived in England in 1744 with
treasure to the amount of £500,000, having circumnavigated the globe. His
adventures and discoveries are described in the well-known _Anson's
Voyage_, compiled from materials furnished by Anson. A few days after his
return he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and not long after
rear-admiral of the white. His victory over the French admiral Jonquière,
near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised him to the peerage, with the title of
Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. Four years afterwards he was made First Lord
of the Admiralty. In 1758 he commanded the fleet before Brest, protected
the landing of the British at St. Malo, Cherbourg, &c., and received the
repulsed troops into his vessels. Finally, in 1761, he was appointed to
convey the queen of George III to England.

ANSO´NIA, a town of the United States, Conn., on the Nangatuck, with
manufactures of brass and copper, and especially clocks. Pop. 17,643.

ANSPACH ([.a]n´sp[.a]_h_), or ANSBACH, a town in Bavaria, at the junction
of the Holzbach with the Lower Rezat, 24 miles south-west of Nürnberg.
Anspach gave its name to an ancient principality or margravate, which had a
territory of about 1300 sq. miles, with 300,000 inhabitants. in the end of
the eighteenth century. The last margrave sold his possessions in 1791 to
Prussia. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and transferred by Napoleon
to Bavaria. The town has manufactures of trimmings, buttons, straw-wares,
&c. Pop. 19,995.

AN´STED, David Thomas, an English geologist, born 1814, died 1880. He was
professor of geology at King's College, London, and assistant-secretary to
the Geological Society, whose quarterly journal he edited for many years.

AN´STER, John, LL.D., professor of civil law in the University of Dublin,
born in County Cork, 1793, died 1867. He published a volume of poems, but
is chiefly known by his fine translation of Goethe's _Faust_, Part I, 1835;
Part II, 1864.

AN´STEY, Christopher, an English poet, born 1724, died 1805. He was author
of _The New Bath Guide_, a humorous and satirical production describing
fashionable life at Bath in the form of a series of letters in different
varieties of metre, which had a great reputation in its day, but is now
almost forgotten.

ANSTRUTHER (an´stru_th_-[.e]r; popularly an´st[.e]r), Easter and Wester,
two small royal and police burghs of Scotland, in Fifeshire, forming, with
the contiguous royal burgh of Cellardyke or Nether Kilrenny, one fishing
and seaport town. Total pop. (1921), 4641.

[Illustration: The Wood-ant (_Formica rufa_)

1. Egg. 2. Larva. 3. Cocoon of fine white silk. 4. Young ant, taken out of
cocoon. 5. Male ant. 6. Female ant. 7. Worker ant. (All magnified.)]

ANT, the common name of hymenopterous (or membranous-winged) insects of
various genera, of the family Formic[)i]dæ, of which there are numerous
species, at least 2000 being known. They are found in most temperate and
tropical regions. They are small but powerful insects, and have long been
noted for their remarkable intelligence and interesting habits. They are
social insects, living in communities regulated by definite laws, each
member of the society bearing a well-defined and separate part in the work
of the colony. Each community consists of males; of females much larger
than the males; and of barren females, otherwise called neuters, workers,
or nurses. The neuters are wingless, and the males and females only acquire
wings for their 'nuptial flight', after which the males perish, and the few
females which escape the pursuit of their numerous enemies divest
themselves of their wings, and either return to established nests, or
become the foundresses of new colonies. The neuters perform all the labours
of the ant-hill or abode of the community; they excavate the galleries,
procure food, and feed the larvæ or young ants, which have not got organs
of motion. In fine weather they carefully convey them to the surface for
the benefit of the sun's heat, and as attentively carry them to a place of
safety either when bad weather is threatened or the ant-hill is disturbed.
In like manner they watch over the safety of the nymphs or pupæ about to
acquire their perfect growth. Some communities possess a special type of
neuters, known as 'soldiers', from the duties that specially fall upon
them, and from their powerful biting jaws. There is a very considerable
variety in the materials, size, and form of ant-hills, or nests, according
to the peculiar nature or instinct of the species. Most of the British ants
form nests in woods, fields, or gardens, their abodes being generally in
the form of small mounds rising above the surface of the ground and
containing numerous galleries and apartments. Some excavate nests in old
tree-trunks. One little yellow ant (_Myrm[=i]ca domestica_) is common in
houses in Britain in some localities. Some ants live on animal food, very
quickly picking quite clean the skeleton of any dead animal they may light
on. Others live on saccharine matter, being very fond of the sweet
substance, called honey-dew, which exudes from the bodies of aphides, or
plant-lice. These they sometimes keep in their nests, and sometimes tend on
the plants where they feed; sometimes they even superintend their breeding.
By stroking the aphides with their antennæ they cause them to emit the
sweet fluid, which the ants then greedily sip up. Various other insects are
looked after by ants in a similar manner, or are found in their nests. It
has been observed that some species, like the European Red Ant (_Form[=i]ca
sanguin[)e]a_), resort to violence to obtain working ants of other species
for their own use, plundering the nests of suitable kinds of their larvæ
and pupæ, which they carry off to their own nests to be carefully reared
and kept as slaves. In temperate countries male and female ants survive, at
most, till autumn, or to the commencement of cool weather, though a very
large proportion of them cease to exist long previous to that time. The
neuters pass the winter in a state of torpor, and of course require no
food. The only time when they require food is during the season of
activity, when they have a vast number of young to feed. Some ants of
Southern Europe feed on grain, and store it up in their nests for use when
required. Some species have stings as weapons, others only their powerful
mandibles, or an acrid and pungent fluid (formic acid) which they can emit.
The name ant is also given to the neuropterous insects otherwise called
Termites (q.v.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), _Ants,
Bees, and Wasps_; H. W. Bates, _A Naturalist on the Amazons_; _Cambridge
Natural History_.

ANTAC´ID, an alkali, or any remedy for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia
and diarrhoea are the diseases in which antacids are chiefly employed. The
principal antacids in use are magnesia, lime, and their carbonates, and the
carbonates of potash and soda.

ANTÆ´US, the giant son of Poseidon (Neptune) and G[=e] (the Earth), who was
invincible so long as he was in contact with the earth. Heracles (Hercules)
grasped him in his arms and stifled him suspended in the air, thus
preventing him from touching the earth.

ANTAKIEH, or ANTAKIA. See _Antioch_.

ANTAL´KALI, a substance which neutralizes an alkali, and is used
medicinally to counteract an alkaline tendency in the system. All true
acids have this power.

ANTANANARIVO (an-tan-an-a-r[=e]´v[=o]), the capital of Madagascar, situated
in the central province of Imérina, on rocky eminences rising from a plain.
Until 1869 all buildings within the city were of wood or rush, but since
the introduction of brick and stone, the whole city has been rebuilt. It
contains two former royal palaces, immense timber structures; a Protestant
and a Roman Catholic cathedral, mission churches, schools, &c. Antananarivo
is the residence of the French governor of Madagascar, and there is a
strong French garrison. It has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk,
&c. Pop. (exclusive of the troops) 63,115.

AN´TAR, an Arabian warrior and poet of the sixth century, author of one of
the seven Moallakas (poems) hung up in the Kaaba at Mecca; hero of a
romance analogous in Arabic literature to the Arthurian legend of the
English. The romance of _Antar_ is composed in rhythmic prose interspersed
with fragments of verse, many of which are attributed to Antar himself, and
has been generally ascribed to Asmai (born A.D. 740, died about A.D. 830),
preceptor to Harun-al-Rashid. It has been published in 32 vols. at Cairo
(1889).

ANTARCTIC (ant-ärk´tik), a term signifying the opposite of _Arctic_, and
therefore relating to the southern pole or to the regions near it. The
_Antarctic Circle_, which of course corresponds to the _Arctic Circle_, is
a circle parallel to the equator and distant from the south pole 23° 28´,
marking the area within which the sun does not set when on the tropic of
Capricorn. The Antarctic Circle has been arbitrarily fixed on as the limits
of the Antarctic Ocean, it being the average limit of the pack-ice; but the
name is often extended to embrace a much wider area. The lands within or
near the Antarctic Circle are but imperfectly known, and a very large area
around the south pole is altogether unknown. The work of exploration has
been hitherto baffled at various points by what seems an unsurmountable
ice-barrier, which in some places is connected with masses of land and may
as a whole belong to a great Antarctic continent. Among land-masses that
have long been known to exist in the Antarctic Ocean, though our knowledge
of them is very imperfect, are those to which have been attached the names
Graham Land, Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, Enderby Land, South Shetland
Islands, &c. The Antarctic regions are even colder and more inhospitable
than the Arctic, and partly on account of their remoteness from the
maritime nations there have been far fewer efforts at their exploration,
the south pole being far less a goal of discovery than the north. See
_South Polar Expeditions_.

[Illustration: Ant-eater (_Myrmecoph[)a]ga jub[=a]ta_)]

ANT-EATER, a name given to mammals of various genera that prey chiefly on
ants, but usually confined to the genus Myrmecoph[)a]ga, ord. Edentata. In
this genus the head is remarkably elongated, the jaws destitute of teeth,
and the mouth furnished with a long, extensile tongue covered with
glutinous saliva, by the aid of which the animals secure their insect prey.
The eyes are particularly small, the ears short and round, and the legs,
especially the fore-legs, very strong, and furnished with long, compressed,
acute nails, admirably adapted for breaking into the ant-hills. The most
remarkable species is the _Myrmecoph[)a]ga jub[=a]ta_, or ant-bear, a
native of the warmer parts of South America. It is from 4 to 5 feet in
length from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the black bushy tail,
which is about 2 feet long. The body is covered with long hair,
particularly along the neck and back. It is a harmless and solitary animal,
and spends most of its time in sleep. Some are adapted for climbing trees
in quest of the insects on which they feed, having prehensile tails. All
are natives of South America. The name ant-eater is also given to the
pangolins and to the aardvark. The echidna of Australia is sometimes called
_porcupine ant-eater_.

ANTECE´DENT, in grammar, the noun to which a relative or other pronoun
refers; as, Solomon was the _prince who_ built the temple, where the word
_prince_ is the antecedent of _who_.--In logic, that member of a
hypothetical or conditional proposition which contains the condition, and
which is introduced by _if_ or some equivalent word or words; as, if the
sun is fixed, the earth must move. Here the first and conditional
proposition is the _antecedent_, the second the _consequent_.

ANTEDILU´VIAN, before the flood or deluge of Noah's time; relating to what
happened before the deluge. In geology the term has been applied to
organisms, traces of which are found in a fossil state in formations
preceding the Diluvial (Glacial epoch), particularly to extinct animals
such as the palæotherium, the mastodon, &c.

AN´TELOPE, the name given to the members of a large family of Ruminant
Ungulata or Hoofed Mammalia, closely resembling the Deer in general
appearance, but essentially different in nature from the latter animals.
They are included with the Sheep and Oxen in the family of the Cavicornia
or 'Hollow-horned' Ruminants. Their horns, unlike those of the Deer, are
not deciduous, but are permanent; are never branched, but are often twisted
spirally, and may be borne by both sexes. They are found in greatest number
and variety in Africa. Well-known species are the chamois (European), the
gazelle, the addax, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the springbok, the
sasin or Indian antelope, and the prongbuck of America.

[Illustration: Antennæ

1,1. Filiform Antennæ of Cucujo Firefly of Brazil (_Pyroph[)o]rus
lumin[=o]sus_). 2. Denticulate Antenna; 3. Bipinnate; 4. Lamellicorn; 5.
Clavate; 6. Geniculate; 7. Antenna and Antennule of Crustacean.]

ANTEN´NÆ, the name given to the movable jointed organs of touch and hearing
attached to the heads of insects, myriapods, &c., and commonly called horns
or feelers. They present a very great variety of forms.

ANTEQUERA ([.a]n-te-k[=a]´r[.a]), a city of Andalusia, in Spain, in the
province of Malaga, a place of some importance under the Romans, with a
ruined Moorish castle. It manufactures woollens, leather, soap, &c. Pop.
32,360.

ANT´EROS, in Greek mythology, the god of mutual love. According to some,
however, Anteros is the enemy of love, or the god of antipathy; he was also
said to punish those who did not return the love of others.

ANTHE´LION, pl. ANTHELIA, a luminous ring, or rings, seen by an observer,
especially in alpine and polar regions, around the shadow of his head
projected on a cloud or fog-bank, or on grass covered with dew, 50 or 60
yards distant, and opposite the sun when rising or setting. It is due to
the diffraction of light.

ANTHELMIN´THICS, or ANTHELMIN´TICS, a class of remedies used to destroy
worms when lodged in the alimentary canal; classed as vermicides or
vermifuges, according as the object is to kill the worms, or to expel them
by purgation.

AN´THEM, originally a hymn sung in alternate parts; in modern usage, a
sacred tune or piece of music set to words taken from the Psalms or other
parts of the Scriptures, first introduced into church service in
Elizabeth's reign; a developed motet. The anthem may be for one, two, or
any number of voices, but seldom exceeds five parts, and may or may not
have an organ accompaniment written for it.

[Illustration: Anthemion]

ANTHE´MION, an ornament or ornamental series used in Greek and Roman
decoration, which is derived from floral forms, more especially the
honeysuckle. It was much used for the ornamentation of friezes and
interiors, for the decoration of fictile vases, the borders of dresses, &c.

AN´THEMIS, a genus of composite plants, comprising the camomile or
chamomile.

ANTHE´MIUS, a Greek mathematician and architect of Lydia; designed the
church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and is credited with the invention
of the dome; died A.D. 534.

[Illustration: The Reproductive Organs of the Lily]

AN´THER, the male organ of the flower; that part of the stamen which is
filled with pollen.

ANTHESTE´RIA, an annual Greek festival held in honour of all the gods, but
especially in honour of Dionysus. It celebrated the beginning of spring,
and the season when the wine of the previous vintage was considered fit for
use.

ANTHOCY´ANIN, the blue colour of flowers, a pigment obtained from those
petals of flowers which are blue, by digesting them in spirits of wine.

ANTHOL´OGY (Gr. _anthos_, a flower, and _legein_, to gather), the name
given to several collections of short poems which have come down from
antiquity. The first to compile a Greek anthology was Meleager, a Syrian,
about 60 B.C. He entitled his collection, which contained selections from
forty-six poets besides many pieces of his own, the _Garland_; a
continuation of this work by Philip of Thessalonica in the age of Tiberius
was the first entitled _Anthology_. Later collections are that of
Constantine Cephalas, in the tenth century, who made much use of the
earlier ones, and that of Maximus Planudes, in the fourteenth century, a
monk of Constantinople, whose anthology is a tasteless series of extracts
from the _Anthology_ of Cephalas, with some additions. The treasures
contained in both, increased with fragments of the older poets, idylls of
the bucolic poets, the hymns of Callimachus, epigrams from monuments and
other works, have been published in modern times as the _Greek Anthology_.
There is no ancient Latin anthology, the oldest being that of Scaliger
(1573).

AN´THON, Charles, LL.D., an American editor of classical school-books, and
of works intended to facilitate the study of Greek and Latin literature;
born 1797, died 1867. He was long a professor in Columbia College, New
York.

AN´THONY, St. the founder of monastic institutions, born near Heraclea, in
Upper Egypt, A.D. 251. Giving up all his property he retired to the desert,
where he was followed by a number of disciples, who thus formed the first
community of monks. He died at the age of 105.--_St. Anthony's Fire_, a
name given to erysipelas.

AN´THRACENE (C_{14}H_{10}) occurs in coal-tar in small quantity, about
0.25-0.45 per cent. During the distillation of tar a high-boiling fraction,
boiling above 270° C., is obtained; this is crude anthracene oil, a
greenish oily substance which, on further distillation, yields a
crystalline mass, 50 per cent anthracene. This is carefully purified by
distillation and chemical treatment to separate the anthracene from the
other substances occurring with it, and the product obtained is finally
purified by crystallization. When pure it forms colourless crystalline
scales melting at 216° C., and having a violet fluorescence. It forms a
series of derivatives, the most important being anthraquinone and alizarine
and the numerous derivatives of these. Anthracene was originally a useless
product in coal-tar distillation, but it became valuable as soon as it was
discovered that alizarine--from which many dyes are manufactured directly
or indirectly--could be prepared from it.

AN´THRACITE, glance or blind coal, a non-bituminous coal of a shining
lustre, approaching to metallic, and which burns without smoke, with a weak
or no flame, and with intense heat. It consists of, on an average, 90 per
cent carbon, 2 oxygen, 3 hydrogen, and 5 ashes. It has some of the
properties of coal or charcoal, and, like that substance, represents an
extreme alteration of vegetable substances by loss of gases, either during
conditions of decay or after entombment among stratified rocks. It is found
in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in large quantities in the United
States (Pennsylvania), and near Swansea (South Wales). See _Coal_.

AN´THRAX, a fatal disease to which animals are subject, always associated
with the presence of an extremely minute micro-organism (_Bacillus
anthr[)a]cis_) in the blood. It attacks cattle more frequently than other
animals; sheep, horses, pigs, dogs, and fowls are liable to anthrax, but
not cats. The mode of infection in animals is chiefly by ingestion. It may
also be contracted through a wound or scratch in the skin, but this mode of
infection is commoner in human beings than in animals. It frequently
assumes an epizootic form, and extends over large districts, affecting all
classes of animals which are exposed to the exciting causes. It is also
called splenic fever, and is communicable to man, appearing as carbuncle,
malignant pustule, or wool-sorter's disease.

ANTHROPOL´ATRY, the worship of man, a word always employed in reproach;
applied by the Apollinarians, who denied Christ's perfect humanity, towards
the orthodox Christians.

ANTHRO´POLITE, a petrifaction of the human body or skeleton, or of parts of
the body, by the encrusting action of calcareous waters, and hence hardly
to be considered fossil or sub-fossil.

ANTHROPOL´OGY, the science of man, including the study of man's place in
nature, that is, of the measurement of his agreement with and divergence
from other animals and the history of the emergence of human
characteristics; of the distinctive features and geographical distribution
of the races of mankind, their customs and beliefs; of the remains of
extinct types of the human family and the evidence relating to their modes
of life. It puts under contribution all sciences which have man for their
object, as anatomy, palæontology, psychology, archæology, history, and
comparative religion. All the races of mankind that are now living, much as
they differ in external appearance, such as colour of skin, character of
hair, form of skull, face, and body, and stature, belong to one species,
_Homo Sapiens_; but an earlier species of more brutal type, _H.
neanderthalensis_, now completely extinct, is known from fossil remains
found in Germany, Belgium, France, Gibraltar, and Croatia. Three more
ancient and primitive types, probably representing distinct genera of the
human family, have been discovered respectively at Piltdown, in Sussex
(Eoanthropus), at Mauer, near Heidelberg (Palæanthropus), and in Java, the
Ape-man (Pithecanthropus). The Piltdown man may represent the very remote,
but direct, ancestor of modern man; but the Heidelberg man and the Ape-man
were probably divergent 'sports' whose descendants never became men of the
modern type.

In structure the gorilla reveals a close kinship with the human family, and
was probably derived from a common ancestry which probably differentiated
into man's forerunner and the gorilla's in Miocene times. Of existing races
the aboriginal Australian is much the most primitive, and represents the
survival of the earliest type of _Homo Sapiens_ soon after this species
became differentiated from men of the Neanderthal species. The negro, whose
home is tropical Africa, is primitive in some respects, but in others is
highly specialized. He is distinguished by his black skin, flat nose,
prominent jaws and thick everted lips, and so-called 'woolly' or
'pepper-corn' hair. In stature he shows a wider range of variation than any
other race, including, as he does, the tallest and the shortest varieties
of mankind. The Bushman is a peculiarly distinct racial type now restricted
to the deserts of South Africa. Though his skin is yellowish rather than
black, he is akin to the negro. The Mongolian race probably assumed its
distinctive features, yellowish skin, coarse black hair, and characteristic
facial and bodily traits, in Eastern Asia; and the aboriginal population of
America was sprung mainly from the less-specialized branch of this race.
The so-called white races include three main stocks, a people of short
stature, olive complexion, and long heads, the Mediterranean race; a taller
people with fair hair and long heads, the Nordic race; and a short,
thick-set, black-haired, broad-headed Alpine race, which made its way from
Asia into Europe many centuries after the other two chief components of
Europe's population. For long ages in every part of the world intermixture
has been taking place in varying degrees between the different races of
mankind, so that to-day probably no pure race exists. See _Ethnography_,
_Ethnology_, _Man_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Anthropology_; D. G.
Brinton, _Races and Peoples_; W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_; E.
Carpenter, _Anthropology_; G. Elliott Smith, _The Migrations of Early
Culture_; H. G. F. Spurrell, _Modern Man and his Forerunners_;
_Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques_; _The Journal of the
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain_.

ANTHROPOM´ETRY, the systematic examination of the height, weight, and other
physical characteristics of the human body. It was shown in the British
Association Report of 1888 that variations in stature, weight, and
complexion, existing in different districts of the British islands, are
chiefly due to difference of racial origin.

The Scotch male adults stand first in height (68.71 inches), the Irish
second (67.90 inches), the English third (67.66 inches), and the Welsh last
(66.66 inches). In weight the Scotch take the first place (165.3 lb.), the
Welsh the second (158.3 lb.), the English the third (155.0 lb.), and the
Irish the last (154.1 lb.). The average height of adult females is 4.71
inches less than the male average, and their average weight 32.2 lb. under
that of the males. The average height of the adult males of the principal
races or nationalities of the world may be given as under; but it is
acknowledged that more numerous measurements might alter some of the
figures considerably: Polynesians 69.33 inches, Patagonians 69 inches,
Negroes of the Congo 69 inches, Scotch 68.71 inches, Iroquois Indians 68.28
inches, Irish 67.90 inches, United States (whites) 67.67 inches, English
67.66 inches, Norwegians 67.66 inches, Zulus 67.19 inches, Welsh 66.66
inches, Danes 66.65 inches, Dutch 66.62 inches, American Negroes 66.62
inches, Hungarians 66.58 inches, Germans 66.54 inches, Swiss 66.43 inches,
Belgians 66.38 inches, French 66.23 inches, Berbers 66.10 inches, Arabs
66.08 inches, Russians 66.04 inches, Italians 66 inches, Spaniards 65.66
inches, Esquimaux 65.10 inches, Papuans 64.78 inches, Hindus 64.76 inches,
Chinese 64.17 inches, Poles 63.87 inches, Finns 63.60 inches, Japanese
63.11 inches, Peruvians 63 inches, Malays 62.34 inches, Lapps 59.2 inches,
Bosjesmans 52.78 inches. General average, 65.25 inches.

ANTHROPOMOR´PHISM, the representation or conception of the Deity under a
human form, or with human attributes and affections. _Anthropomorphism_ is
based upon the natural inaptitude of the human mind for conceiving
spiritual things except through sensuous images, and in its consequent
tendency to accept such expressions as those of Scripture when it speaks of
the eye, the ear, and the hand of God, of his seeing and hearing, of his
remembering and forgetting, of his making man in his own image, &c., in a
too literal sense. In a general sense anthropomorphism is the assumption of
man that his own characteristics are present in beings or things widely
different from himself, more particularly in forces of nature and gods. The
term is, therefore, also applied to that doctrine which attributes to
animals mental faculties of the same nature as those of man, though much
lower in degree: strictly called _biological anthropomorphism_, to
distinguish it from anthropomorphism proper, or _theological
anthropomorphism_. Cf. E. Caird, _Evolution of Religion_; J. R.
Illingworth, _Personality, Human and Divine_.

ANTHROPOPH´AGI, man-eaters, cannibals. Cannibalism was practised in very
ancient times; and though some peoples, as the New Zealanders and Fijians,
have given it up in recent times, it is still practised over a wide area in
Central Africa, where human flesh is a common article of food.
Superstitious ideas are often associated with cannibalism among those who
practise it. The Caribs were cannibals at the time of the Spanish conquest,
and the word 'cannibal' is derived from their name. See _Cannibalism_.

ANTHUS. See _Pipit_.

ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS are guns so mounted that they may be pointed upward to
fire directly against objects in the air. During the European War these
guns, fitted with special appliances and ammunition, were used for defence
against air-raids of the enemy, against Zeppelins and Gothas. The
anti-aircraft guns are of various types, ranging from light machine-guns up
to batteries of 3-inch and 6-inch guns. Some of them have brought down
enemy machines flying at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet.

ANTIBES ([.a][n.]-t[=e]b) (ancient ANTIPOLIS), a fortified town and seaport
of France, department Alpes-Maritimes, on the Mediterranean, 11 miles
S.S.W. of Nice; founded about 340 B.C. Pop. 12,198.

ANTI-BURGHER SYNOD, a section of the Scottish Secession Church, which held
its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam Gib on 10th April,
1747. It was formed in consequence of a breach resulting from a controversy
respecting the religious clause of the oath taken by burgesses in
Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth. Those in favour of the oath were designated
Burghers, whilst their opponents, who condemned the oath of the burgesses,
became known as Anti-burghers. The union of the burgher and anti-burgher
sections was brought about in 1820 through the exertions of John Jamieson,
minister at the Anti-burgher Church in Nicholson Street, Edinburgh. See
_United Free Church of Scotland_.

AN´TICHLOR, the name given to any chemical substance, such as hyposulphite
of sodium, employed to remove the small quantity of chlorine which
obstinately adheres to the fibres of the cloth when goods are bleached by
means of chlorine.

AN´TICHRIST, a word occurring in the first and second _Epistles of St.
John_, and nowhere else in Scripture, in passages having an evident
reference to a personage real or symbolical mentioned or alluded to in
various other passages both of the Old and New Testaments. The _idea
itself_, however, of Antichrist can be traced back to the second century
B.C., and appears first of all in the _Book of Daniel_. In every age the
Church has held through all its sects some definite expectation of a
formidable adversary of truth and righteousness prefigured under this name.
Thus Roman Catholics have found Antichrist in heresy, and Protestants in
Romanism. In one point the sects have generally been agreed, namely, in
regarding the various intimations on this subject in the Old and New
Testaments as a homogeneous declaration or warning, inspired by the spirit
of prophecy, of danger to the true religion from some disaffection and
revolt organized in the latter days by Satan. Most modern critics take a
different view of the matter. They do not regard the various Scriptural
writers who have dealt with this subject as having had any common
inspiration or design. They believe that each writer from his own point of
view, guided by mere human sagacity, gives expression in his predictions to
his own individual apprehensions, or narrates as prediction what he already
knows. Originally Antichrist is nothing else than the incarnate devil, and
the idea of the battle of God with a human opponent, endowed with devilish
wickedness, arose under the influence of historical conditions. It is the
near political horizon which suggests the danger, or contemporary history
the substance of the prophecy; thus the Antichrist of Daniel is Antiochus
Epiphanes, that of St. John Nero, that of St. Paul some adversary of
Christianity about to appear in the time of the Emperor
Claudius.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Baring-Gould, _Curious Myths of the Middle
Ages_; W. Bousset, _Antichrist_.

ANTICLI´MAX, a sudden declension of a writer or speaker from lofty to mean
thoughts or language, as in the well-known lines, quoted in Pope's
_Martinus Scriblerus on the Art of Sinking in Poetry_ as from an anonymous
author:

  And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war,
  Lieutenant-colonel to the Earl of Mar.

Pope, Addison, and Fielding were masters in this art of sudden descent.

[Illustration: _a_, _a._ Anticlinal line. _b._ Synclinal line]

ANTICLI´NAL LINE OR AXIS, in geology, the ridge of a wave-like curve made
by a series of superimposed strata, the strata dipping from it on either
side as from the ridge of a house: a _synclinal line_ runs along the trough
of such a wave.

ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association formed in England in 1836 to procure
the repeal of the laws regulating or forbidding the importation of corn.
The object of the league was attained in 1846.

ANTICOS´TI, an island of Canada, in the mouth of the St. Lawrence, 125
miles long by 30 miles broad. The interior is mountainous and wooded, but
there is much good land, and it is well adapted for agriculture.

ANTICY´CLONE, a phenomenon presenting some features opposite to those of a
cyclone. It consists of a region of high barometric pressure, the pressure
being greatest in the centre, with light winds flowing outwards from the
centre, and not inwards as in the cyclone, accompanied with great cold in
winter and with great heat in summer.

ANTICYRA (an-tis'i-ra), the name of two towns of Greece, the one in
Thessaly, the other in Phocis, famous for hellebore, which in ancient times
was regarded as a specific against insanity and melancholy. Hence various
jocular allusions in ancient writers (_Naviga Anticyram_, sail to
Anticyra).

AN´TIDOTE, a medicine to counteract the effects of poison.

ANTIETAM (an-t[=e]'tam), a small stream in the United States which falls
into the Potomac about 50 miles N.W. of Washington; scene of an indecisive
battle between the Federal and Confederate armies, 17th Sept., 1862.

ANTI-FEDERALISTS, the political party in the United States which after the
formation of the Federal constitution in 1787 opposed its ratification.
Whilst the Federalists were striving to turn the federation into a united
nation, and stood for a strong Government and centralizing tendencies,
their opponents, the Anti-Federalists, either more democratic, or
pretending that a strong Government meant a 'disguised' monarchic power,
endeavoured to preserve a loose disintegrated federation. The
Anti-Federalist party was gradually transformed into the
Democratic-Republican party, led by Jefferson.

ANTIFRICTION METAL, a name given to various alloys of tin, zinc, copper,
antimony, lead, &c., which oppose little resistance to motion, with great
resistance to the effects of friction, so far as concerns the wearing away
of the surfaces of contact. Babbitt's metal (50 parts tin, 5 antimony, 1
copper) is one of them.

ANTIGONE (an-tig´o-n[=e]), in Greek mythology, the daughter of Oedipus and
Jocasta, celebrated for her devotion to her brother Polynices, for burying
whom against the decree of King Creon she suffered death. She is the
heroine of Sophocles' _Oedipus at Colonus_ and his _Antigone_; also of
Racine's tragedy _Les Frères Ennemis_.

ANTIG´ONISH, a town in the E. of Nova Scotia, in county of the same name;
the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with a cathedral, a college, and a
good harbour. Pop. 1787.

ANTIG´ONUS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, born about 382 B.C.
In the division of the empire, after the death of Alexander, Antigonus
obtained Greater Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia as his dominion. But he soon
managed to extend his power, being assisted by his warlike son, Demetrius
Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s. Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus, who had also been
generals of Alexander, alarmed by his ambition, united themselves against
him; and a long series of contests ensued in Syria, Phoenicia, Asia Minor,
and Greece, ending in 301 B.C. with the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in
which Antigonus was defeated and slain, his dominions being divided among
the conquerors.

ANTIGONUS GON´ATAS, son of Demetrius Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s, and grandson of the
above, succeeded his father in the kingdom of Macedon and all his other
European dominions, but did not obtain actual possession of them for some
years. He died, after a reign of forty-four years, 239 B.C.

ANTIGUA (an-t[=e]´gwa), one of the British West Indies, the most important
of the Leeward group; 28 miles long, 20 broad; area, 108 sq. miles. Its
shores are high and rocky, and much indented by creeks and inlets
furnishing several good harbours. The surface is diversified by hill and
dale, but nowhere rises to a greater height than 1500 feet. A considerable
portion of it is fertile, and the climate is healthy, but there is a
scarcity of water, there being no streams and few springs, droughts are not
infrequent, and hurricanes are apt to cause serious loss and damage. Chief
products are sugar, cotton, and pineapples. The island has fairly good
shipping connections with the United Kingdom, the United States, and
Canada. Antigua is governed as a crown colony, the Islands of Barbuda and
Redonda being attached to it. The capital, St. John, the residence of the
governor of the Leeward Islands, stands on the shore of a well-sheltered
harbour in the north-west part of the island. Falmouth (English Harbour) in
the south has also an excellent harbour with a dockyard. The island was
discovered by Columbus in 1493; the first settlement was made by the
English in 1632. Since then, except for a short period of occupation by the
French, it has been a British possession. Pop. 32,269 (1911).

ANTI-JAC´OBIN, a famous magazine (1797-1818), the original object of which
was to satirize the Jacobin principles of the Fox section of Whigs;
principal contributors: Gifford, Canning, Frere, and Ellis.

ANTI-LEBANON, the eastern of the two parallel ranges known as the Mountains
of Lebanon in Palestine. See _Lebanon_.

ANTILEGOM´ENA (things spoken against or objected to), a term applied by
early Christian writers to the _Epistle to the Hebrews_, 2 _Peter_,
_James_, _Jude_, 2 and 3 _John_, and the _Apocalypse_, which, though read
in the churches, were not for some time received into the canon of
Scripture.

ANTILLES (an-til´[=e]z), another name for the West Indian Islands
(excluding Bahamas). See _West Indies_.

ANTILOCHUS (an-til´o-kus), in Greek legend, a son of Nestor, distinguished
among the younger heroes who took part in the Trojan War by beauty,
bravery, and swiftness of foot. He was slain by Memnon, but Achilles
avenged his death.

ANTIMACASS´AR, a covering for chairs, sofas, couches, &c., made of open
cotton or worsted work, to preserve them from being soiled, as by the oil
applied to the hair.

ANTIMACHUS (an-tim´a-kus), a Greek poet who lived about 400 B.C., and wrote
an epic called the _Thebais_ on the mythical history of Thebes, and a long
elegy called _Lyd[=e]_, inspired by a mistress or wife of that name. Both
works were full of mythological details. Only fragments of his writings
remain, and from these it can be gathered that his style was rather
laboured and artificial. Yet the Alexandrian grammarians ranked him next to
Homer.

AN´TIMONY (chemical symbol, Sb, from Lat. _stibium_; sp. gr. 6.7, atomic
wt. 120.2), a brittle metal of a bluish-white or silver-white colour and a
crystalline or laminated structure. It melts at 630.6° C., and burns with a
bluish-white flame. The mineral called stibnite or antimony-glance, is a
tri-sulphide (Sb_2S_3), and is the chief ore from which the metal is
obtained. It is found in many places, including France, Spain, Hungary,
Italy, Canada, Australia, and Borneo. The metal, or, as it was formerly
called, the _regulus of antimony_, does not rust or tarnish when exposed to
the air. When alloyed with other metals it hardens them, and is therefore
used in the manufacture of alloys, such as Britannia-metal, type-metal, and
pewter. In bells it renders the sound more clear; it renders tin more white
and sonorous as well as harder, and gives to printing types more firmness
and smoothness. The salts of antimony are very poisonous. The protoxide is
the active base of tartar emetic and James's powder, and is justly regarded
as a most valuable remedy in many diseases.--_Yellow antimony_ is a
preparation of antimony of a deep yellow colour, used in enamel and
porcelain painting. It is of various tints, and the brilliancy of the
brighter hues is not affected by foul air.

ANTINO´MIANISM ('opposition to the law'), the name given by Luther to the
inference drawn by John Agricola (1492-1566), from the doctrine of
justification by faith, that the moral law is not binding on Christians as
a rule of life. The term antinomian has since been applied to all doctrines
and practices which seem to contemn or discountenance strict moral
obligations. The Lutherans and Calvinists have both been charged with
antinomianism, the former on account of their doctrine of justification by
faith, the latter both on this ground and that of the doctrine of
predestination. The charge is, of course, vigorously repelled by both.

ANTIN´OMY, the opposition of one law or rule to another law or rule; in the
Kantian philosophy, that natural contradiction which results from the law
of reason, when, passing the limits of experience, we seek to conceive the
complex of external phenomena, or nature, as a world or cosmos.

ANTINOUS (an-tin´o-us), a young Bithynian whom the extravagant love of
Hadrian has immortalized. He drowned himself in the Nile in A.D. 122.
Hadrian set no bounds to his grief for his loss. He gave his name to a
newly-discovered star, erected temples in his honour, called a city after
him, and caused him to be adored as a god throughout the empire. Statues,
busts, &c., of him are numerous.

ANTIOCH (an´ti-ok), a town in Syria, famous in ancient times as the capital
of the Greek Kings of Syria, on the left bank of the Orontes, about 21
miles from the sea, in a beautiful and fertile plain. It was founded by
Seleucus Nicator in 300 B.C., and named after his father Antiochus. In
Roman times it was the seat of the Syrian governors, and the centre of a
widely-extended commerce. It was called the 'Queen of the East' and 'The
Beautiful'. Antioch is frequently mentioned in the New Testament, and it
was here that the disciples of our Saviour were first called Christians
(_Acts_, xi, 26). In the first half of the seventh century it was taken by
the Saracens, and in 1098 by the Crusaders. They established the
principality of Antioch, of which the first ruler was Bohemond, and which
lasted till 1268, when it was taken by the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. In
1516 it passed into the hands of the Turks. The modern Antioch, or
_Antakieh_, has recently grown from a small place to a flourishing town.
Pop. estimated at 30,000.--There was another Antioch, in Pisidia, at which
St. Paul preached on his first missionary journey.

[Illustration: Medal of Antiochus Epiphanes]

ANTIOCHUS (an-t[=i]´o-kus), a name of several Græco-Syrian kings of the
dynasty of the Seleuc[)i]dæ.--ANTIOCHUS I, called _S[=o]t[=e]r_
('saviour'), was the son of Seleucus, general of Alexander the Great, and
founder of the dynasty. He was born about 324 B.C., and succeeded his
father in 280 B.C. During the greater part of his reign he was engaged in a
protracted struggle with the Gauls who had crossed from Europe, and by whom
he was killed in battle, 261 B.C.--ANTIOCHUS II, surnamed _Theos_ (god),
succeeded his father, lost several provinces by revolt, and was murdered in
246 B.C. by Laodic[=e], his wife, whom he had put away to marry
Beren[=i]c[=e], daughter of Ptolemy.--ANTIOCHUS III, surnamed the _Great_,
grandson of the preceding, was born 242 B.C., succeeded in 223 B.C. The
early part of his reign embraced a series of wars against revolted
provinces and neighbouring kingdoms, his expeditions extending to India,
over Asia Minor, and afterwards into Europe, where he took possession of
the Thracian Chersonese. Here he encountered the Romans, who had conquered
Philip V of Macedon, and were prepared to resist his further progress.
Antiochus gained an important adviser in Hannibal, who had fled for refuge
to his Court; but he lost the opportunity of an invasion of Italy while the
Romans were engaged in war with the Gauls, of which the Carthaginian urged
him to avail himself. The Romans defeated him by sea and land, and he was
finally overthrown by Scipio at Mount Sip[)y]lus, in Asia Minor, 190 B.C.,
and very severe terms were imposed upon him. He was killed while plundering
a temple in Elymais to procure money to pay the Romans.--ANTIOCHUS IV,
called _Epiph[)a]nes,_ youngest son of the above, is chiefly remarkable for
his attempt to extirpate the Jewish religion, and to establish in its place
the polytheism of the Greeks. This led to the insurrection of the
Maccabees, by which the Jews ultimately recovered their independence. He
died 164 B.C.

ANTIOQUIA ([.a]n-t[=e]-[=o]-k[=e]´[.a]), a town of South America, in
Colombia, on the River Cauca; founded in 1542. Pop. 8730. It gives name to
a department of the republic; area, 22,752 sq. miles. Pop. 739,434.
Capital, Medellin.

ANTIP´AROS (ancient, OLI[)A]ROS), one of the Cyclades Islands in the
Grecian Archipelago, containing a famous stalactitic grotto or cave. It
lies south-west of Paros, from which it is separated by a narrow strait,
and has an area of 10 sq. miles, and about 700 inhabitants.

ANTIP´ATER, a general and friend of Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander
the Great. On the death of Alexander, in 323 B.C., the regency of Macedonia
was assigned to Antipater, who succeeded in establishing the Macedonian
rule in Greece on a firm footing. He died 317 B.C., at an advanced age.

ANTIP´ATHY, a special dislike exhibited by individuals to particular
objects or persons, usually resulting from physical or nervous
organization. An antipathy is often an unaccountable repugnance to what
people in general regard with no particular dislike, as certain sounds,
smells, articles of food, &c., and it may be manifested by fainting or
extreme discomfort.

ANTIPHLOGIS´TIC, a term applied to medicines or methods of treatment that
are intended to counteract inflammation, such as bloodletting, purgatives,
diaphoretics, &c.

AN´TIPHON, a Greek orator, born near Athens; founder of political oratory
in Greece. His orations are the oldest extant, and he is said to have been
the first who wrote speeches for hire. He was put to death for taking part
in the revolution of 411 B.C., which established the oligarchic government
of the Four Hundred. Antiphon seems to have specialized in homicide cases;
his most celebrated speech is _On the Murder of Herodas_. Cf. Sir R. C.
Jebb, _Attic Orators_; J. F. Dobson, _The Greek Orators_.

ANTIPHON, or ANTIPH´ONY ('alternate song'), in the Christian Church a verse
first sung by a single voice, and then repeated by the whole choir; or any
piece to be sung by alternate voices.

ANTIPODES (an-tip´o-d[=e]z), the name given relatively to people or places
on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from one to
the other passes through the centre of the earth and forms a true diameter.
The longitudes of two such places differ by 180°. The difference in their
time is about twelve hours, and their seasons are reversed.

ANTIPODES ISLANDS, a group of small uninhabited islands in the South
Pacific Ocean, about 460 miles S.E. by E. of New Zealand; so called from
being nearly antipodal to Greenwich. Antipodes Island rises to 1300 feet,
and is largely covered with coarse grass; huts have been fitted up to
shelter castaways.

AN´TIPOPE, the name applied to those who at different periods have produced
a schism in the Roman Catholic Church by opposing the authority of the
Pope, under the pretence that they were themselves Popes. The Roman Church
cannot admit that there ever existed two Popes; but the fact is, that in
several cases the competitors for the papal chair were equally Popes; that
is to say, the claims of all were equally good. Each was frequently
supported by whole nations, and the schism was nothing but the struggle of
political interests. Twenty-nine antipopes are enumerated in Church
history; the last of them is Felix V, 1439-49.

ANTIPYRET´ICS, medicines given for the purpose of reducing fever by
lowering the patient's temperature, whether by causing perspiration or
otherwise. Quinine, antipyrin, phenacetin, are common antipyretics. An
aperient or purgative often serves the same purpose.

ANTIPY´RIN, a drug obtained from coal-tar products, valuable in reducing
fever and in relieving pain, being much used in nervous headache and
neuralgia.

AN´TIQUARIES, those devoted to the study of ancient times through their
relics, as old places of burial, remains of ancient habitations, early
monuments, implements or weapons, statues, coins, medals, paintings,
inscriptions, books, and manuscripts, with the view of arriving at a
knowledge of the relations, modes of living, habits, and general condition
of the people who created or employed them. Societies or associations of
antiquaries have been formed in all countries of European civilization. In
Britain the Society of Antiquaries of London was founded in 1572, revived
in 1717. and incorporated in 1751. The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
was founded in 1780, incorporated in 1783, and has the management of a
large national antiquarian museum in Edinburgh. One of the best-known
antiquarian societies in Europe is the _Société Royale des Antiquaires du
Nord_ at Copenhagen.

ANTIQUES (an-t[=e]ks'), a term specifically applied to the remains of
ancient art, as statues, paintings, vases, cameos, and the like, and more
especially to the works of Grecian and Roman antiquity.

ANTIRRHINUM (an-ti-r[=i]´num) (from _anti_, instead of, and _rhis_, snout),
a genus of annual or perennial plants of the nat. ord. Scrophulariaceæ,
commonly known as _snapdragon_, on account of the peculiarity of the
blossoms, which, by pressing between the finger and thumb, may be made to
open and shut like a mouth. They all produce showy flowers, and are much
cultivated in gardens. Many varieties of some of them, such as the great or
common snapdragon (_Antirrhinum majus_), have been produced by gardeners.
The lesser snapdragon grows in sandy soil, and is found in cornfields in
the south of England and Ireland.

ANTISANA ([.a]n-t[=e]-sä´n[.a]), a volcano in the Andes of Ecuador, 35
miles S.E. by E. of Quito. Whymper, who ascended it in 1880, makes its
height 19,260 feet.

ANTIS´CIANS (Gr. _anti_, over against, _skia_, a shadow), those who live
under the same meridian, at the same distance N. and S. of the equator, and
whose shadows at noon consequently are thrown in contrary directions.

ANTISCORBU´TICS, remedies against scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe fruit, milk,
salts of potash, green vegetables, potatoes, fresh meat, and raw or
lightly-boiled eggs, are some of the principal foodstuffs containing
antiscorbutic vitamines.

ANTI-SEM´ITISM, hostility to the Jews (Semites), actively exhibited in
severities and attacks of various kinds. The movement assumed vast
proportions about 1880 and manifested itself in various countries,
especially Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Roumania, and France. It may
be attributed to different motives in different countries, but on the whole
owed its origin not only to the fact of the Jews being a 'peculiar people'
by race and religion, but also to the comparatively high position won by
them in modern times in the financial and political worlds. The religious
element is quite prominent in the popular attacks on the Jew, although
modern anti-Semitism is essentially social and economic. In Western Russia
there was a great outburst against the Jews in 1881, in which men, women,
and children were slaughtered. The Government of the Tsar, by its
anti-Jewish policy, may be said to have sanctioned this murderous outbreak,
which was followed by harsh laws and actual persecutions, though afterwards
there was a mitigation of the severity shown towards the Jews. Yet in 1903
the world was startled by a terrible massacre of Jews at Kishinev, in
Bessarabia, connived at by the authorities on the spot; and towards the end
of 1905, in connection with the Russian revolutionary movement, there were
dreadful massacres of Jews in Odessa, Kishinev, and other towns, the
authorities being similarly involved. In Roumania, until 1919, the position
of the Jews resembled what it was elsewhere in mediæval times, and was less
favourable than it was even under the Turks. In Germany the movement has
been worked chiefly by politicians for their own ends, though the racial
and religious question has also had some influence; and among the ignorant
the belief that the Jews murder Christian children for ritual purposes has
been revived, as also in Austria and in Hungary. In these countries the
movement has been partly political, partly social and economic, partly
religious. In France anti-Semitism has been employed chiefly as a weapon by
monarchists and clericals as against republicanism, and by the Socialists
as against capitalism, racial antipathy having also its influence on the
movements. It reached its height in 1895 at the time of the Dreyfus affair.
In Britain, too, anti-Semitism has of late made itself felt.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
A. Leroy-Beaulieu, _Israel among the Nations_; Bernard Lazare,
_L'anti-sémitisme, son histoire et ses causes_.

ANTISEP´TIC (Gr. _anti_, against, and _s[=e]pein_, to rot), an agent which
destroys the germs of putrefaction or suppuration is called an antiseptic.
Many substances act thus, e.g. chlorine, iodine, hypochlorous acid,
sulphurous acid, camphor, creosote, iodoform, nascent oxygen ('Sanitas'),
corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde ('Formalin'), potassium permanganate
('Condy's Fluid'), carbolic acid (Lysol, Izal, Cyllin); lately aniline dyes
have become prominent: of these flavine has proved the most useful addition
to surgery of recent years. It was much used in the European War
(1914-8).--_Antiseptics_ are also used for purifying surgical instruments,
&c., and commercially as disinfectants. When introduced by Lister into
surgical practice they led to revolutionary advances in surgery. The
tendency of late years has been to abandon antiseptic for aseptic (sterile)
mode of technique, but during the war (1914-8) there was a general return
to antiseptic methods in surgery.

ANTISPASMOD´IC, a medicine for the cure of spasms and convulsions; such
belong largely to the class of ethers, as sulphuric ether, chloric ether,
nitric ether, &c.

ANTISTHENES (an-tis´the-n[=e]z), a Greek philosopher and the founder of the
school of Cynics, born at Athens about 444 B.C. He was first a disciple of
Gorgias and then of Socrates, at whose death he was present. His philosophy
was a one-sided development of the Socratic teaching. He held virtue to
consist in complete self-denial and in disregard of riches, honour, or
pleasure of every kind. He himself lived as a beggar. He died in Athens at
an advanced age.

ANTIS´TROPHE. See _Strophe_.

ANTI-SUBMARINE. See _Submarine_.

ANTI-TAURUS, a mountain range of Anatolia, Asia Minor, extending from the
Cicilian Taurus towards the north-east, and connecting the Taurus mountain
system with Mount Ararat, Mount Elbruz, and the Caucasus. See _Taurus_.

ANTITH´ESIS (opposition), a figure of speech consisting in a contrast or
opposition of words or sentiments; as, 'When our vices _leave us_, we
flatter ourselves we _leave them_'; 'The prodigal _robs his heir_, the
miser _robs himself_'.

ANTITOXIN, the name given to a class of bodies of unknown nature having the
capacity of neutralizing the poisonous substances (toxins) by which certain
bacteria produce disease. If such a toxin be introduced every few days in
increasing doses, into, e.g., the horse, and if, after some months of this
treatment, the animal be bled, its serum contains the antitoxin to the
toxins used. The use of the antitoxin to the toxin of diphtheria is most
efficacious in curing that disease, and the treatment has caused a great
fall in the death-rate. It ought to be applied as soon as possible after
signs appear in the throat. An antitoxic treatment is also applicable in
cases of tetanus (lock-jaw), a disease liable to follow any wound
contaminated with dirt, especially with manured soil. Less success has been
achieved when the disease is fully established, but if the antitoxin be
injected immediately after the wound has been incurred, then the subsequent
development of the disease is prevented. This preventive treatment has been
attended with marked effect in the case of wounds received in war, which it
is almost impossible to keep free from contamination. Antitoxins were
extensively used during the European War. (1914-8). In bacterial diseases
other than those mentioned, sera have been produced by injecting into large
animals dead and living bacteria, e.g. the organisms of epidemic
cerebro-spinal meningitis (spotted fever), pneumonia, blood-poisoning, &c.,
and these sera probably depend for their action on the presence of bodies
similar to antitoxins. See _Bacteria_, _Diphtheria_.

ANTI-TRADE WINDS, a name given to any of the upper tropical winds which
move northward or southward in the same manner as the trade-winds which
blow beneath them in the opposite direction. These great aerial currents
descend to the surface after they have passed the limits of the
trade-winds, and form the south-west or west-south-west winds of the north
temperate, and the north-west or west-north-west winds of the south
temperate zones.

ANTITRINITA´RIANS, all who do not receive the doctrine of the divine
Trinity, or the existence of three persons in the Godhead; especially
applied to those who oppose such a doctrine on philosophical grounds, as
contrasted with Unitarians, who reject the doctrine as not warranted by
Scripture.

AN´TITYPE, that which is correlative to a type; by theological writers the
term is employed to denote the reality of which a _type_ is the prophetic
symbol.

AN´TIUM, in ancient Italy, one of the most ancient and powerful cities of
Latium, the chief city of the Volsci, and often at war with the Romans, by
whom it was finally taken in 338 B.C. It was 38 miles distant from Rome, a
flourishing seaport, and became a favourite residence of the wealthy
Romans. It was destroyed by the Saracens, but vestiges of it remain at
Porto d'Anzo, near which many valuable works of art have been found.

ANTIVARI ([.a]n-t[=e]´v[.a]-r[=e]), a seaport town on the eastern shore of
the Adriatic, ceded to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). Antivari
was opened as a free port on 23rd Oct., 1909. It was occupied by the
Austrians in 1916, and by the Italians in Nov., 1918. Pop. 2500.

ANTLERS, the horns of the deer tribe, or the snags or branches of the
horns.

ANT-LION, the larva of a Neuropterous insect (_Myrmel[)e]on
formic[=a]rius_), which in its perfect state greatly resembles a
dragon-fly; curious on account of its ingenious method of catching the
insects--chiefly ants--on which it feeds. It digs a funnel-shaped hole in
the driest and finest sand it can find, and when the pit is deep enough,
and the sides are quite smooth and sloping, it buries itself at the bottom
with only its formidable mandibles projecting, and waits till some luckless
insect stumbles over the edge, when it is immediately seized, its juices
sucked, and the dead body jerked out. It inhabits Southern Europe.

ANTOFAGAS´TA, a Chilian seaport on the Bay of Morena, and a territory of
the same name taken from Bolivia in the war of 1879-82, and definitely
ceded to Chile in 1885. The territory has an area of 46,408 sq. miles; pop.
(1919), 235,506. The port is connected by railway with the silver and other
mines lying inland, and exports silver, copper, cubic nitre, &c., partly
from Bolivia. Pop. (1919), 69,175.

ANTOINETTE ([.a][n.]-tw[.a]-net), Marie. See _Marie Antoinette_.

ANTOKOLSKI, Mark, Russian sculptor of Jewish extraction, born at Vilna in
1843. He studied at the Petrograd Academy of Fine Arts, and his earliest
success was a wooden statue _The Jewish Tailor_ (1864). In 1868 he received
a grant for travelling, and whilst in Italy he finished his famous statue,
_Ivan the Terrible_. He was made an academician, and in 1878 was awarded
the first prize for sculpture at the Paris International Exhibition. In
1888 he settled permanently in Paris, where he died in 1902. His works
include: _Peter the Great_ (1872), _Christ before the People_ (1874), _The
Death of Socrates_ (1876), _Spinoza_ (1882), _Yermak_ and _The Sleeping
Beauty_ (1900).

ANTOMMARCHI (-mär´k[=e]), Carlo Francesco, Italian physician, born in
Corsica in 1780, died in Cuba 1838. He was professor of anatomy at Florence
when he offered himself as physician to Napoleon at St. Helena. Napoleon at
first received him with reserve, but soon admitted him to his confidence,
and testified his satisfaction with him by leaving him a legacy of 100,000
francs. On his return to Europe he published _Les Derniers Moments de
Napoléon_ (2 vols., 8vo, 1823).

ANTONELL´I, Giacomo, cardinal, born 1806, died 1876. He was educated at the
Grand Seminary of Rome, where he attracted the attention of Pope Gregory
XVI, who appointed him to several important offices. On the accession of
Pius IX in 1846 Antonelli was raised to the dignity of cardinal-deacon; two
years later he became president and Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in
1850 was appointed Secretary of State. During the sitting of the
Oecumenical Council (1869-70) he was a prominent champion of the papal
interest. He strongly opposed the assumption of the united Italian crown by
Victor Emanuel.

ANTONELL´O (of Messina), an Italian painter who died at Venice, probably in
1493, and is said to have introduced oil-painting into Italy, having been
instructed in it by Jan Van Eyck. Three works by him are in the National
Gallery, London.

ANTONI´NUS, ITINERARY OF. See _Itinerary_.

ANTONI´NUS, Marcus Aurelius. See _Aurelius_.

ANTONI´NUS, WALL OF, a barrier erected by the Romans across the isthmus
between the Forth and the Clyde, in the reign of Antoninus Pius. Its
western extremity was at or near Dunglass Castle, its eastern at Carriden,
and the whole length of it exceeded 27 miles. It was constructed A.D. 140
by Lollius Urbicus, the imperial legate, and consisted of a ditch 40 feet
wide and 20 feet deep, and a rampart of stone and earth on the south side
24 feet thick and 20 feet in height. It was strengthened at either end and
along its course by a series of forts and watch-towers. It may still be
traced at various points, and is commonly known as _Graham's Dyke_.

[Illustration: Coin of Antoninus Pius]

ANTONI´NUS PIUS, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, Roman emperor, was born at
Lavinium, near Rome, A.D. 86, died A.D. 161. In 120 A.D. he became consul,
and he was one of the four persons of consular rank among whom Hadrian
divided the supreme administration of Italy. He then went as proconsul to
Asia, and after his return to Rome became more and more the object of
Hadrian's confidence. In A.D. 138 he was selected by that emperor as his
successor, and the same year he ascended the throne. He speedily put down
the persecutions of the Christians, and carried on but a few wars. In
Britain he extended the Roman dominion, and, by raising a new wall (see
preceding article), put a stop to the invasions of the Picts and Scots. The
senate gave him the surname _Pius_, that is, dutiful or showing filial
affection, because to keep alive the memory of Hadrian he had built a
temple in his honour. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius, his adopted son.

ANTO´NIUS, Marcus (Mark Antony), Roman triumvir, born 83 B.C., was
connected with the family of Cæsar by his mother. Debauchery and
prodigality marked his youth. To escape his creditors he went to Greece in
58, and from thence followed the consul Gabinius on a campaign in Syria as
commander of the cavalry. He served in Gaul under Cæsar in 52 and 51. In 50
he returned to Rome to support the interests of Cæsar against the
aristocratical party headed by Pompey, and was appointed tribune. When war
broke out between Cæsar and Pompey, Antony led reinforcements to Cæsar in
Greece, and in the battle of Pharsalia he commanded the left wing. He
afterwards returned to Rome with the appointment of Master of the Horse and
Governor of Italy (47). In 44 B.C. he became Cæsar's colleague in the
consulship. Soon after Cæsar was assassinated, Antony, by the reading of
Cæsar's will, and by the oration which he delivered over his body, excited
the people to anger and revenge, and the murderers were obliged to flee.
After several quarrels and reconciliations with Octavianus, Cæsar's heir
(see _Augustus_), Antony departed to Cisalpine Gaul, which province had
been conferred upon him against the will of the Senate. But Cicero
thundered against him in his famous _Philippics_; the Senate declared him a
public enemy, and entrusted the conduct of the war against him to
Octavianus and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. After a campaign of varied
fortunes Antony fled with his troops over the Alps. Here he was joined by
Lepidus, who commanded in Gaul, and through whose mediation Antony and
Octavianus were again reconciled. It was agreed that the Roman world should
be divided among the three conspirators, who were called _triumviri_.
Antony was to take Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and Octavianus, Africa and Sicily.
They decided upon the proscription of their mutual enemies, each giving up
his friends to the others, the most celebrated of the victims being Cicero
the orator. Antony and Octavianus departed in 42 for Macedonia, where the
united forces of their enemies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army,
which was, however, speedily defeated at Philippi. Antony next visited
Athens, and thence proceeded to Asia. In Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra,
Queen of Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behaviour to the _triumviri_.
She appeared in person, and her charms fettered him for ever. He followed
her to Alexandria, where he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of
the world, till he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced
in Italy between his own relatives and Octavianus. A short war, followed,
which was decided in favour of Octavianus before the arrival of Antony in
Italy. A reconciliation was effected, which was sealed by the marriage of
Antony with Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. A new division of the Roman
dominions was now made (in 40), by which Antony obtained the East,
Octavianus the West. After his return to Asia Antony gave himself up
entirely to Cleopatra, assuming the style of an Eastern despot, and so
alienating many of his adherents and embittering public opinion against him
at Rome. At length war was declared at Rome against the Queen of Egypt, and
Antony was deprived of his consulship and government. Each party assembled
its forces, and Antony lost, in the naval battle at Actium, 31 B.C., the
dominion of the world. He followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and on the
arrival of Octavianus his fleet and cavalry deserted, and his infantry was
defeated. Deceived by a false report of her death which Cleopatra had
disseminated, he fell upon his own sword (30 B.C.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mommsen,
_Roman History_; Plutarch, _Lives_ (translated by Langhorne); De Quincey,
_Essay on the Cæsars_.

ANTONOMA´SIA, in rhetoric, the use of the name of some office, dignity,
profession, science, or trade instead of the true name of the person, as
when _his majesty_ is used for a king, _his lordship_ for a nobleman; or
when, instead of Aristotle, we say, _the philosopher_; or, conversely, the
use of a proper noun instead of a common noun; as, a _Solomon_ for a wise
man.

ANTONY, Mark. See _Antonius_ (_Marcus_).

ANTONY, ST. See _Anthony_.

AN´TRIM, a county of Ireland, province of Ulster, in the north-east of the
island; area, 702,654 acres, of which about a third are arable. The eastern
and northern districts are comparatively mountainous, with tracts of heath
and bog, but no part rises to a great height. The principal rivers are the
Lagan and the Bann, which separate Antrim from Down and Londonderry
respectively. The general soil of the plains and valleys is strong loam.
Flax, oats, and potatoes are the principal agricultural produce. Cattle,
sheep, swine, and goats are extensively reared. There are salt-mines and
beds of iron-ore, which is worked and exported. A range of basaltic strata
stretches along the northern coast, of which the celebrated Giant's
Causeway is the most remarkable portion, the vast aggregates of natural
rock pillars there being very striking. The interior also contains some
scenes of picturesque beauty, particularly the fertile valley of the Lagan,
between Belfast and Lisburn. Much of the scenery of the county, however, is
dreary and monotonous. Lough Neagh, the largest lake of the United Kingdom,
is principally in Antrim. Its waters are carried to the sea by the Bann,
which is of no use for navigation, being obstructed by weirs and rocks. The
spinning of linen and cotton yarn, and the weaving of linen and cotton, are
the staple manufactures, but the cotton manufacture is small compared with
that of linen. The principal towns are Belfast, Lisburn, Ballymena, Larne,
and Carrickfergus. In 1898 Belfast, the former capital, was constituted
into a county borough. About fifty per cent of the inhabitants are
Presbyterians, being the descendants of Scottish immigrants of the
seventeenth century. The county sends four members to Parliament; Belfast
returns nine. Pop. (excluding Belfast) 193,864 (1911).--The town of Antrim,
at the north end of Lough Neagh, is a small place with a pop. of 1826.

ANT-THRUSH, a name given to certain passerine or perching birds having
resemblances to the thrushes and supposed to feed largely on ants. They all
have longish legs, short wings, and a short tail. The true ant-thrushes of
the Old World belong to the genus Pitta. They chiefly inhabit southern and
south-eastern Asia and the Eastern Archipelago, but are also found in
Africa and Australia, and are birds of brilliant plumage, exhibiting black,
white, scarlet, blue, and green in vivid contrast, there being generally no
blending of colours by means of intermediate hues. These birds are not now
regarded as allied to the thrushes, nor are they allied to the ant-birds,
or ant-thrushes of the New World, which live among close foliage and
bushes. Some of these are called ant-shrikes and ant-wrens. They belong to
several genera.

ANT´WERP (Du. and Ger. _Antwerpen_, Fr. _Anvers_), the chief port of
Belgium, and one of the first on the Continent, the capital of a province
of the same name, on the Scheldt, about 50 miles from the open sea. It lies
in a fertile plain at an abrupt turn of the river, which is here from 160
to 280 yards wide, and has a depth varying from 25 to 50 feet. It is
strongly fortified, being completely surrounded on the land side by a
semicircular inner line of fortifications, the defences being completed by
an outer line of forts and outworks. Fine quays have been constructed along
the river banks. The general appearance of the city is exceedingly
picturesque, an effect produced by the numerous churches, convents, and
magnificent public buildings, the stately antique houses that line its
older thoroughfares, and the profusion of beautiful trees with which it is
adorned. The older streets are tortuous and irregular, but those in the
newer quarters are wide and regular. Some of the squares are very handsome.
The cathedral, with a spire 400 feet high, one of the largest and most
beautiful specimens of Gothic architecture in Belgium, contains Rubens'
celebrated masterpieces, _The Descent from the Cross_, _The Elevation of
the Cross_, and _The Assumption_. The other churches of note are St.
James's, St. Andrew's, and St. Paul's, all enriched with paintings by
Rubens, Vandyck, and other masters. Among the other buildings of note are
the exchange, the town hall, the palace, the theatre, academy of the fine
arts, picture and sculpture galleries, &c. The harbour accommodation is
extensive and excellent, large new docks and quays having been recently
built, and other works being under construction or contemplated. The
shipping trade is now very large, Antwerp being a great centre of the
world's commerce, and the goods being largely in transit. The entries of
vessels in a year aggregate over 13,000,000 tons. Much of the trade is with
Britain. There are numerous but not very important industries. Antwerp is
mentioned as early as the eighth century, and in the eleventh and twelfth
it had attained a high degree of prosperity. In the sixteenth century it is
said to have had a pop. of 200,000, and it had then an extensive foreign
trade. The wars between the Netherlands and Spain greatly injured its
commerce, which was almost ruined by the closing of the navigation of the
Scheldt in accordance with the peace of Westphalia (1648). It was only in
the nineteenth century that its prosperity revived. In the European War
(1914-8), the Germans, under General von Beseler, entered Antwerp on 7th
Oct., 1914, and remained there until Nov., 1918. Pop. (1919), 322,857.--The
province consists of a fertile plain 1093 sq. miles in area, and has a pop.
of over 1,000,000.

[Illustration: Anubis]

ANU´BIS (_Anepo_ on the monuments), one of the deities of the ancient
Egyptians, the son of Osiris by Isis. The Egyptian sculptures represent him
with the head, or under the form, of a jackal, with long pointed ears. His
office was to conduct the souls of the dead from this world to the next,
and in the lower world he weighed the actions of the deceased previous to
their admission to the presence of Osiris.

ANÚPSHAHR (_a_-nöp´shär), a town of Hindustan, United Provinces, on the
Ganges, 75 miles S.E. of Delhi, a resort of Hindu pilgrims who bathe in the
Ganges. Pop. 15,000.

ANU´RA, or ANOU´RA (Gr. _an_, negative, _oura_, a tail), an ord. of
Batrachians which lose the tail when they reach maturity, such as the frogs
and toads.

ANURADHAPURA. See _Anarajapura_.

A´NUS, the opening at the lower or posterior extremity of the alimentary
canal through which the excrement or waste products of digestion are
expelled.

AN´VIL, an instrument on which pieces of metal are laid for the purpose of
being hammered. The common smith's anvil is generally made of seven pieces,
namely, the core or body; the four corners for the purpose of enlarging its
base; the projecting end, which contains a square hole for the reception of
a set or chisel to cut off pieces of iron; and the beak or conical end,
used for turning pieces of iron into a circular form, &c. These pieces are
each separately welded to the core and hammered so as to form a regular
surface with the whole. When the anvil has received its due form, it is
faced with steel, and is then tempered in cold water. The smith's anvil is
generally placed loose upon a wooden block. The anvil for heavy operations,
such as the forging of ordnance and shafting, consists of a huge iron block
deeply embedded, and resting on piles of masonry.

ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' (jä[n.] b[.a]p-t[=e]st
b[=o]r-g[=e]-nyö[n.] dä[n.]-v[=e]l), a celebrated French geographer, born
1697, died 1782; published a great number of maps and writings illustrative
of ancient and modern geography.

ANYNAKS, a negro tribe inhabiting the banks of the Upper Sobat (a tributary
of the White Nile), between the Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia. They rebelled
against British authority in 1912.

ANZACS, a composite word used as the name of the British colonial troops in
the Gallipoli undertaking. The men being from Australia and New Zealand,
their organization was officially known as the Australian-New Zealand Army
Corps. The full title, however, was much too cumbersome, and a clerk in one
of the head-quarters offices at Zeitoun, where the troops were in training,
hit upon the word _Anzacs_, formed from the initial letters of the long
title. The Anzacs landed near Gaba Tepe, Gallipoli, on the morning of 25th
April, 1915, and had their first encounter with the Germans on the Western
Front on 6th May, 1916. In 1916 the word Anzac was officially adopted by
the War Office.

ANZIN ([.a][n.]-za[n.]), a town of France, department of Nord, about 1 mile
north-west of Valenciennes, in the centre of an extensive coal-field, with
blast-furnaces, forges, rolling-mills, foundries, &c. Pop. 14,325.

AONIA, in ancient geography a name for part of Boeotia in Greece,
containing Mount Helicon and the fountain Aganippe, both haunts of the
muses.

A´ORIST, the name given to one of the tenses of the verb in some languages
(as the Greek), which expresses indefinite past time.

AOR´TA, in anatomy, the great artery or trunk of the arterial system,
proceeding from the left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin to all
the arteries except the pulmonary. It first rises towards the top of the
breast-bone, when it is called the _ascending aorta_; then makes a great
curve, called the transverse or _great arch of the aorta_, whence it
branches off to the head and upper extremities; thence proceeding towards
the lower extremities, under the name of the _descending aorta_, it
branches off to the trunk; and finally divides into the two iliacs, which
supply the pelvis and lower extremities.

AOSTA ([.a]-os´t[.a]; ancient AUGUSTA PRÆTORIA), a town of north Italy, 50
miles N.N.W. of Turin, on the Dora-Baltea, with an ancient triumphal arch,
remains of an amphitheatre, &c. Pop. 7000.

AOUDAD (a-ö´dad), the _Ammotr[)a]gus tragel[)a]phus_, a quadruped allied to
the sheep, most closely to the mouflon, from which, however, it may be
easily distinguished by the heavy mane, commencing at the throat and
falling as far as the knees. It is a native of North Africa, inhabiting the
loftiest and most inaccessible rocks.

APACHES ([.a]-pä´chez), a warlike race of North-American Indians, numbering
between 5000 and 6000, and inhabiting Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma.
The final surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, but a few in Mexico
still maintain their independence and hostility to the whites. The name
_Apache_ was assumed by Parisian hooligans, notorious for their criminal
outrages.

AP´ANAGE, an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning house in
some European countries receive from the revenues of the country, generally
together with a grant of public domains, that they may be enabled to live
in a manner becoming their rank.

AP´ATITE, a translucent but seldom transparent mineral, which crystallizes
in a regular six-sided prism, usually terminated by a truncated six-sided
pyramid. It passes through various shades of colour, from white to yellow,
green, blue, and occasionally red, scratches fluor-spar but is scratched by
felspar, and has a specific gravity of about 3.5. It is a compound of
calcium phosphate with calcium fluoride or chloride. It occurs principally
in igneous rocks, particularly diorites. The very coarse-grained granites
of Ontario contain apatite crystals of corresponding size, which have been
picked out as a source of artificial phosphate manures. Apatite supplies to
soils almost all the phosphorus available for plants in a state of nature.

APE, a common name of a number of quadrumanous animals inhabiting the Old
World (Asia and the Asiatic Islands, and Africa), and including a variety
of species. The word _ape_ was formerly applied indiscriminately to all
quadrumanous mammals; but it is now limited to the anthropoid or man-like
monkeys. The family includes the chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-outang, &c.,
and has been divided into three genera, Troglod[)y]tes, Simia, and
Hylob[)a]tes. See _Chimpanzee_, _Gibbon_, _Gorilla_, _Monkey_, _Orang_, &c.

APELDOORN (ä´pel-d[=o]rn), a town of Holland, province of Guelderland, 17
miles north of Arnhem, with manufactures of paper. The royal palace Loo is
here. Pop. 44,474.

APELLES (a-pel´[=e]z), the most famous of the painters of ancient Greece
and of antiquity, was born in the fourth century B.C., probably at
Colophon. Ephorus of Ephesus was his first teacher, but attracted by the
renown of the Sicyonian school he went and studied at Sicyon. In the time
of Philip he went to Macedonia, and there a close friendship between him
and Alexander the Great was established. The most admired of his pictures
was that of Venus rising from the sea and wringing the water from her
dripping locks. His portrait of Alexander with a thunderbolt in his hand
was no less celebrated. He died about the end of the century. Among the
anecdotes told of Apelles is the one which gave rise to the Latin proverb,
'Ne sutor ultra crepidam'--'Let not the shoemaker go beyond the shoe'.
Having heard a cobbler point out an error in the drawing of a shoe in one
of his pictures he corrected it, whereupon the cobbler took upon him to
criticize the leg, and received from the artist the famous reply.

AP´ENNINES (Lat. _Mons Apenninus_), a prolongation of the Alps, forming the
'backbone of Italy'. Beginning at Savona, on the Gulf of Genoa, the
Apennines traverse the whole of the peninsula and also cross over into
Sicily, the Strait of Messina being regarded merely as a gap in the chain.
The average height of the mountains composing the range is about 4000 feet,
and nowhere do they reach the limits of perpetual snow, though some summits
exceed 9000 feet in height. Monte Corno, called also Gran Sasso d'Italia
(Great Rock of Italy), which rises among the mountains of the Abruzzi, is
the loftiest of the chain, rising to the height of 9541 feet, Monte Majella
(9151) being next. Monte Gargano, which juts out into the Adriatic from the
_ankle_ of Italy, is a mountainous mass upwards of 5000 feet high,
completely separated from the main chain. On the Adriatic side the
mountains descend more abruptly to the sea than on the western or
Mediterranean side, and the streams are comparatively short and rapid. On
the western side are the valleys of the Arno, Tiber, Garigliano, and
Volturno, the largest rivers that rise in the Apennines, and the only ones
of importance in the peninsular portion of Italy. They consist almost
entirely of limestone rocks, and are exceedingly rich in the finest
marbles. On the south slopes volcanic masses are not uncommon. Mount
Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the continent of Europe, is an
instance. The lower slopes are well clothed with vegetation, the summits
are sterile and bare.

APENRADE (ä´pen-rä-de), a seaport in Schleswig-Holstein, on a fiord of the
Little Belt, beautifully situated, and carrying on a considerable fishing
industry. Pop. 7800.

APE´RIENT, a medicine which, in moderate doses, gently but completely opens
the bowels: examples, castor-oil, Epsom salts, senna, &c.

APET´ALOUS, a botanical term applied to flowers or flowering-plants which
are destitute of petals or corolla.

APHANIP´TERA, an order of wingless insects, composed of the different
species of fleas. See _Flea_.

APHA´SIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _phasis_, speaking), in pathology, a symptom of
certain morbid conditions of the nervous system, in which the patient loses
the power of expressing ideas by means of words, or loses the appropriate
use of words, the vocal organs the while remaining intact and the
intelligence sound. There is sometimes an entire loss of words as connected
with ideas, and sometimes only the loss of a few. In one form of the
disease, called _aphemia_, the patient can think and write, but cannot
speak; in another, called _agraphia_, he can think and speak, but cannot
express his ideas in writing. In a great majority of cases, where
post-mortem examinations have been made, morbid changes have been found in
the left frontal convolution of the brain.

APHE´LION (Gr. _apo_, from, and _h[=e]lios_, the sun), that point of the
orbit of the earth or any other planet which is remotest from the sun.

APHE´MIA. See _Aphasia_.

APHIDES (af´i-d[=e]z). See _Aphis_.

[Illustration: Aphides

Cabbage-leaf Plant-louse (_Aphis brassicæ_)--1, 2. Male, natural size and
magnified. 3, 4, Female, natural size and magnified.]

APHIS, a genus of insects (called plant-lice) of the ord. Hemiptera, the
type of the family Aph[)i]d[=e]s. The species are very numerous and
destructive. The _A. rosæ_ lives on the rose; the _A. fabæ_ on the bean;
the _A. hum[)u]li_ is injurious to the hop, the _A. granaria_ to cereals,
and _A. lanig[)e]ra_ or woolly aphis equally so to apple trees. The aphides
are furnished with an inflected beak, and feelers longer than the thorax.
In the same species some individuals have four erect wings and others are
entirely without wings. The feet are of the ambulatory kind, and the
abdomen usually ends in two horn-like tubes, from which is ejected the
substance called honey-dew, a favourite food of ants. (See _Ant_.) The
aphides illustrate parthenogenesis; hermaphrodite forms produced from eggs
produce viviparous wingless forms, which again produce others like
themselves, and thus multiply during summer, one individual giving rise to
millions. Winged sexual forms appear late in autumn, the females of which,
being impregnated by the males, produce eggs.

APHO´NIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _ph[=o]n[=e]_, voice), in pathology, the
greater or less impairment, or the complete loss of the power of emitting
vocal sound. The slighter and less permanent forms often arise from extreme
nervousness, fright, and hysteria. Slight forms of structural aphonia are
of a catarrhal nature, resulting from more or less congestion and
tumefaction of the mucous and submucous tissues of the larynx and adjoining
parts. Severer cases are frequently occasioned by serous infiltration into
the submucous tissue, with or without inflammation of the mucous membrane
of the larynx and of its vicinity. The voice may also be affected in
different degrees by inflammatory affections of the fauces and tonsils; by
tumours in these situations; by morbid growths pressing on or implicating
the larynx or trachea; by aneurisms; and most frequently by chronic
laryngitis and its consequences, especially thickening, ulceration, &c.

APH´ORISM, a brief, sententious saying, in which a comprehensive meaning is
involved, as 'Familiarity breeds contempt'; 'Necessity has no law'.

APHRODITE (af-ro-di´t[=e]), the goddess of love among the Greeks;
counterpart of the Roman Venus. A festival called Aphrodisia was celebrated
in her honour in various parts of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. See
_Venus_.

APHTHÆ (af´th[=e]), a disease occurring especially in infants, but
occasionally seen in old persons, and consisting of small white ulcers upon
the tongue, gums, inside of the lips, and palate, resembling particles of
curdled milk: commonly called _thrush_ or _milk-thrush_.

A´PIA, the chief place and trading centre of the Samoa Islands, on the
north side of the Island of Upolu. It has a wireless station.

A´PIARY (Lat. _apis_, a bee), a place for keeping bees. The apiary should
be well sheltered from strong winds, moisture, and the extremes of heat and
cold. The hives should face the south or south-east, and should be placed
on shelves 2 feet above the ground, and about the same distance from each
other. There is no place for handling bees like the open air in suitable
weather, and for this reason bee-houses, or bee-sheds, formerly in use, are
not much in vogue now. As to the form of the hives and the materials of
which they should be constructed there are great differences of opinion.
The old dome-shaped straw _skep_ is still in general use among the
cottagers of Great Britain. Its cheapness and simplicity of construction
are in its favour, while it is excellent for warmth and ventilation; but it
has the disadvantage that its interior is closed to inspection, and the
honey can only be got out by stupefying the bees with the smoke of the
common puff-ball or chloroform, or by fumigating with sulphur, which
entails the destruction of the swarm. Wooden hives of square box-like form
are now gaining general favour among bee-keepers. They usually consist of a
large breeding chamber below and two sliding removable boxes called
'supers' above for the abstraction of honey without disturbing the contents
of the main chamber. It is of great importance that the apiary should be
situated in the neighbourhood of good feeding grounds, such as gardens,
clover-fields, or heath-covered hills. When their stores of honey are
removed, the bees must be fed during the winter and part of spring with
syrup or with a solution consisting of 2 lb. loaf-sugar to a pint of water.
In the early spring slow and continuous feeding (a few ounces of syrup each
day) will stimulate the queen to deposit her eggs, by which means the
colony is rapidly strengthened and throws off early swarms. New swarms may
make their appearance as early as May and as late as August, but swarming
usually takes place in the intervening months. See _Bee-keeping_, _Hives_.

APIC´IUS, Marcus Gabius, a Roman epicure in the time of Augustus and
Tiberius, who, having exhausted his vast fortune on the gratification of
his palate, and having _only_ about £80,000 left, poisoned himself that he
might escape the misery of plain diet. The book of cookery published under
the title of _Apicius_ was written by one Cælius, and belongs to a much
later date.

A´PION, a Greek grammarian, born in Egypt, lived in the reigns of Tiberius,
Caligula, and Claudius, A.D. 15-54, and went to Rome to teach grammar and
rhetoric. Among his works, one or two fragments only of which remain, was
one directed against the Jews, which was replied to by Josephus.

A´PIOS, a genus of leguminous climbing plants, producing edible tubers on
underground shoots. An American species (_A. tuber[=o]sa_) has been used as
a substitute for the potato, but its tubers, though numerous, are small.

[Illustration: Apis]

A´PIS, a bull to which divine honours were paid by the ancient Egyptians,
who regarded him as a symbol of Osiris. At Memphis he had a splendid
residence, containing extensive walks and courts for his entertainment, and
he was waited upon by a large train of priests, who looked upon his every
movement as oracular. He was not suffered to live beyond twenty-five years,
being secretly killed by the priests and thrown into a sacred well. Another
bull, characterized by certain marks, as a black colour, a triangle of
white on the forehead, a white crescent-shaped spot on the right side, &c.,
was selected in his place. His birthday was annually celebrated, and his
death was a season of public mourning. See _Animal Worship_.

A´PIS, a genus of insects. See _Bee_.

A´PIUM, a genus of umbelliferous plants, including celery.

APLACEN´TAL. See _Placenta_, _Marsupialia_, and _Echidna_.

APLANAT´IC. See _Optics_, _Photography_.

APLYSIA. See _Sea-hare_.

APOC´ALYPSE (Gr. _apokalypsis_, a revelation), the name given to the last
book of the New Testament, in the English version called _The Revelation of
St. John the Divine_. Although a Christian work, the _Apocalypse_ belongs
to a class of literature dealing with eschatological subjects and much in
vogue among the Jews of the first century B.C. It is generally believed
that the _Apocalypse_ was written by the apostle John in his old age (A.D.
95-97) in the Isle of Patmos, whither he had been banished by the Roman
Emperor Domitian. Anciently its genuineness was maintained by Justin
Martyr, Irenæus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and many others; while
it was doubted by Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom,
and, nearer our own times, by Luther. The _Apocalypse_ has been explained
differently by almost every writer who has ventured to interpret it, and
has furnished all sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to support
their creeds or pretensions. The modern interpreters may be divided into
three schools--namely, the _historical school_, who hold that the prophecy
embraces the whole history of the Church and its foes from the time of its
writing to the end of the world; the _Præterists_, who hold that the whole
or nearly the whole of the prophecy has been already fulfilled, and that it
refers chiefly to the triumph of Christianity over Paganism and Judaism;
and the _Futurists_, who throw the whole prophecy, except the first three
chapters, forward upon a time not yet reached by the Church--a period of no
very long duration, which is immediately to precede Christ's second coming.
See _Bible_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. H. Charles, _Studies in the Apocalypse_;
F. C. Burkitt, _Jewish and Christian Apocalypses_.

APOCALYPTIC NUMBER, the mystic number 666 found in _Rev._ xiii, 18. As
early as the second century ecclesiastical writers found that the name
Antichrist was indicated by the Greek characters expressive of this number.
By Irenæus the word _Lateinos_ was found in the letters of the number, and
the Roman Empire was therefore considered to be Antichrist. Protestants
generally believe it has reference to the Papacy, and, on the other hand,
Catholics connect it with Protestantism. It is, however, almost certain
that the number refers to Nero, for by transliterating the Greek _Kaisar
Neron_ into Hebrew, and adding together the sums denoted by the Hebrew
letters, we obtain the number 666.

APOCAR´POUS, in botany, a term applied to such fruits as are the produce of
a single flower, and are formed of one carpel, or a number of carpels free
and separate from each other.

APOC´RYPHA (Gr., 'things concealed or spurious'), a term applied in the
earliest churches to various sacred or professedly inspired writings,
sometimes given to those whose authors were unknown, sometimes to those
with a hidden meaning, and sometimes to those considered objectionable. The
term is specially applied to the fourteen undermentioned books, which were
written during the two centuries preceding the birth of Christ. They were
written, not in Hebrew, but in Greek, and the Jews never allowed them a
place in their sacred canon. They were incorporated into the Septuagint,
and thence passed to the Vulgate. The Greek Church excluded them from the
canon in 360 at the Council of Laodicea. The Latin Church treated them with
more favour, but it was not until 1546 that they were formally admitted
into the canon of the Church of Rome by a decree of the Council of Trent.
The Anglican Church says they may be read for example of life and
instruction of manners, but that the Church does not apply them to
establish any doctrine. All other Protestant churches in Britain and
America ignore them. The following fourteen books form the Apocrypha of the
English Bible: The first and second _Books of Esdras_, _Tobit_, _Judith_,
the rest of the _Book of Esther_, the _Wisdom of Solomon_, the _Wisdom of
Jesus the son of Sirach_, or _Ecclesiasticus_, _Baruch the Prophet_, the
_Song of the Three Children_, _Susanna and the Elders_, _Bel and the
Dragon_, the _Prayer of Manasses_, and the first and second _Books of
Maccabees_. Besides the Apocryphal books of the Old Testament there are
many spurious books composed in the earlier ages of Christianity, and
published under the names of Christ and his apostles, or of such immediate
followers as from their character or means of intimate knowledge might give
an apparent plausibility to such forgeries. These writings comprise: 1st,
the _Apocryphal Gospels_, which treat of the history of Joseph and the
Virgin before the birth of Christ, of the infancy of Jesus, and of the acts
of Pilate; 2nd, the _Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles_; and 3rd, the
_Apocryphal Apocalypses_, none of which have obtained canonical recognition
by any of the churches.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wace, _The Apocrypha_; Porter, in
Hastings' _Bible Dict._, i, pp. 111-23; W. D. F. Oesterley, _Book of the
Apocrypha_; R. H. Charles, _Religious Development between the Old and the
New Testaments_.

APOCYNA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of dicotyledonous plants, having for its type the
genus Apoc[)y]num or dog-bane. The species have opposite or sometimes
whorled leaves without stipules; the corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, and
with the stamens inserted upon it; fruit two-celled. The plants yield a
milky juice, which is generally poisonous; several yield caoutchouc, and a
few edible fruits. The bark of several species is a powerful febrifuge. To
the order belongs the periwinkle (Vinca). See _Cow-tree_, _Periwinkle_,
_Oleander_, _Tanghin_.

AP´ODA. See _Proteolepadidæ_.

AP´ODAL FISHES, the name applied to such malacopterous fishes as want
ventral fins. They constitute a small natural family, of which the common
eel is an example.

APO´DÖSIS, in grammar, the latter member of a conditional sentence (or one
beginning with _if_, _though_, &c.) dependent on the condition or
_prot[)a]sis_; as, if it rain (_protasis_) I shall not go (_apodosis_).

AP´OGEE (-j[=e]; Gr. _apo_, from, and _g[=e]_, the earth), that point in
the orbit of the moon or a planet where it is at its greatest distance from
the earth; also the greatest distance of the sun from the earth when the
latter is in _aphelion_.

APOL´DA, a town of Germany, in Saxe-Weimar, at which woollen goods are
extensively manufactured. Pop. 22,610.

APOLLINA´RIANS, a sect of Christians who maintained the doctrine that
Christ had a human body and a human sensitive soul, but no human rational
mind, the Divine Logos (the Word) taking the place of the mind, and that
God was consequently united in him with the human body and the sensitive
soul. Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from A.D. 362 till at
least A.D. 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, and a zealous opposer of the
Arians. As a man and a scholar he was highly esteemed, and was among the
most popular authors of his time. He formed a congregation of his adherents
at Antioch, and made Vitalis their bishop. The _Apollinarians_, or
_Vitalians_, as their followers were called, soon spread their settlements
in Syria and the neighbouring countries, established several societies,
with their own bishops, and one even in Constantinople; but many adherents
drifted away to Monophysitism, and the sect soon became extinct.

APOLLINA´RIS WATER, a natural aerated water, belonging to the class of
acidulated soda waters, and derived from the Apollinarisbrunnen, a spring
in the valley of the Ahr, near the Rhine, in Rhenish Prussia, forming a
highly-esteemed beverage.

[Illustration: Apollo Belvedere (Vatican, Rome)]

APOL´LO, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (Latona), who, being persecuted by
the jealousy of Hera (Juno), after tedious wanderings and nine days'
labour, was delivered of him and his twin sister, Art[)e]mis (Diana), on
the Island of Delos. Skilled in the use of the bow, he slew the serpent
Python on the fifth day after his birth; afterwards, with his sister
Art[)e]mis, he killed the children of Niob[=e]. He aided Zeus in the war
with the Titans and the giants. He destroyed the Cyclopes, because they
forged the thunderbolts with which Zeus killed his son and favourite
Asklepios (Æsculapius). According to some traditions he invented the lyre,
though this is generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). The brightest
creation of polytheism, Apollo is also the most complex, and many aspects
of the people's life were reflected in his cult. He was originally the
sun-god; and though in Homer he appears distinct from Helios (the sun), yet
his real nature is hinted at even here by the epithet Phoebus, that is, the
radiant or beaming. In later times the view was almost universal that
Apollo and Helios were identical. From being the god of light and purity in
a physical sense, he gradually became the god of moral and spiritual light
and purity, the source of all intellectual, social, and political progress.
He thus came to be regarded as the god of song and prophecy, the god that
wards off and heals bodily suffering and disease, the institutor and
guardian of civil and political order, and the founder of cities. His
worship was introduced at Rome at an early period, probably in the time of
the Tarquins. Among the ancient statues of Apollo that have come down to
us, the most remarkable is the one called _Apollo Belvedere_, from the
Belvedere Gallery in the Vatican at Rome. This statue was discovered at
Frascati in 1455, and purchased by Pope Julian II, the founder of the
Vatican museum. It is a copy of a Greek statue of the third century B.C.,
and dates probably from the reign of Nero.

APOLLODO´RUS, a Greek writer who flourished 140 B.C. Among the numerous
works he wrote on various subjects, the only one extant is his
_Bibliothec[=e]_, which contains a concise account of the mythology of
Greece down to the heroic age.

APOLLO´NIUS OF PERGA, Greek mathematician, called the 'great geometer',
flourished about 240 B.C., and was the author of many works, only one of
which, a treatise on _Conic Sections_, partly in Greek and partly in an
Arabic translation, is now extant.

APOLLO´NIUS OF RHODES, a Greek rhetorician and poet, flourished about 230
B.C. Of his various works we have only the _Argonautica_, an epic poem of
considerable merit, though perhaps written with too much care and labour.
It deals with the story of the Argonautic expedition.

APOLLO´NIUS OF TY´ANA, in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher who was
born in the beginning of the Christian era, early adopted the Pythagorean
doctrines, abstaining from animal food and maintaining a rigid silence for
five years. He travelled extensively in Asia, professed to be endowed with
miraculous powers, such as prophecy and the raising of the dead, and was on
this account set up by some as a rival to Christ. His ascetic life, wise
discourses, and wonderful deeds obtained for him almost universal
reverence, and temples, altars, and statues were erected to him. He died at
Ephesus about the end of the first century. A narrative of his strange
career, containing many fables, with, perhaps, a kernel of truth, was
written by Philostratus about a century later.

APOLLO´NIUS OF TYRE, the hero of a tale which had an immense popularity in
the Middle Ages and which indirectly furnished the plot of Shakespeare's
_Pericles, Prince of Tyre_. The story, originally in Greek, first appeared
in the third century after Christ.

APOLL´OS, a Jew of Alexandria, who learned the doctrines of Christianity at
Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, became a preacher of the gospel in
Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant of Paul in his missionary work. Some
have regarded him as the author of the _Epistle to the Hebrews_.

APOLL´YON ('the Destroyer'), a name used in _Rev._ ix, 11 for the angel of
the bottomless pit.

APOLOGETICS (-jet´iks), this term, as used in Christian theology, does not
carry with it the idea of excuse or regretful acknowledgment, but signifies
a defensive or vindicatory statement, which accords with its meaning in the
original Greek. In the conventional division of systematic theology
apologetics comes first in order, and is followed by the disciplines of
dogmatics and ethics, which expound Christian belief and Christian duty
respectively. There is a tendency, however, in the more recent treatment of
systematic theology, to include the defence or vindication of the various
Christian doctrines within the dogmatic scheme, leaving to apologetics--in
so far as it may be regarded as a separate discipline from dogmatics--the
discussion of such general themes as religion and revelation, authority and
inspiration, and the essence and truth of Christianity. Such discussions
belong essentially to what is now often called philosophy of religion. The
preference of the term philosophy of religion to that of apologetics is
indicative at once of the wider theological outlook of our time and of the
conciliatory, adaptable, and more sympathetic spirit in which the Christian
apologist approaches the new thought and culture.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. B.
Bruce, _Apologetics_; R. Mackintosh, _First Primer of Apologetics_; J. R.
Illingworth, _Reason and Revelation_; A. E. Garvie, _A Handbook of
Christian Apologetics_.

APOLOGUE (ap´o-log), a story or relation of fictitious events intended to
convey some useful truths. It differs from a parable in that the latter is
drawn from events that take place among mankind, whereas the apologue may
be founded on supposed actions of brutes or inanimate things. Æsop's fables
are good examples of apologues.

APOL´OGY, a term at one time applied to a defence of one who is accused, or
of certain doctrines called in question. Of this nature is the _Apology of
Socrates_ written by Plato; also a work with the same title sometimes
attributed to Xenophon. The name passed over to Christian authors, who gave
the name of apologies to the writings which were designed to defend
Christianity against the attacks and accusations of its enemies,
particularly the pagan philosophers, and to justify its professors before
the emperors. Of this sort were those by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras,
Tertullian, Tatian, and others.

APONEURO´SIS, in anatomy, a name of certain greyish-white shining
membranes, composed of interlacing fibres, sometimes continuous with the
muscular fibre, and differing from tendons merely in having a flat form.
They serve several purposes, sometimes attaching the muscles to the bones,
sometimes surrounding the muscle and preventing its displacement, &c. See
_Anatomy_.

APOPHTHEGM (ap´o-them), a short pithy sentence or maxim. Julius Cæsar wrote
a collection of them, and we have a collection by Francis Bacon.

APOPH´YLLITE, a species of mineral of a foliated structure and pearly
lustre, called also fish-eye stone. It belongs to the Zeolite family, and
is a hydrated silicate of lime and potash, containing also fluorine.

AP´OPLEXY, sudden abolition of consciousness, followed after recovery of
consciousness by persistent disturbance of sensation or voluntary motion,
from suspension of the functions of the cerebrum, resulting from blocking
or rupture of the blood-vessels of the brain. In a complete apoplexy the
person falls suddenly, is unable to move his limbs or to speak, gives no
proof of seeing, hearing, or feeling, and the breathing is stertorous or
snoring, like that of a person in deep sleep. The premonitory symptoms of
this dangerous disease are drowsiness, giddiness, dulness of hearing,
frequent yawning, disordered vision, noise in the ears, vertigo, &c. It is
most frequent between the ages of fifty and seventy. A large head, short
neck, full chest, sanguine and plethoric constitution, and corpulency are
generally considered signs of predisposition to it; but the state of the
heart's action, with a plethoric condition of the vascular system, has a
more marked influence. Out of sixty-three cases carefully investigated only
ten were fat and plethoric, twenty-three being thin, and the rest of
ordinary habit. The common predisposing causes are disease or senile
changes in the blood-vessels and affections of the valves of the heart; but
other factors may possibly play some part either as exciting or
predisposing causes, such as long and intense thought, continued anxiety,
habitual indulgence of the temper and passions, sedentary and luxurious
living, sexual indulgence, intoxication, &c. More or less complete recovery
from a first and second attack is common, but a third is almost invariably
fatal.--Cf. Grasset, _Traité du système nerveux_.

APOSIOPE´SIS, in rhetoric, a sudden break or stop in speaking or writing,
usually for mere effect or a pretence of unwillingness to say anything on a
subject; as, 'his character is such--but it is better I should not speak of
_that_', or Virgil's "Quos ego--sed motos praestat componere fluctus"
(_Aen._ I, 135).

APOS´TASY (Gr. _apostasis_, a standing away from), a renunciation of
opinions or practices and the adoption of contrary ones, usually applied to
renunciation of religious opinions. It is always an expression of reproach.
What one party calls _apostasy_ is termed by the other _conversion_.
Catholics, also, call those persons _apostates_ who forsake a religious
order or renounce their religious vows without a lawful dispensation.

A POSTERIO´RI. See _A priori_.

APOS´TLES (literally, persons sent out, from the Gr. _apostellein_, to send
out), the twelve men whom Jesus selected to attend him during his ministry,
and to promulgate his religion. Their names were as follows: Simon Peter,
and Andrew his brother; James, and John his brother, sons of Zebedee;
Philip; Bartholomew; Thomas; Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus; Lebbæus
his brother, called _Judas_ or _Jude_; Simon, the Canaanite; and Judas
Iscariot. To these were subsequently added Matthias (chosen by lot in place
of Judas Iscariot) and Paul. The Bible gives the name of apostle to
Barnabas also, who accompanied Paul on his missions (_Acts_, xiv, 14). In a
wider sense those preachers who first taught Christianity in heathen
countries are sometimes termed apostles; for example, St. Denis, the
apostle of the Gauls; St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany; St. Augustine,
the apostle of England; Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; Adalbert
of Prague, apostle of Prussia Proper. During the life of the Saviour the
apostles more than once showed a misunderstanding of the object of His
mission, and during His sufferings evinced little courage and firmness of
friendship for their great and benevolent Teacher. After His death they
received the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, that they might be enabled
to fulfil the important duties for which they had been chosen. According to
one interpretation of _Matthew_, xvi, 18, Christ seems to appoint St. Peter
the first of the apostles; and the Pope claims supreme authority from the
power which Christ thus gave to St. Peter, of whom all the Popes, according
to the Catholic dogma, are successors in an uninterrupted line.

APOSTLES' CREED, a well-known formula or declaration of Christian belief,
formerly believed to be the work of the apostles themselves, but it can
only be traced to the fourth century. See _Creed_.

APOSTOL´IC, or APOSTOL´ICAL, pertaining or relating to the
apostles.--_Apostolic Church_, the Church in the time of the apostles,
constituted according to their design. The name is also given to the four
churches of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and is claimed by the
Roman Catholic Church, and occasionally by the Episcopalians.--_Apostolic
Constitutions_ and _Canons_, a collection of regulations attributed to the
apostles, but generally supposed to be spurious. They appeared in the
fourth century, are divided into eight books, and consist of rules and
precepts relating to the duty of Christians, and particularly to the
ceremonies and discipline of the Church.--_Apostolic fathers_, the
Christian writers who during any part of their lives were contemporary with
the apostles. There are five--Clement, Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius,
Polycarp.--_Apostolic king_, a title granted by the Pope to the kings of
Hungary, first conferred on St. Stephen, the founder of the royal line of
Hungary, on account of what he accomplished in the spread of
Christianity.--_Apostolic see_, the see of the Popes or Bishops of Rome: so
called because the Popes profess themselves the successors of St. Peter,
its founder.--_Apostolic succession_, the uninterrupted succession of
bishops, and, through them, of priests and deacons (these three orders of
ministers being called the _apostolical orders_), in the Church by regular
ordination from the first apostles down to the present day. All Episcopal
churches hold theoretically, and the Roman Catholic Church and many members
of the English Church strictly, that such succession is essential to the
officiating priest, in order that grace may be communicated through his
administrations.

APOSTOL´ICS, APOSTOLICI, or APOSTOLIC BRETHREN, the name given to certain
sects who professed to imitate the manners and practice of the apostles.
The last and most important of these sects was founded about 1260 by
Gerhard Segarelli of Parma. They went barefooted, begging, preaching, and
singing throughout Italy, Switzerland, and France; announced the coming of
the kingdom of heaven and of purer times; denounced the papacy, and its
corrupt and worldly church; and inculcated the complete renunciation of all
worldly ties, of property, settled abode, marriage, &c. This society was
formally abolished, 1286, by Honorius IV. In 1300 Segarelli was burned as a
heretic, but another chief apostle appeared--Dolcino, a learned man of
Milan. In self-defence they stationed themselves in fortified places whence
they might resist attacks. After having devastated a large tract of country
belonging to Milan they were subdued, A.D. 1307, by the troops of Bishop
Raynerius, in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, and almost all
destroyed. Dolcino was burned. The survivors afterwards appeared in
Lombardy and in the south of France as late as 1368.

APO´STR[)O]PH[=E] (Gr., 'a turning away from'), a rhetorical figure by
which the orator changes the course of his speech, and makes a short
impassioned address to one absent as if he were present, or to things
without life and sense as if they had life and sense. The same term is also
applied to a comma when used to contract a word, or to mark the possessive
case, as in 'John's book'.

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, the weight used in dispensing drugs, in which the
pound (lb.) is divided into 12 ounces ([ounce]), the ounce into 8 drachms
([drachm]), the drachm into 3 scruples ([scruple]), and the scruple into 20
grains (grs.), the grain being equivalent to that in avoirdupois weight.

APOTH´ECARY, in a general sense, one who keeps a shop or laboratory for
preparing, compounding, and vending medicines, and for the making up of
medical prescriptions. In England the term was long applied (as to some
little extent still) to a regularly licensed class of medical
practitioners, being such persons as were members of, or licensed by, the
_Apothecaries' Company_ in London. The apothecaries of London were at one
time ranked with the grocers, with whom they were incorporated by James I
in 1606. In 1617, however, the apothecaries received a new charter as a
distinct company. They were not yet regarded as having the right to
prescribe, but only to dispense, medicines; but in 1703 the House of Lords
conferred that right on them, and they afterwards became a well-established
branch of the medical profession. In 1815 an Act was passed providing that
no person should practise as an apothecary in any part of England or Wales
unless after serving an apprenticeship of five years with a member of the
society, and receiving a certificate from the society's examiners. As in
country places every practitioner must be to some extent an apothecary,
this Act gave the society an undue influence over the medical profession.
Dissatisfaction therefore long prevailed, but nothing of importance was
done till the Medical Act of 1858, which brought the desired reform. The
Apothecaries' Society, governed by a master, two wardens, and twenty-two
assistants, has prescribed a course of medical instruction and practice
which candidates for the licence of the society must pass through. Since
1874 apprenticeship has not been necessary.

APOTHE´CIUM, in botany, the receptacle of lichens, consisting of the
spore-cases or asci, and of the paraphyses or barren threads.

APOTHEO´SIS (deification), a solemnity among the ancients by which a mortal
was raised to the rank of the gods. The custom of placing mortals, who had
rendered their countrymen important services, among the gods was very
ancient among the Greeks. The Romans, for several centuries, deified none
but Romulus, and first imitated the Greeks in the fashion of frequent
apotheosis after the time of Cæsar. From this period apotheosis was
regulated by the decrees of the senate, and accompanied with great
solemnities. Almost all the Roman emperors were deified.

APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS (ap-pa-l[=a]´chi-an), also called ALLEGHANIES, a vast
mountain range in N. America extending for 1300 miles from Cape Gaspé on
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, s.w. to Alabama. The system has been divided into
three great sections: the _northern_ (including the Adirondacks, the Green
Mountains, the White Mountains, &c.), from Cape Gaspé to New York; the
_central_ (including a large portion of the Blue Ridge, the Alleghanies
proper, and numerous lesser ranges), from New York to the valley of the New
River; and the _southern_ (including the continuation of the Blue Ridge,
the Black Mountains, the Smoky Mountains, &c.), from the New River
southwards. The chain consists of several ranges generally parallel to each
other, the altitude of the individual mountains increasing on approaching
the south. The highest peaks rise over 6600 feet (not one at all
approaching the snow-level), but the mean height is about 2500 feet. Lake
Champlain is the only lake of great importance in the system, but numerous
rivers of considerable size take their rise here. Magnetite, hematite, and
other iron ores occur in great abundance, and the coal-measures are among
the most extensive in the world. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are also
found in small quantities, while marble, limestone, fire-clay, gypsum, and
salt abound. The forests covering many of the ranges yield large quantities
of valuable timber, such as sugar-maple, white birch, beech, ash, oak,
cherry tree, white poplar, white and yellow pine, &c., while they form the
haunts of large numbers of bears, panthers, wild cats, and wolves.

APPALACHICOLA (-chi-c[=o]´la), a river of the United States, formed by the
Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, which unite near the northern border of
Florida; length, about 100 miles; it flows into the Gulf of Mexico, and is
navigable.

APPAM, the name of a British merchant ship of the Elder-Dempster line
captured by the German raiding cruiser _Moewe_ (Sea-gull) on 16th Jan.,
1916. A German prize crew succeeded in bringing the _Appam_ westward, and
was able to pass the British cordon off Chesapeake Bay and to reach
Norfolk, Virginia. The vessel was carrying, among others, an ex-governor of
Sierra Leone and some military officers from the west coast of Africa, but
the passengers were at once released and allowed to return to England.

APPANAGE. See _Apanage_.

APPA´RENT, among mathematicians and astronomers, applied to things as they
appear to the eye, in distinction to what they really are. Thus they speak
of apparent motion, magnitude, distance, height, &c. The _apparent
magnitude_ of a heavenly body is the angle subtended at the spectator's eye
by the diameter of that body, and this, of course, depends on the distance
as well as the real magnitude of the body; _apparent motion_ is the motion
a body seems to have in consequence of our own motion, as the motion of the
sun from east to west, &c.

APPARI´TION, according to a belief held by some, a disembodied spirit
manifesting itself to mortal sight; according to the common theory an
illusion involuntarily generated, by means of which figures or forms, not
present to the actual sense, are nevertheless depicted with a vividness and
intensity sufficient to create a temporary belief in their reality. Such
illusions are now generally held to result from an over-excited brain, a
strong imagination, or some bodily malady. In perfect health the mind not
only possesses a control over its powers, but the impressions of the
external objects alone occupy its attention, and the play of imagination is
consequently checked, except in sleep, when its operations are relatively
more feeble and faint. But in an unhealthy state of the mind, when its
attention is partly withdrawn from the contemplation of external objects,
the impressions of its own creation, or rather reproduction, will either
overpower or combine themselves with the impressions of external objects,
and thus generate illusions which in the one case appear alone, while in
the other they are seen projected among those external objects to which the
eyeball is directed. This theory explains satisfactorily a large majority
of the stories of apparitions; still there are some which it seems
insufficient to account for.--See _Crystal Gazing_, _Hypnotism_,
_Spiritualism_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Podmore, _Modern Spiritualism_; F. W. H.
Myers, _Human Personality, and its survival of bodily Death_.

APPEAL´, in legal phraseology, the removal of a cause from an inferior
tribunal to a superior, in order that the latter may revise, and if it seem
needful reverse or amend, the decision of the former. The supreme court of
appeal for Great Britain is the House of Lords. Certain defects in
connection with the settlement of appeals by this body were remedied by the
Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876, while a new court of appeal was
established as a division of the Supreme Court of Judicature. In Ireland
there is also a Court of Appeal similar to that in England; while in
Scotland the highest court is the Court of Session. From the decisions of
the Indian and all colonial courts, and the courts of the Isle of Man and
the Channel Islands, appeal may be made to the Privy Council. Appeals from
the decisions of justices of a borough or county may be made to the
quarter-sessions of either respectively, in cases of summary jurisdiction,
or upon a point of law to divisional courts of the High Court of Justice,
which was established at the same time as the Court of Appeal; from
quarter-sessions, county and other inferior courts, to the High Court. In
Scotland the Court of Session reviews the decisions of the county courts,
there being an appeal from its decisions to the House of Lords.--In France
the court of final appeal in all cases is the _cour de cassation_.--In the
United States the system of appeals differs in different States.

APPEARANCE IN LAW is the first formal act incumbent on a defendant who
intends to resist the claim in the writ or action served upon him. It
consists usually in lodging in court a written notice stating simply that
the defendant intends to dispute the claim. Failure to enter appearance
within the prescribed time entails decree passing against the defendant in
absence, but procedure exists in all courts for enabling such decrees to be
recalled within a limited period. Appearance should be entered under
protest if it is desired to dispute the jurisdiction of the court or the
regularity of the writ.

APPENDICITIS, a disease which has become well known in recent times through
the more accurate methods of diagnosis and the increased safety of surgical
operation. It is caused by inflammation of the vermiform appendix, a
narrow, hollow, worm-like body from 2 to 4 inches long, opening at one end
into the large intestine and forming a cul-de-sac at the other. In
appendicitis the inflammation begins in the appendix and frequently spreads
to the neighbouring parts, causing inflammation of the cæcum, a condition
known as perityphlitis. The most frequent cause of appendicitis is a hard
piece of insufficiently-digested food becoming lodged in the appendix.
Occasionally orange pips, grape stones, &c., are the cause, though not so
often as is popularly supposed.

The symptoms are: abdominal pain (especially low down at the right side),
fever, nausea, vomiting, constipation; these varying according to the
intensity of the attack. Three types are recognized:

1. A mild type, when the symptoms subside in a few days and the patient
soon _appears_ to be in normal health.

2. A severe type, in which, if left alone, the appendix bursts into the
abdominal cavity and death from general peritonitis results.

3. Another type, in which the inflammation in the appendix leads to the
formation of a localized abscess, sometimes of great size.

The treatment for the severe and for the abscess-forming types is
essentially immediate operation; while for the mild type operation may
either be performed at once or after the attack has passed off. Anyone who
has had one attack of appendicitis is liable to have it repeated in a much
severer form, hence the advisability of having the appendix removed after
the first attack, however slight. During an attack, prior to surgical
interference, complete rest in bed is essential. Abdominal pain should be
treated with frequent hot fomentations, and the diet should be reduced to
small quantities of fluid.

APPENZELL ([.a]p'pen-tsel), a Swiss canton, wholly enclosed by the canton
of St. Gall; area, 162 sq. miles. It is divided into two independent
portions or half-cantons, Outer-Rhoden, which is Protestant, and
Inner-Rhoden, which is Catholic. It is an elevated district, traversed by
branches of the Alps; Mount Säntis in the centre being 8250 feet high. It
is watered by the Sitter and by several smaller affluents of the Rhine.
Glaciers occupy the higher valleys. Flax, hemp, grain, fruit, &c., are
produced, but the wealth of Inner-Rhoden lies in its herds and flocks--that
of Outer-Rhoden in its manufactures of embroidered muslins, gauzes,
cambrics, and other cotton stuffs; also of silk goods and paper. The town
of Appenzell (Ger. _Abtenzelle_, abbot's cell) is the capital of
Inner-Rhoden, on the Sitter, with about 4300 inhabitants. Trogen is the
capital of Outer-Rhoden, Herisau the largest town (pop. 11,000). Pop.
Outer-Rhoden, 60,000; Inner-Rhoden, 15,000.

APPERCEPTION. See _Metaphysics_.

AP´PETITE, in its widest sense, means the natural desire for gratification,
either of the body or the mind; but is generally applied to the recurrent
and intermittent desire for food. A healthy appetite is favoured by work,
exercise, plain living, and cheerfulness; absence of this feeling, or
defective appetite (_anorexia_), indicates diseased action of the stomach,
or of the nervous system or circulation, or it may result from vicious
habits. Depraved appetite (_pica_), or a desire for unnatural food, as
chalk, ashes, dirt, soap, &c., depends often in the case of children on
vicious tastes or habits; in grown-up persons it may be symptomatic of
dyspepsia, pregnancy or chlorosis. Insatiable or canine appetite or
voracity (_bulimia_) when it occurs in childhood is generally symptomatic
of worms; in adults common causes are pregnancy, vicious habits, and
indigestion caused by stomach complaints or gluttony, when the gnawing
pains of disease are mistaken for hunger.

AP´PIAN, a Roman historian of the second century after Christ, a native of
Alexandria, was governor and manager of the imperial revenues under
Hadrian, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, in Rome. He compiled in Greek a Roman
history, from the earliest times to those of Augustus, in twenty-four
books, of which only eleven have come down to us. Appian's style is not
attractive, but he gives us much valuable information.

APPIA´NI, Andrea, a painter, born at Milan in 1754, died in 1817. As a
fresco-painter he excelled every contemporary painter in Italy. He
displayed his skill particularly in the cupola of Santa Maria di S. Celso
at Milan, and in the paintings representing the legend of Cupid and Psyche
prepared for the walls and ceiling of the villa of the Archduke Ferdinand
at Monza (1795). Napoleon appointed him royal court painter, and portraits
of almost the whole of the imperial family were painted by him.

APPIAN WAY, called _Regina Viarum_, the Queen of Roads: the oldest and most
renowned Roman road, was constructed during the censorship of Appius
Claudius Cæcus (313-310 B.C.). It was built with large square stones on a
raised platform, and was made direct from the gates of Rome to Capua, in
Campania. It was afterwards extended through Samnium and Apulia to
Brundusium, the modern Brindisi. It was partially restored by Pius VI, and
between 1850 and 1853 it was excavated by order of Pius IX as far as the
eleventh milestone from Rome.

APPIUS CLAUDIUS, surnamed _Cæcus_, or the blind, a Roman patrician, elected
censor 312 B.C., which office he held four years. While in this position he
made every effort to weaken the power of the Plebs, and constructed the
road and aqueduct named after him. He was subsequently twice consul, and
once dictator. In his old age he became blind, but in 280 B.C. he made a
famous speech in which he induced the senate to reject the terms of peace
fixed by Pyrrhus. He is the earliest Roman writer of prose and verse whose
name we know.

APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSUS, one of the Roman _decemvirs_, appointed 451 B.C.
to draw up a new code of laws. He and his colleagues plotted to retain
their power permanently, and at the expiry of their year of office refused
to give up their authority. The people were incensed against them, and the
following circumstances led to their overthrow. Appius Claudius had
conceived an evil passion for Virginia, the daughter of Lucius Virginius,
then absent with the army in the war with the Æqui and Sabines. At the
instigation of Appius, Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, claimed
Virginia as the daughter of one of his own female slaves, and the
_decemvir_, acting as judge, decided that in the meantime she should remain
in the custody of the claimant. Virginius, hastily summoned from the army,
appeared with his daughter next day in the forum, and appealed to the
people; but Appius Claudius again adjudged her to Marcus Claudius. Unable
to rescue his daughter, the unhappy father stabbed her to the heart. The
_decemvirs_ were deposed by the indignant people 449 B.C., and Appius
Claudius died in prison or was strangled.

APPLE (_Pyrus Malus_), the fruit of a well-known tree of the nat. ord.
Rosaceæ, or the tree itself. The apple belongs to the temperate regions of
the globe, over which it is almost universally spread and cultivated. The
tree attains a moderate height, with spreading branches; the leaf is ovate;
and the flowers are produced from the wood of the former year; but more
generally from very short shoots or spurs from wood of two years' growth.
The original of all the varieties of the cultivated apple is the wild crab,
which has a small and extremely sour fruit, and is a native of most of the
countries of Europe. Apples have been used as food and cultivated for
upwards of 4000 years, and were probably introduced into Britain by the
Romans. The greater number of the varieties now grown have, however, been
cultivated only within the last century or so. To the facility of
multiplying varieties by grafting is to be ascribed the amazing extension
of the sorts of apples, the number of varieties known being over 2000. Many
of the more marked varieties are known by general names, as pippins,
codlins, rennets, &c. The oldest apple in cultivation is a variety called
'the lady', which originated in Britain early in the seventeenth century.
Apples for the table are characterized by a firm juicy pulp, a sweetish
acid flavour, regular form, and beautiful colouring; those for cooking by
the property of forming by the aid of heat into a pulpy mass of equal
consistency, as also by their large size and keeping properties; apples for
cider must have a considerable degree of astringency, with richness of
juice. The propagation of apple trees is accomplished by seeds, cuttings,
suckers, layers, budding, or grafting, the last being almost the universal
practice. The tree thrives best in an open situation where it will receive
the maximum amount of sunshine and protection from cold winds. The
protection is particularly necessary in districts where cold winds and
frosts prevail during the flowering season. The wood of the apple tree or
the common crab is hard, close-grained, and often richly coloured, and is
suitable for turning and cabinet work. The fermented juice (_verjuice_) of
the crab is employed in cookery and medicine. Apples are largely imported
into Great Britain from the Continent and the United States and Canada. The
designation apple, with various modifying words, is applied to a number of
fruits having nothing in common with the apple proper, as alligator-apple,
love-apple, &c.--Cf. A. E. Wilkinson, _The Apple_.

AP´PLEBY, county town of Westmorland, England, on the Eden, 28 miles S.S.E.
of Carlisle. Disfranchised in 1832, it gave its name to a parliamentary
division of the county until 1918. It has an old castle, the keep of which,
called Cæsar's Tower, is still fairly well preserved. Pop. (1921), 1786.

APPLE OF DISCORD, according to the story in Greek mythology, the golden
apple thrown into an assembly of the gods by the goddess of discord (Eris)
bearing the inscription 'for the fairest'. Aphrod[=i]t[=e] (Venus), Hera
(Juno), and Ath[=e]n[=e] (Minerva) became competitors for it, and its
adjudication to the first by Paris so inflamed the jealousy and hatred of
Hera to all of the Trojan race (to which Paris belonged) that she did not
cease her machinations till Troy was destroyed.

APPLE OF SODOM, a fruit described by old writers as externally of fair
appearance, but turning to ashes when plucked; probably the fruit of
_Sol[=a]num sodom[=e]um_.

AP´PLETON, a city of Wisconsin, United States, 100 miles N.W. of Milwaukee
by rail. It has many flour, paper, saw, and woollen mills, and other
manufactories, and is the seat of a collegiate institute and of the
Lawrence University. Pop. (1920), 19,561.

APPLIQUÉ, in needlework or metal-work, a design or feature having the
appearance of being independently made and attached to the surface of the
object it adorns. When the ornament is sunk into the body of the object it
is called _inlay_.

APPOGGIATURA ([.a]p-poj-[.a]-tö´r[.a]), in music, a small additional note
of embellishment preceding the note to which it is attached, and taking
away from the principal note a portion of its time.

APPOINT´MENT, a term in English law signifying the exercise of some power,
reserved in a conveyance or settlement, of burdening, selling, or otherwise
disposing of the lands or property conveyed. Such a reserved power is
termed a _power of appointment_.

APPOMATT´OX COURT-HOUSE, a village in Virginia, United States, 20 miles E.
of Lynchburg. Here, on 9th April, 1865, General Lee surrendered to General
Grant, and thus virtually concluded the American Civil War.

APPONYI, Albert, Count, Hungarian statesman, born in 1846. Leader of the
Conservative National party, he joined the Liberal party in 1899, and in
1901 was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was Minister of
Education in 1906 and 1917, and again in 1918. In 1920 he was at the head
of the delegation which came to Paris to settle the peace-terms with
Hungary.

APPOSI´TION, in grammar, the relation in which one or more nouns or
substantive phrases or clauses stand to a noun or pronoun, which they
explain or characterize without being predicated of it, and with which they
agree in case; as Cicero, the _orator_, lived in the first century before
Christ; the opinion, _that a severe winter is generally followed by a good
summer_, is a vulgar error.

APPRAI´SER, a person employed to value property, and duly licensed to do so
by licence taken out every year. The valuation must be duly set down in
writing, and there is a certain fixed scale of charges for the appraiser's
services.

APPREHEN´SION, the seizing of a person as a criminal whether taken in the
act or on suspicion, and with or without a warrant, a warrant being
necessary when the person apprehending is not present at the commission of
the offence. See _Arrest_.

APPREN´TICE, one bound by indenture to serve some particular individual or
company of individuals for a specified time, in order to be instructed in
some art, science, or trade. In England a person under the age of
twenty-one cannot bind himself apprentice, and accordingly the usual way is
for a relation or friend to become a contracting party to the indenture,
and engage for the faithful performance of the agreement. An infant cannot
be bound apprentice by his friends without his own expressed consent. In
Scotland a boy under fourteen or a girl under twelve years of age cannot
become a party to an indenture without the concurrence of a parent or
guardian; above that age they may enter into an indenture of themselves,
and thereby become personally bound. An indenture is determinable by the
consent of the parties to it, and also by the death, bankruptcy, or
retirement from business of the master. _Parish apprentices_ are bound out
by the guardians of the poor to suitable persons, and in this case the
consent of the apprentice is not necessary. The system of apprenticing by
indenture is now much less common than formerly.--Cf. R. A. Bray, _Boy
Labour and Apprenticeship_.

APPROACH´ES, in field-engineering, an old-fashioned name for what are now
called 'communication trenches'.

APPROPRIA´TION. See _Impropriation_.

APPRO´VER (ap-prö´v[.e]r), in English law, any accomplice in a crime who is
allowed by the judges of jail-delivery to become king's evidence, that is,
to be examined in evidence against his accomplices, it being understood
that the approver will himself be pardoned upon making a full and open
confession.

APPROXIMA´TION, a term used in mathematics to signify a continual approach
to a quantity required, when no process is known for arriving at it
exactly. Although, by such an approximation, the exact value of a quantity
cannot be discovered, yet, in practice, it may be found sufficiently
correct; thus the diagonal of a square, whose sides are represented by
unity, is [sqrt]2, the exact value of which quantity cannot be obtained;
but its approximate value may be substituted in the nicest calculations.

APPULEIUS. See _Apuleius_.

AP´RICOT (_Prunus Armeni[)a]ca_), a fruit of the plum genus which was
introduced into Europe from Asia more than three centuries before Christ,
and into England from Italy in 1524. It is a native of Armenia and other
parts of Asia and also of Africa. The apricot is a low tree, of rather
crooked growth, with somewhat heart-shaped leaves and sessile flowers. The
fruit is sweet, more or less juicy, of a yellowish colour, about the size
of a peach, and resembling it in delicacy of flavour. Some of the best
varieties are 'Frogmore Early', 'Moorpark', 'Royal', &c. The wood is
coarsely grained and soft. Apricot trees are chiefly raised against walls,
and are propagated by budding and grafting.

APRIES ([=a]´pri-[=e]z), Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, the eighth king of
the twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He succeeded his father Psammetichus in
590 or 589 B.C. The Jews under Zedekiah revolted against their Babylonian
oppressors and allied themselves with Apries, who was, however, unable to
raise the siege of Jerusalem, which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. A still
more unfortunate expedition against Cyrene brought about revolt in his
army, in endeavouring to suppress which Apries was defeated and slain about
570 B.C.

A´PRIL (Lat. _Apr[=i]lis_, from _aperire_, to open, because the buds open
at this time), the fourth month of the year. The strange custom of making
fools on 1st April by sending people upon errands which end in
disappointment, and raise a laugh at the expense of the person sent,
prevails throughout Europe. It has been connected with the miracle plays of
the Middle Ages, in which the Saviour was represented as having been sent,
at this period of the year, from Annas to Caiaphas and from Pilate to
Herod. This explanation, however, is perhaps itself a piece of April
fooling. In France the party fooled is called _un poisson d'avril_, 'an
April fish'; in Scotland, a 'gowk', or cuckoo.

A PRIO´RI ('from what goes before'), a phrase applied to a mode of
reasoning by which we proceed from general principles or notions to
particular cases, as opposed to _a posteriori_ ('from what comes after')
reasoning, by which we proceed from knowledge previously acquired.
Mathematical proofs are of the _a priori_ kind; the conclusions of
experimental science are _a posteriori_. It is also a term applied to
knowledge independent of all experience.

[Illustration: Apse--Church of Sta Maria in Trastevere, Rome]

APSE, a portion of any building forming a termination or projection
semicircular or polygonal in plan, and having a roof forming externally a
semi-dome or semi-cone, or having ridges corresponding to the angles of the
polygon; especially such a semicircular or polygonal recess projecting from
the east end of the choir or chancel of a church, in which the altar is
placed. The apse was developed from the somewhat similar part of the Roman
basilicæ, in which the magistrate (_prætor_) sat.

AP´SHERON, a peninsula on the western shore of the Caspian Sea formed by
the eastern extremity of the Caucasus Mountains. It extends for about 40
miles, and terminates in Cape Apsheron. It yields immense quantities of
petroleum. See _Baku_.

[Illustration: _aa_, Apsides]

APSIS, pl. AP´SIDES or APSI´DES, in astronomy, one of the two points of the
orbit of a heavenly body situated at the extremities of the major axis of
the ellipse formed by the orbit, one of the points being that at which the
body is at its greatest and the other that at which it is at its least
distance from its primary. In regard to the earth and the other planets,
these two points are called the aphelion and perihelion; and in regard to
the moon they are called the apogee and perigee. The line of the apsides
has a slow forward angular motion in the plane of the planet's orbit, being
retrograde only in the case of Venus. This in the earth's orbit produces
the anomalistic year. See _Anomaly_.

APT (ät; ancient APTA JULIA), a town of Southern France, department
Vaucluse, 32 miles east by south of Avignon, with an ancient Gothic
cathedral. Pop. 6336.

AP´TERA (Gr. _apteros_, wingless), wingless insects, such as lice and
certain others, popularly called _Spring-tails_, and composed of two
groups, Collembola and Thysanura.

[Illustration: Apteryx (_Apteryx Mantelli_)]

AP´TERYX, a nearly extinct genus of cursorial birds, distinguished from the
ostriches by having three toes with a rudimentary hallux, which forms a
spur. They are natives of the South Island of New Zealand; are totally
wingless and tailless, with feathers resembling hairs; about the size of a
small goose; with long curved beak something like that of a curlew. They
are entirely nocturnal, feeding on insects, worms, and seeds.--_A.
austr[=a]lis_, called _Kiwi-kiwi_ from its cry, is the best-known species.

APULEIUS, or APPULEIUS (ap-[=u]-l[=e]´us), author of the celebrated
satirical romance in Latin called the _Golden Ass_, born at Madaura, in
Numidia, about A.D. 125; the time of his death is unknown. He studied at
Carthage, then at Athens, where he became warmly attached to the Platonic
philosophy, and finally at Rome. Returning to Carthage he married a rich
widow, whose relatives accused him of gaining her consent by magic, and the
speech by which he successfully defended himself is still extant. Besides
his _Golden Ass_ (which is also known as the _Metamorphoses_, and which was
translated into English by W. Adlington in 1566), with its fine episode of
Cupid and Psyche, he was also the author of many works on philosophy and
rhetoric, some of which are still extant.

APU´LIA, a department or division in the south-east of Italy, on the
Adriatic, composed of the provinces of Foggia, Bari, and Lecce; area, 7376
sq. miles. Pop. 2,237,791.

APURE ([.a]-pö´r[=a]), a navigable river of Venezuela, formed by the
junction of several streams which rise in the Andes of Colombia; it falls
into the Orinoco.--_Apure_, one of the States of Venezuela, has a pop. of
30,008.

APURIMAC ([.a]-pö-r[=e]-m[.a]k´), a river of South America, which rises in
the Andes of Peru, and, being augmented by the Vilcamayu and other streams,
forms the Ucayale, one of the principal head-waters of the Amazon.--The
department of Apurimac in Peru has an area of 8187 sq. miles, and a pop. of
177,887.

AQ´UA (Lat. for water), a word much used in pharmacy and old
chemistry.--_Aqua fortis_ (= strong water), a weak and impure nitric acid.
It has the power of eating into steel and copper, and hence is used by
engravers, etchers, &c.--_Aqua marina_, a fine variety of beryl. See
_Aquamarine_.--_Aqua regia_, or _aqua regalis_ (= royal water), a mixture
of nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the power of dissolving gold and
other precious metals.--_Aqua Tofana_, a poisonous fluid made about the
middle of the seventeenth century by an Italian woman Tofana or Toffania,
who is said to have procured the death of no fewer than 600 individuals by
means of it. It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solution of
crystallized arsenic.--_Aqua vitæ_ (= water of life), or simply _aqua_, a
name familiarly applied to the _whisky_ of Scotland, corresponding in
meaning with the _usquebaugh_ of Ireland, the _eau de vie_ (brandy) of the
French.

AQ´UAMARINE, a name given to some of the finest varieties of beryl of a
sea-green or blue colour. Varieties of topaz are also so called.

AQUA´RIUM, a vessel or series of vessels constructed wholly or partly of
glass and containing salt or fresh water in which are kept living specimens
of marine or fresh-water animals along with aquatic plants. In principle
the aquarium is based on the interdependence of animal and vegetable life;
animals consuming oxygen and exhaling carbonic acid, plants reversing the
process by absorbing carbonic acid and giving out oxygen. The aquarium must
consequently be stocked both with plants and animals, and for the welfare
of both something like a proper proportion should exist between them. The
simplest form of aquarium is that of a glass vase; but aquaria on a larger
scale consist of a tank or a number of tanks with plate-glass sides and
stone floors, and contain sand and gravel, rocks, sea-weeds, &c. By
improved arrangements light is admitted from above, passing through the
water in the tanks and illuminating their contents, while the spectator is
in comparative darkness. The most important aquarium is at the zoological
station at Naples. There is also one, on a smaller scale, at Plymouth,
maintained by the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.
Aquaria on a large scale have been constructed in connection with public
parks or gardens, and the name is also given to places of public
entertainment in which large aquaria are exhibited.--Cf. G. C. Bateman,
_Fresh-water Aquaria_; M. J. Newbigin, _The Aquarium_.

AQUARIUS (Lat., the Water-bearer), a sign of the zodiac which the sun
enters about the 21st of Jan.: it now enters the formerly coincident
constellation Aquarius about a month later.

AQUATINT, a method of etching on copper by which a beautiful effect is
produced, resembling a fine drawing in sepia or Indian ink. The special
character of the effect is the result of sprinkling finely-powdered resin
or mastic over the plate, and causing this to adhere by heat, the design
being previously etched, or being now traced out. The nitric acid (aqua
fortis) acts only in the interstices between the particles of resin or
mastic, thus giving a slightly granular appearance.

AQUA TOFA´NA. See _Aqua_.

AQUA VITÆ. See _Aqua_.

AQ´UEDUCT (Lat. _aqua_, water, _duco_, to lead), an artificial channel or
conduit for the conveyance of water from one place to another: more
particularly applied to structures for conveying water from distant sources
for the supply of large cities. Aqueducts were extensively used by the
Romans, and many of them still remain in different places on the Continent
of Europe, some being still in use. The Pont du Gard in the south of
France, 14 miles from Nîmes, is still nearly perfect, and is a grand
monument of the Roman occupation of this country. The ancient aqueducts
were constructed of stone or brick, sometimes tunnelled through hills, and
carried over valleys and rivers on arches. The Pont du Gard spans the River
Gard, and was built to convey to Nîmes the water of springs rising in the
neighbourhood of the modern Uzés. It is built of great blocks of stone; its
height is 160 feet; length of the highest arcade, 882 feet. The aqueduct at
Segovia, originally built by the Romans, has in some parts two tiers of
arcades 100 feet high, is 2921 feet in length, and is one of the most
admired works of antiquity. One of the most remarkable aqueducts of modern
times is that constructed by Louis XIV for conveying the waters of the Eure
to Versailles. The extensive application of metal pipes has rendered the
construction of aqueducts of the old type less necessary; but what may be
called aqueduct bridges are still frequently constructed in connection with
canals and also with water-works for the supply of towns. Where canals
exist canal aqueducts are common, since the water in any section of a canal
must be kept on a perfect level.

[Illustration: Aqueduct at Segovia]

Many large towns now derive a supply of water from sources at a great
distance, and in bringing the water to the place where it is required much
tunnelling is often necessary as well as digging and excavating in the
open. A tunnel furnishing a water channel may be driven through miles of
rock strata of various kinds, and in many places it may have to be lined
with concrete or cement wholly or partially, brick-work also being much
employed. Instead of tunnelling, the channel may be formed on the plan of
'cut and cover', being first cut in the ground and then covered over,
leaving the surface much in the same state as before. And, of course, iron
piping is often used in connection with such tunnels, the water being
conveyed so far in an aqueduct of one kind, and so far in one of another
kind, according as is deemed most suitable. In the Thirlmere aqueduct,
which brings water to Manchester, there are 45 miles of cast-iron pipes, 37
miles of cut-and-cover work, and 14 miles of tunnels proper. Pipes are
naturally laid where valleys occur, and the water simply enters the pipes
at one end and flows out at the other by the influence of gravity, there
being a suitable chamber constructed at either end of the pipe line where
there is a junction with a section of tunnel. Aqueduct bridges were first
introduced into England in the eighteenth century, the first being the
aqueduct at Barton Bridge conveying the Bridgewater Canal across the
Irwell. In such bridges the water-channel may be made of cast iron. There
are great aqueduct bridges on some of the Indian canals, such as the Nadrai
bridge on the Lower Ganges Canal. In America water is often carried long
distances in _flumes_ or open wooden channels, supported, where necessary,
on trestles. Great wooden pipes are also common there, built of large
staves and hooped round with iron or steel. These often rest on the surface
of the ground without any covering.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Herschel,
_Frontinus_; Wegmann, _Water-supply of City of New York_; J. F. Bateman,
_The Manchester Waterworks_; J. M. Gale, _The Glasgow Waterworks_; A.
Prescott Folwell, _Water Supply Engineering_.

AQ´UEOUS HUMOUR, the limpid watery fluid which fills the space between the
cornea and the crystalline lens in the eye.

AQUEOUS ROCKS, composed of matter deposited by water from suspension or
solution. Called also _sedimentary rocks_. See _Geology_.

AQUIFOLIA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of plants; the holly tribe. The species consist
of trees and shrubs, and the order includes the common holly (_Ilex
Aquifolium_) and the _I. paraguayensis_, or Paraguayan tea tree.

AQUILA ([.a]k´w[=e]-l[.a]), a town in Italy, capital of the province of
Aquila, 55 miles north-east of Rome, the seat of a bishop, an attractive
and interesting town with spacious streets and handsome palaces. In 1703
and 1706 it suffered severely from earthquakes. Pop. 22,050.--The province
has an area of 2493 sq. miles. Pop. 422,634.

AQ´UILA, a companion of St. Paul (_Acts_, xviii, 2, 3). Expelled from Rome,
he and his wife, Priscilla, settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed with
them. They were converted to Christianity by the Apostle.

AQ´UILA, a native of Pontus, flourished about A.D. 130. He became a Jewish
proselyte, and made a close and accurate translation of the Hebrew
Scriptures into Greek, extant only in fragments.

AQ´UILA, name of a constellation in the northern hemisphere. See
_Constellations_.

AQUILA´RIA. See _Aloes-wood_.

AQUILE´GIA. See _Columbine_.

AQUILEIA (ak-wi-l[=e]´ya), an ancient city near the head of the Adriatic
Sea, in Upper Italy, built by the Romans in 182 or 181 B.C. Commanding the
N.E. entrance into Italy, it became important as a commercial centre and a
military post, and was frequently the base of imperial campaigns. In 425 it
was destroyed by Attila. The modern Aquileia or Aglar is a small place of
some 1700 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of fishermen.

AQUINAS (a-kw[=i]´nas; i.e. of Aquino), St. Thomas, a celebrated scholastic
divine, born in 1225 or 1227, most probably at the castle of Rocco Secca,
near Aquino. His father was Count of Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples. He
was educated at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Casino, and at the
University of Naples, where he studied for six years. About the age of
seventeen he entered a convent of Dominicans, much against the wishes of
his family. He attended the lectures of Albertus Magnus at Cologne, in
whose company he visited Paris in 1245 or 1246. Here he became involved in
the dispute between the university and the Begging Friars as to the liberty
of teaching, advocating the rights claimed by the latter with great energy.
In 1257 he received the degree of doctor from the Sorbonne, and began to
lecture on theology, rapidly acquiring the highest reputation. In 1263 he
is found at the Chapter of the Dominicans in London. In 1268 he was in
Italy, lecturing in Rome, Bologna, and elsewhere. In 1271 he was again in
Paris lecturing to the students; in 1272 he was professor at Naples. In
1263 he had been offered the archbishopric of Naples by Clement IV, but
refused the offer. He died, in 1274, on his way to Lyons to attend a
general council for the purpose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches. He
was called, after the fashion of the times, the _angelic doctor_, and was
canonized by John XXII. The most important of his numerous works, which are
all written in Latin, are the _Summa Theologica_, which, although only
professing to treat of theology, is in reality a complete and systematic
summary of the knowledge of the time, and the _Summa Philosophica_. The
work of St. Thomas consisted in an effort to harmonize the new scientific
teachings of the age--derived from Arabian and Byzantine sources--with the
doctrine of the Church, and to refute heresy. His disciples were known as
_Thomists_. See _Thomism_.--Cf. P. Conway, _St. Thomas Aquinas_; and
article in _Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics_.

AQUITA´NIA, later AQUITAINE, a Roman province in Gaul, which comprehended
the countries on the coast from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and from the
sea to Toulouse. It was brought into connection with England by the
marriage of Henry II with Eleanor, daughter of the last Duke of Aquitaine.
The title to the province was for long disputed by England and France, but
it was finally secured by the latter (1453).

ARABAH´, a deep rocky valley or depression in north-western Arabia, between
the Dead Sea and Gulf of Akabah, a sort of continuation of the Jordan
valley.

ARABESQUE (ar´a-besk), a species of ornamentation for enriching flat
surfaces, often consisting of fanciful figures, human or animal, combined
with floral forms. There may be said to be three periods and distinctive
varieties of arabesque--(_a_) the Roman or Græco-Roman, introduced into
Rome from the East when pure art was declining; (_b_) the Arabesque of the
Moors as seen in the Alhambra, introduced by them into Europe in the Middle
Ages; (_c_) Modern Arabesque, which took its rise in Italy in the
Renaissance period of art. The arabesques of the Moors, who are prohibited
by their religion from representing animal forms, consist essentially of
complicated ornamental designs based on the suggestion of plant-growth,
combined with extremely complex geometrical forms.

ARABGIR ([.a]-r[.a]b-g[=e]r´), or ARABKIR´, a town in Asia, 147 miles
W.S.W. of Erzerum, noted for its manufacture of silk and cotton goods. Pop.
between 20,000 and 30,000.

ARA´BIA, a vast peninsula in the S.W. of Asia, bounded on the N. by the
great Syro-Babylonian plain, N.E. by the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman,
S. or S.E. by the Indian Ocean, and S.W. by the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez.
Its length from N.W. to S.E. is about 1800 miles, its mean breadth about
600 miles, its area approximately 1,200,000 sq. miles, its population
probably less than 5,000,000. Roughly described, it exhibits a central
table-land surrounded by a series of deserts, with numerous scattered
oases, while around this is a line of mountains parallel to and approaching
the coasts, and with a narrow rim of low grounds (_teh[=a]ma_) between them
and the sea. In its general features Arabia resembles the Sahara, of which
it may be considered a continuation. Like the Sahara, it has its wastes of
loose sand, its stretches of bare rocks and stones, its mountains devoid of
vegetation, its oases with their wells and streams, their palm-groves and
cultivated fields--islands of green amidst the surrounding desolation.
Rivers proper there are none. By the ancients the whole peninsula was
broadly divided into three great sections--Arabia Petræa (containing the
city Petra), Deserta (desert), and Felix (happy). The first and last of
these answer roughly to the modern divisions of the region of Sinai in the
N.W. and Yemen in the S.W., while the name _Deserta_ was vaguely given to
the rest of the country. (See _Explorations, Modern_.) The principal
divisions at the present are Madian in the north-west; south of this,
Hejaz, Assir, and Yemen, all on the Red Sea, the last named occupying the
south-western part of the peninsula, and comprising a _teh[=a]ma_ or
maritime lowland on the shores of the Red Sea, with an elevated inland
district of considerable breadth; Hadramaut on the south coast; Oman
occupying the south-east angle; El-Hasa and Koveït on the Persian Gulf;
El-Hamad (Desert of Syria), Nefûd, and Jebel Shammar in the north; Nejd,
the Central Highlands, which occupies a great part of the interior of the
country, while south of it is the great unexplored Dahkna or sandy desert.
Between 1902-5 a joint commission of British and Turkish officers laid down
a boundary line defining the limits between Turkish territory and that of
the independent Arab tribes in political relations with Great Britain.
Nearly the whole of Southern Arabia came within the sphere of British
influence. Madian belongs to Egypt; the Hejaz, Yemen, Bahr-el-Hasa, Koveït,
&c., were more or less under the suzerainty of Turkey until 1914. The rest
of the country is ruled by independent chiefs--sheikhs, emirs, and
imâms--while the title of sultan has been assumed by the chief of the
Wahabis in Nejd, the sovereign of Oman (who has a subsidy from the Indian
Government), and some petty princes in the south of the peninsula. On 9th
June, 1916, the Grand Shereef of Mecca declared himself independent of the
Turkish Government, and an Arab revolt spread rapidly. The Grand Shereef
Hussein then announced to the Moslem world that the Shereefate of Mecca was
henceforth independent, and on 4th Nov., 1916, he had himself formally
proclaimed King, or Sultan, of Arabia. The status of the whole of Arabia
was determined by the Peace Conference. (See _Hejaz_, _Mesopotamia_,
_Syria_, _Sykes-Picot Treaty_.) The chief towns are Mecca, the birthplace
of Mahomet; Medina, the place to which he fled from Mecca (A.D. 622), and
where he is buried; Hodeida, a seaport exporting Mocha coffee; Aden, on the
S.W. coast, belonging to Britain; Sana, the capital of Yemen; and Muscat,
the capital of Oman. The chief towns of the interior are Haïl, the
residence of the Emir of Jebel Shammar; Oneizah, under the same ruler; and
Rijadh, capital of Nejd and Hasa. The most flourishing portions of Arabia
are in Oman, Hadramaut, and Nejd. In the two former are localities with
numerous towns and villages and settled industrious populations like that
of India or Europe.

The climate of Arabia in general is marked by extreme heat and dryness.
Aridity and barrenness characterize both high and low grounds, and the
date-palm is often the only representative of vegetable existence. There
are districts which in the course of the year are hardly refreshed by a
single shower of rain. Forests there are few or none. Grassy pastures have
their place supplied by steppe-like tracts, which are covered for a short
season with aromatic herbs, serving as food for cattle. The date-palm
furnishes the staple article of food; the cereals are wheat, barley, maize,
and millet; various sorts of fruit flourish; coffee and many aromatic
plants and substances, such as gum-arabic, benzoin, mastic, balsam, aloes,
myrrh, frankincense, &c., are produced. There are also cultivated in
different parts of the peninsula, according to the soil and climate, beans,
rice, lentils, tobacco, melons, saffron, colocynth, poppies, olives, &c.
Sheep, goats, oxen, the horse, the camel, ass, and mule supply man's
domestic and personal wants. Among wild animals are gazelles, ostriches,
the lion, panther, hyena, jackal, &c. Among mineral products are saltpetre,
mineral pitch, petroleum, salt, sulphur, and several precious stones, as
the carnelian, agate, and onyx. The people of Arabia, according to their
own traditions, are derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs and the
naturalized Arabs or Mustarab. They are leading either a settled
agricultural life or a nomadic existence. In Southern Arabia the Jews form
a large element in the towns' population. Commerce is largely in the hands
of foreigners, among whom the Jews and Banians (Indian merchants) are the
most numerous.

The history of Arabia previous to Mahomet is obscure. The earliest
inhabitants are believed to have been of the Semitic race. Jews in great
numbers migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and,
making numerous proselytes, indirectly favoured the introduction of the
doctrines of Mahomet. With his advent the Arabians revolted and united for
the purpose of extending the new creed; and under the caliphs--the
successors of Mahomet--they attained great power, and founded large and
powerful kingdoms in three continents. (See _Caliphs_.) On the fall of the
caliphate of Bagdad in 1258 the decline set in, and on the expulsion of the
Moors from Spain the foreign rule of the Arabs came to an end. In the
sixteenth century Turkey subdued Hejaz and Yemen, and received the nominal
submission of the tribes inhabiting the rest of Arabia. The allegiance of
Hejaz was renounced early in the European War; but Yemen achieved its
independence in the seventeenth century, and maintained it till 1871, when
the territory again fell into the hands of the Turks. In 1839 Aden was
occupied by the British. Oman early became virtually independent of the
caliphs, and grew into a well-organized kingdom. In 1507 its capital,
Maskat or Muscat, was occupied by the Portuguese, who were not driven out
till 1659. The Wahabis appeared towards the end of the eighteenth century,
and took an important part in the political affairs of Arabia, but their
progress was interrupted by Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, and they suffered
a complete defeat by Ibrahim Pasha. He extended his power over most of the
country, but the events of 1840 in Syria compelled him to renounce all
claims to Arabia. The Hejaz thus again became subject to Turkish sway, and
until 1914 Turkey continually extended its rule not only over Yemen, but
also over the district of El-Hasa on the Persian Gulf.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir
R. F. Burton, _Pilgrimage to Medina and Mecca_; E. Reclus, _Les Arabes_;
C. M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_, and _Wanderings in Arabia_; G. W. Bury,
_Arabia Infelix_; S. M. Zwemer, _Arabia, the Cradle of Islam._

_Arabian Language and Literature._--The Arabic language belongs to the
Semitic dialects, among which it is distinguished for its richness,
softness, and high degree of development. By the spread of Islam it became
the sole written language and the prevailing speech in all South-Western
Asia and Eastern and Northern Africa, and for a time in Southern Spain, in
Malta, and in Sicily; and it is still used as a learned and sacred language
wherever Islam is spread. Almost a third part of the Persian vocabulary
consists of Arabic words, and there is the same proportion of Arabic in
Turkish. The Arabic language is written in an alphabet of its own, which
has also been adopted in writing Persian, Hindustani, Turkish, &c. As in
all Semitic languages (except the Ethiopic), it is read from right to left.
The vowels are usually omitted in Arabic manuscripts, only the consonants
being written.

Poetry among the Arabs had a very early development, and before the time of
Mahomet poetical contests were held and prizes awarded for the best pieces.
The collection called the _Moallakât_ contains seven pre-Mahommedan poems
by seven authors. Many other poems belonging to the time before Mahomet,
some of equal age with those of the _Moallakât_, are also preserved in
collections. Mahomet gave a new direction to Arab literature. The rules of
faith and life which he laid down were collected by Abu-Bekr, first caliph
after his death, and published by Othman, the third caliph, and constitute
the _Koran_--the Mahommedan Bible. The progress of the Arabs in literature,
the arts and sciences, may be said to have begun with the government of the
caliphs of the family of the Abbassides, A.D. 749, at Bagdad, several of
whom, as Harun al Rashid and Al Mamun, were munificent patrons of learning:
and their example was followed by the Ommiades in Spain. In Spain were
established numerous academies and schools, which were visited by students
from other European countries; and important works were written on
geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, mathematics, arithmetic,
geometry, and astronomy. Most of the geography in the Middle Ages is the
work of the Arabs, and their historians since the eighth century have been
very numerous. The philosophy of the Arabs was of Greek origin, and derived
principally from that of Aristotle. Numerous translations of the scientific
works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers were made, principally by
Christian scholars who resided as physicians at the Courts of the caliphs.
These were diligently studied in Bagdad, Damascus, and Cordova, and, being
translated into Latin, became known in the west of Europe. Of their
philosophical authors the most celebrated are Alfarabi (tenth century), Ibn
Sina or Avicenna (died A.D. 1037), Alghazzali (died 1111), Ibn Roshd or
Averroes (twelfth century), called by pre-eminence The Commentator, &c. In
medicine they excelled all other nations in the Middle Ages, and they are
commonly regarded as the earliest experimenters in chemistry. Their
mathematics and astronomy were based on the works of Greek writers, but the
former they enriched, simplified, and extended. It was by them that algebra
was introduced to the Western peoples, and the Arabic numerals were
similarly introduced. Astronomy they especially cultivated, for which
famous schools and observatories were erected at Bagdad and Cordova. The
_Almagest_ of Ptolemy in an Arabic translation was early a textbook among
them. Alongside of science poetry continued to be cultivated, but after the
ninth or tenth centuries it grew more and more artificial. Among poets were
Abu Nowas, Asmai, Abu Temmam, Motenabbi, Abul-Ala, Busiri, Tograi, and
Hariri. Tales and romances in prose and verse were written. The tales of
fairies, genii, enchanters, and sorcerers in particular passed from the
Arabians to the Western nations, as in _The Thousand and One Nights._ Some
of the books most widely read in the Middle Ages, such as _The Seven Wise
Masters,_ the _Fables of Pilpay_ (or Bidpai), and the _Romance of Antar_
found their way into Europe through the instrumentality of the Arabs. At
the present day Arabic literature is almost confined to the production of
commentaries and scholia, discussions on points of dogma and jurisprudence,
and grammatical works on the classical language. There are a few newspapers
published in Arabic.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Huart, _History of Arabic
Literature;_ R. A. Nicholson, _Literary History of the Arabs._

ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE. See _Moorish Architecture_, _Saracenic Architecture_.

ARABIAN GULF. See _Red Sea_.

ARABIAN NIGHTS, or THE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS, (Ar. Alf Layla wa-Layla), a
celebrated collection of Eastern tales, based upon an old work, called
_Hazar Afsana_, long current in the East, and supposed to have been derived
by the Arabians from India, through the medium of Persia. They were first
introduced into Europe in the beginning of the eighteenth century by means
of the French translation of Antoine Galland. Of some of them no original
MS. is known to exist; they were taken down by Galland from the oral
communication of a Syrian friend. The story which connects the tales of
_The Thousand and One Nights_ is as follows: The Sultan Shahriyar,
exasperated by the faithlessness of his bride, made a law that every one of
his future wives should be put to death the morning after marriage. At
length one of them, Sheherazade, the generous daughter of the grand-vizier,
succeeded in abolishing the cruel custom. By the charm of her stories the
fair narrator induced the sultan to defer her execution every day till the
dawn of another, by breaking off in the middle of an interesting tale which
she had begun to relate. In the form we possess them these tales belong to
a comparatively late period, though the exact date of their composition is
not known. Lane, who published a translation of a number of the tales, with
valuable notes, is of opinion that they took their present form some time
between 1475 and 1525. Sir Richard Burton's complete English translation
was issued in 16 vols. (1885-8).

ARABIAN SEA, the part of the Indian Ocean between Arabia and India.

ARABIC FIGURES, the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0; of Indian
origin, introduced into Europe by the Moors. They did not come into general
use till after the invention of printing.

ARA´BI PASHA, Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, born 1839. In
Sept., 1881, he headed a military revolt, and was for a time virtually
dictator of Egypt. Britain interfered, and after a short campaign,
beginning with the bombardment of Alexandria and ending with the defeat of
Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir, he surrendered, and was banished to Ceylon, being
pardoned in 1900. He died in obscurity in Cairo in 1911.

ARABLE LAND, land which is fit for ploughing, and capable of being
cultivated, as distinguished from grass-land, wood-land, common pasture,
mountains, forests, morasses, and waste. In Government returns the term is
applied to land that is actually under regular cultivation. The land
capable of being cultivated amounts in England and Wales to about 25 per
cent, and in Ireland to about 13 per cent. In the course of the last thirty
or forty years there has, however, been a considerable diminution in the
area of land actually cultivated, as a result of large foreign imports of
grain and other agricultural products.

ARABS. The Arabs, as a race, are of middle stature, of a powerful though
slender build, and have a skin of a more or less brownish colour; in towns
and the uplands often almost white. Their features are well cut, the nose
straight, the forehead high. They are naturally active, intelligent, and
courteous; and their character is marked by temperance, bravery, and
hospitality. The first religion of the Arabs, the worship of the stars, was
supplanted by the doctrines of Mahommedanism, which succeeded rapidly in
establishing itself throughout Arabia. Besides the two principal sects of
Islam, the Sunnites and the Shiites, there also exists, in considerable
numbers, a third Mahommedan sect, the Wahabis, which arose in the latter
half of the eighteenth century, and for a time possessed great political
importance in the peninsula. The mode of life of the Arabs is either
nomadic or settled. The nomadic tribes are termed Bedouins (or Bedawins),
and among them are considered to be the Arabs of the purest blood.

ARACACHA, or ARRACACHA (ar-a-kä'cha), a genus of umbelliferous plants of
Southern and Central America. The root of _A. esculenta_ is divided into
several lobes, each of which is about the size of a large carrot. These are
boiled like potatoes and largely eaten in South America.

ARACAN (ar-a-kan'), the most northern division of Lower Burmah, on the Bay
of Bengal; chief town and seaport Akyab. It was ceded to the English in
1826, as a result of the first Burmese war.

ARAÇARI ([.a]-r[.a]-sä'r[=e]), native name of a genus of brilliant birds
(Pteroglossus) closely allied to the toucans, but generally smaller;
natives of the warm parts of South America.

ARACATI ([.a]-r[.a]-k[.a]-t[=e]'), a Brazilian river-port, State of Ceará,
on the River Jaguaribe, about 10 miles from its mouth. Exports hides and
cotton. Pop. about 10,000.

ARA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of monocotyledonous plants, mostly tropical, having
the genus Arum as the type. Most of the species have tuberous roots
abounding in starch, which forms a wholesome food after the acrid juice has
been washed out. See _Arum_, _Caladium_, _Dumb-cane_.

ARACHIS (ar´a-kis), a genus of leguminous plants much cultivated in warm
climates, and esteemed a valuable article of food. The most remarkable
feature of the genus is that when the flower falls the stalk supporting the
small undeveloped fruit lengthens, and bending towards the ground pushes
the fruit into the ground, when it begins to enlarge and ripen. The pod of
_A. hypogoea_ (popularly called ground, earth, or pea nut) is of a
pale-yellow colour, and contains two seeds the size of a hazel-nut, in
flavour sweet as almonds, and yielding when pressed an excellent oil.

ARACHNIDA (a-rak´ni-da; Gr. _arachn[=e]_, a spider), a class of Arthropoda
or higher Annulose animals including the Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, Ticks,
&c. They have the body divided into a number of segments or _somites_, some
of which have always articulated appendages (limbs, &c.). There is often a
pair of nervous ganglia in each somite, although in some forms (as spiders)
the nervous system becomes modified and concentrated. They are oviparous
and somewhat resemble insects, but they have a united head and thorax, and
do not undergo a metamorphosis similar to insects. They respire by tracheæ,
by pulmonary sacs, or by the skin.

AR´ACK, or AR´RACK, a spirituous liquor manufactured in the East Indies
from a great variety of substances. It is often distilled from fermented
rice, or it may be distilled from the juice of the coco-nut and other
palms. Pure arack is clear and transparent, of a yellowish or straw colour,
and with a peculiar but agreeable taste and smell; it contains at least 52
to 54 per cent of alcohol.

ARAD (o'rod), a town of the former kingdom of Hungary, on the Maros, 30
miles north of Temeswar, divided by the river into O (Old) Arad and Uj
(New) Arad, connected by a bridge; it has a fortress, and is an important
railway centre, with a large trade and manufactures. The town is now within
the confines of Roumania, Uj Arad being called Arodul Neo. Population of
Old and New Arad together, 63,166.

AR´ADUS (now RUAD), an inlet about a mile in circumference lying 2 miles
off the Syrian coast, 35 miles N. of Tripolis; the site of the Phoenician
stronghold Arvad, a city second only to Tyre and Sidon; now occupied by
about 3000 people, mainly fishermen.

ARAFAT´, or JEBEL ER RAHMEH ('Mountain of Mercy'), a hill in Arabia, about
200 feet high, with stone steps reaching to the summit, 15 miles south-east
of Mecca; one of the principal objects of pilgrimage among Mahommedans, who
say that it was the place where Adam first received his wife Eve after they
had been expelled from Paradise and separated from each other 120 years. A
sermon delivered on the mount constitutes one great ceremony of the _Hajj_;
or pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles the hearer to the name and privileges
of a _Hajji_ or pilgrim.

AR´AGO, Dominique François, a French physicist, born in 1786, died at Paris
in 1853. After studying in the Polytechnic School at Paris, he was
appointed a secretary of the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1806 he was
associated with Biot in completing in Spain the measurements of Delambre
and Méchain to obtain an arc of the meridian. Before he got back to France
he had been shipwrecked and narrowly escaped being enslaved at Algiers. In
1809 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences and appointed a professor at
the Polytechnic School. He distinguished himself by his researches in the
polarization of light, galvanism, magnetism, astronomy, &c. His discovery
of the magnetic properties of substances devoid of iron, made known to the
Academy of Sciences in 1824, procured him the Copley medal of the Royal
Society of London in 1825. A further consideration of the same subject led
to the equally remarkable discovery of the production of magnetism by
electricity. He took part in the revolution of 1848, and held the office of
Minister of War and Marine in the provisional Government. At the _coup
d'état_ of Dec., 1852, he refused to take the oath to the Government of
Louis Napoleon, but the oath was not pressed. His works, which were
posthumously collected and published, consist, besides his _Astronomie
Populaire_, chiefly of contributions to learned societies, and biographical
notices (_éloges_) of deceased members of the Academy of Sciences.

ARAGO, Emmanuel, son of Dominique François, French advocate and politician,
was born at Paris in 1812; called to the bar 1837; took part in the
revolution of 1848; renounced politics after the _coup d'état_ of Dec.,
1852, but continued to practise at the bar. After the fall of the Empire he
again took a prominent part in public affairs, and held several important
offices. He is author of a volume of poems and many theatrical pieces. He
died in 1896.

ARAGO, Étienne, brother of Dominique Arago, born 1802, died 1892. He
founded the journals _La Réforme_ and _Le Figaro_; was director of the
Théâtre du Vaudeville, 1829; took part in the revolution of 1848; was
condemned to transportation, 1849; fled from France, but returned in 1859;
was mayor of Paris during the Franco-Prussian war, and appointed archivist
to the École des Beaux Arts, 1878. He was author of upwards of 100 dramas,
_La Vie de Molière,_ _Les Bleus et les Blancs_, and other works.

ARAGON´, KINGDOM OF, a former province or kingdom of Spain, now divided
into three provinces of Teruel, Huesca, and Saragossa; bounded on the N. by
the Pyrenees, N.W. by Navarre, W. by Castile, S. by Valencia, and E. by
Catalonia; length about 190 miles, average breadth 90 miles; area, 18,298
sq. miles. It was governed by its own monarchs until the union with Castile
on the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1469).

ARAGO´NA, a town in Sicily, 8 miles N.N.E. of Girgenti. Pop. 16,000. In the
neighbourhood is the mud volcano of Macculuba.

ARAGONITE, a mineral formed of calcium carbonate crystallized in the
rhombic system; specific gravity 2.94 (compare _Calcite_). Aragonite passes
into calcite in the course of geological time, but is important as the
mineral precipitated to form the oolitic limestones of warm seas, and from
being the material of most molluscan shells. It was first found in Aragon.

ARAGUAYA ([.a]-r[.a]-gw[=i]'[.a]), a Brazilian river, principal affluent of
the Tocantins; rises about the 18th degree of S. lat.; in its course
northwards forms the boundary between the two States of Matto Grosso and
Goyaz, and falls into the Tocantins near lat. 6° S.; length, about 1300
miles, of which over 1000 are navigable.

A´RAL, a salt-water lake in Asia, in Russian territory, about 150 miles W.
of the Caspian Sea, between 43° 42´ and 46° 44´ N. lat., and 58° 18´ and
61° 46´ E. long.; length 270 miles, breadth 165; area, 26,650 sq. miles (or
not much smaller than Scotland). It stands 240 feet above the level of the
Caspian, and 160 feet above the Mediterranean. It receives the Amu Darya or
Oxus and the Syr Darya or Jaxartes, and contains a multitude of sturgeon
and other fish. It is encircled by desert sandy tracts, and its shores are
without harbours. It has no outlet. The Aral contains a large number of
small islands; steamers have been placed on it by the Russians.

ARA´LIA, a genus of plants with small flowers arranged in umbels and
succulent berries, the type of the nat. ord. Araliaceæ, which is nearly
related to the Umbelliferæ, but the species are of a more shrubby habit.
They are natives chiefly of tropical or sub-tropical countries, and in
Britain are represented by the ivy; ginseng belongs to the order. From the
pith of _A. papyrif[)e]ra_ is obtained the Chinese rice-paper.

A´RAM, Eugene, a self-taught scholar whose unhappy fate has been made the
subject of a ballad by Hood and a romance by Lord Lytton, was born in
Yorkshire, 1704, executed for murder, 1759. In 1734 he set up a school at
Knaresborough. About 1745 a shoemaker of that place, named Daniel Clarke,
was suddenly missing under suspicious circumstances; and no light was
thrown on the matter till full thirteen years afterwards, when an
expression dropped by one Richard Houseman, respecting the discovery of a
skeleton supposed to be Clarke's, caused him to be taken into custody. From
his confession an order was issued for the apprehension of Aram, who had
long quitted Yorkshire, and was at the time acting as usher at the
grammar-school at Lynn. He was brought to trial on 3rd Aug., 1759, at York,
where, notwithstanding an able and eloquent defence which he made before
the court, he was convicted of the murder of Clarke, and sentenced to
death. He was among the first to recognize the affinity of the Celtic to
the other European languages, and under favourable circumstances might have
done some valuable work in philological science.--Cf. W. Bristow, _The
Genuine Account of the Life and Trial of Eugene Aram_.

ARAMÆ´AN, or ARAMAIC. See _Semitic Languages_, _Syriac_.

AR´AN, an island lying off the W. coast of Donegal, Ireland, has an area of
4335 acres, a lighthouse, and a pop. of 1308, chiefly engaged in
fishing.--Also called _North Island of Aran_, or _Arranmore_.

ARANE´IDÆ, the spider family.

ARAN ISLANDS, or SOUTH ISLANDS OF ARAN, three islands at the mouth of
Galway Bay, off the W. coast of Ireland. The largest, Aranmore or
Inishmore, comprises 7635 acres, and has a pop. of 2592; the next,
Inishmaan, 2252 acres, pop. 473; and the least, Inishere, 1400 acres, pop.
456. They are remarkable for a number of architectural remains of a very
early date. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture and fishing.

ARANJUEZ ([.a]-r[.a]n-_h_[u:]-eth´), a small town and palace in Spain, 30
miles from Madrid, with splendid gardens laid out by Philip II. The Court
used to reside here from Easter till the close of June, when the number of
people increased from 4000 to 20,000. It has a wireless station. Pop.
12,000.

ARANY (o-ron´y), Janos, Hungarian poet, born 1817, died 1882. He was for
some time a strolling player, but became professor of Latin at the Normal
School of Szalonta, professor of Hungarian literature at Nagy Körös, and
secretary of the Hungarian Academy. Author of _The Lost Constitution_,
_Katalin_, and a series of three connected narrative poems on the fortunes
of Toldi.

ARAP´AHOES, a tribe of American Indians located near the head-waters of the
Arkansas and Platte Rivers. They number in all about 2000.

ARAPAIMA (a-ra-p[=i]´ma), a genus of South American fresh-water fishes,
ord. Physostomi, family Osteoglossidæ, one species of which (_A. gigas_)
grows to the length of 15 or 16 feet, and forms a valuable article of food
in Brazil and Guiana. It is covered with large bony scales, and has a bare
and bony head.

AR´ARAT, a celebrated mountain in Armenia, an isolated volcanic mass
showing two separate cones known as the Great and Little Ararat, resting on
a common base and separated by a deep intervening depression. The
elevations are: Great Ararat, 16,916 feet; Little Ararat, 12,840 feet; the
connecting ridge, 8780 feet. Vegetation extends to 14,200 feet, which marks
the snow-line. According to the Bible Mount Ararat was the resting-place of
the Ark when the waters of the Flood abated.

ARARO´BA, or ARRAROBA, the powdered bark of _And[=i]ra arar[=o]ba_. See
_Andira_.

A´RAS (the ancient ARAXES), a river of Asia Minor, rising S. of Erzerum at
the foot of the Bingol-dagh; it flows for some miles through South
Caucasia, turning eastwards to the Erivan plain N. of Ararat. It then
sweeps in a semi-circle mostly between Caucasia and Persia round to its
confluence with the Kur, 60 miles from its mouth in the Caspian; length,
500 miles.

ARA´TUS, a Greek poet, born at Soli in Cilicia; lived about 270 B.C.; was a
favourite of Ptolemy Philadelphus. His poem _Phænomena_ is a version of a
prose work on astronomy by Eudoxus; one verse of it is quoted by St. Paul
in his address to the Athenians (_Acts_, xvii, 28).

ARA´TUS OF SICYON, a statesman of ancient Greece, born 272 B.C. In 251 B.C.
he overthrew the tyrant of Sicyon and joined that city to the Achæan
League, which he greatly extended. He accepted the aid of Antigonus Doson,
King of Macedon, against the Spartans, and became in time little more than
the adviser of the Macedonian king, who had now made the League dependent
on himself. He is said to have been poisoned by Philip V of Macedon, 213
B.C.

ARAUCA´NIANS, a South American native race in the southern part of Chile,
occupying a territory stretching from about 37° to 40° of S. lat. They are
warlike and more civilized than many of the native races of S. America, and
maintained almost unceasing war with the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when
their independence was recognized by Spain, though their territory was much
curtailed. Their early contests with the Spaniards were celebrated in
Ercilla's Spanish poem _Araucana_. With the Republic of Chile they were
long at feud, and in 1861 had at their head a French adventurer named
Antoine de Tounens, who claimed the title of king. In 1882 they submitted
to Chile. The Chilian province of Arauco receives its name from them.

[Illustration: Chile pine (_Araucaria imbric[=a]ta_)]

ARAUCA´RIA, a genus of trees of the coniferous or pine order, indigenous to
Australasia and South America. The species are large evergreen trees with
pretty large, stiff, flattened, and generally imbricated leaves,
verticillate spreading branches, and bearing large cones, each scale having
a single large seed. The species _A. imbric[=a]ta_ (the Chile pine or
monkey-puzzle), with hard, sharp, pointed leaves, was introduced into
Britain in 1796. It is a native of the mountains of Southern Chile, where
it forms vast forests and yields a hard durable wood. Its seeds are eaten
when roasted. The Moreton Bay pine of New South Wales (_A. Cunninghamii_)
supplies a valuable timber used in house and boat building, in making
furniture, and in other carpenter work. A species, _A. excelsa_, or Norfolk
Island pine, abounds in several of the South Sea Islands, where it attains
a height of 220 feet with a circumference of 30 feet, and is described as
one of the most beautiful of trees. Its foliage is light and graceful, and
quite unlike that of _A. imbricata_, having nothing of its stiff formality.
Its timber is of some value, being white, tough, and close-grained.

ARAU´CO, a province of Chile, named from the Araucanian Indians; area, 2189
sq. miles; pop. 73,260; capital, Lebu.

ARAVAL´LI HILLS, a range of Indian mountains running N.E. and S.W. across
the Rajputána country, which they separate into two natural
divisions--desert plains on the N.W. and fertile lands on the S.E.; highest
point, Mount Abu (5653 feet).

ARAXES. See _Aras_.

AR´B[)A]CES, one of the generals of Sardanapälus, King of Assyria. He
revolted and defeated his master, and became the founder of the Median
Empire in 846 B.C.

AR´BALIST. See _Cross-bow_.

ARBE´LA (now ERBIL), a place in the vilayet of Bagdad, giving name to the
decisive battle fought by Alexander the Great against Darius, at Gaugamela,
about 50 miles distant from it, 1st Oct., 331 B.C.

ARBITRAGE ([.a]r´bi-tr[.a]zh), or ARBITRATION OF EXCHANGES, an operation or
calculation by which the currency of one country is converted into that of
another through the medium of intervening currencies, for the purpose of
ascertaining whether direct or indirect drafts and remittances are
preferable.--_Arbitrageur_ ([.a]r´bi-tr[.a]-zheur) is one who makes
calculations of currency exchanges. See _Stock Exchange_.

ARBITRA´TION, the hearing and determination of a cause between parties in
controversy, by a person or persons chosen by the parties. This may be done
by one person, but it is common to choose more than one. Frequently two are
nominated, one by each party, with a third, the _umpire_ (or, in Scotland,
sometimes the _oversman_), who is called on to decide in case of the
primary arbitrators differing. In such a case the umpire may be agreed upon
either by the parties themselves, or by the arbitrators when they have
received authority from the parties to the dispute to settle this point.
The determination of arbitrators is called an _award_. By the law of
England the authority of an arbitrator cannot be revoked by any of the
parties without the leave of the court or of a judge.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Russell, _Arbitration_; Redman, _Arbitration_; Scots Law, see Bell, _On
Arbitration_; American Law, see Morse, _Law of Arbitration_; R. G. Morris,
_International Arbitration_.

AR´BLAST. See _Cross-bow_.

ARBO´GA, an old Swedish city, province of Westmannland; once an important
commercial town, now only of historical interest from having been at one
time a residence of the family of Vasa, the scene of Church assemblies and
national diets, and for the antiquities in its neighbourhood. Pop. 5050.

ARBOIS ([.a]r-bwä), a town of France, department of Jura; famous for its
wines. Pop. 5000.

ARBOR DAY, a day officially set apart in the United States for the annual
planting of trees by the people, and especially by school-children. The
custom was instituted in 1872.

ARBORE´TUM (Lat. _arbor_, a tree), a place in which a collection of
different trees and shrubs is cultivated for scientific or educational
purposes. The largest arboretum in Britain, perhaps the finest in the whole
world, is that of the Royal Gardens, at Kew, inaugurated in 1762, to which
180 acres are now devoted. Next in celebrity are the arboreta at Edinburgh
(Inverleith) and at Dublin (Glasnevin), the Botanical Gardens at Oxford,
and the Botanic Gardens at Glasgow. Other arboreta are that of the Jardin
des Plantes, Paris, and the Arnold Arboretum, at Jamaica Plain, Boston. The
term arboretum has also been applied in a restricted sense, as in the
_Arboretum Fruticetum Britannicum_, the monumental work by J. C. Loudon.

AR´BORICULTURE includes the culture of trees and shrubs, as well as all
that pertains to the preparation of the soil, the sowing of the seeds, and
the treatment of the plants in their young state, the preparation of the
land previous to their final transplantation, their just adaptation to soil
and situation, their relative growth and progress to maturity, their
management during growth, and the proper season and period for felling
them.

ARBOR VITÆ (literally, 'tree of life'), the name of several coniferous
trees of the genus Thuja, allied to the cypress, with flattened branchlets,
and small imbricated or scale-like leaves. The name is derived from
valuable medicinal properties having formerly been ascribed to the aromatic
resin they mostly yield. Those generally cultivated in Britain are: the
common Arbor Vitæ (_Thuja occident[=a]lis_), a native of North America,
where it grows to a height of 40 or 50 feet, introduced into Britain about
1566; the giant Arbor Vitæ or Red Cedar (_Thuja gigantea_), introduced in
1854; and the Chinese Arbor Vitæ (_Thuja orient[=a]lis_).

ARBROATH (ar-br[=o]th´), or ABERBROTHOCK, a royal municipal and police
burgh and seaport in the county of Forfar, Scotland, at the mouth of the
small River Brothock. Its ancient abbey, founded by William the Lion in
1178, and dedicated to Saints Mary and Thomas à Becket, is now a
picturesque ruin. There are numerous flax and hemp spinning-mills and
factories, and much canvas and linen is made; also tanning, shoemaking, and
fishing, and a small shipping trade, but the harbour is bad. Pop. 19,499.
It unites with Montrose, Forfar, Brechin, and Inverbervie (the Montrose
burghs) in sending a member to Parliament.

ARBUTH´NOT, John, an eminent physician and distinguished wit, born at
Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire, Scotland, 1667, died 1735. He received the
degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of St. Andrews, and went to
London, where he soon distinguished himself by his writings and by his
skill in his profession. In 1704 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society,
and soon after he was appointed physician extraordinary, and then physician
in ordinary to Queen Anne. About this time he became intimate with Swift,
Pope, Gay, and other wits of the day. His writings, other than professional
or scientific, include his contributions (in conjunction with Swift and
Pope) to the _Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus_, _History of John Bull_, _Art
of Political Lying_, &c. He was conspicuous not only for learning and wit,
but also for worth and humanity.

AR´BUTUS, a genus of plants belonging to the Ericaceæ, or heath order, and
comprising a number of small trees and shrubs, natives chiefly of Europe
and N. America. _Arb[)u]tus Un[)e]do_ abounds near the lakes of Killarney,
where its fine foliage adds charms to the scenery. The bright red or yellow
berries, somewhat like the strawberry, have an unpleasant taste and
narcotic properties. The Corsicans make wine from them. The trailing
arbutus or may-flower of N. America, a plant with fragrant and beautiful
blossoms, is _Epigæa repens_, of the same nat. ord.

ARC, a portion of a curved line, especially of a circle. It is by means of
circular arcs that all angles are measured.--_Electric_ or _Voltaic arc_,
the luminous arc of intense brightness and excessively high temperature
which is formed by an electric current in crossing over the interval of
space between the carbon points of an electric lamp. See _Arc-light_.

ARC, Jeanne d'. See _Joan of Arc_.

AR´CA, a genus of bivalve molluscs, family Arcadæ, whose shells are known
as _ark-shells_.

ARCACHON ([.a]r-k[.a]-sh[=o][n.]), a town of S.W. France, department
Gironde, on the almost landlocked basin of Arcachon, a much-frequented
bathing-place, with great oyster-breeding establishments. It is connected
by railway with Bordeaux. Pop. 10,266.

ARCADE, a series of arches supported on piers or pillars, used generally as
a screen and support of a roof, or of the wall of a building, and having
beneath the covered part an ambulatory as round a cloister, or a footpath
with shops or dwellings, as frequently seen in old Italian towns. Sometimes
a porch or other prominent part of an important building is treated with
arcades. At the present day Bologna, Padua, and Berne have fine examples of
mediæval arcaded streets, and among more modern work various streets in
Turin, and the Rue de Rivoli, Paris, are lined with arcades, with shops
underneath. In mediæval architecture the term arcade is also applied to a
series of arches supported on pillars forming an ornamental dressing or
enrichment of a wall, a mode of treatment of very frequent occurrence in
the towers, apses, and other parts of churches. In modern use the name
arcade is often applied to a passage or narrow street containing shops
arched over and covered with glass, as for example the Burlington Arcade,
London, the Royal Arcade at Newcastle, and the Gallería Vittorio Emmanuele
in Milan.

ARCA´DIA, the central and most mountainous portion of the Peloponnesus
(Morea), the inhabitants of which in ancient times were celebrated for
simplicity of character and manners. Their occupation was almost entirely
pastoral, and thus the country came to be regarded as typical of rural
simplicity and happiness. At the present day Arcadia forms a nomarchy of
the kingdom of Greece. Area, 2028 sq. miles. Pop. 162,324.

ARCA´DIUS, born in 377, died 408; son of the Emperor Theodosius, on whose
death in 395 the empire was divided, he obtaining the East, and his brother
Honorius the West. He proved a feeble and pusillanimous prince.

ARCANUM, THE GREAT (meaning secret), a term applied in the Middle Ages to
the highest problems of alchemy and the discovery of the supposed great
secrets of nature, such as the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life.
See _Alchemy_.

ARCATURE, in architecture, a small arcade built into a wall or applied
against it, decorative rather than structural. Arcatures occur in
Anglo-Norman churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.

ARCESILAUS ([.a]r-ses-i-l[=a]´us), a Greek philosopher, the founder of the
second or middle academy, was born about 315 B.C., died 239 B.C. He left no
writings, and of his opinions so little is known that it has been doubted
whether he was a strict Platonist or a sceptic.

[Illustration: Parts of an Arch

_a._ Abutments. _i._ Impost. _p._ Piers. _v._ Voussoirs or arch-stones.
_k._ Keystone. s. Springers. _In._ Intrados. _Ex._ Extrados. ]

[Illustration: Lancet. Horse-shoe.]

[Illustration: Segmental. Semicircular.]

[Illustration: Ogee. Equilateral.]

ARCH, a structure composed of separate pieces, such as stones or bricks,
having the shape of truncated wedges, arranged on a curved line, so as to
retain their position by mutual pressure. The separate stones which compose
the arch are called _voussoirs_ or _arch-stones_; the extreme or lowest
voussoirs are termed _springers_, and the uppermost or central one is
called the _keystone_. The under or concave side of the voussoirs is called
the _intrados_, and the upper or convex side the _extrados_ of the arch.
The supports which afford resting and resisting points to the arch are
called _piers_ and _abutments_. The upper part of the pier or abutment,
where the arch rests--technically where it _springs from_--is the _impost_.
The _span_ of an arch is in circular arches the length of its chord, and
generally the width between the points of its opposite imposts whence it
springs. The _rise_ of an arch is the height of the highest point of its
intrados above the line of the imposts; this point is sometimes called the
_under side of the crown_, the highest point of the extrados being the
_crown_. Arches are designated in various ways, as from their shape
(circular, elliptic, &c.), or from the resemblance of the whole contour of
the curve to some familiar object (lancet arch, horse-shoe arch), or from
the method used in describing the curve, as equilateral, three-centred,
four-centred, ogee, and the like; or from the style of architecture to
which they belong, as Roman, pointed, and Saracenic arches.--_Triumphal
arch_, originally a simple decorated arch under which a victorious Roman
general and army passed in triumph. At a later period the triumphal arch
was a richly-sculptured, massive, and permanent structure, having an
archway passing through it, with generally a smaller arch on either side.
The name is sometimes given to an arch, generally of wood decorated with
flowers or evergreens, erected on occasion of some public rejoicing, &c.

ARCHÆAN (är-k[=e]´an) ROCKS (Gr. _archaios_, ancient), the oldest rocks of
the earth's crust, mostly crystalline in character, and embracing granites,
gneisses, mica-schists, &c., all devoid of fossil remains. These rocks
underlie a group of stratified and igneous masses that are usually
distinguished from them as Huronian; the first beds with a well-marked
fauna (lowest Cambrian) lie above the Huronian, and the Huronian and the
Archæan groups are often conveniently classed together as pre-Cambrian, and
are separated from the stratified and fossiliferous formations, which
indeed have chiefly taken origin from them. The core of the Malvern range,
and the rocks of N.W. Sutherland, are examples of Archæan masses in Great
Britain.

ARCHÆOL´OGY (Gr. _archaios_, ancient, and _logos_, a discourse), the study
of antiquity, or the science which takes cognizance of the history of
nations and peoples as evinced by the remains, architectural, implemental,
or otherwise, which belong to the earlier epoch of their existence. In a
more extended sense the term embraces every branch of knowledge which bears
on the origin, religion, laws, languages, science, arts, and literature of
ancient peoples. It is to a great extent synonymous with _prehistoric
annals_, as a large if not the principal part of its field of study extends
over those periods in the history of the human race in regard to which we
possess almost no information derivable from written records. Archæology
divides the primeval period of the human race, more especially as exhibited
by remains found in Europe, into the _stone_, the _bronze_, and the _iron_
ages, these names being given in accordance with the materials employed for
weapons, implements, &c., during the particular period. The _stone_ age has
been subdivided into the _palæolithic_ and _neolithic_, the former being
that older period, in which the stone implements were not polished as they
are in the latter and more recent period. The _bronze_ age, which admits of
a similar subdivision, is that in which implements were of copper or
bronze. In this age the dead were burned and their ashes deposited in urns
or stone chests, covered with conical mounds of earth or cairns of stones.
Gold and amber ornaments appear in this age. The _iron_ age is that in
which implements, &c., of iron begin to appear, although stone and bronze
implements are found along with them. The word _age_ in this sense (as
explained under _Age_) simply denotes the stage at which a people has
arrived. The phrase stone age, therefore, merely marks the period before
the use of bronze, the bronze age that before the employment of iron, among
any specific people. See _Excavations_; _Crete_; _Egypt_; &c--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Sir J. Evans, _Stone Implements of Great Britain_; Boyd-Dawkins, _Early Man
in Britain_; J. Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe_; R. Munro, _Lake Dwellings of
Europe_; Sir W. Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; H. R. Hall, _Ægean
Archæology_; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Methods and Aims in Archæology_;
A. P. F. Michaelis, _A Century of Archæological Discoveries_.

[Illustration: Archæopteryx macrura, a fossil lizard-tailed bird]

ARCHÆOPTERYX (är-k[=e]-op´te-riks), a fossil bird from the oolitic
limestone of Solenhofen, of the size of a rook, and differing from all
known birds in having two free claws representing the thumb and forefinger
projecting from the wing, and about twenty tail vertebræ free and prolonged
as in mammals.

ARCHANGEL (ärk´[=a]n-jel; Gr. prefix, _arch-_, denoting chief), an angel of
superior or of the highest rank. The only archangel mentioned by name in
Scripture is Michael in the _Epistle of Jude_.

ARCHANGEL (ärk-[=a]n´jel), a seaport, capital of the Russian government of
same name, on the right bank of the Northern Dvina, about 20 miles above
its mouth in the White Sea. Below the town the river divides into several
branches and forms a number of islands, on one of which, called Sollenbole,
is the harbour. The houses are mostly of wood; the place has some
manufactures and an important trade, exporting linseed, flax, tow, tallow,
train-oil, mats, timber, pitch and tar, &c. The port is closed for six
months by ice. Archangel, founded in 1584, was long the only port which
Russia possessed. Pop. 43,388.--The province, which before the Russian
revolution extended from the Ural Mountains to Finland, had an area of
326,063 sq. miles. Pop. 483,500.--For the Archangel Expedition of 1918, see
_Murmansk_, _Russia_.

ARCHANGEL´ICA. See _Angelica_.

       *       *       *       *       *


ARCHÆOLOGY: ANTIQUITIES OF THE STONE, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES

[Illustration: OLDER STONE AGE: 1, Flint Pick. 2, Carved Mammoth Tusk. 3,
Double Scraper. 4, Barbed Harpoon Heads. LATER STONE AGE: 5, Pick of Deer
Antler. 6, Flint and Pyrites. 7, Stone Celt in Haft. 8, Arrowhead. 9, Bowl.
BRONZE AGE: 10, Celt. 11, Drinking-cup. 12, Ornamental Pin. 13, Spear-head.
14, Bronze Tweezers. 15, 16, Gold Bracelets. 17, Engraved Pin. 18, Short
Sword. 19, Spectacle Brooch. 20, Razor. EARLY IRON AGE: 21, Bronze Brooch.
22, Bone Hand-comb for weaving. 23, Bronze Mirror. 24, Bronze Jug. 25,
Bronze Spoon. 26, Iron Currency Bars. 27, Bronze Brooch.]

       *       *       *       *       *


ARCHBISHOP (ärch-), a chief bishop, or bishop over other bishops; a
metropolitan prelate. The establishment of this dignity is to be traced up
to an early period of Christianity, when the bishops and inferior clergy
met in the capitals to deliberate on spiritual affairs, and the bishop of
the city where the meeting was held presided. In England there are two
archbishops--those of Canterbury and York; the former styled _Primate of
all England_, the latter _Primate of England_. The Archbishop of Canterbury
is the first peer of the realm, having precedence before all great officers
of the Crown and all dukes not of royal birth. He crowns the sovereign, and
when he is invested with his archbishopric he is said to be enthroned. He
can grant special licences to marry at any time or place, and can confer
degrees otherwise to be obtained only from the universities. He is
addressed by the titles of _your grace_ and _most reverend father in God_,
and writes himself _by divine providence_, while the Archbishop of York and
the bishops only write _by divine permission_. The first Archbishop of
Canterbury was Augustine, appointed A.D. 598 by Ethelbert. Next in dignity
is the Archbishop of York, between whom and the Archbishop of Canterbury
the Lord High-Chancellor of England has his place in precedency. The first
Archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed in 622. The incomes of the sees
are £15,000 and £10,000 respectively. An Archbishop of Wales was first
appointed in 1920. Scotland had two archbishops--St. Andrews and Glasgow.
Ireland had four, but the Episcopal Church has but two--Armagh and Dublin,
the former being _Primate of all Ireland_, the latter _Primate of Ireland_.
There are four Roman Catholic archbishops in England and
Wales--Westminster, Cardiff, Birmingham, and Liverpool; two in
Scotland--St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and Glasgow; four in Ireland--Armagh,
Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam.

ARCHDEACON (ärch-), in England, an ecclesiastical dignitary next in rank
below a bishop, having a certain jurisdiction over a part of the diocese.
From two to four archdeacons are appointed by the bishops, under whom they
perform their duties, and they hold courts which decide cases subject to an
appeal to the bishop.

ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar to the royal family of Austria--the Habsburgs,
who ruled until 1918.

ARCHELAUS ([.a]r-k[=e]-l[=a]´us), the name of several personages in ancient
history, one of whom was the son of Herod the Great. He received from
Augustus the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. The people, tired
of his tyrannical and bloody reign, accused him before Augustus, who
banished him to Gaul.

ARCHER, William, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at Perth,
Scotland, in 1856. Educated at Edinburgh University, he went to London
after some experience of journalism at Edinburgh, and after a visit to
Australia was called to the bar, and was dramatic critic for _The World_
from 1884 to 1905. Subsequently he has been dramatic critic for _The
Tribune_ and _The Nation_. He has done much to introduce Ibsen to the
English public, by translating his dramas and otherwise, and has written
_English Dramatists of To-day_; _A Life of Macready_; _About the Theatre:
Essays and Studies_; _Masks or Faces?: a Study on the Psychology of
Acting_; _The Theatrical World_ (a collection of his dramatic criticisms)
(5 vols.); _Study and Stage_; _America To-Day_ (the result of a visit in
1900); _Poets of the Younger Generation_; _Real Conversations_ (the result
of a series of interviews with persons of note); _Through Afro-America_
(1910); _The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco Ferrer_ (1911);
_Play-Making_ (1912); _The Thirteen Days_ (1915); _India and the Future_
(1917); _War is War_.

ARCHER-FISH, a name given to the _Tox[)o]tes jacul[=a]tor_, a scaly-finned,
acanthopterygian fish, about 6 inches long, inhabiting the seas around
Java, which has the faculty of shooting drops of water to the distance of 3
or 4 feet at insects, thereby causing them to fall into the water, when it
seizes and devours them. The soft, and even the spiny portions of their
dorsal fins are so covered with scales as to be scarcely distinguishable
from the rest of the body.

[Illustration: Assyrian Archer]

ARCH´ERY, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The use of these
weapons in war and the chase dates from the earliest antiquity. Ishmael, we
learn from _Gen_. xxi, "became an archer". The Egyptians, Assyrians,
Persians, Parthians, excelled in the use of the bow; and while the Greeks
and Romans themselves made little use of it, they employed foreign archers
as mercenaries. Coming to much more recent times, we find the Swiss famous
as archers, but they generally used the arbalist or cross-bow, and were no
match for their English rivals, who preferred the long-bow. (See _Bow_.)
The English victories of Cressy, Poietiers, and Agincourt, gained against
apparently overwhelming odds, may be ascribed to the bowmen. Archery
disappeared gradually as firearms came into use, and as an instrument of
war or the chase the bow is now confined to the most savage tribes of both
hemispheres. But though the bow has been long abandoned among civilized
nations as a military weapon, it is still cherished as an instrument of
healthful recreation, encouraged by archery clubs or societies, which have
been established in many parts of Britain. The oldest, and by far the most
historically important of these societies, is the Royal Company of Archers,
called also the King's Body-guard for Scotland, formed originally, it is
said, by James I, but constituted in its present form by an Act of the
Privy Council of Scotland, in 1676, and having its head-quarters in
Edinburgh, counting among its members many of the nobility and gentry of
the northern kingdom, and holding annual meetings, where prizes are
competed for. In recent years a number of clubs have been formed in the
United States. Archery has the merit of forming a sport open to women as
well as men.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Garrard, _The Arte of Warre_; E. S.
Morse, _Archery, Ancient and Modern_; H. A. Ford, _The Theory and Practice
of Archery_.

[Illustration: Egyptian Archer with arrow-heads and stone-tipped reed
arrow]

ARCHES, COURT OF, the chief and most ancient consistory court, belonging to
the archbishopric of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual causes. It
is named from the church in London, St. Mary le Bow, or Bow Church (so
called from a fine _arched_ crypt), where it was formerly held. The
jurisdiction of this court extends over the province of Canterbury. The
office of president or dean is now merged in that of the judge appointed by
the Public Worship Regulation Act (1874). The court now sits in the library
of Lambeth Palace.

ARCHIL, or ORCHIL ([.a]r´kil, or´kil), a red, violet, or purple colouring
matter obtained from various kinds of lichens, the most important of which
are the _Roccella tinctoria_ and the _R. fuciformis_, natives of the rocks
of the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, Mozambique and Zanzibar, South
America, &c., and popularly called dyer's-moss. The dye is used for
improving the tints of other dyes, as from its want of permanence it cannot
be employed alone; but the aniline colours have largely superseded it.
Cudbear and litmus are of similar origin.

ARCHILOCHUS ([.a]r-kil´o-kus) OF PAROS, one of the earliest Ionian lyric
poets, the first Greek poet who composed iambic verses according to fixed
rules. He flourished about 700 B.C. His iambic poems were renowned for
force of style, liveliness of metaphor, and a powerful but bitter spirit of
satire. In other lyric poems of a graver character he was also considered
as a model. All his works are lost but a few fragments.

ARCHIMAN´DRITE, in the Greek Church, an abbot or abbot-general, who has the
superintendence of many abbots and convents. The title dates from the
fourth century.

ARCHIME´DEAN SCREW, a machine for raising water, said to have been invented
by Archimedes. It is formed by winding a tube spirally round a cylinder so
as to have the form of a screw, or by hollowing out the cylinder itself
into a double or triple-threaded screw and enclosing it in a water-tight
case. When the screw is placed in an inclined position and the lower end
immersed in water, by causing the screw to revolve, the water may be raised
to a limited extent.

ARCHIMEDES ([.a]r-ki-m[=e]´d[=e]z), a celebrated ancient Greek physicist
and geometrician, born at Syracuse, in Sicily, about 287 B.C. He devoted
himself entirely to science, and enriched mathematics with discoveries of
the highest importance, upon which the moderns have founded their
admeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and solids. Archimedes is the only
one among the ancients who has left us anything satisfactory on the theory
of mechanics and on hydrostatics. He first taught the hydrostatic principle
to which his name is attached, "that a body immersed in a fluid loses as
much in weight as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid", and
determined by means of it that an artist had fraudulently added too much
alloy to a crown which King Hiero had ordered to be made of pure gold. He
discovered the solution of this problem while bathing; and it is said to
have caused him so much joy that he hastened home from the bath undressed,
and crying out, _Eur[=e]ka! Eur[=e]ka!_ 'I have found it, I have found it!'
Practical mechanics also received a great deal of attention from
Archimedes, who boasted that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point he could
move the world. He is the inventor of the compound pulley, probably of the
endless screw, the Archimedean screw, &c. During the siege of Syracuse by
the Romans he is said to have constructed many wonderful machines with
which he repelled their attacks, and he is stated to have set on fire their
fleet by burning-glasses. At the moment when the Romans gained possession
of the city by assault (212 B.C.), tradition relates that Archimedes was
slain while sitting in the market-place contemplating some mathematical
figures which he had drawn in the sand.

ARCHIPEL´AGO, a term originally applied to the Ægean, the sea lying between
Greece and Asia Minor, then to the numerous islands situated therein, and
subsequently to any cluster of islands. In the Grecian Archipelago the
islands nearest the European coast lie together almost in a circle, and for
this reason are called the _Cyclades_ (Gr. _kyklos_, a circle); those
nearest the Asiatic, being farther from one another, the _Sporades_
('scattered'). (See these articles, and _Negropont_, _Scio_, _Samos_,
_Rhodes_, _Cyprus_, &c.) The Malay, Indian, or Eastern Archipelago, on the
east of Asia, includes Borneo, Sumatra, and other large islands.

ARCHITEC´TURE, in a general sense, is the art of designing and constructing
houses, bridges, and other buildings for the purposes of civil life; or, in
a more limited but very common sense, that branch of the fine arts which
has for its object the production of edifices not only convenient for their
special purpose, but characterized by unity, beauty, and often
grandeur.--The first habitations of man were such as nature afforded, or
cost little labour to the occupant--caves, huts, and tents. But as soon as
men rose in civilization and formed settled societies they began to build
more commodious and comfortable habitations. They bestowed more care on the
materials, preparing bricks of clay or earth, which they at first dried in
the air, but afterwards baked by fire; and subsequently they smoothed
stones and joined them at first without, and at a later period with, mortar
or cement. After they had learned to build houses, they erected temples for
their gods on a larger and more splendid scale than their own dwellings.
The Egyptians are the most ancient nation known to us among whom
architecture had attained the character of a fine art. Other ancient
peoples among whom it had made great progress were the Babylonians, whose
most celebrated buildings were temples, palaces, and hanging gardens; the
Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splendid buildings; the
Phoenicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, &c., were adorned with equal
magnificence; and the Israelites, whose temple was a wonder of
architecture. But comparatively few architectural monuments of these
nations have remained till our day.

This is not the case with the architecture of Egypt, however, of which we
possess ample remains in the shape of pyramids, temples, sepulchres,
obelisks, &c. Egyptian chronology is far from certain, but the greatest of
the architectural monuments of the country, the pyramids of Ghizeh, are at
least as old as 2800 or 2700 B.C. The Egyptian temples had walls of great
thickness and sloping on the outside from bottom to top; the roofs were
flat, and composed of blocks of stone reaching from one wall or column to
another. The columns were numerous, close, and very thick, generally
without bases, and exhibiting great variety in the designs of their
capitals. The principle of the arch, though known, was not employed for
architectural purposes. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in stone,
and on the walls sculptures in outline of deities and animals, with
innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which belong to this
style.

[Illustration: Egyptian--Restoration of Temple of Luxor]

The earliest architectural remains of Greece are of unknown antiquity, and
consist of massive walls built of huge blocks of stone. In historic times
the Greeks developed an architecture of noble simplicity and dignity. The
discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek architecture owes
much less than was supposed to Egyptian and Chaldæan architecture. It is
considered to have attained its greatest perfection in the age of Pericles,
or about 460-430 B.C. The great masters of this period were Phidias,
Ictinus, Callicrates, &c. All the extant buildings are more or less in
ruins. The style is characterized by beauty, harmony, and simplicity in the
highest degree. Distinctive of it are what are called the _orders_ of
architecture, by which term are understood certain modes of proportioning
and decorating the column and its superimposed entablature. The Greeks had
three orders, called respectively the _Doric_, _Ionic_, and _Corinthian_.
(See articles under these names.) Greek buildings were abundantly adorned
with sculptures, and painting was extensively used, the details of the
structures being enriched by different colours or tints. Lowness of roofs
and the absence of arches were distinctive features of Greek architecture,
in which, as in that of Egypt, horizontality of line is another
characteristic mark. The most remarkable public edifices of the Greeks were
temples, of which the most famous is the Parthenon at Athens. Others exist
in various parts of Greece as well as in Sicily, Southern Italy, Asia
Minor, &c., where important Greek communities were early settled. Their
theatres were semicircular on one side and square on the other, the
semicircular part being usually excavated in the side of some convenient
hill. This part, the auditorium, was filled with concentric seats, and
might be capable of containing 20,000 spectators. A number exist in Greece,
Sicily, and Asia Minor, and elsewhere. By the end of the Peloponnesian War
(_c._ 400 B.C.) the best period of Greek architecture was over; a noble
simplicity had given place to excess of ornament. After the death of
Alexander the Great (323 B.C.) the decline was still more marked.

[Illustration: Byzantine--Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople]

Among the Romans there was no original development of architecture as among
the Greeks, though they early took the foremost place in the construction
of such works as aqueducts and sewers, the arch being in early and
extensive use among this people. As a fine art, however, Roman architecture
had its origin in copies of the Greek models, all the Grecian orders being
introduced into Rome, and variously modified. Their number, moreover, was
augmented by the addition of two new orders--the _Tuscan_ and the
_Composite_. The Romans became acquainted with the architecture of the
Greeks soon after 200 B.C., but it was not till about two centuries later
that the architecture of Rome attained (under Augustus) its greatest
perfection. Among the great works now erected were temples, aqueducts,
amphitheatres, magnificent villas, triumphal arches, monumental pillars,
&c. The _amphitheatre_ differed from the theatre in being a completely
circular or rather elliptical building, filled on all sides with ascending
seats for spectators and leaving only the central space, called the
_arena_, for the combatants and public shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous
structure of this kind. The _thermæ_, or baths, were vast structures in
which multitudes of people could bathe at once. Magnificent tombs were
often built by the wealthy. Remains of private residences are numerous, and
the excavations at Pompeii in particular have thrown great light on the
internal arrangements of the Roman dwelling-house. Almost all the
successors of Augustus embellished Rome more or less, erected splendid
palaces and temples, and adorned, like Hadrian, even the conquered
countries with them. But after the period of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Roman
architecture is considered to have been on the decline. The refined and
noble style of the Greeks was neglected, and there was an attempt to
embellish the beautiful more and more. This decline was all the more rapid
at a later time owing to the disturbed state of the Empire and the
incursions of the barbarians.

In Constantinople, after its virtual separation from the Western Empire,
arose a style of art and architecture which was practised by the Greek
Church during the whole of the Middle Ages. This is called the Byzantine
style. The church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built by Justinian
(reigned 527-565), offers the most typical specimen of the style, of which
the fundamental principle was an application of the Roman arch, the dome
being the most striking feature of the building. In the most typical
examples the dome or cupola rests on four pendentives.

After the dismemberment of the Roman Empire the beautiful works of ancient
architecture were almost entirely destroyed by the Goths, Vandals, and
other barbarians in Italy, Greece, Asia, Spain, and Africa; or what was
spared by them was ruined by the fanaticism of the Christians. A new style
of architecture now arose, two forms of which, the Lombard and the Norman
Romanesque, form important phases of art. The Lombard prevailed in North
Italy and South Germany from the eighth or ninth to the thirteenth century
(though the Lombard rule came to an end in 774); the Norman Romanesque
flourished, especially in Normandy and England, from the eleventh to the
middle of the thirteenth century. The semicircular arch is the most
characteristic feature of this style. With the Lombard Romanesque were
combined Byzantine features, and buildings in the pure Byzantine style were
also erected in Italy, as the church of St. Mark at Venice.

ARCHITECTURE

[Illustration]

The conquests of the Moors introduced a fresh style of architecture into
Europe after the eighth century--the Moorish or Saracenic. This style
accompanied the spread of Mahommedanism after its rise in Arabia in the
seventh century. The edifices erected by the Moors and Saracens in Spain,
Egypt, and Turkey are distinguished, among other things, by a peculiar form
of the arch, which forms a curve constituting more than half a circle or
ellipse. A peculiar flowery decoration, called _arabesque_, is a common
ornament of this style, of which the building called the Alhambra (q.v.) is
perhaps the chief glory.

[Illustration: Norman Romanesque--Galilee Chapel, Durham Cathedral]

The Germans were unacquainted with architecture until the time of
Charlemagne. He introduced into Germany the Byzantine and Romanesque
styles. Afterwards the Moorish or Arabian style had some influence upon
that of the Western nations, and thus originated the mixed style which
maintained itself till the middle of the thirteenth century. Then began the
modern Gothic style, which grew up in France, England, and Germany. Its
striking characteristics are its pointed arches, its pinnacles and spires,
its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profusion of
ornament, and, on the whole, its lofty, bold character. Its most
distinctive feature, as compared with the Greek or the Egyptian style, is
the predominance in it of perpendicular or rising lines, producing forms
that convey the idea of soaring or mounting upwards. Its greatest
capabilities have been best displayed in ecclesiastical edifices. The
Gothic style is divided into four principal epochs: the Early Pointed, or
general style of the thirteenth century; the Decorated, or style of the
fourteenth century; the Perpendicular, practised during the fifteenth and
early part of the sixteenth centuries; and the Tudor, or general style of
the sixteenth century. This style lasted in England up to the seventeenth
century, being gradually displaced by that branch of the Renaissance or
modified revival of ancient Roman architecture which is known as the
_Elizabethan style_, and which is perhaps more purely an English style than
any other that can be named.

The rise of the Renaissance style in Italy is the greatest event in the
history of architecture after the introduction of the Gothic style. The
Gothic style had been introduced into the country and extensively employed,
but had never been thoroughly naturalized. The Renaissance is a revival of
the classic style based on the study of the ancient models; and having
practically commenced in Florence about the beginning of the fifteenth
century, it soon spread with great rapidity over Italy and the greater part
of Europe. The most illustrious architects of this early period of the
style were Brunelleschi, who built at Florence the dome of the cathedral,
the Pitti Palace, &c., besides many edifices at Milan, Pisa, Pesaro, and
Mantua; Alberti, who wrote an important work on architecture, and erected
many beautiful churches; Bramante, who began the building of St. Peter's,
Rome, and Michael Angelo, who erected its magnificent dome. On St. Peter's
were also employed Raphael, Peruzzi, and San Gallo. The noblest building in
this style of architecture in Britain is St. Paul's, London, the work of
Sir Christopher Wren.

[Illustration: Italian Gothic--Doges' Palace, Venice]

Since the Renaissance period there has been no architectural development
requiring special note. In buildings erected at the present day some one of
the various styles of architecture is employed according to taste. Modern
dwelling-houses have necessarily a style of their own as far as stories and
apartments and windows and chimneys can give them one. In general the
Grecian style, as handed down by Rome and modified by the Italian
architects of the Renaissance, from its right angles and straight
entablatures, is more convenient, and fits better with the distribution of
our common buildings, than the pointed and irregular Gothic. But the
occasional introduction of the Gothic outline and the partial employment of
its ornaments has undoubtedly an agreeable effect both in public and
private edifices; and we are indebted to it, among other things, for the
spire, a structure exclusively Gothic, which, though often misplaced, has
become an object of general approbation and a pleasing landmark to cities
and villages. The works most characteristic of the present day are the
large bridges, viaducts, &c., in many of which iron is the sole or most
characteristic portion of the material.

[Illustration: Renaissance--St. Peter's, Rome]

A few words may be added on the architecture of India and China. Although
many widely-differing styles are to be found in India, the oldest and only
true native style of Indian ecclesiastical architecture is the Buddhist,
the earliest specimens dating from 250 B.C. Among the chief objects of
Buddhist art are _stupas_ or _topes_, built in the form of large towers,
and employed as _dágobas_ to contain relics of Buddha or of some noted
saint. Other works of Buddhist art are temples or monasteries excavated
from the solid rock, and supported by pillars of the natural rock left in
their places. Buddhist architecture is found in Ceylon, Tibet, Java, &c.,
as well as in India. The most remarkable Hindu or Brahmanical temples are
in Southern India. They are pyramidal in form, rising in a series of
stories. The Saracenic or Mohammedan architecture afterwards introduced
into India is, of course, of foreign origin. The Chinese have made the
_tent_ the elementary feature of their architecture; and of their style any
one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon
common chinaware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper side, as if made
of canvas instead of wood. (For further information see _Greek_, _Roman_,
_Gothic_, _English_, _French_, _Russian Architecture_; and _Building_,
_Fine Arts_, _Arch_, _Column_, _Aqueduct_, _Corinthian_, _Doric_, _Ionic_,
_Theatre_, &c.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Ruskin, _Seven Lamps of Architecture_;
E. A. Freeman, _History of Architecture_; Viollet-le-Duc, _How to build a
House_; J. T. Micklethwaite, _Modern Parish Churches_; H. H. Statham,
_Architecture for General Readers_ and _Critical History of Architecture_;
J. Fergusson, _History of Architecture in all Countries_; F. M. Simpson, _A
History of Architectural Development_; _Cyclopedia of Architecture_.

ARCHITRAVE (är´ki-träv), in architecture, the part of an entablature which
rests immediately on the heads of the columns, being the lowest of its
three principal divisions, the others being the _frieze_ and the _cornice_.

ARCHIVES (är´k[=i]vz). See _Records_.

ARCHIVOLT (är´ki-volt), in architecture, the ornamental band of mouldings
on the face of an arch and following its contour.

ARCHONS (är´konz), the chief magistrates of ancient Athens, chosen to
superintend civil and religious concerns. They were nine in number; the
first was properly the _arch[=o]n_, or _arch[=o]n ep[=o]n[)y]mos_, by whose
name the year was distinguished in the public records; the second was
called _arch[=o]n basileus_, or king archon, who exercised the functions of
high priest; the third, _polemarchos_, or general of the forces. The other
six were called _thesmoth[)e]tai_, or legislators.

ARCHYTAS ([.a]r-k[=i]´tas), an ancient Greek mathematician, statesman, and
general, who flourished about 400 B.C., and belonged to Tarentum in
Southern Italy. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is
ascribed to him, as well as the solution of many geometrical and mechanical
problems. He constructed various machines and automata, among the most
celebrated of which was his flying pigeon. He was a Pythagorean in
philosophy, and Plato and Aristotle are said to have been both deeply
indebted to him. Only inconsiderable fragments of his works are extant.

ARCIS-SUR-AUBE ([.a]r-s[=e]-s[.u]r-[=o]b), a small town of France,
department Aube, at which, in 1814, was fought a battle between Napoleon
and the Allies, after which the latter marched to Paris. Pop. 3000.

ARC-LIGHT, a certain kind of electric light in which the illuminating
source is the current of electricity passing between two sticks of carbon
kept a short distance apart, one of them being in connection with the
positive, the other with the negative terminal of a battery or dynamo.

ARCO, a town of Tyrol, near Lake Garda, a favourite winter resort of
invalids. Pop. 3800.

ARCOLE ([.a]r´ko-l[.a]), a village in North Italy, 15 miles S.E. of Verona,
celebrated for the battles of 15th, 16th, and 17th Nov., 1796, fought
between the French under Bonaparte and the Austrians, in which the latter
were defeated with great slaughter.

ARCOS´ DE LA FRONTE´RA, a city of Spain, 30 miles E. by N. from Cadiz, on
the Guadalete, here crossed by a stone bridge, on a sandstone rock 570 feet
above the level of the river. On the highest part of the rock stands the
castle of the dukes of Arcos, partly in ruins. The principal manufactures
are leather, hats, and cordage. Pop. 13,980.

AR´COT, two districts and a town of India, within the Presidency of
Madras.--_North Arcot_ is an inland district with an area of 7616 sq.
miles. The country is partly flat and partly mountainous, where intersected
by the Eastern Gháts. Pop. 2,200,000.--_South Arcot_ lies on the Bay of
Bengal, and has two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Area 5217 sq. miles.
Pop. 2,170,000.--The town _Arcot_ is in North Arcot, on the Palar, about 70
miles W. by S. of Madras. There is a military cantonment at 3 miles'
distance. The town contains handsome mosques, a nabob's palace in ruins,
and the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played an important part in the
wars which resulted in the ascendancy of the British in India. It was taken
by Clive, 31st Aug., 1751, and heroically defended by him against an
apparently overwhelming force under Raja Sahib. Pop. 11,475.

ARCTIC ([.a]rk´tik), an epithet given to the north pole from the proximity
of the constellation of the Bear, in Greek called _arktos_. The _Arctic
Circle_ is an imaginary circle on the globe, parallel to the equator, and
23° 28´ distant from the north pole. This and its opposite, the
_Antarctic_, are called the two polar circles.

ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See _North Polar Expeditions_.

ARCTIC OCEAN, that part of the water surface of the earth which surrounds
the north pole, and washes the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and
America; its southern boundary roughly coinciding with the Arctic Circle
(lat. 66° 30´ N.). It encloses many large islands, and contains large bays
and gulfs which deeply indent the northern shores of the three continents.
Its great characteristic is ice, which is perpetual nearly everywhere.

ARCTIC REGIONS, the regions round the north pole, and extending from the
pole on all sides to the Arctic Circle in lat. 66° 30´ N. The Arctic or
North Polar Circle just touches the northern headlands of Iceland, cuts off
the southern and narrowest portion of Greenland, crosses Fox's Strait north
of Hudson's Bay, whence it goes over the American continent to Behring's
Strait. Thence it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi, then crossing
Northern Russia, the White Sea, and the Scandinavian Peninsula, returns to
Iceland. Though much skill and heroism have been displayed in the
exploration of this portion of the earth, there is still an area round the
pole estimated at 2,500,000 sq. miles, which is a blank to geographers.
Many have adopted the belief in the existence of an open polar sea about
the north pole. But this belief is not supported by any positive evidence.
Valuable minerals, fossils, &c., have been discovered within the Arctic
regions. In the archipelago north of the American continent excellent coal
frequently occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland. Fossil ivory
is obtained in islands at the mouth of the Lena. In Scandinavia, parts of
Siberia, and north-west America, the forest region extends within the
Arctic Circle. The most characteristic of the natives of the Arctic regions
are the Esquimaux. The most notable animals are the white-bear, the
musk-ox, the reindeer, and the whalebone whale. Fur-bearing animals are
numerous. The most intense cold ever registered in those regions was 74°
below zero F. The aurora borealis is a brilliant phenomenon of Arctic
nights. See _North Polar Expeditions_.

ARC´TIUM. See _Burdock_.

ARC´TOMYS. See _Marmot_.

ARCTU´RUS, or ALPHA BOÖTIS, a fixed star of the first magnitude in the
constellation of Boötes (the Ploughman), is one of the brightest stars in
the northern heavens, yellow in colour. Its light is believed to be
intrinsically at least 140 times as brilliant as the sun's, and to take
over 40 years to reach us. It is notable as having a comparatively large
proper motion.

ARDAHAN´, a small fortified town about 6400 feet above the sea, between
Kars and Batúm in Armenia. It was captured by the Russians in 1877, and
ceded to them by the Berlin Treaty, 1878. It was handed over to Turkey by
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, but the Turkish troops evacuated it
after the armistice in 1918.

AR´DEA, the genus to which the heron belongs, type of the family
Ard[=e]idæ, which includes also cranes, storks, bitterns, &c.

AR´DEBIL, or ARDABIL, a Persian town, province of Azerbaijan, near the
Karasu, a tributary of the Aras, about 40 miles from the Caspian, in an
elevated and healthy situation; it has mineral springs and a considerable
trade. Pop. 16,000.

ARDÈCHE ([.a]r-d[=a]sh), a department in the south of France (Languedoc),
on the west side of the Rhone, taking its name from the River Ardèche,
which rises within it, and falls into the Rhone after a course of 46 miles;
area, 2144 sq. miles. It is generally of a mountainous character, and
contains the culminating point of the Cevennes. Silk and wine are produced.
Annonay is the principal town, but Privas is the capital. Pop. (1921),
294,308.

ARDEN, FOREST OF, a wood in Warwickshire. Shakespeare is supposed to have
used it as a setting for _As You Like It_.

ARDENNES ([.a]r-den´), an extensive tract of hilly land stretching over a
large portion of the north-east of France and south-west of Belgium.
Anciently the whole tract formed one immense forest (_Arduenna Silva_ of
Cæsar); but large portions are now occupied by cultivated fields and
populous towns.

ARDENNES ([.a]r-den´), a frontier department in the north-east of France;
area, 2027 sq. miles, partly consisting of the Forest of Ardennes. There
are extensive slate-quarries, numerous ironworks, and important
manufactures of cloth, ironware, leather, glass, earthenware, &c. It was
the scene of many battles during the European War (1914-8). Chief towns,
Mézières (the capital), Rocroi, and Sedan. Pop. 277,791.

ARDNAMURCHAN (-mur´_h_an) POINT, the most westerly point of the Island of
Great Britain, in Argyllshire, having a lighthouse, 180 feet above
sea-level, visible 18 to 20 miles off.

AR´DOCH, a parish in south Perthshire, celebrated for its Roman remains,
one, a camp, being the most perfect existing in Scotland.

ARDROSS´AN, a seaport of Scotland, in Ayrshire, on the Firth of Clyde. It
has a large harbour and shipbuilding yards, and is a centre of steamship
services with Arran, Ireland, and Douglas, I.O.M. Pop. (1921), 7214.

ARDS´LEY, East and West, an urban district or town of England, W. Riding of
Yorkshire, several miles north-west of Wakefield, with collieries,
iron-mines, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 7058.

ARE (är), the unit of the French land measure, equal to 100 sq. metres, or
1076.44 English sq. feet. A _hectare_ is 100 ares, equal to 2.47 English
acres. The tenth part of an are is called a _déciare_, and a hundredth part
a _centiare_.

A´REA, the superficial content of any figure or space, the quantity of
surface it contains in terms of any unit. See _Mensuration_.

ARE´CA, a genus of lofty palms with pinnated leaves, and a drupe-like fruit
enclosed in a fibrous rind. _A. Cat[)e]chu_ of the Coromandel and Malabar
coasts is the common areca palm which yields areca or betel-nuts, and also
the astringent juice catechu. _A. olerac[)e]a_ is the cabbage tree or
cabbage palm of the West Indies. With lime and the leaves of the
betel-pepper, the areca-nuts when green form the celebrated masticatory of
the East. They are an important article in Eastern trade.

ARECIBO ([.a]-re-th[=e]´b[=o]), a seaport town on the north coast of the
Island of Porto Rico. Pop. 9612.

AREIOPAGUS. See _Areopagus_.

ARE´NA, the enclosed space in the central part of the Roman amphitheatres,
in which took place the combats of gladiators or wild beasts. It was
usually covered with sand or saw-dust to prevent the gladiators from
slipping, and to absorb the blood. See _Amphitheatre_.

ARENACEOUS ROCKS include all sediments in which quartz sand is the most
important constituent. Owing to its resistance to comminution and to
chemical attack, quartz accumulates in sea-beaches while other mineral
matter becomes removed. Hence sands gather near a shore and ultimately
become consolidated by various natural cements into sandstones, those
cemented by silica being styled quartzites. Sand-dunes in deserts or on
coasts are unconsolidated arenaceous rock-masses.

AR´ENDAL a seaport of Southern Norway, exporting timber, wood pulp, and
iron, and owning numerous ships. It is a well-built place, having been
rebuilt since the great fire of 1868. Wood pulp, paper, and cotton are
manufactured. Pop. 11,000.

ARENENBERG CASTLE (mediæval, NARRENBERG), a castle and estate in the Swiss
Canton Thurgau, the possession of Queen Hortense, who died there in 1837.
In 1855 it became the property of the Empress Eugénie.

ARENGA, a term sometimes used as the generic name of the areng or gomuti
palm, which is then botanically designated _Arenga saccharifera_. See
_Gomuti_.

ARENIC´OLA. See _Lobworm_.

ARE´OLAR TISSUE, an assemblage of fibres in bundles, pervading almost every
part of the animal structure, and connected with each other so as to form
innumerable small cavities, the whole serving as a means by which the
various organs and parts of organs are connected together. It is called
also _Cellular Tissue_ and _Connective Tissue_. The fibres are of two
kinds--white fibrous tissue and yellow elastic fibrous tissue, and
interspersed among the bundles or occupying the cellular cavities are cells
and corpuscles of several kinds. It is a tissue found in large quantities
under the skin, covering the muscles, the blood-vessels, and nerves, and in
various parts forming a kind of protective covering for delicate and
important organs. It is because of its general distribution, and because of
its binding various structures together, that it is called
_connective_.--In botany the term is sometimes applied to the
_non_-vascular substance, composed entirely of untransformed cells, which
forms the soft substance of plants.

AREOM´ETER (from Gr. _araios_, thin, _metron_, a measure), an instrument
for measuring the specific gravity of liquids; a _hydrometer_ (q.v.).

AREOP´AGUS, the oldest of the Athenian courts of justice, an assembly
having a position more august than an ordinary court, and in its best days
exercising a general supervision over public morals. It obtained its name
from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares (Mars), near the Acropolis
or citadel of Athens. Another explanation connects the word with _Aræ_
(Curses), commonly known as _Semnæ_ (Awful Goddesses), who were the
guardians of the hill. It existed from very remote times, and the crimes
tried before it were wilful murder, poisoning, robbery, and arson, while it
had under its control also dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the
State and in religion. Its meetings were held in the open air, and its
members were selected from those who had held the office of archon. The
tribunal eventually lost many of its powers, but it continued to exist in
name at least as late as the time of Cicero or later, having had an
existence of seven or eight hundred years.

AREQUIPA ([.a]-r[=a]-k[=e]´p[.a]), a city of Peru, capital of a province of
same name, situated in a fertile valley, 7850 feet above sea-level, at a
distance of about 55 miles from the coast and on the railway which runs
from its port Mollendo inland to Puno on Lake Titicaca. Behind the city
rises the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of Misti (20,328 feet). The climate
is healthy but the locality is liable to earthquakes, one of which almost
completely destroyed the town in 1868, after which it was rapidly rebuilt.
A considerable trade is carried on through Mollendo, there being a large
transit trade with the interior, and the town carries on various
industries, manufacturing cotton and woollen goods, &c. It was founded in
1540. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000.--The province has an area of 21,947 sq. miles,
and a pop. of 229,007.

ARES ([=a]´r[=e]z). See _Mars_.

ARETHU´SA, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Nereus and Doris, a nymph
changed by Art[)e]mis into a fountain in order to free her from the pursuit
of the river-god Alpheus. This fountain was said to exist in the small
Island of Ortygia, near Syracuse, and was fabled to have a subterranean
connection with the River Alpheus in Greece.

ARETINO (ä-r[=a]-t[=e]´nö), Guido. See _Guido_.

ARETINO, Pietro, Italian poet, born at Arezzo 1492, died at Venice 1556,
the natural son of a nobleman called Luigi Bacci. He early displayed a
talent for satirical poetry, and when still a young man was banished from
Arezzo on account of a sonnet against indulgences. He went to Perugia, and
thence to Rome (1517), where he secured the papal patronage, but
subsequently lost it through writing licentious sonnets. Through the
influence of the Medici family he found an opportunity to insinuate himself
into the favour of Francis I. In 1527 Aretino went to Venice, where he
acquired powerful friends, among them the Bishop of Vicenza. By his
devotional writings he regained the favour of the Roman Court. He called
himself 'the divine', and 'the scourge of princes', but he was also their
abject flatterer, and that solely to obtain money. The obscenity of some of
his writings was such that his name has become proverbial for
licentiousness. Among them are five comedies and a tragedy.

AREZZO ([.a]-ret´s[=o]; ancient ARRETIUM), a city of Central Italy, capital
of a province of the same name in Tuscany, near the confluence of the
Chiana with the Arno. It has a noble cathedral, containing some fine
pictures and monuments; remains of an ancient amphitheatre, &c. It was one
of the twelve chief Etruscan towns, and in later times fought long against
the Florentines, to whom it had finally to succumb. It is the birthplace of
Mæcenas, Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. 50,093.--The
province of Arezzo contains 1274 sq. miles, and 292,763 inhabitants (1915).

AR´GAL, ARGOL, or TARTAR, a hard crust formed on the sides of vessels in
which wine has been kept, red or white according to the colour of the wine.
It is an impure bitartrate of potassium.

[Illustration: Argali (_Ovis ammon_)]

AR´GALI, a species of wild sheep (_Capr[)o]vis Arg[)a]li_ or _Ovis ammon_)
found on the mountains of Siberia, Central Asia, and Kamtchatka. It is 4
feet high at the shoulders, and proportionately stout in its build, with
horns nearly 4 feet in length measured along the curve, and at their base
about 19 inches in circumference. It lives in small herds. This true argali
must not be confounded with the North-African wild sheep, called the
bearded argali and known as the arni, the Algerian moufflon, and the
Barbary sheep.

AR´GALL, Sir Samuel (1572-1639), one of the early English adventurers to
Virginia. He planned and executed the abduction of Pocahontas, the daughter
of the Indian chief Powhattan, in order to secure the ransom of English
prisoners. He was deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-9), and was accused of
many acts of rapacity and tyranny. In 1620 he served in an expedition
against Algiers, and was knighted by James I.

AR´GAND LAMP, a lamp named after its inventor, Aimé _Argand_, a Swiss
chemist and physician (born 1755, died 1803), the distinctive feature of
which is a burner forming a ring or hollow cylinder covered by a chimney,
so that the flame receives a current of air both on the inside and on the
outside.

ARGAUM ([.a]r-g[.a]´[u:]m), a village of India, in Berar, celebrated for
the victory of General Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) over the Mahrattas
under Scindia and the Rajah of Berar, 29th Nov., 1803.

AR´GELANDER, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer, born in 1799. He
added to the knowledge of the progressive motion of the solar system in
space, and published a catalogue of 560 stars having 'proper motion'. His
works include: _Atlas des nördlichen gestirnten Himmels_ (1857), _Neue
Uranometrie_ (1843), &c. He died in 1875.

ARGEMONE ([.a]r-jem´o-n[=e]), a small genus of ornamental American plants
of the poppy order. From the seeds of _A. mexic[=a]na_ is obtained an oil
very useful to painters. The handsomest species is _A. grandifl[=o]ra_,
which has large flowers of a pure white colour.

ARGENSOLA ([.a]r-_h_en-s[=o]´l[.a]), Lupercio and Bartolomé Leonardo de,
brothers, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, the former in 1565, died in 1613;
the latter born in 1566, died in 1631. Lupercio produced tragedies and
lyric poems; Bartolomé a number of poems and a historical work, _The
Conquest of the Moluccas_. Their writings are singularly alike in
character, and are reckoned among the Spanish classics. The tragedies are
of the heavy Senecan type, but the satirical writings of both brothers are
full of pungent wit of a pleasing kind.

ARGENSON ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-s[=o][n.]), Marc Pierre de Voyer, Comte d',
celebrated French statesman, born in 1696, died 1764. After holding a
number of subordinate offices he became minister for foreign affairs, and
succeeded in bringing about the Congress of Breda, which was the prelude to
that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was present at the battle of Fontenoy, and was
exiled to his estate for some years through the machinations of Madame
Pompadour. His _Considérations sur le Gouvernement de la France_ was a very
advanced study on the possibility of combining with a monarchic form of
government democratic principles and local self-government. _Les Essais, ou
Loisirs d'un Ministre d'État_, published in 1785, is a collection of
characters and anecdotes in the style of Montaigne.

AR´GENT, in coats of arms, the heraldic term expressing silver: represented
in engraving by a plain white surface.

ARGENTAN ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-tä[n.]), a French town, department of Orne
(Normandy), with an old castle and some manufactures. Pop. 6300.

ARGENTEUIL ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-teu-y[.e]), a town in France, department
Seine-et-Oise, 7 miles below Paris; it has an active trade in wine, fruit,
and vegetables. Pop. 24,282.

ARGENTIE´RA, or KIM[=O]LI (ancient, CIM[=O]LUS), an island in the Grecian
Archipelago, one of the Cyclades, about 18 miles in circumference, rocky
and sterile. It produces a detergent chalk called _Cimolian earth_ (q.v.),
used in washing and bleaching. Pop. 1337.

AR´GENTINE, a silvery-white slaty variety of calc-spar, containing a little
silica with laminæ usually undulated. It is found in primitive rocks and
frequently in metallic veins.--Argentine is also the name of a small
British fish (_Scop[)e]lus bore[=a]lis_) less than 2 inches long and of a
silvery colour.

AR´GENTINE REPUBLIC, formerly called the United Provinces of LA PLATA, a
vast country of South America, the extreme length of which is 2300 miles,
and the average breadth a little over 500 miles, the total area 1,153,119
sq. miles. It consists of fourteen provinces, ten territories, and one
federal district. It is bounded on the N. by Bolivia; on the E. by
Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on the S. by the Antarctic
Ocean; and on the W. by the Andes. It comprises four great natural
divisions: (1) the Andine region, containing the provinces of Mendoza, San
Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy; (2) the Pampas,
containing the provinces of Santiago, Santa Fé, Cordova, San Luis, and
Buenos Ayres, with the territories Formosa, Pampa, and Chaco; (3) the
Argentine 'mesopotamia', between the Rivers Paraná and Uruguay, containing
the provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory Misiones; (4)
Patagonia, including the eastern half of Tierra del Fuego. With the
exception of the N.W., where lateral branches of the Andes run into the
plain for 150 or 200 miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is hilly,
the characteristic feature of the country is the great monotonous and level
plains called 'pampas'. In the north these plains are partly
forest-covered, but all the central and southern parts present vast
treeless tracts, which afford pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and
sheep, and are varied in some places by brackish swamps, in others by salt
steppes. The great water-course of the country is the Paraná, having a
length of fully 2000 miles from its source in the mountains of Goyaz,
Brazil, to its junction with the Uruguay, where begins the estuary of La
Plata. The Paraná is formed by the union of the Upper Paraná and Paraguay
Rivers, near the N.E. corner of the State. Important tributaries are the
Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado. The Paraná, Paraguay, and Uruguay
are valuable for internal navigation. Many of the streams which tend
eastward terminate in marshes and salt lakes, some of which are rather
extensive. Not connected with the La Plata system are the Colorado and the
Rio Negro, the latter formerly the southern boundary of the State,
separating it from Patagonia. The source of the Negro is Lake Nahuel Huapi,
in Patagonia (area, 1200 sq. miles), in the midst of magnificent scenery.
The level portions of the country are mostly of tertiary formation, and the
river and coast regions consist mainly of alluvial soil of great fertility.
In the pampas clay have been found the fossil remains of extinct mammalia,
some of them of colossal size.

European grains and fruits, including the vine, have been successfully
introduced, and large areas are now under wheat, maize, flax, and other
crops, another source of wealth consisting in the countless herds of cattle
and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the pampas, and which
multiply there very rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and
iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, and bitumen, are found in
the mountainous districts of the N.W., while petroleum wells have been
discovered on the Rio Vermejo; but the development of this mineral wealth
has hitherto been greatly retarded by the want of proper means of
transport. As a whole there are not extensive forests in the State except
in the region of the Gran Chaco (which extends also into Bolivia), where
there is known to be 60,000 sq. miles of timber. Thousands of square miles
are covered with thistles, which grow to a great height in their season.
Cacti also forms great thickets. Peach and apple trees are abundant in some
districts. The native fauna includes the puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the
llama, the alpaca, the vicuña, armadillos, the rhea or nandu, a species of
ostrich, &c. The climate is agreeable and healthy, 97° being about the
highest temperature experienced. The rainfall is very scanty in some
districts, and is nowhere very large.

As a whole this vast country is very thinly inhabited, some parts of it as
yet being very little known. The native Indians were never very numerous,
and have given little trouble to the European settlers. Tribes of them yet
in the savage state still inhabit the less-known districts, and live by
hunting and fishing. Some of the Gran Chaco tribes are said to be very
fierce, and European travellers have been killed by them. The European
element is strong in the republic, more than half the population being
Europeans or of pure European descent. Large numbers of immigrants arrive
from Southern Europe, the Italians having the preponderance among those of
foreign birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas are the _Gauchos_, a
race of half-breed cattle-rearers and horse-breakers; they are almost
continually on horseback, galloping over the plains, collecting their herds
and droves, taming wild horses, or catching and slaughtering cattle. In
such occupations they require a marvellous dexterity in the use of the
lasso and bolas.

The River La Plata was discovered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator Juan
Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory had been brought into the
possession of Spain by the end of the sixteenth century. In 1810 the
territory cast off the Spanish rule, and in 1816 the independence of the
United States of the Rio de la Plata was formerly declared, but it was long
before a settled government was established. The present constitution dates
from 1853, being modified in 1866 and 1898. The executive power is vested
in a president--elected by the representatives of the fourteen provinces
for a term of six years. A national congress of two chambers--a Senate and
a House of Deputies--wields the legislative authority, and the republic is
making rapid advances in social and political life. The national revenue
for 1918 amounted to about £32,860,306, while the expenditure amounted to
£34,407,074; the public debt was, at the end of 1916, about £120,000,000.
There are about 22,000 miles of railway opened. The external commerce is
important, the chief exports being beef and mutton, wheat, maize, and
linseed, wool, skins and hides, tallow. The imports are chiefly
manufactured goods. The trade is largely with Britain and France, and is
increasing rapidly, the exports having advanced from £9,000,000 in 1876 and
£73,200,000 in 1908 to £201,360,000 in 1920. The imports in 1920 were
£170,820,000. The chief denomination of money is the dollar or _peso_,
value (in gold) 4s. Buenos Ayres (or Aires) is the capital. Other towns are
Rosario, Cordova, La Plata, Tucuman, Mendoza, and Santa-Fé. The population
of the republic, which is rapidly increasing by immigration, was, in 1905,
5,678,197, and 8,284,266 in 1918; of the capital, 1,637,155
(1918).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854 to
1904_; W. H. Hudson, _The Naturalist in La Plata_; Keane and Markham,
_Central and South America_ (in Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and
Travel_); Martinez and Lewandowski, _Argentine in the Twentieth Century_;
Sir John Foster Fraser, _The Amazing Argentine_; H. Stephens, _Illustrated
Descriptive Argentina_; _The Argentine Year Book_.

AR´GENTITE, sulphide of silver, a blackish or lead-grey mineral, a valuable
ore of silver found in the crystalline rocks of many countries.

ARGENTOMETER. See _Hydrometer_.

ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS are rocks in which clay prevails (including shales and
slates).

ARGIVES ([.a]r´j[=i]vz), or ARGIVI, the inhabitants of Argos; used by Homer
and other ancient authors as a generic appellation for all the Greeks.

AR´GO. See _Argonauts_.

ARGOL. See _Argal_.

ARGOLIS. See _Argos_.

ARGON, a gas which is fairly widely distributed in the free state and is a
constant constituent of the atmosphere, of which it forms about 1 per cent
by volume. It was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay in 1894.
During their determinations of the density of nitrogen they noticed that
the density of nitrogen derived from the air differed from the density of
nitrogen derived from ammonia and other compounds of nitrogen, and after a
series of very careful experiments they succeeded in isolating a new gas,
which they named Argon. The gas occurs in sea and river water, in plants,
in the blood of animals, and the gases issuing from volcanoes and mineral
springs. It is always in the free state and never in combination, and is
associated with nitrogen. It is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and
may be liquefied and solidified. It is heavier than air, and is chemically
a very inert substance. It is usually referred to as one of the _rare_
gases of the atmosphere. Argon is manufactured in fairly large quantity
from air, making use of the inertness of the substance compared to oxygen
and nitrogen, the chief constituents of the air. Several methods are in
use, e.g. nitrogen may be removed by passing it repeatedly over red-hot
magnesium; thus the nitrogen is absorbed and the argon left. When oxygen
and nitrogen of air are absorbed by a mixture of 90 per cent calcium
carbide and 10 per cent calcium chloride previously heated to redness _in
vacuo_, a gas becoming richer and richer in argon is obtained. Another
method of preparing argon is by fractionation of liquid air. It is used for
filling electric bulbs.

[Illustration: Argonaut--Female]

AR´GONAUT, a molluscous animal of the genus Argonauta, belonging to the
dibranchiate or two-gilled cuttle-fishes, distinguished by the females
possessing a single-chambered external shell, not organically connected
with the body of the animal. The males have no shell and are of much
smaller size than the females. The shell is fragile, translucent, and
boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle of the ova or eggs of the
female, which sits in it with the respiratory tube or 'funnel' turned
towards the carina or 'keel'. This famed mollusc swims only by ejecting
water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a reversed position, carrying
its shell over its back like a snail. The account of its floating on the
surface of the sea, with its sail-shaped arms extended to catch the breeze,
and with the six other arms as oars, is a mere fable. The argonaut, or
_paper-nautilus_, must be carefully distinguished from the
_pearly-nautilus_ or nautilus proper (_Nautilus Pompilius_).

ARGONAUTS, in the legendary history of Greece, those heroes who performed a
hazardous voyage to Colchis, a far-distant country at the eastern extremity
of the Euxine (Black Sea), with Jason in the ship _Argo_, for the purpose
of securing a golden fleece, which was preserved suspended upon a tree, and
under the guardianship of a sleepless dragon. By the aid of Medea, daughter
of the King of Colchis, Jason was enabled to seize the fleece, and, after
many strange adventures, to reach his home at Iolcos in Thessaly. Among the
Argonauts were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus and
Theseus.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. R. Hope Moncrieff, _Classic Myth and Legend_;
Kingsley, _The Heroes_; N. Hawthorne, _The Wonder-book_.

ARGO-NAVIS, the southern constellation of the Ship, is almost entirely
invisible in Britain. It contains Canopus, next to Sirius the brightest
fixed star. In the great nebula in Argo is situated the remarkable star Eta
Argûs. It is variable, generally faint, but in 1837 it became temporarily
one of the brightest stars in the sky.

ARGONNE, a district of France, between the Rivers Meuse, Marne, and Aisne,
celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against the Prussians in 1792, and
for the military movements and actions which took place therein previous to
the battle of Sedan, in 1870.

ARGONNE, BATTLE OF. When, in the autumn of 1914, the Allies retreated
towards the Marne, the German Crown Prince's army endeavoured to invest
Verdun. His right wing advanced through the thick and extensive forest of
Argonne, but took precipitate flight after the battle of the Marne before
the army of General Sarrail. In the summer of 1915 the Crown Prince
endeavoured to hack his way through the French Argonne lines, using much
heavy artillery, poison-gas, liquid-fire, and tear-shells. A final effort
to break through was made in September, between Le Four de Paris and
Vienne-le-Château, but, after gaining a footing in the first line of French
trenches, the Germans were hurled back by a dashing counter-attack. The
great salient from the Argonne to St. Mihiel was the salvation of Verdun.

AR´GOS, a town of Greece, in the north-east of the Peloponnesus, between
the Gulfs of Ægina and Nauplia or Argos. This town and the surrounding
territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary period of Greek history
onwards. Here, besides Argos, was Mycenæ, where Agamemnon ruled. Modern
Argos is a straggling place of 10,000 inhabitants, with some ancient
remains. The territory Argolis forms a nomarchy of Greece. Pop., Argolis
and Corinthia, 153,172. The capital is Nauplia.

ARGOS´TOLI, a city of the Ionian Islands, capital of Cephalonia, and the
residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,000.

AR´GOSY, a poetical name for a large merchant-vessel; derived from
_Ragusa_, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now, and whose
vessels did a considerable trade with England. It is popularly but
erroneously connected with the ship _Argo_ in which Jason sailed. See
_Argonauts_.

ARGOT (Fr.; [.a]r-g[=o]), the jargon, slang, or peculiar phraseology of a
class or profession; originally the conventional slang of thieves and
vagabonds, invented for the purpose of disguise and concealment. Some of
François Villon's poems are written in argot.--Cf. W. von Knoblauch,
_Dictionary of Argot_.

ARGUIM, or ARGUIN ([.a]r-gwim´, [.a]r-gwin´), a small island on the west
coast of Africa, not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a centre of trade. Its
possession was violently disputed between the Portuguese, Dutch, English,
and French.

AR´GUMENT, a term sometimes used as synonymous with the _subject_ of a
discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any kind of method employed
for the purpose of confuting or at least silencing an opponent. Logicians
have reduced arguments to a number of distinct heads, such as the
_argumentum ad judicium_, which founds on solid proofs and addresses to the
judgment; the _argumentum ad verecundiam_, which appeals to the modesty or
bashfulness of an opponent by reminding him of the great names or
authorities by whom the view disputed by him is supported; the _argumentum
ad ignorantiam_, the employment of some logical fallacy towards persons
likely to be deceived by it; and the _argumentum ad hominem_, an argument
which presses a man with consequences drawn from his own principles and
concessions, or his own conduct. See _Fallacy_, _Logic_.

ARGUMENT OF THE PEOPLE, the document set forth by the Council of the Army
on 15th Jan., 1649, fifteen days before the execution of King Charles I.
See _Levellers_.

AR´GUS, in Greek mythology, a fabulous being, said to have had a hundred
eyes, placed by Juno to guard Io. Hence 'argus-eyed', applied to one who is
exceedingly watchful.

[Illustration: Argus-pheasant (_Argus gigant[=e]us_)]

ARGUS-PHEASANT (_Argus gigant[=e]us_), a large, beautiful, and very
singular species of pheasant, found native in the south-east of Asia, more
especially in Sumatra and some of the other islands. The males measure from
5 to 6 feet from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail, which
has two greatly-elongated central feathers. The plumage is exceedingly
beautiful, the secondary quills of the wings, which are longer than the
primary feathers, being each adorned with a series of ocellated or eye-like
spots (whence the name--see _Argus_) of brilliant metallic hues. The
general body plumage is brown.

ARGYLL, or ARGYLE ([.a]r-g[=i]l´), an extensive county in the south-west of
the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland and partly of
islands belonging to the Hebrides group, the chief of which are Islay,
Mull, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Luing, Lismore, and Colonsay, with Iona and
Staffa. On the land side the mainland is bounded north by Inverness; east
by Perth and Dumbarton; elsewhere surrounded by the Firth of Clyde and its
connections and the sea; area, 3255 sq. miles (or over 2,000,000 acres), of
which the islands comprise about 1000 sq. miles. It is greatly indented by
arms of the sea, which penetrate far inland, the most important of these
being Loch Sunart, Loch Linnhe (the extremities of which are Loch Eil and
Loch Leven), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch Tarbert, Loch Riddon, Loch
Striven, and Loch Long. The mainland is divided into six districts of
Northern Argyle, Lorn, Argyle, Cowal, Knapdale, and Kintyre; the two first
being subdivided into the sub-districts of Lochiel, Ardgour, Sunart,
Ardnamurchan, Morven, and Appin. The county is exceedingly mountainous, the
chief summits being Bidean-nam-Bian (3766 feet), Ben Laoigh (3708 feet),
Ben Cruachan (3611 feet), Benmore, in Mull (3185 feet), the Paps of Jura
(2565 feet), and Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 feet). There are several
lakes, the principal of which is Loch Awe. Cattle and sheep are reared in
numbers, and fishing is largely carried on, as is also the making of
whisky. There is but little arable land. The chief minerals are slate,
marble, limestone, and granite. County town, Inveraray; others,
Campbeltown, Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. (1921), 76,856.

ARGYLL, CAMPBELLS OF, a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in
the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more eminent
members are: Archibald, 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of Flodden,
1513.--Archibald, 5th Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary of Guise,
and was the means of averting a collision between the Reformers and the
French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication,
but afterwards commanded her troops at the battle of Langside; died
1575.--Archibald, 8th Earl and 1st Marquess, born 1598: a zealous partisan
of the Covenanters; created a marquess by Charles I. It was by his
persuasion that Charles II visited Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in
1651. At the Restoration he was committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent
to Scotland, where he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in
1661.--Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the preceding, served the king with
great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was excluded from the general
pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he
refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he
was tried and sentenced to death. He managed to escape to Holland, from
whence he returned with a view of aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan,
however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was
beheaded in 1685.--Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding,
died 1703; took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-9, which placed
William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important
appointments and the title of duke.--John, 2nd Duke and Duke of Greenwich,
son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; served under Marlborough at the
battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges
of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for
his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had the military command in
Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's
army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and forced the Pretender to quit the
kingdom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was
full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyll in Scott's _Heart of
Midlothian_.--George Douglas Campbell, K.G., K.T., &c., 8th Duke (of United
Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early took a part in politics,
especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In
1852 he became Lord Privy Seal under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord
Palmerston in 1859; Postmaster-General in 1860; Secretary for India from
1868 to 1874; again Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to
agree with his colleagues on their Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote
_The Reign of Law_, _Scotland as it Was and as it Is_, &c.--John Douglas
Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of, son of the 8th Duke and a daughter of the
2nd Duke of Sutherland, was born in 1845, and succeeded his father in 1900.
He completed his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, sat in Parliament
as member for Argyllshire, 1868-78, was Governor-General of Canada from
1878 to 1883, and again sat in Parliament as member for South Manchester
from 1895 to 1900, as a Liberal-Unionist. He married the Princess Louise of
Great Britain, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871. He died in 1914.
His works include: _The United States after the War_, _Imperial
Federation_, _Canadian Pictures_, _Memories of Canada and Scotland_, _Life
of Lord Palmerston_, _Tales and Poems_, _The Psalms in English Verse_,
_Life and Times of Queen Victoria_, _Yesterday and To-day in Canada_, &c.

ARGYLL AND SUTHERLAND HIGHLANDERS (Princess Louise's), raised by the 5th
Duke of Argyll (1794), received their present title in 1872. The regiment
served under Sir David Baird in Cape Colony, and at Balaklava made itself
immortal as Sir Colin Campbell's 'thin red line'. It was further
distinguished in the European War at Gheluvelt, Le Cateau, and the second
battle of Ypres.

ARGYRO-CASTRO ([.a]r´gi-r[=o]-), a town in Albania, 40 miles north-west of
Janina; built on three ridges intersected by deep ravines, across which are
several bridges. It was occupied by the Greeks in 1916. Pop. about 10,000.

ARGYROPU´LOS, Johannes, one of the principal revivers of Greek learning in
the fifteenth century. Born in Constantinople 1415, died at Rome 1486.

ARIA, in music. See _Air_.

ARIADNE (a-ri-ad´ne), in Greek mythology, a daughter of Minos, King of
Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of thread to conduct him out of the
labyrinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. Theseus abandoned her on the
Isle of Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, who married her.

ARIA´NA, the ancient name of a large district in Asia, forming a portion of
the Persian Empire; bounded on the north by the provinces of Bactriana,
Margiana, and Hyrcania; east by the Indus; south by the Indian Ocean and
the Persian Gulf; west by Media.

ARIANO (ä-r[=e]-ä´n[=o]), a town in South Italy, province of Avellino, 44
miles north-east of Naples, the seat of a bishop, with a handsome
cathedral. Pop. 17,650.

AR´IANS, the adherents of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who, about A.D.
318, promulgated the doctrine that Christ was a created being inferior to
God the Father in nature and dignity, though the first and noblest of all
created beings; and also that the Holy Spirit is not God, but created by
the power of the Son. Arianism has been defined as an attempt to determine
the relations of the Persons of the Trinity on a basis of distinction and
subordination. It does not seem to have sprung from any strong ethical
impulse; its philosophy was pagan, and the object of the leaders political
rather than religious. The doctrines were condemned by the Council of Nicæa
in 325. Arius died in 336, and after his death his party gained
considerable accessions, including several emperors, and for a time held a
strong position. Since the middle of the seventh century, however, the
Arians have nowhere constituted a distinct sect, although similar opinions
have been advanced by various theologians in modern times. The Arian
controversy was revived in England during the eighteenth century by William
Whiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. M. Gwatkin, _Studies of
Arianism_; J. H. Newman, _Arians of the Fourth Century_; J. H. Colligan,
_Arian Movement in England_.

ARICA ([.a]-r[=e]´k[.a]), a seaport of Chile, 30 miles S. of Tacna;
previous to 1880 it belonged to Peru. It has suffered frequently from
earthquakes, being in 1868 almost entirely destroyed, part of it being also
submerged by an earthquake wave. Pop. about 4000. It has a wireless
station.

ARICA. See _Tacna-Arica Dispute_.

ARICHAT (-shat´), a seaport town and fishing station of Nova Scotia, on a
small bay, south coast of Madame Island. Pop. about 2500.

ARIÈGE ([.a]-r[=e]-[=a]zh), a mountainous department of France, on the
northern slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising the ancient countship of Foix
and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. The principal rivers are the Ariège,
Arize, and Salat, tributaries of the Garonne. Sheep and cattle are reared;
the arable land is small in quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area, 1892 sq.
miles. Pop. (1921), 172,851.

A´RIEL, a symbolic name for Jerusalem in the Old Testament; in the
demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's
_Tempest_, Ariel was the "tricksy spirit" whom Prospero had in his service.

ARIES ([=a]´ri-[=e]z; Lat.), the Ram, a northern constellation. It is the
first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters at the vernal
equinox, about the 21st of March. The "First Point in Aries" is where the
equator cuts the ecliptic in the ascending node, from which point the right
ascensions of heavenly bodies are reckoned on the equator, and their
longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the
sign Aries no longer corresponds with the constellation Aries, which it did
2000 years ago.

[Illustration: Aril, Fruit of Nutmeg]

AR´IL, or ARIL´LUS, in some plants, as in the nutmeg, an extra covering of
the seed, outside of the true seed-coats, proceeding from the placenta,
partially investing the seed, and falling off spontaneously. It is either
succulent or cartilaginous, coloured, elastic, rough, or knotted. In the
nutmeg it is known as _mace_.

ARIMAS´PIANS, in ancient Greek traditions, a people who lived in the
extreme north-east of the ancient world. They were said to be one-eyed and
to carry on a perpetual war with the gold-guarding griffins, whose gold
they endeavoured to steal. Cf. Milton, _Paradise Lost_, II, 943.

ARIMATHÆ´A, a town of Palestine, identified with the modern _Ramleh_, 22
miles W.N.W. of Jerusalem.

ARI´ON, an ancient Greek poet and musician, born at Methymna, in Lesbos,
flourished about 625 B.C. He lived at the Court of Periander of Corinth,
and afterwards visited Sicily and Italy. Returning from Tarentum to Corinth
with rich treasures, the avaricious sailors resolved to murder him. Apollo,
however, having informed him in a dream of the impending danger, Arion in
vain endeavoured to soften the hearts of the crew by the power of music. He
then threw himself into the sea, when one of a shoal of dolphins, which had
been attracted by his music, received him on his back and bore him to land.
The sailors, having returned to Corinth, were confronted by Arion and
convicted of their crime. The lyre of Arion, and the dolphin which rescued
him, became constellations in the heavens. A fragment of a hymn to
Poseidon, ascribed to Arion, is extant.

ARIOS´TO, LUDOVI´CO, one of the most celebrated poets of Italy, was born at
Reggio, in Lombardy, 8th Sept., 1474, of a noble family; died 6th June,
1533. His lyric poems in the Italian and Latin languages, distinguished for
ease and elegance of style, introduced him to the notice of the Cardinal
Ippolito d'Este, son of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara. In 1503 Ippolito employed
him in his service and used his counsel in the most important affairs. In
this service he began and finished, in ten or eleven years, his immortal
poem, the _Orlando Furioso_, which was published in 1515, and immediately
became highly popular. He afterwards entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke
of Ferrara, the cardinal's brother, a lover of the arts, who put much
confidence in him. After quelling disturbances that had broken out in the
wild and mountainous Garfagnana, he returned to Ferrara, where he employed
himself in the composition of his comedies, and in putting the last touches
to his _Orlando_. The _Orlando Furioso_ is a continuation of the _Orlando
Innamorato_ of Bojardo, details the chivalrous adventures of the paladins
of the age of Charlemagne, and extends to forty-six cantos. The best
English translation is that of Rose (1823). Cf. E. Gardner, _Ariosto: the
Prince of Court Poets_; J. S. Nicholson, _Life and Genius of Ariosto_.

ARISH. See _El Arish_.

ARISTÆUS, in Greek mythology, son of Apollo and Cyrene, the introducer of
bee-keeping. Cf. Virgil, _Georgics_, IV, 315-558.

ARISTARCHUS (a-ris-tär´kus), an ancient Greek grammarian, born at
Samothrace 220 B.C., died at Cyprus 143 B.C. He edited Homer's poems with
the greatest acuteness and ability, endeavouring to restore the text to its
genuine state, and to clear it of all interpolations and corruptions; hence
the phrase, Aristarchian criticism. His edition of Homer furnished the
basis of all subsequent ones.

ARISTARCHUS, an ancient Greek astronomer belonging to Samos, flourished
about 155 B.C., and first asserted the revolution of the earth about the
sun; also regarded as the inventor of the sun-dial.

ARIS´TEAS, a personage of ancient Greek legend, represented to have lived
over many centuries, disappearing and reappearing by turns.

ARISTIDES (a-ris-t[=i]´d[=e]z), a statesman of ancient Greece, for his
strict integrity surnamed the _Just_. He was one of the ten generals of the
Athenians when they fought with the Persians at Marathon, 490 B.C. Next
year he was eponymous archon, and in this office enjoyed such popularity
that he excited the jealousy of Themistocles, who succeeded in procuring
his banishment by ostracism (about 483). Three years after, when Xerxes
invaded Greece with a large army, the Athenians hastened to recall him, and
Themistocles now admitted him to his confidence and councils. In the battle
of Platæa (479) he commanded the Athenians, and had a great share in
gaining the victory. To defray the expenses of the Persian war he persuaded
the Greeks to impose a tax, which should be paid into the hands of an
officer appointed by the States collectively, and deposited at Delos. The
confidence which was felt in his integrity appeared in their entrusting him
with the office of apportioning the contribution. He died at an advanced
age about 468 B.C., so poor that he was buried at the public expense.

ARISTIP´PUS (c. 425-366 B.C.), a disciple of Socrates, and founder of a
philosophical school among the Greeks, which was called the _Cyrenaic_,
from his native city Cyr[=e]n[=e], in Africa; flourished 380 B.C. His moral
philosophy differed widely from that of Socrates, and was a science of
refined voluptuousness. His fundamental principles were--that all human
sensations may be reduced to two, pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle,
and pain a violent emotion. All living beings seek the former and avoid the
latter. Happiness is nothing but a continued pleasure, composed of separate
gratifications; and as it is the object of all human exertions, we should
abstain from no kind of pleasure. Still we should always be governed by
taste and reason in our enjoyments. His doctrines were taught only by his
daughter Ar[)e]t[=e], and by his grandson Aristippus the younger, by whom
they were systematized. Other Cyrenaics compounded them into a particular
doctrine of pleasure, and are hence called _Hedonici_. His writings are
lost.

ARISTOC´RACY (Gr. _aristos_, best, _kratos_, rule), a form of government by
which the wealthy and noble, or any small privileged class, rules over the
rest of the citizens. The term has now become almost entirely social in
meaning, and is mostly applied to the nobility or chief persons in a State.

ARISTOGEITON (-g[=i]´ton), a citizen of Athens, whose name is rendered
famous by a conspiracy (514 B.C.) formed in conjunction with his friend
Harmodius against the tyrants Hippias and Hipparchus, the sons of
Pisistratus. Both Aristogeiton and Harmodius lost their lives through their
attempts to free the country, and were reckoned martyrs of liberty.

ARISTOLOCHIA (-l[=o]´ki-a), a genus of plants, the type of the ord.
Aristolochiaceæ, which consists of dicotyledonous monochlamydeous plants,
with an inferior 3-6-celled fruit, found for the most part in the hotter
parts of the world, and in many cases used medicinally on account of their
tonic and stimulating properties. The genus has emmenagogic qualities,
especially the European species _A. rotunda_, _A. longa_, and _A.
Clemat[=i]tis_. _A. bracte[=a]ta_ is used in India as an anthelminthic; _A.
odoratissima_, a West Indian species, is a valuable bitter and
alexipharmic. _A. serpentaria_ is the Virginian snake-root, popularly
regarded as a remedy for snake bites.

ARISTOPHANES (-tof´a-n[=e]z), the greatest comic poet of ancient Greece,
born at Athens probably about the year 455 B.C., died 375 B.C. Little is
known of his life. He appeared as a poet in 427 B.C., and having indulged
in some sarcasms on the powerful demagogue Cleon, was ineffectually accused
by the latter of having unlawfully assumed the title of an Athenian
citizen. He afterwards revenged himself on Cleon in his comedy of the
_Knights_, in which he himself acted the part of Cleon, because no actor
had the courage to do it. Of fifty-four (or forty-four) comedies attributed
to him, eleven only remain; believed to be the flower of the ancient
comedy, and distinguished by wit, humour, and poetry, as also by grossness.
In them there is constant reference to the manners, actions, and public
characters of the day, the freedom of the old Greek comedy allowing an
unbounded degree of personal and political satire. The names of his extant
plays are _Acharnians_, _Knights_, _Clouds_, _Wasps_, _Peace_, _Birds_,
_Lysistrata_, _Thesmophoriazusæ_, _Frogs_, _Ecclesiasuzæ_, and
_Plutus_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. B. Rogers, _Complete Works of Aristophanes,
with verse translation_ (by far the best translation); Hookham-Frere,
_Translation_ (five plays only); Couat, _Aristophane et l'ancienne comédie
attique_.

AR´ISTOTLE (Gr. _Aristot´eles_), a distinguished philosopher and naturalist
of ancient Greece, the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy, was
born in 384 B.C. at Stagira, in Macedonia; died at Chalcis, 322 B.C. His
father, Nicomachus, was physician to Amyntas II, King of Macedonia, and
claimed to be descended from Æsculapius. Aristotle had lost his parents
before he came, at about the age of seventeen, to Athens to study in the
school of Plato. With that philosopher he remained for twenty years, became
pre-eminent among his pupils, and was known as the 'Intellect of the
School'. Upon the death of Plato, 348 B.C., he took up his residence at
Atarneus, in Mysia, on the invitation of his former pupil Hermeias, the
ruler of that city, on whose assassination by the Persians, 343 B.C., he
fled to Mitylene with his wife Pythias, a near relative of Hermeias. During
his residence at Mitylene he received an invitation from Philip of Macedon
to superintend the education of his son Alexander, then in his fourteenth
year. This relationship between the great philosopher and the future
conqueror continued for five or six years, during which the prince was
instructed in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and
in those branches of physics which had even then made some considerable
progress. On Alexander succeeding to the throne Aristotle continued to live
with him as his friend and councillor till he set out on his Asiatic
campaign (334 B.C.). He returned to Athens and established his school in
the Lyceum, a gymnasium attached to the temple of Apollo Lyceius, which was
assigned to him by the State. He delivered his lectures in the wooded walks
of the Lyceum while walking up and down with his pupils. From the action
itself, or more probably from the name of the walks (_peripatoi_), his
school was called Peripatetic. Pupils gathered to him from all parts of
Greece, and his school became by far the most popular in Athens. The
statement that he had two circles of pupils, the _exoteric_ and the
_esoteric_ has given rise to much controversy. By some it has been held
that Aristotle published during his lifetime popular discourses with a view
to make way for his doctrines in Athenian society, then impregnated with
Platonic theories, and that these are called exoteric in contradistinction
to those in which are embodied his matured opinions. It was during the time
of his teaching at Athens that Aristotle is believed to have composed the
great bulk of his works. But it is not possible to speak with any certainty
about the chronology of his writings, as the references may be additions of
editors. On the death of Alexander a revolution occurred in Athens hostile
to the Macedonian interests with which Aristotle was identified. He
therefore retired to Chalcis, where he soon after died. Sir Charles
Walston, in 1891, opened a tomb near Eretria which he supposed to be that
of Aristotle. According to Strabo he bequeathed all his works to
Theophrastus, who, with other disciples of Aristotle, amended and continued
them. They afterwards passed through various hands, till, about 50 B.C.,
Andronicus of Rhodes put the various fragments together and classified them
according to a systematic arrangement. Many of the books bearing his name
are spurious, others are of doubtful genuineness. The whole are generally
divided into logical, theoretical, and practical. The logical works are
comprehended under the title _Organon_ (Instrument). The theoretical are
divided into physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The physical works
(including those on natural history) are on the _General Principles of
Physical Science_, _The Heavens_, _Generation and Destruction_,
_Meteorology_, _Natural History of Animals_, _On the Parts of Animals_, _On
the Generation of Animals_, _On the Locomotion of Animals_, _On the Soul_,
_On Memory_, _Sleep and Waking_, _Dreams_, _Divination_. In mathematics
there are two treatises, _On Indivisible Lines_ and _Mechanical Problems_.
_The Metaphysics_ consist of fourteen books; the title (_Ta meta ta
Physika_, 'the things following the Physics',) is the invention of an
editor. The practical works embrace ethics, politics, economics, and
treatises on art, and comprise the _Nicomachæan Ethics_ (so called because
dedicated to his son, Nicomachus), _The Politics_, _Oeconomics_, _Poetry_,
and _Rhetoric_. Among the lost works are the dialogues and others termed
exoteric. A treatise _On the Constitution of Athens_ was discovered in
1891. His style is devoid of grace and elegance. His works were first
printed in a Latin translation, with the commentaries of Averroes, at
Venice in 1489; the first Greek edition was that of Aldus Manutius (5
vols., 1495-8). See _Peripatetic Philosophy_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Blakesley,
_Life of Aristotle_; S. H. Butcher, _Poetics_ (with translation and
excursus); R. Shute, _History of the Aristotelian Writings_; J. C. Wilson,
_Aristotelian Studies_; E. Zeller, _Aristotle and the Earlier
Peripatetics_; E. Barker, _Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle_.

ARISTOX´ENUS, an ancient Greek musician and philosopher of Tarentum, born
about 324 B.C. He studied music under his father Mnesias, and philosophy
under Aristotle, whose successor he aspired to be. He endeavoured to apply
his musical knowledge to philosophy, and especially to the science of mind,
but it only appears to have furnished him with far-fetched analogies and
led him into a kind of materialism. We have a work on the _Elements of
Harmony_ by him.

ARITH´METIC (Gr. _arithmos_, number) is primarily the science of numbers.
As opposed to algebra it is the practical part of the science. Although the
processes of arithmetical operations are often highly complicated, they all
resolve themselves into the repetition of four primary
operations--addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Of these
the two latter are only complex forms of the two former, and subtraction
again is merely a reversal of the process of addition. Little or nothing is
known as to the origin and invention of arithmetic. Some elementary
conception of it is in all probability coeval with the first dawn of human
intelligence. In consequence of their rude methods of numeration, the
science made but small advance among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and
Romans, and it was not until the introduction of the decimal scale of
notation and the Arabic, or rather Indian, numerals into Europe that any
great progress can be traced. In this scale of notation every number is
expressed by means of the ten digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, by
giving each digit a local as well as its proper or natural value. The value
of every digit increases in a tenfold proportion from the right towards the
left; the distance of any figure from the right indicating the power of 10,
and the digit itself the number of those powers intended to be expressed:
thus 3464 = 3000 + 400 + 60 + 4 = 3 × 10^3 + 4 × 10^2 + 6 × 10 + 4. The
earliest arithmetical signs appear to have been hieroglyphical, but the
Egyptian hieroglyphics were too diffuse to be of any arithmetical value.
The units were successive strokes to the number required, the ten an open
circle, the hundred a curled palm-leaf, the thousand a lotus flower, ten
thousand a bent finger. The letters of the alphabet afforded a convenient
mode of representing figures, and were used accordingly by the Chaldeans,
Hebrews, and Greeks. The first nine letters of the Hebrew alphabet
represented the units, the second nine tens, the remaining four together
with five repeated with additional marks, hundreds; the same succession of
letters with added points was repeated for thousands, tens of thousands,
and hundreds of thousands. The Greeks followed the same system up to tens
of thousands. They wrote the different classes of numbers in succession as
we do, and they transferred operations performed on units to numbers in
higher places; but the use of different signs for the different ranks
clearly shows a want of full perception of the value of place as such. They
adopted the letter M as a sign for 10,000 and by combining this mark with
their other numerals they could note numbers as high as 100,000,000. The
Roman numerals, which are still used in marking dates or numbering
chapters, were almost useless for purposes of computation. From one to four
were represented by vertical strokes [I], [II], [III], [IIII], five by [V],
ten by [X], fifty by [L], one hundred by [square C], afterwards [C], five
hundred by [D], a thousand by [M]. These signs were derived from each other
according to particular rules, thus [V] was the half of [X], [inverted V]
being also used; [L] was likewise the half of [C]. [M] was artistically
written [M] and [cIc*] and [Ic*], afterwards [D], became five hundred.
[ccI] represented 5000, [ccIc*c*] 10,000, [Ic*c*c*] 50,000, [cccIc*c*c*]
100,000. They were also compounded by addition and subtraction, thus [IV]
stood for four, [VI] for six, [XXX] for thirty, [XL] for forty, [LX] for
sixty. Arithmetic is divided into _abstract_ and _practical_: the former
comprehends notation, numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, measures and multiples, fractions, powers and roots; the latter
treats of the combinations and practical applications of these and the
so-called rules, such as reduction, compound addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, proportion, interest, profit and loss, &c.
Another division is _integral_ and _fractional_ arithmetic, the former
treating of integers, or whole numbers, and the latter of fractions.
Decimal fractions were invented in the sixteenth century, and logarithms,
embodying the last great advance in the science, in the seventeenth
century.

ARITHMET´ICAL, pertaining to arithmetic or its operations.--_Arithmetical
mean_, the middle term of three quantities in arithmetical progression, or
half the sum of any two proposed numbers; thus 11 is the arithmetical mean
to 8 and 14.--_Arithmetical progression_, a series of numbers increasing or
decreasing by a common difference, as 1, 3, 5, 7, &c.--_Arithmetical
signs_, certain symbols used in arithmetic, and indicating processes or
facts. The common signs used in arithmetic are the following: [plus sign]
signifying that the numbers between which it is placed are to be added;
[minus sign] - that the second is to be subtracted from the first; [times
sign] that the one is to be multiplied by the other; [divide sign] that the
former is to be divided by the latter; [equals sign] signifies that the one
number is equal to the other; [proportional signs - colons] are the signs
placed between the members of a proportional series, as 4 : 6 :: 8 : 12. A
small figure placed on the right hand of another at the top signifies the
corresponding power of the number beside which it is placed, as 5^2, 4^3,
meaning the square of 5 and the cube of 4. [cube root] placed before or
over a number signifies the square root of that number; with a figure it
signifies the root of a higher power, as [cube root], which means cube
root. A period placed to the left of a series of figures indicates that
they are decimal fractions.

A´RIUS, the originator of the Arian heresy. See _Arians_.

ARIZO´NA, a former territory of the United States, admitted into the union
as a sovereign State on 14th Feb., 1912, is bounded south by Mexico, west
by California and Nevada (the River Colorado forming the greater part of
the boundary), north by Utah, and east by New Mexico; area, 113,956 sq.
miles. The surface is generally mountainous, but many fertile and
well-watered valleys lie between the ridges. Part of the surface consists
of deserts often entirely destitute of vegetation. The territory belongs to
the basin of the Colorado, which passes through a portion of it, besides
forming the boundary; while the Gila and Little Colorado, tributaries of
the Colorado, traverse it from east to west. The canyons of the Colorado
form a wonderful feature, the river flowing for hundreds of miles in a deep
rocky channel with walls rising perpendicularly to the height of 1500 to
6000 feet. In some parts timber is plentiful. The rainfall is small, and
irrigation has been employed for agricultural purposes. Large tracts of
elevated land have been found excellently adapted as pastures for sheep and
cattle. The territory is rich in copper, gold, silver, lead, and other
minerals, and mining is largely carried on, with much copper smelting and
refining. The capital is Phoenix. Pop. 29,053. The Southern and the Santa
Fé Pacific Railways traverse it. Pop. (1920), 333,903 (of which 171,468 are
white), exclusive of Apaches and other Indians on reservations (area,
29,017 sq. miles; pop. (1920), 42,400).

ARJISH DAGH, the loftiest peak of the peninsula of Asia Minor, at the
western extremity of the Anti-Taurus Range, 13,150 feet; an extinct
volcano; on the N. and N.E. slopes are extensive glaciers.

ARK, the name applied in our translation of the Bible to the boat or
floating house in which Noah resided during the flood or deluge; to the
floating vessel of bulrushes in which the infant Moses was laid; and to the
chest in which the tables of the law were preserved--the _ark of the
covenant_. This last was made of shittim-wood, overlaid within and without
with gold, about 3¾ feet long by 2¼ feet high and broad, and over it were
placed the golden covering or mercy-seat and the two cherubim. It was
placed in the sanctuary of the temple of Solomon; before his time it was
kept in the tabernacle, and was moved about as circumstances dictated. At
the captivity it appears to have been either lost or destroyed.

ARKANSAS (ar´kan-s[a:] or ar-kan´sas), one of the United States of America,
bounded north by Missouri; east by the Mississippi, which separates it from
the States of Mississippi and Tennessee; south by Louisiana and Texas; and
west by the Indian Territory and Texas; area, 53,335 sq. miles. The surface
in the east is low, flat, and swampy, densely wooded, and subject to
frequent inundations from the numerous streams which water it. Towards the
centre it becomes more diversified, presenting many undulating slopes and
hills of moderate elevation. In the west it rises still higher, being
traversed by a range of hills called the Ozark, which attains a height of
2000 feet, some peaks rising to 3000. In various parts the prairies are of
great extent; the forests also are extensive, principally of oak, hickory,
ash, cotton, linden, maple, locust, and pine. Coal and other minerals are
worked. The principal rivers, all tributaries of the Mississippi, are the
Arkansas, the Red River, the St. Francis, and the Washita. Near the centre
of the State are warm springs, much resorted to for chronic rheumatic and
paralytic affections. The climate is subject to great extremes of heat and
cold, and in the lower districts is unhealthy to new settlers. The staple
products are cotton and maize; fruit is tolerably abundant. Many districts
are admirably adapted for grazing, and great numbers of excellent cattle
are reared. Arkansas was colonized as early as 1685 by the French. As part
of Louisiana it was purchased by the United States in 1803. It was made
into a separate territory in 1819, and admitted into the Union in 1836. It
was one of the seceding States. The capital is Little Rock. The enumerated
population in 1920 was 1,750,995.

ARKANSAS, a river of the United States, which gives its name to the above
State, the largest affluent of the Mississippi after the Missouri. It rises
in the Rocky Mountains, about lat. 39° N., long. 107° W., flows in a
general south-easterly direction through Colorado, Kansas, the Indian
Territory, and lastly through the State of Arkansas, and after a course of
2170 miles enters the Mississippi. During greater part of the year it is
navigable for steamboats for 800 miles.

ARKITE. See _Explosives_.

ARK´LOW, a town in Ireland, County Wicklow, on the right bank of the Avoca,
which falls into the sea about 500 yards below the town; the scene of a
severe fight during the rebellion of 1798. Fishing is the chief industry.
Pop. 5042.

[Illustration: Arkwright's Water Frame]

ARK´WRIGHT, Sir Richard, famous for his inventions in cotton-spinning, was
born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 1732, died 1792. The youngest of
thirteen children, he was bred to the trade of a barber. When about
thirty-five years of age he gave himself up exclusively to the subject of
inventions for spinning cotton. The thread spun by Hargreaves' jenny could
not be used except as weft, being destitute of the firmness or hardness
required in the longitudinal threads or warp. But Arkwright supplied this
deficiency by the invention of the _spinning-frame_, which spins a vast
number of threads of any degree of fineness and hardness, leaving the
operator merely to feed the machine with cotton and to join the threads
when they happen to break. His invention introduced the system of spinning
by rollers, the carding, or _roving_ as it is technically termed (that is,
the soft, loose strip of cotton), passing through one pair of rollers, and
being received by a second pair, which is made to revolve with (as the case
may be) three, four, or five times the velocity of the first pair. By this
contrivance the roving is drawn out into a thread of the desired degree of
tenuity and hardness. His inventions being brought into a pretty advanced
state, Arkwright removed to Nottingham in 1768 in order to avoid the
attacks of the same lawless rabble that had driven Hargreaves out of
Lancashire. Here his operations were at first greatly fettered by a want of
capital; but two gentlemen of means having entered into partnership with
him, the necessary funds were obtained, and Arkwright erected his first
mill, which was driven by horses, at Nottingham, and took out a patent for
spinning by rollers in 1769. As the mode of working the machinery by
horse-power was found too expensive, he built a second factory on a much
larger scale at Cromford, in Derbyshire, in 1771, the machinery of which
was turned by a water-wheel. Having made several additional discoveries and
improvements in the processes of carding, roving, and spinning, he took out
a fresh patent for the whole in 1775, and thus completed a series of the
most ingenious and complicated machinery. Notwithstanding a series of
law-suits in defence of his patent rights, and the destruction of his
property by mobs, he amassed a large fortune. He was knighted by George III
in 1786.

ARLBERG ([.a]rl´ber_h_), a branch of the Rhætian Alps, in the west of
Tyrol, between it and Vorarlberg, pierced by the fourth longest railway
tunnel in the world. It is 6½ miles long, and was finished in Nov., 1883,
and connects the valley of the Inn with that of the Rhine, and the Austrian
railway system with the Swiss railways.

AR´LECDON, an urban district of England, in Cumberland, 4 miles east of
Whitehaven, with coal and iron mines. Pop. (1921), 5152.

ARLES ([.a]rl; ancient, AREL[=A]TE), a town of Southern France, department
Bouches du Rhône, 17 miles south-east of Nismes. It was an important town
at the time of Cæsar's invasion, and under the later emperors it became one
of the most flourishing towns on the farther side of the Alps. It still
possesses numerous ancient remains, of which the most conspicuous are those
of a Roman amphitheatre, which accommodated 24,000 spectators. It has a
considerable trade, manufactures of silk, &c., and furnishes a market for
the surrounding country. Pop. 16,746.

AR´LINGTON, Henry Bennet, Earl of, member of the Cabal ministry, and one of
the scheming creatures of Charles II, born 1618, died 1685. He is supposed
to have lived and died a Roman Catholic.

AR´LON, a Belgian town, capital province of Luxemburg, a thriving town,
with manufactures of ironware, leather, tobacco, &c. Pop. 12,012.

ARM, the upper limb in man, connected with the thorax or chest by means of
the scapula or shoulder-blade, and the clavicle or collar-bone. It consists
of three bones, the arm-bone (_hum[)e]rus_), and the two bones of the
fore-arm (_radius_ and _ulna_), and it is connected with the bones of the
hand by the _carpus_ or wrist. The head or upper end of the arm-bone fits
into the hollow called the _glenoid cavity_ of the scapula, so as to form a
joint of the ball-and-socket kind, allowing great freedom of movement to
the limb. The lower end of the humerus is broadened out by a projection on
both the outer and inner sides (the outer and inner _condyles_), and has a
pulley-like surface for articulating with the fore-arm to form the
elbow-joint. This joint somewhat resembles a hinge, allowing of movement
only in one direction. The ulna is the inner of the two bones of the
fore-arm. It is largest at the upper end, where it has two processes, the
_coronoid_ and the _olecranon_, with a deep groove between to receive the
humerus. The radius--the outer of the two bones--is small at the upper and
expanded at the lower end, where it forms part of the wrist-joint. The
muscles of the upper arm are either _flexors_ or _extensors_, the former
serving to bend the arm, the latter to straighten it by means of the
elbow-joint. The main flexor is the _biceps_, the large muscle which may be
seen standing out in front of the arm when a weight is raised. The chief
opposing muscle of the biceps is the _triceps_. The muscles of the fore-arm
are, besides flexors and extensors, _pronators_ and _supinators_, the
former turning the hand palm downwards, the latter turning it upwards. The
same fundamental plan of structure exists in the limbs of all vertebrate
animals.

ARMA´DA, the Spanish name for any large naval force; usually applied to the
Spanish fleet vaingloriously designated the _Invincible Armada_, intended
to act against England A.D. 1588. It was under the command of the Duke of
Medina-Sidonia, and consisted of 130 great war vessels, larger and stronger
than any belonging to the English fleet, with 30 smaller ships of war, and
carried 19,295 marines, 8460 sailors, 2088 slaves, and 2630 cannon. It had
scarcely quitted Lisbon on 29th May, 1588, when it was scattered by a
storm, and had to be refitted in Corunna. It was to co-operate with a land
force collected in Flanders under the Prince of Parma, and to unite with
this it proceeded through the English Channel towards Calais. In its
progress it was attacked by the English fleet under Lord Howard, who, with
his lieutenants, Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, endeavoured by dexterous
seamanship and the discharge of well-directed volleys of shot to destroy or
capture the vessels of the enemy. The great lumbering Spanish vessels
suffered severely from their smaller opponents, which most of their shot
missed. Arrived at length off Dunkirk, the armada was becalmed, thrown into
confusion by fire-ships, and many of the Spanish vessels destroyed or
taken. The Duke of Medina-Sidonia, owing to the severe losses, at last
resolved to abandon the enterprise, and conceived the idea of reconveying
his fleet to Spain by a voyage round the north of Great Britain; but storm
after storm assailed his ships, scattering them in all directions, and
sinking many. Some went down on the cliffs of Norway, others in the open
sea, others on the Scottish coast, others on the coast of Ireland. In all,
seventy-two large vessels and over 10,000 men were lost.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
J. A. Froude, _Spanish Story of the Armada_; Sir J. K. Laughton, _State
Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada_; J. R. Hale, _Story of
the Great Armada_.

ARMADALE, a town of Scotland, Linlithgowshire, in coal and iron district.
Pop. 4739.

[Illustration: Armadillos--Left, Hairy Armadillo. Right, Kappler's
Armadillo]

ARMADI´LLO (genus Das[)y]pus), an edentate mammal peculiar to South
America, consisting of various species, belonging to a family intermediate
between the sloths and ant-eaters. They are covered with a hard bony shell,
divided into belts, composed of small separate plates like a coat of mail,
flexible everywhere except on the forehead, shoulders, and haunches, where
it is not movable. The belts are connected by a membrane which enables the
animal to roll itself up like a hedgehog. These animals burrow in the
earth, where they lie during the daytime, seldom going abroad except at
night. They are of different sizes: the largest, _Dasypus gigas_, being 3
feet in length without the tail, and the smallest only 10 inches. They
subsist chiefly on fruits and roots, sometimes on insects and flesh. They
are inoffensive, and their flesh is esteemed good food.--There is a genus
of isopodous Crustacea called Armadillo, consisting of animals allied to
the wood-lice, capable of rolling themselves into a ball.

ARMAGEDDON (-ged´don), the great battlefield of the Old Testament, where
the chief conflicts took place between the Israelites and their
enemies--the table-land of Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, in the centre
of which stood the town of Megiddo, on the site of the modern Lejjun: used
figuratively in the _Apocalypse_ to signify the place of 'the battle of the
great day of God'. It may, however, be _har migdo_, his fruitful mountain,
'the mountain land of Israel'. The phrase 'an Armageddon' expresses any
great slaughter or final conflict, and has been frequently applied to the
Great War of 1914-8. During this war severe fighting took place in Sept.,
1918, on the field of Armageddon, the entrance to the passes of Megiddo.
The battle ended in an overwhelming victory for General Allenby's armies.
See _Megiddo_.

ARMAGH ([.a]r-mä´), a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster;
surrounded by Monaghan, Tyrone, Lough Neagh, Down, and Louth; area, 328,086
acres, of which about a half is under tillage. The north-west of the county
is undulating and fertile. The northern part, bordering on Lough Neagh,
consists principally of extensive bogs. On the southern border is a range
of barren hills. The chief rivers are the Blackwater, which separates it
from Tyrone; the Upper Bann, which discharges itself into Lough Neagh; and
the Callan, which falls into the Blackwater. There are several small lakes.
The manufacture of linen is carried on very extensively. Armagh, Lurgan,
and Portadown are the chief towns. The county sends three members to
Parliament. Pop. 120,291.--The county town, _Armagh_, is situated partly on
a hill, about half a mile from the Callan. It has a Protestant cathedral
crowning the hill, a Gothic building dating from the eighth century,
repaired and beautified recently; a new Roman Catholic cathedral in the
pointed Gothic style, and various public buildings. It is the see of an
archbishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, who is primate of all
Ireland, and is a place of great antiquity. Pop. 7356.

ARMAGNAC ([.a]r-m[.a]-ny[.a]k), an ancient territory of France, in the
province of Gascony, some of the counts of which hold prominent places in
the history of France. Bernard VII, son of John II, surnamed the Hunchback,
succeeded his brother, John III, in 1391, and was called to Court by
Isabella of Bavaria, with the view of heading the Orleans in opposition to
the Burgundian faction, where he no sooner gained the ascendancy than he
compelled the queen to appoint him Constable of France. He showed himself a
merciless tyrant, and became so generally execrated that the Duke of
Burgundy, to whom Isabella had turned for help, found little difficulty in
gaining admission into Paris, and even seizing the person of Armagnac, who
was cast into prison in 1418, when the exasperated populace burst in and
killed him and his followers. John V, grandson of the above, who succeeded
in 1450, made himself notorious for his crimes. He was assassinated in his
castle of Lectoure in 1473 by an agent of Louis XI, against whom he was
holding out.

AR´MATURE, a term applied to the piece of soft iron which is placed across
the poles of permanent or electro-magnets for the purpose of receiving and
concentrating the attractive force. In the case of permanent magnets it is
also important for preserving their magnetism when not in use, and hence it
is sometimes termed the _keeper_. It produces this effect in virtue of the
well-known law of induction, by which the armature, when placed near or
across the poles of the magnet, is itself converted into a temporary magnet
with reversed poles, and these, reacting upon the permanent magnet, keep
its particles in a state of constant magnetic tension, or, in other words,
in that constrained position which is supposed to constitute magnetism. A
horse-shoe magnet should therefore never be laid aside without its
armature; and in the case of straight bar-magnets two should be placed
parallel to each other, with their poles reversed, and a keeper or armature
across them at both ends. The term is also applied to the core and coil of
the electro-magnet, which revolves before the poles of the permanent magnet
in the magneto-electric machine.

ARME BLANCHE, a term applied to the rapier and duelling-foil, and
frequently also to all weapons other than fire-arms. The phrase is
particularly applied to the sabres and lances carried by cavalry, but also
to the bayonet.

ARME´NIA, a mountainous country of Western Asia, of great historical
interest as the original seat of one of the oldest civilized peoples in the
world. The name Armenia occurs in the _Vulgate_, but the Hebrew name is
Ararat. It has an area of about 120,000 sq. miles, and is intersected by
the Euphrates, which divides it into the ancient divisions, Armenia Major
and Armenia Minor. The country is an elevated plateau, enclosed on several
sides by the ranges of Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and partly occupied by other
mountains, the loftiest of which is Ararat. Several important rivers take
their rise in Armenia, namely, the Kur or Cyrus, and its tributary the Aras
or Araxes, flowing east to the Caspian Sea; the Halys or Kizil-Irmak,
flowing north to the Black Sea; and the Tigris and Euphrates, which flow
into the Persian Gulf. The chief lakes are Van and Urumiyah. The climate is
rather severe. The soil is on the whole productive, though in many places
it would be quite barren were it not for the great care taken to irrigate
it. Wheat, barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton are raised; and in
some of the valleys apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts are grown.
The inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock, a branch of the
Aryan or Indo-European race; but besides them, in consequence of the
repeated subjugation of the country, various other races have obtained a
footing. The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,900,000, of whom
one-half are in Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over
various countries, and are generally engaged in commercial pursuits. They
everywhere retain, however, their distinct nationality.

Little is known of the early history of Armenia, but it was a separate
State as early as the eighth century B.C., when it became subject to
Assyria, as it also did subsequently to the Medes and the Persians. It was
conquered by Alexander the Great in 325 B.C., but regained its independence
about 190 B.C. Its king, Tigranes, son-in-law of the celebrated
Mithrid[=a]tes, was defeated by the Romans under Lucullus and Pompey
between 69-66 B.C., but was left on the throne. Since then its fortunes
have been various under the Romans, Parthians, Byzantine emperors,
Persians, Saracens, and Turks. Until quite recently Armenia had no
political existence, having been partitioned between Turkey, Persia, and
Russia, the last acquiring considerable portions in 1829 and 1878. The hope
of the Armenians to see their country formed into an autonomous province
administered by Christians was frustrated by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.
The advanced party amongst the Armenians, therefore, determined to obtain
their object by the production of disturbances and the spread of a
revolutionary movement. The Porte retaliated by wholesale massacres of the
Armenians in 1896, 1904, and 1908. The Armenian revolutionary and national
parties in the meantime continued their activity and propaganda. Armenia
proclaimed its independence in Aug., 1918. In Jan., 1920, the Supreme
Council of the Allied Governments recognized the Armenian Republic of
Erivan. A mandate for Armenia was also offered to the United States of
America, but it was refused by the American Senate in May, 1920. On 18th
March, 1922, Soviet Russia concluded a treaty with Turkey, giving to the
latter most of Armenia. Batum was attached to Georgia. See _Erivan_,
_Russia_, _Turkey_.

The Armenians received Christianity at an early date, most probably at the
beginning of the third century, although native historians maintain that
several of the apostles preached in Armenia. The real apostle of Armenia
was Gregory the Illuminator, in the third century. During the Monophysitic
disputes they held with those who rejected the twofold nature of Christ,
and being dissatisfied with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451)
they separated from the Greek Church in 536. The Popes had at different
times attempted to gain them over to the Roman Catholic faith, but have not
been able to unite them permanently and generally with the Roman Church.
There are, however, small numbers here and there of United Armenians, who
acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, agree in their doctrines
with the Catholics, but retain their peculiar ceremonies and discipline.
But the far greater part are yet Monophysites, and have remained faithful
to their old religion and worship. Their doctrine differs from the orthodox
chiefly in their admitting only one nature in Christ, and believing the
Holy Spirit to proceed from the Father alone. Their sacraments are seven in
number. They adore saints and their images, but do not believe in
purgatory. Their hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The
_Catholicus_, or head of the Church, has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a
monastery near Erivan, the capital of former Russian Armenia, on Mount
Ararat.

The Armenian language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, and
is most closely connected with the Iranic group. The Old Armenian or Haikan
language, which is still the literary and ecclesiastical language, is
distinguished from the New Armenian, the ordinary spoken language, which
contains a large intermixture of Persian and Turkish elements. The most
flourishing period of Armenian literature extended from the fourth to the
fourteenth century. It then declined, but a revival began in the
seventeenth century, and at the present day wherever any extensive
community of Armenians has settled they have set up a printing-press. The
Armenian Bible, translated from a Syriac version, and revised by means of
the Septuagint, by Isaac the Great and St. Mesrop, early in the fifth
century, is a model of the classic style.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. N. and H.
Buxton, _Travel and Politics in Armenia_; N. T. Gregor, _History of
Armenia_; W. L. Williams, _Armenia, Past and Present_.

ARMENTIÈRES ([.a]r-m[.a][n.]-ty[=a]r), a town in France, department Nord,
10 miles W.N.W. of Lille, on the Lys. The town had extensive manufactures
of linen and cotton goods and an extensive trade. The Germans captured
Armentières by massed assault early in April, 1918, after methodically
shelling the town for about two years and destroying almost every building
in it. The enemy's offensive was intended to achieve greater results.
Indeed, its object was to break through to the Channel ports. It began on
9th April, after artillery preparation, from La Bassée to Armentières.
When, however, the battle of Armentières died down, the enemy plan to break
through to the coast had been definitely and finally frustrated. German
losses were extremely heavy, their attacks having been made with massed
troops. (See _Ypres_.) Pop. 28,086.

ARM´FELT, Gustav Moritz, Count of, Swedish soldier, born 1757, died 1814.
Though he had been highly favoured and loaded with honours by Gustavus III,
he incurred the enmity of the Duke of Sudermania, guardian of the young
king, Gustavus IV, and was deprived of all his titles and possessions. He
was restored to his fortune and honours in 1799, when Gustavus IV attained
his majority, and held several high military posts. Ultimately, however, he
entered the Russian service, was made count, chancellor of the University
of Abo, president of the department for the affairs of Finland, member of
the Russian Senate, and served in the campaign against Napoleon in 1812.

ARMIDA ([.a]r-m[=e]´d[.a]), a beautiful enchantress in Tasso's _Jerusalem
Delivered_, who succeeds in bringing the hero Rinaldo, with whom she had
fallen violently in love, to her enchanted gardens. Here he completely
forgets the high task to which he had devoted himself, until messengers
from the Christian host having arrived at the island, Rinaldo escapes with
them by means of a powerful talisman. In the sequel Armida becomes a
Christian.

AR´MILLARY SPHERE (Lat. _armilla_, a hoop), an astronomical instrument
consisting of an arrangement of rings, all circles of one sphere, intended
to represent the principal circles of the celestial globe, the rings
standing for the meridian of the station, the ecliptic, the tropics, the
arctic and antarctic circles, &c., in their relative positions. Its main
use is to give a representation of the apparent motions of the celestial
bodies.

ARMIN´IANS, a sect or party of Christians, so called from Jacobus
_Arminius_ or Harmensen. (See _Arminius_.) They were called also
_Remonstrants_, from their having presented a _remonstrance_ to the
States-general in 1610. The Arminian doctrines are: (1) Conditional
election and reprobation, in opposition to absolute predestination. (2)
Universal redemption, or that the atonement was made by Christ for all
mankind, though none but believers can be partakers of the benefit. (3)
That man, in order to exercise true faith, must be regenerated and renewed
by the operation of the Holy Spirit, which is the gift of God; but that
this grace is not irresistible and may be lost, so that men may relapse
from a state of grace and die in their sins. Arminianism being a revolt
against certain aspects of Calvinism, especially the absolutism of the
eternal decrees, its doctrines were vehemently attacked by the Calvinists
of Holland, and were condemned by the Synod of Dort in 1619. The Arminians,
in consequence, were treated with great severity; many of them fled to, and
spread in, other countries, and though there is no longer any particular
sect to which the name is exclusively applied, many bodies are classed as
Arminians, as being opposed to the Calvinists on the question of
predestination.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Regenboog, _Historie der Remonstranten_;
Caspar Brandt, _Life of Arminius_ (English translation by J. Guthrie);
W. B. Pope, _Compendium of Christian Theology_ (3 vols.).

ARMIN´IUS, an ancient German hero celebrated by his fellow-countrymen as
their deliverer from the Roman yoke, born about 18-16 B.C., assassinated
A.D. 19. Having been sent as a hostage to Rome, he served in the Roman
army, and was raised to the rank of _eques_. Returning home, he found the
Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, making efforts to Romanize the German
tribes near the Rhine. Placing himself at the head of the discontented
tribes he completely annihilated the army of Varus, consisting of three
legions, in a three days' battle fought in the Teutoburg Forest. For some
time he baffled the Roman general Germanicus, and after many years'
resistance to the vast power of the Empire he drew upon himself the hatred
of his countrymen by aiming at the regal authority, and was assassinated. A
national monument to his memory was inaugurated on the Grotenburg, near
Detmold, in 1875.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: see Tacitus, _Annals_ (translated by
Murphy); O. Kemmer, _Arminius_; F. W. Fischer, _Armin und die Römer_.

ARMINIUS, Jacobus (properly Jakob Harmensen), founder of the sect of
Arminians or Remonstrants, born in South Holland in 1560, died 1609. He
studied at Utrecht, in the University of Leyden, and at Geneva, where his
chief preceptor in theology was Theodore Beza (1582). On his return to
Holland he was appointed minister of one of the churches in Amsterdam, and
chosen to undertake the refutation of a work which strongly controverted
Beza's doctrine of predestination; but he happened to be convinced by the
work which he had undertaken to refute. Elected in 1603 professor of
divinity at Leyden, he openly declared his opinions, and was involved in
harassing controversies, especially with his fellow professor Gomarus.
These contests, with the continual attacks on his reputation, at length
impaired his health and brought on a complicated disease, of which he died.
See _Arminians_.

AR´MITAGE, Edward, English historical painter, born 1817, died 1896. He
studied under Delaroche at the École des Beaux Arts, Paris, was one of the
ablest pupils of that painter, and in 1842 exhibited at the Salon (in the
Louvre) a picture of _Prometheus Bound_. At the exhibition of cartoons for
historical pictures in Westminster Hall (1843) he obtained a premium of
£300 for his design of _Cæsar's First Invasion of Britain_. Other similar
premiums were gained by his _Spirit of Religion_ (1845), and _Battle of
Meeanee_ (1847--£500). He now went to study at Rome, and exhibited at the
Academy in 1848 his _Henry VIII and Katherine Parr_, and his _Trafalgar_
(_Death of Nelson_). He had pictures in most of the subsequent Academy
exhibitions up nearly to the time of his death. In 1867 he was elected an
associate, and in 1872 a full academician. He did much for the restoration
of fresco painting in England. A large number of his pictures were biblical
in subject, such as _Ahab and Jezebel_, _Esther's Banquet_, _The Remorse of
Judas_, _Joseph and Mary_, _Herod's Birthday Feast_, &c. As professor of
painting to the Royal Academy he delivered lectures on painting, which were
published in 1883. In 1898 appeared a volume of his _Pictures and
Drawings_.

ARMOR´ICA (from two Celtic words signifying 'upon the sea'), a name
anciently applied to all north-western Gaul, afterwards limited to what is
now Brittany. Hence _Armoric_ is one name for Breton or the language of the
inhabitants of Brittany, a Celtic dialect closely allied to Welsh.

ARMOUR. See _Arms_.

ARMOURED CAR, a self-propelled car completely protected by bullet-proof
armour-plating. Such a car is a stage in the development of mechanical
warfare, i.e. warfare by means of a self-propelled, armed, and manned
machine. The idea is a very ancient one, some form of protected vehicle
having been in use among the Chinese in almost prehistoric times. The
modern armoured car is constructed on a strongly-engined chassis, and is
provided with a bullet-proof armour-plating both for engine and crew. This
armour is continued low down over the wheels. The armament of such a car
consists of two heavy machine-guns, firing through slits in the
armour-plating of the body of the car.

ARMOUR-PLATES, iron or steel plates with which the sides of vessels of war
are covered with the view of rendering them shot-proof. See _Iron-clad
Vessels_.

ARMS, COAT OF, or ARMORIAL BEARINGS, a collective name for the devices
borne on shields, on banners, &c., as marks of dignity and distinction,
and, in the case of family and feudal arms, descending from father to son.
They were first employed by the Crusaders, and became hereditary in
families at the close of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the
knights painting their banners or shields each with a figure or figures
proper to himself, to enable him to be distinguished in battle when clad in
armour. See _Heraldry_.

ARMS, COLLEGE OF. See _Herald_.

[Illustration: Armour, from the effigy of Sir Richard Peyton, in Tong
Church, Shropshire]

ARMS and ARMOUR. The former term is applied to weapons of offence, the
latter to the various articles of defensive covering used in war and
military exercises, especially before the introduction of gunpowder.
Weapons of offence are divisible into two distinct sections--firearms, and
arms used without gunpowder or other explosive substance. The first arms of
offence would probably be wooden clubs, then would follow wooden weapons
made more deadly by means of stone or bone, stone axes, slings, bows and
arrows with heads of flint or bone, and afterwards various weapons of
bronze. Subsequently a variety of arms of iron and steel was introduced,
which comprised the sword, javelin, pike, spear or lance, dagger, axe,
mace, chariot scythe, &c.; with a rude artillery consisting of catapults,
ballistæ, and battering-rams. From the descriptions of Homer we know that
almost all the Grecian armour, defensive and offensive, in his time was of
bronze; though iron was sometimes used. The lance, spear, and javelin were
the principal weapons of this age among the Greeks. The bow is not often
mentioned. Among ancient nations the Egyptians seem to have been most
accustomed to the use of the bow, which was the principal weapon of the
Egyptian infantry. Peculiar to the Egyptians was a defensive weapon
intended to catch and break the sword of the enemy. With the Assyrians the
bow was a favourite weapon; but with them lances, spears, and javelins were
in more common use than with the Egyptians. Most of the large engines of
war--chariots with scythes projecting at each side from the axle,
catapults, and ballistæ--seem to have been of Assyrian origin. During the
historical age of Greece the characteristic weapon was a heavy spear from
21 to 24 feet in length. The sword used by the Greeks was short, and was
worn on the right side. The Roman sword was from 22 to 24 inches in length,
straight, two-edged, and obtusely pointed, and as by the Greeks was worn on
the right side. It was used principally as a stabbing weapon. It was
originally of bronze. The most characteristic weapon of the Roman legionary
soldier, however, was the _pilum_, which was a kind of pike or javelin,
some 6 feet or more in length. The pilum was sometimes used at close
quarters, but more commonly it was thrown. The favourite weapons of the
ancient Germanic races were the battle-axe, the lance or dart, and the
sword. The weapons of the Anglo-Saxons were spears, axes, swords, knives,
and maces or clubs. The Normans had similar weapons, and were well
furnished with archers and cavalry. The cross-bow was a comparatively late
invention introduced by the Normans. Gunpowder was not used in Europe to
discharge projectiles till the beginning of the fourteenth century. Cannon
are first mentioned in England in 1338, and there seems to be no doubt that
they were used by the English at the siege of Cambrai in 1339. The
projectiles first used for cannon were of stone. Hand fire-arms date from
the fifteenth century. At first they required two men to serve them, and it
was necessary to rest the muzzle on a stand in aiming and firing. The first
improvement was the invention of the match-lock, about 1476; this was
followed by the wheel-lock, and about the middle of the seventeenth century
by the flint-lock, which was in universal use until it was superseded by
the percussion-lock, the invention of a Scottish clergyman early in the
nineteenth century. The needle-gun dates from 1838. The only important
weapon not a fire-arm that has been invented since the introduction of
gunpowder is the bayonet, which is believed to have been invented about
1650. See _Cannon_, _Musket_, _Rifle_, &c.

[Illustration: Greek Armour]

[Illustration: Roman Armour--Soldiers wearing Cuirass]

[Illustration: Chain Armour]

[Illustration: Horse-armour of Maximilian I of Germany _a_, Chamfron. _b_,
Manefaire. _c_, Poitrinal, poitrel, or breastplate. _d_, Croupiere or
buttock-piece.]

[Illustration: Allecret (Light Plate) Armour, A.D. 1540]

Some kind of defensive covering was probably of almost as early invention
as weapons of offence. The principal pieces of defensive armour used by the
ancients were shields, helmets, cuirasses, and greaves. In the earliest
ages of Greece the shield is described as of immense size, but in the time
of the Peloponnesian War (about 420 B.C.) it was much smaller. The Romans
had two sorts of shields: the _scutum_, a large oblong rectangular
highly-convex shield, carried by the legionaries; and the _parma_, a small
round or oval flat shield, carried by the light-armed troops and the
cavalry. In the declining days of Rome the shields became larger and more
varied in form. The helmet was a characteristic piece of armour among the
Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. Like all other body armour it was
usually made of bronze. The helmet of the historical age of Greece was
distinguished by its lofty crest. The Roman helmet in the time of the early
emperors fitted close to the head, and had a neck-guard and hinged
cheek-pieces fastened under the chin, and a small bar across the face for a
visor. Both Greeks and Romans wore cuirasses, at one time of bronze, but
afterwards of flexible materials. Greaves for the legs were worn by both,
but among the Romans usually on one leg. The ancient Germans had large
shields of plaited osier covered with leather; afterwards their shields
were small, bound with iron, and studded with bosses. The Anglo-Saxons had
round or oval shields of wood, covered with leather, and having a boss in
the centre; and they had also corselets, or coats of mail, strengthened
with iron rings. The Normans were well protected by mail; their shields
were somewhat triangular in shape, their helmets conical. In Europe
generally metal armour was used from the tenth to the eighteenth century,
and at first consisted of a tunic made of iron rings firmly sewn flat upon
strong cloth or leather. The rings were afterwards interlinked one with
another so as to form a garment of themselves, called _chain-mail_. Another
variety of this flexible armour was known as _banded-mail_. This consisted
of rings sewn upon a fabric foundation, the whole being covered with
leather. In addition to this, 'scale armour', which had been in use from
the very earliest periods of history, was still in common fashion in the
thirteenth century. By degrees the suit of mail was reinforced by the
addition of pieces of plate on the breast, knees, elbows, and arms, and by
the end of the fourteenth century the full suit of plate had been evolved,
the mail being only worn as a skirt round the waist or as a coif attached
to the helmet. The golden age of plate armour is the middle of the
fifteenth century, when the design was light and graceful, and at the same
time fully protective. In the sixteenth century, when 'shock tactics' of
cavalry were the order of the day, the 'war harness' became heavier. This
was particularly noticeable in the armour for the joust or tournament, in
which sport the aim of the contestants was to score points and not to
inflict injury. Many of these jousting armours weigh over 80 lb. The
weapons in use through the whole of the plate-armour period were the lance,
the sword, the axe or war-hammer, the long-bow, and the cross-bow. The
introduction of fire-arms in the fourteenth century was one of the causes
which led to the increase of weight in armour, for the armourer was
continually improving and strengthening his products to make them proof
against musket and pistol, and he generally succeeded, but by doing so
increased the weight till it became insupportable. In the seventeenth
century leg armour was abandoned, and by the end of the civil war the
popular defence was the steel cap and breastplate. In the eighteenth
century armour entirely disappeared, except for ceremonial, and was thought
to be entirely obsolete till it was revived in the recent war in the form
of the steel shrapnel-helmet, which was favoured by all the Allies and also
by the enemy. The German troops occasionally used heavy body armour.
Daggers and clubs, weapons likewise thought to be obsolete, were frequently
used by all combatants, especially on raids.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Hutton, _The
Sword of the Centuries_; H. S. Cowper, _The Art of Attack_; C. ffoulkes,
_Armour and Weapons_; C. H. Ashdown, _British and Foreign Arms and Armour_;
C. Hall, _Modern Weapons of War by Land_.

ARMSTRONG, John, Scottish poet and physician, born about 1709, died 1779.
After studying medicine in Edinburgh he settled in London. In 1744 he
published his chief work, the _Art of Preserving Health_, a didactic poem.
This work raised his reputation to a height which his subsequent efforts
scarcely sustained. In 1746 he became physician to a hospital for soldiers,
and in 1760 he was appointed physician to the forces which went to Germany.
After his return to London he published a collection of his _Miscellanies_,
which contained, however, nothing valuable. He afterwards visited France
and Italy, and published an account of his tour under the name of Lancelot
Temple. His last production was a volume of _Medical Essays_.

ARMSTRONG, William George, Lord, engineer and mechanical inventor, born at
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 10th Nov., 1810. He was trained as a solicitor, and
practised as such for some time. Among his early inventions were the
hydro-electric machine, a powerful apparatus for producing frictional
electricity, and the hydraulic crane. In 1847 the Elswick works, near
Newcastle, were established for the manufacture of his cranes and other
heavy iron machinery, and these works are now among the most extensive of
their kind. Here the first rifled ordnance gun which bears his name was
made in 1854. His improvements in the manufacture of guns and shells led to
his being appointed engineer of rifled ordnance under Government, and he
was knighted in 1858. This appointment came to an end in 1863, since which
time his ordnance has taken a prominent place in the armaments of different
countries. He was made a peer, as Baron Armstrong, in 1887. He died 27th
Dec., 1900.

ARMSTRONG GUN, a kind of cannon, so called from its inventor. It has an
inner tube or core of steel, rifled with numerous shallow grooves, the tube
being surrounded by a jacket of spirally-coiled bars of wrought iron, so
disposed as to bring the metal into the most favourable position for the
strain to which it is to be exposed. His first guns were small, but larger
ones were soon made, and afterwards those of the very highest calibre. The
breech-loading principle was also adopted in them, and special provision to
effect this satisfactorily was invented by him. The improved shells
introduced by him were of the elongated and pointed type now so well known,
the charge being inserted in a special chamber behind the bore.

ARMY, a collection of bodies of men armed, disciplined, and organized for
war. The essence of a modern army is that it shall be composed of organized
units each under its own commander, grouped in formations of
ever-increasing size, and owing allegiance through these commanders to one
supreme head. Discipline and organization are essential, or such a force
becomes merely a collection of armed men.

In the early days of our history every able-bodied man was, to a greater or
lesser extent, a possible fighting man, and all had arms of one kind or
another. Consequently, when an army was required, landowners and county
authorities were ordered to provide the troops necessary. Every free
landowner between the ages of sixteen and sixty was liable to service,
which was limited to two months in a year. This was the Saxon 'fyrd'
system. Later it was improved on by the institution of 'Thane's Service',
which made it incumbent on the more considerable landowners to appear fully
armed and mounted, and to serve for the whole campaign. The horse, however,
was only used as a means of locomotion: for fighting purposes their riders
dismounted, as did the dragoons of the seventeenth century and the mounted
infantry of still more modern times. The fyrd was an unorganized and
undisciplined force and entirely ephemeral in its nature, so that we find
the Danish kings of England casting about for some more permanent force,
which came into existence under the title of the 'House Carles', or Royal
Guard. With the Norman Conquest the fyrd was largely supplanted by the
feudal system of knight's service, according to which the country was
divided into knight's fees, each of which had to provide its quotum of men.
The gradual appearance of the custom of avoiding service by payments of
money--in time regulated under the name of scutage--led to the employment
of paid mercenaries, who for some two centuries were almost invariably
foreigners. In the twelfth century it was found that sufficient troops
could not be provided under these two systems, so the fyrd was
re-established as a National Militia by the Assize of Arms, and in the next
century further steps were taken to protect it under the Statute of
Winchester. In the fourteenth century the archer, with his longbow, became
a very important part of the fighting forces of England, and an army of
those days consisted of the heavily-armed and armoured knights and
men-at-arms for shock action, and the unarmoured archers for 'volley
action', to use a later term. With the gradual disappearance of the foreign
mercenaries, it became the custom for the king to issue indents to certain
influential subjects for the raising of paid troops. From this custom arose
the free companies, which, in time, became nothing more or less than
commercial undertakings. The indents were accepted, and the men enlisted
primarily for what could be got out of the business of fighting, either in
the shape of ransom or the sack of towns. Some attempt was also made at
tactical organization, and an army of the period was divided into vanguard,
battle, and rearguard. Artillery also was beginning to be developed in
Germany for siege purposes. The sixteenth century saw the first formation
of companies into regiments, though as yet of no fixed strength. Arms were
also modernized, and by the end of the century muskets, 18-feet pikes, and
swords, were the arms of infantry instead of the varied assortment of
halberds, pikes, muskets, harquebuses, and longbows common at the
beginning. Elizabeth introduced the press-gang as an aid to recruiting, and
abolished the white coat of the soldier in favour of a long red or blue
cassock. In the next century Cromwell's new model army became the first
standing army of England, and, though it was disbanded by Act of Parliament
at the Restoration, one of its regiments--Monk's--remained, and is now the
Coldstream Guards. After this regiments were raised from time to time on
one pretext or another, and the nucleus of a standing army became a _fait
accompli_, though it was for a long time considered more as an appanage of
the king than as a national institution. With the standing army came the
first beginnings of civilian control, a Secretary-at-War being appointed in
1660. He had, however, no responsibility, and was subordinate to the
commander-in-chief, and it was not till 1710 that he assumed his present
responsibility to Parliament. During the eighteenth century the strength of
the army rose or fell according to the state of the military barometer and
the success or otherwise of the various recruiting expedients, among which
was the first attempt at a short-service system in 1703. In 1871-2 the old
numbering in regiments was abolished and a territorial designation
substituted. According to this scheme, the first twenty-five regiments, all
of which had already two battalions, were grouped together, the rest being
joined arbitrarily to form new regiments under county designations. With
these regiments were affiliated the militia and volunteer battalions, which
have now been amalgamated into the Special Reserve and the Territorial
Force.

For the requirements of the war of 1914-8 the Empire, as a whole, including
India, raised and maintained a total of 8,654,467 men, of which the
contribution of the United Kingdom was over 6,000,000. Casualties for the
whole Empire were 3,060,616, of which the United Kingdom has for her share
nearly 2,500,000, including 666,083 killed, 1,644,786 wounded, and 140,312
missing.

During 1918 the combatant strength of all arms of the British army in
France fluctuated between 1,293,000 in March and 1,164,790 in November,
while the rifle or infantry strength was from 616,000 to 416,748 during the
same periods. From the date of the armistice to 31st Dec., 1919, the
following number of demobilizations and discharges were effected:--

Demobilized.--Officers, 144,144; other ranks, 3,332,882.

Discharged as medically unfit.--Officers, 23,476; other ranks, 207,500.

Discharged from reserves.--Other ranks, 143,603.

The modern British army is governed by the Army Council (instituted 1904),
presided over by the Secretary of State for War. This Council, which
consists of five military and five civilian members, including the
president, works through the War Office, of which the principal departments
are in charge of one or other of the members of the Council. On the
military side these departments are those of the Chief of the Imperial
General Staff, the Adjutant-General to the Forces, the
Quartermaster-General to the Forces, and the Master-General of the
Ordnance. For administrative and training purposes the United Kingdom is
divided into seven Commands and the London District. When necessary,
Commands are further subdivided into Districts. The army, generally
speaking, consists of (1) the Regular Army, (2) the Territorial Force, and
(3) the Reserves. The service battalions, which formed such a large and
important part of the army in the war, do not, properly speaking, form part
of the permanent military forces, though the organization of the army as a
whole is such that it is capable of expansion to any extent by the process
of raising new battalions and affiliating them to existing regular or
territorial units. The regular army comprises the Household Cavalry,
Cavalry of the Line, the Royal Regiment of Artillery, the Corps of Royal
Engineers, the Brigade of Guards, and Infantry of the Line. In addition
there are administrative troops and services such as the Royal Army Service
Corps, the Royal Army Medical Corps, with its allied service Queen
Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service, the Royal Army Ordnance
Corps, and others. Other corps brought into existence during the war, such
as the Tank and Machine-gun Corps, have at present no permanent status. In
the future, however, machine-gun companies will form an integral portion of
each battalion of the regular army.

Under the conditions of the war the old national method of voluntary
recruitment was found to be insufficient, and recourse was had to the
principle of universal military service. Under the Military Service Acts
the age limit was gradually raised till it finally included all men up to
the age of fifty. Exceptions were made in the case of munition-workers, or
those employed on work of national importance. Since the signature of the
Treaty of Peace the army so raised was gradually demobilized till, by 31st
March, 1920, it had decreased to 400,000, including 100,000 Indians paid by
the Imperial Government. Concurrently with demobilization, voluntary
enlistment was reintroduced, and the post-war army is once more a voluntary
one, in which men serve under very much improved conditions as to pay and
prospects. The period of service under this system is twelve years, of
which seven normally are with the colours and five in the reserve: in
certain cases modifications of these periods are allowed, and, in addition,
a soldier may be allowed to extend his colour service to the full twelve
years, or, in exceptional cases, to complete twenty-one years for pension.
Discharge or transfer to the reserve is ordinarily granted on completion of
the agreed period of service. Pay of all ranks was very materially improved
in 1919. Whereas formerly a private soldier on enlistment received 1s. a
day, he now receives 2s. 9d., and after two years' service 3s. 6d. To this
last amount is added, under very reasonable conditions, a further daily sum
of 6d. proficiency pay. A sergeant now gets 7s. a day instead of from 2s.
4d. to 3s. 4d., and a regimental sergeant-major 14s. instead of 5s. or 6s.
Add to these rates of pay free rations, free housing, free medical
attendance, and, in the future, doubtless free education, and it must be
admitted that the present-day soldier is not badly paid. The rate of pay is
a flat rate for all arms, special allowances being given where necessary.

The Household Cavalry comprises the 1st and 2nd Life Guards and the Horse
Guards (Blues). In peace-time they serve only in London and Windsor. They
alone retain the old cavalry rank of corporal of horse instead of sergeant.
Cavalry of the line consists of dragoon guards, dragoons, hussars, and
lancers. The dragoon guards are numbered separately from 1 to 7, while
dragoons, hussars, and lancers run consecutively from 1 to 21. A regiment
of cavalry is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 25 officers
and 497 other ranks. Each regiment is organized in three squadrons
commanded by majors, while a squadron is divided into four troops, each
under a subaltern officer, troops being further subdivided into sections
under non-commissioned officers. Cavalry regiments, except hussars, carry
guidons or standards for ceremonial purposes. These differ from the colours
of infantry in that they are not consecrated and are carried by
non-commissioned officers instead of by officers. Hussars carry no
standards. There are six cavalry depots for recruiting and
preliminary-training purposes, i.e. for lancers at Woolwich, hussars at
Scarborough, Bristol, and Dublin, and dragoons at Newport (Mon.) and
Dunbar. The Cavalry Special Reserve consists of the Irish Horse and King
Edward's Horse, and during the war reserve cavalry regiments were
maintained.

The Royal Regiment of Artillery comprises batteries of horse artillery
designated by letters of the alphabet, and batteries of field, siege,
heavy, and mountain by numbers. A battery, with some exceptions in the case
of the heaviest type, consists of six guns or howitzers, horse artillery
having 13-pounder guns, and field artillery 18-pounder guns or 4.5-inch
howitzers. Horse artillery is intended to act with cavalry, and is
therefore provided with a rather lighter gun. It can go anywhere that
cavalry can go, and all the gun detachments are mounted. Field artillery
works with infantry, and the gun detachments either walk or are carried on
the limbers, only the officers, certain non-commissioned officers, and
specialists such as scouts, range-finders, and trumpeters being mounted.

A battery is commanded by a major, with a captain as second-in-command, and
is organized in three sections of two guns each under a subaltern. These
sections are again subdivided into subsections of one gun each under a
sergeant. Each gun is drawn by six horses, the driver of the leading pair
being responsible for direction and pace. A corporal in the Royal Artillery
is known as a bombardier, and the rank and file as gunners or drivers,
according to their special duties, though drivers are also trained to some
extent as gunners.

Heavy and siege artillery have come into their own in the late war, and
consist roughly of all armament heavier than that of field artillery.
Sixty-pounders and 4.7-inch howitzers form heavy batteries, while guns of 6
inch and upwards drawn by mechanical transport or mounted on railway trucks
are known as siege batteries. Mountain artillery, of which most of the
batteries are in India, is armed with 2.95-inch screw guns capable of being
dismantled and carried piecemeal on mules. Another form is found on the
west coast of Africa, where carriers take the place of mules. These guns
are brought into action very quickly, but their shell-power is small.

The corps of Royal Engineers is responsible for the construction and
maintenance of barracks, fortifications, and other military works, and for
the personnel required for search-lights and electrical communications of
the coast and anti-aircraft defences. With few exceptions the personnel of
the corps is recruited entirely from skilled tradesmen and artisans. For
service in the field, Royal Engineer units known as field squadrons and
field companies accompany the fighting troops, and carry a certain amount
of bridging material and tools. More highly specialized units carry out
such services as mining, heavy bridging, railway, survey, and sound-ranging
work. An important feature of Royal Engineer work in war is the supply of
materials and stores, for which purpose an elaborate organization is
provided in addition to the units already noted.

The Brigade of Guards--the infantry of the household troops--comprises the
five regiments of foot-guards. These are the Grenadier, the Coldstream, the
Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh Guards of from one to three battalions
each. Being household troops these regiments are subject to certain special
regulations and have certain privileges. As a general rule they serve only
in London, Windsor, or Aldershot, and only leave England for active
service, though individual battalions have served in the past both in Cairo
and Gibraltar.

The infantry, of which there are sixty-eight regiments of from two to four
battalions each, provides the bulk of the army. Infantry is formed into
regiments for recruiting and territorial distribution purposes, but the
battalion is the actual unit both for fighting and administration. In many
cases the Army List gives the name of an officer holding the appointment of
colonel of the regiment: this is in all cases a purely honorary appointment
and entails no duties or responsibilities. An infantry battalion is
commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 32 officers and 1000
other ranks. Both in peace and war a battalion is divided into
head-quarters and four companies, each of the latter having six officers,
including the company commander, who is a major or senior captain.
Subalterns command platoons. For recruiting purposes for infantry of the
line the country is divided into Regimental Districts, in which are located
the depots of the regiment concerned: these depots are commanded by a
senior officer of one of the battalions of the regiment with the necessary
staff for training purposes. Recruits are usually first trained at the
depot and later transferred to the battalion requiring them. The Regimental
Districts are again combined into larger districts in which are situated
the Record Offices dealing with the regiments of the district. The
denomination of the district dealing with any particular regiment is shown
in the Army List in brackets. The principles of interior organization are
the same throughout the army, and as they can be best illustrated with the
example of an infantry battalion a short description of this organization
follows. Owing to the continual growth of military science, the improvement
in arms and means of destruction generally, and the confusion and noise
inseparable from a modern battle, the size of the personally-controlled
unit has gradually decreased till, in the present day, in the British army,
it is accepted as an axiom that no larger number of men than six can be
conveniently controlled in battle by one man. In former days companies,
battalions, and even larger formations were both controlled and received
their executive orders direct from their commanders--and to such an extent
was this carried that Fortescue, in his _History of the British Army_,
notes that Marlborough was in the habit of putting his whole army through
the platoon exercise by means of flags and bugle-calls. This, of course,
was not actually in face of the enemy, but the principle is the same. The
stress of modern war now makes individual control of large bodies
impossible, and the British army is therefore organized both for peace and
war in a series of units of ever-increasing size, each under its own
commander, who is responsible to his immediate superior for the well-being,
training, and leading of his command. Taking the infantry organization as
an example, we find that in the lowest stage, that of the 'section', the
command is both personal and direct, in that the corporal controls and
commands the six men composing his fighting unit personally and directly by
word of mouth. In peace-time, and for administrative and training purposes,
the section may reach to ten men, who live, work, and play together. In the
next stage--that of the 'platoon', consisting of four sections--we find the
control is rather less personal and direct, in that the platoon commander,
a subaltern, controls his command largely through his subordinates, the
section commanders. A further stage is that of the 'company', which
consists of four platoons and company head-quarters. A company is commanded
by a major or senior captain, has a captain as second-in-command, and a
company sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant to assist in running it.
Here again the control is less direct though still personal. The next stage
is the amalgamation of companies into a battalion, consisting of a
head-quarters and four companies. Battalion head-quarters consist of a
lieutenant-colonel commanding, a major second-in-command, an adjutant, and
a quartermaster. Certain other officers, when required, and the regimental
sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant, and various other ranks make up
the total of some 130. The commanding officer of a battalion is directly
responsible for the well-being of his command, for its training,
discipline, equipment, and general efficiency. In carrying on his duties he
works through his company commanders, and with the assistance of the
regimental staff mentioned above, so that we have a direct chain of command
and responsibility from the corporal commanding a section of six to ten men
through platoons and companies to the lieutenant-colonel commanding a
battalion of some thousand men. A detail of armament made possible by the
enormous increase of machine-guns necessitated during the war is
interesting. Thirty-two Lewis-guns are now provided for each infantry
battalion, and are distributed to alternate sections in a platoon. Thus in
each platoon two sections are known as rifle sections and two as Lewis-gun
sections, and these arms are normally used by the respective sections; but
men of all sections are trained in the use of both rifle and Lewis-gun.

When we come to formations larger than a battalion, we find the system of
control and command becoming less and less personal and direct, as in all
such formations the commander works to a less or greater extent through his
staff. Roughly speaking, the staff is of two divisions, the one consisting
of the general staff branch and the other of the branch of the adjutant and
quartermaster-general. Again speaking very generally, the general staff is
charged with duties bearing directly on military operations, while officers
of the adjutant and quartermaster-general's branch deal more with
administrative questions. Officers of the general staff are known as
general staff officers, while those of the other branch are called, for
example, assistant or deputy-assistant adjutant or quartermaster-general,
according to their several duties.

The formation in which distinct and separate units are first collected
under one superior commander is known as a brigade. This, according to
present establishment, consists of three battalions and a trench-mortar
battery, the whole under a general officer called a brigadier-general,
assisted by a staff of two officers--a brigade-major and a staff-captain.
Since March, 1920, however, the title of brigadier-general has been altered
to 'colonel-commandant'. The strength of a brigade is something over 3000
of all ranks. In a division, which is the next highest formation, and which
is commanded by a major-general with a staff of three general staff
officers and three officers belonging to the A.G. and Q.M.G. branch, we
find the first appearance of a mixed force. It is not a force of 'all
arms', as cavalry is not included, but, in addition to infantry (three
brigades), it has a considerable strength in artillery, besides engineers
and the necessary administrative troops. Two or more divisions, together
with a cavalry regiment and certain other troops, form an 'army corps', and
two or more corps go to make up an 'army'. These are not at present
peace-time formations of the British army.

Of the administrative troops and services already mentioned, the Royal Army
Service Corps provides for the material wants of the army both in the way
of food and transport. It is organized in companies designated by numerals.

The Royal Army Medical Corps provides the personnel and organization for
the medical and sanitary services of the army. In peace-time this service
is organized on a garrison basis, hospitals being established where
required for the use of all troops in that particular garrison. For war
purposes medical officers are still attached to regiments, and in addition
the corps provides the personnel and organization necessary for field
ambulances, casualty clearing-stations, hospital trains and ships, and
various classes of fixed hospitals. The corps is organized in numbered
companies, and the rank and file are trained in first aid and ambulance
duties generally. It is administered by a director-general of Army Medical
Services with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is an officer of the
adjutant-general's department.

The other departments and administrative services of the army consist of
the Royal Army Ordnance Corps, dealing generally with munitions of war; the
Army Pay Department; the Royal Army Chaplains' Department; and the Royal
Army Veterinary Corps, of which the functions are sufficiently designated
by their title. In addition, there are manufacturing establishments at
Woolwich Arsenal and elsewhere.

The Army Reserve consists of men who have completed their term of colour
service, or service with a unit, and have thus passed into civil life,
though still remaining liable for a period of years to be recalled to the
colours if mobilization is ordered.

The Special Reserve was formed under the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act
of 1907 out of the old militia. It consists generally of one battalion to
each regiment of infantry, and is numbered consecutively with regular
battalions of the regiment. It will, in the future, probably be again known
as the Militia.

The Royal Marines--artillery and infantry, or the 'blue' and the 'red'
marines, Kipling's "soldier and sailor too"--are not part of the army
proper, as they are administered entirely by the Admiralty. They are,
however, amenable to the Army Act when serving ashore. The term of service
is for twelve years, which may be extended to make up twenty-one. Men may
be transferred to or from the army at their own request.

The Territorial Force, or, as it is to be called in future, the Territorial
Army, is raised entirely on a county or territorial basis. It was
originally created by the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act of 1907 out of
a nucleus of the old yeomanry and volunteers. It is raised and administered
by County Associations in each county and principal city. These
associations consist of a president, chairman, military representative, and
co-opted members. The administration of the Territorial Army is carried out
by the County Associations in accordance with schemes provided by the Army
Council, while all questions of training are reserved to the War Office.
The Territorial Army consists of all arms, including machine-gun corps and
the necessary administrative services: its full war establishment is fixed
at approximately 345,000 of all ranks, though, for the present, only some
60 per cent of them are to be enlisted. The rejuvenated Territorial Army is
to be in all respects a true second line of imperial defence,
self-contained and self-supporting, while the regular army and its special
reserve of militia battalions form the first line. Defence entails a
certain amount of offence to bring it to a successful issue: it has
therefore been decided that the new Territorial Army will not be relegated
merely to the duty of guarding the country from invasion, but will, in a
national emergency, be entitled to take its place under its own
organization in the fighting line in any part of the world where its
services may be required. This will entail enlistment for general service,
but the interest of the force and of individuals composing it are
safeguarded by the proviso that before the Territorial Army can be ordered
out of the country an Act authorizing the movement be passed by Parliament.
It is further provided that the Territorial Army will on no account be
called on to supply drafts for regular regiments, and that in case fresh
regiments have to be raised on the lines of the New Army, the machinery of
the Territorial Army will be used to organize them. Enlistment will be for
three or four years, according to whether a man has served during the
European War (1914-8) or not; age limits are normally between 18 and 38.
The army is to be organized in one cavalry (yeomanry) division of 12
regiments, and 14 infantry divisions each under a selected general officer,
either regular or territorial. Pay and allowances during training periods
will be as in the regular army, and in addition certain bounties will be
obtainable. Training periods will be fifteen days in camp annually, besides
a minimum number of drills and a musketry course. On completion of colour
service a man will pass to the Territorial Reserve.

The New Army, consisting of the 'service battalions' of existing regiments,
is a product of the war. When, on the outbreak of war, many new regiments
were rapidly raised, they were affiliated to regular regiments with
consecutive numbers after the territorial battalions, and this organization
was continued and extended to cope with the personnel obtained under the
Military Service Acts.

Educational establishments connected with the army include the Staff
College, the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, and the Royal Military
Academy at Woolwich. At the Staff College officers obtain a course of
instruction and study to fit them for service on the staff of the army. At
Sandhurst, where the course of instruction is two years, some 700 gentlemen
cadets are trained for commissions in the guards, cavalry, and infantry of
the line, and the Indian army. At Woolwich gentlemen cadets desirous of
entering the Royal Artillery or the Royal Engineers receive their training.
In addition to these there are schools of gunnery and engineering, the
Small Arms School at Hythe, the School of Physical Training at Aldershot,
and many others: while, for sons and orphans of soldiers, there are the
Duke of York's Royal Military School and the Royal Hibernian School. The
Royal Hospital, Chelsea, and the Royal Hospital, Kilmainham, Dublin, are
institutions for the care of old and distressed soldiers. In every garrison
there are garrison schools for soldiers under fully qualified army
schoolmasters, while in the future there is likely to be a very great
increase in educational facilities of all kinds for the rank and file of
the army. The training of the British army for war now embraces a variety
of subjects, and at the Royal Military College and Academy the gentlemen
cadets are not only taught the principles and practice of their future
profession, but are also instructed in the methods of imparting their
knowledge to others. For example, the course of training at the Royal
Military College embraces drill and weapon training--under which head is
included musketry (both theory and practice) and bayonet work--physical
training, and riding. As part of the physical-training course they receive
instruction as to the best methods of organizing regimental
assaults-at-arms and sports. Among the more academic subjects are military
history and tactics, field sketching and topography, field engineering,
military law and administration, and elementary hygiene. A great deal of
practical work is done, and the course of two years is designed to fit a
young officer, on joining his regiment, to undertake the entire charge and
training of his troop or platoon. At the Royal Military Academy extra
subjects, such as artillery work and more advanced engineering, are also
taught.

As to the soldier's training generally, drill is insisted on as an aid to
discipline, which it undoubtedly is, and exact performance of the various
movements ordered is expected. In other branches of training more
individuality is allowed, and the days when the bayonet-exercise was
performed by a battalion to the music of the regimental band having passed,
considerable latitude as to positions and execution is permitted in this
particular branch, attention being principally concentrated on inculcating
the 'offensive spirit'. The modern soldier also learns how to use a
Lewis-gun, to throw or fire a grenade, what to do in case of a gas attack,
the rudiments of field engineering, and how to keep himself healthy.

In addition to the more generally-known units of the army there are certain
corps which, though raised in the colonies, still form part of the army,
and which are administered by the imperial authorities. Under this head are
the Royal Malta Artillery (local service); the West India Regiment (two
battalions) and the West African Regiment, both for general service and
both administered by the War Office. Among other colonial corps maintained
by the imperial Government, though not forming part of the regular army,
are the West African Frontier Force (Nigeria) and the King's African Rifles
(East Africa). Both these are administered by the Colonial Office.

_Dominions._--The military forces of the self-governing dominions are
raised and organized under the laws of such dominions.

Those of the Commonwealth of Australia are organized on a system of
compulsory military training for all males between the ages of twelve and
twenty-six. In the earlier stages boys are trained in cadet corps, from
which they pass to the Citizen Army, and from there, having attained the
age of twenty-six, to recognized rifle clubs. The annual period of training
in the Citizen Army is sixteen days. When the scheme is in full working
order this force will consist of twenty-three 4-battalion brigades of
infantry, twenty-three regiments of light horse, fifty-six 4-gun batteries,
and the necessary complement of engineers and administrative troops. During
the war this organization was in abeyance, and regiments were raised as
required for overseas service, and, though proposals for conscription were
negatived, the commonwealth still managed to send some 330,000 men to the
various theatres of war out of 417,000 raised. The casualties, killed,
wounded, and missing, were 210,724.

The Commonwealth also maintains a small permanent force of trained
professional soldiers.

The New Zealand forces are also organized on the principle of universal
training for all males. The details differ somewhat from those in favour in
Australia, but the principle is the same, i.e. that every male should be
trained for home defence. Boys of from twelve to eighteen years of age are
trained in cadet corps, from which they pass to regiments of the
Territorial Force, and from twenty-five to thirty belong to the reserve.
Cadets do annually a specified number of drills, while the territorial
training extends to seven clear days, a musketry course, and certain drills
every year. For the purposes of the war, conscription was introduced in
1916, and 220,000 men were raised between 1914 and 1918, out of which the
casualties were nearly 57,000.

Canada, unlike Australia and New Zealand, has no system of graduated
military training. The military forces of the dominion are organized as a
militia under a Minister of Militia and Defence working with a Council.
This militia is recruited by voluntary enlistment, and, on the outbreak of
war, consisted of a permanent force of 3000 and some 60,000 men who had
received militia training. This made possible the rapid dispatch to France
of a division which, by 1916, had increased to a corps of four divisions
and a cavalry brigade. Like the Mother Country and New Zealand, Canada
introduced conscription in 1917, and during the war raised nearly 641,000
men and suffered 206,149 casualties, of which 56,110 were killed, 149,733
wounded, and 306 missing.

The Union of South Africa divides its military forces into the permanent
force and the citizen force. There is also a coast-defence force. The
permanent force consists of the five regiments of the South African Mounted
Rifles. South Africa's greatest military effort during the war was directed
towards German South-West and East Africa, but some 27,000 men were
enlisted for and sent to Europe out of a total number of 136,000 raised.
This total does not include coloured troops. The casualties were 18,000.

In other self-governing portions of the Empire troops were raised as
required, and in the West and East African colonies the existing formations
of native troops were considerably increased for service in suitable
portions of the various theatres of war. The official statement of troops
raised shows under the heading of 'other colonies' 134,837, including
coloured troops from South Africa and the West Indies. The casualties among
them amounted to 7519.

_The Army in India._--The military forces in India consist of those units
of British cavalry, artillery, and infantry temporarily serving in the
country, and the Indian army proper, consisting of regiments recruited from
among the native inhabitants and normally serving there. Enlistment is
voluntary and for general service, one of the promises made by a man on
enrolment being "to go wherever ordered by land and sea and not to allow
caste usages to interfere with his duties as a soldier". The Indian army,
as a disciplined and organized force, dates from the years between 1748 and
1758. In 1748 Major Stringer Lawrence arrived in Madras with a commission
from the Company as commander-in-chief. His first act was to form the
existing European independent companies into regiments; his second to raise
certain native independent companies. In 1758 he formed these companies in
their turn into battalions, which he designated 'coast sepoys', and which
still exist under their present names of the 61st Pioneers and following
numbers. His system was extended to the other presidencies, and at the
period of the mutiny, in 1857, the native army in India consisted of some
230,000 regular troops, besides irregulars. When the post-mutiny
reconstruction took place, the army was reorganized on an irregular basis
instead of as regular regiments on the British model. According to this new
system, the number of British officers in a regiment was considerably
reduced; native officers were given command of troops and companies, while
the British officer's command became the squadron, or wing. Native
artillery, with the exception of certain mountain batteries, was abolished,
and cavalry was reconstituted on the Silladar system, whereby, in
consideration of a larger monthly pay than was given to the infantry sepoy,
the trooper, or sowar, provided his own horse and sword. The system thus
introduced virtually remains to the present day, though it has been
modified and improved to suit later conditions. The infantry officer's
command has decreased from the wing of four companies to the double company
of two, and it is now known as a company and is organized in four platoons
on the British service model, platoons being commanded by Indian officers.
Of late years the number of British officers with an Indian regiment has
been increased to twelve, and at the present time a committee is sitting in
India to deliberate on the future construction of the army. It is therefore
impossible to give details of its future strength. This, just before the
war, was some 160,000, organized in 38 regiments of cavalry, the corps of
guides, 3 regiments of sappers and miners, 118 regiments of infantry of 1
battalion each, and 10 regiments of Gurkhas of 2 battalions each. There
were also 13 mountain batteries. The 'Imperial Service Troops', of which
many contingents took part in the war, are raised, paid, and maintained by
princes and chiefs as a contribution to the defence of the country, while
their training is supervised by British inspecting officers. The 'Indian
Defence Force', which has lately replaced the volunteers, and in which
service is compulsory for Europeans, is available for home defence only.
During the war India, by voluntary enlistment, provided 1,401,350 men. Of
these many new regiments were formed, and second, third, and fourth
battalions added to existing regiments. Casualties were very nearly
114,000, including some 48,000 killed. Native Indian officers of cavalry
are known as ressaldars, ressaiders, and jemadars, while those of the
infantry are called subadars and jemadars. In each regiment the senior
Indian officer is called ressaldar or subadar-major.

The army in India, by which is meant all military forces in India, is
administered by a commander-in-chief, who is a member of council. The
head-quarter staff includes a military secretary, the chief of the general
staff, an adjutant and a quartermaster-general, director-general of
ordnance and military works, and a director of medical
services.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hon. J. W. Fortescue, _History of the British
Army_; C. W. C. Oman, _A History of the Art of War: Middle Ages_; C. H.
Firth, _Cromwell's Army_; C. Walton, _History of the British Standing Army,
1660-1700_; War Office, _Army Book for the British Empire_; F. N. Maude,
_Evolution of Modern Strategy_; G. F. R. Henderson, _The Science of War_;
C. Romagny, _Histoire générale de l'armée nationale_; Heimann, _L'Armée
allemande_.

ARMY ACT. See _Military Law_.

[Illustration: Army Worm]

ARMY WORM, the very destructive larva of the moth _Helioph[)i]la_ or
_Leucania unipuncta_, so called from its habit of marching in compact
bodies of enormous number, devouring almost every green thing it meets. It
is about 1½ inches long, greenish in colour, with black stripes, and is
found in various parts of the world, but is particularly destructive in
North America. The larva of _Sci[)a]ra militaris_, a European two-winged
fly, is also called army worm.

ARNAT´TO, or ANNOTTA. See _Annatto_.

ARNAULD ([.a]r-n[=o]), the name of a French family, several members of
which greatly distinguished themselves.--Antoine, an eminent French
advocate, was born 1560, died 1619. Distinguished as a zealous defender of
the cause of Henry IV, and for his powerful and successful defence of the
University of Paris against the Jesuits in 1594. His family formed the
nucleus of the sect of the Jansenists (see _Jansenius_) in France.--His son
Antoine, called the _Great Arnauld_, was born 6th Feb., 1612, at Paris,
died 9th Aug., 1694, at Brussels. He devoted himself to theology, and was
received in 1641 among the doctors of the Sorbonne. He engaged in all the
quarrels of the French Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy, and the
Government, was the chief Jansenist writer, and was considered their head.
Excluded from the Sorbonne, he retired to Port Royal, where he wrote, in
conjunction with his friend Nicole, a celebrated system of logic (hence
called the _Port Royal Logic_). On account of persecution he fled, in 1679,
to the Netherlands. His works, which are mainly controversies with the
Jesuits or the Calvinists, are very voluminous.--His brother Robert, born
1588, died 1674, retired to Port Royal, where he wrote a translation of
Josephus, and other works.--Robert's daughter Angélique, born 1624, died
1684, was eminent in the religious world, and was subjected to persecution
on account of her unflinching adherence to Jansenism.

AR´NAUTS. See _Albania_.

ARNDT ([.a]rnt), Ernst Moritz, German patriot and poet, was born 1769, died
1860. He was appointed professor of history at Greifswald in 1806, and
stirred up the national feeling against Napoleon in his work _Geist der
Zeit_ (_Spirit of the Time)_. In 1812-3 he zealously promoted the war of
independence by a number of pamphlets, poems, and spirited songs, among
which it is sufficient to refer to his _Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?_,
_Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess_, and _Was blasen die Trompeten?
Husaren, heraus!_, which were caught up and sung from one end of Germany to
the other. In 1817 he married a sister of the theologian Schleiermacher,
and settled at Bonn in order to undertake the duties of professor of
history. He was, however, suspended till 1840 on account of his liberal
opinions, when he was restored to his chair on the accession of Frederick
William IV.

ARNDT, Johann, celebrated German mystic theologian, born 1555, died 1621.
His principal work, _Wahres Christenthum_ (True Christianity), is still
popular in Germany, and has been translated into almost all European
languages. Another of his publications is _Paradiesgaertlein_, translated
into English (The Garden of Paradise).

ARNE ([.a]rn), Thomas Augustine, English composer, born at London 1710,
died 1778. His first opera, _Fair Rosamond_, was performed in 1733 at
Lincoln's-Inn Fields, and was received with great applause. Then followed a
version of Fielding's _Tom Thumb_, altered into _The Opera of Operas_, a
musical burlesque. His style in the _Comus_ (1738) is still more original
and cultivated. To him we owe the national air _Rule, Britannia_,
originally given in a popular piece called the _Masque of Alfred_. After
having composed two oratorios and several operas he received the degree of
Doctor of Music at Oxford. He composed, also, music for several of the
songs in Shakespeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music.

ARNEE´, one of the numerous Indian varieties of the buffalo _(Bub[)a]lus
arni)_, remarkable as being the largest animal of the ox kind known. It
measures about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and from 9 to 10½ feet long
from the muzzle to the root of the tail. It is found chiefly in the forests
at the base of the Himalayas.

ARN´HEM, or ARNHEIM, a town in Holland, province of Gelderland, 18 miles
south-west of Zutphen, on the right bank of the Rhine. Pleasantly situated,
it is a favourite residential resort, and it contains many interesting
public buildings; manufactures cabinet wares, mirrors, carriages,
mathematical instruments, &c.; has paper-mills, and its trade is important.
In 1795 it was stormed by the French, who were driven from it by the
Prussians in 1813. Pop. 70,664 (1917).

ARNHEM LAND, a portion of the northern territory of S. Australia, lying
west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and forming a sort of peninsula.

AR´NI, a town of Madras, on the Cheyair River, 16 miles south of Arcot;
formerly a large military station; stormed by Clive in 1751, and scene of
defeat of Hyder Ali by Sir Eyre Coote in 1782. Pop. 5050.

AR´NICA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositæ, containing eighteen
species, one of which is found in Central Europe, _A. mont[=a]na_
(leopard's bane or mountain tobacco), but is not a native of Britain. It
has a perennial root, a stem about 2 feet high, bearing on the summit
flowers of a dark golden yellow. In every part of the plant there is an
acrid resin and a volatile oil, and in the flowers an acrid bitter
principle called _arnicin_. The root contains also a considerable quantity
of tannin. A tincture of it is employed as an external application to
wounds and bruises. It was introduced into English gardens about the middle
of the eighteenth century.

AR´NIM, Elisabeth von, a German writer, also known as Bettina, wife of
Louis Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens Brentano; born at
Frankfort in 1785, died at Berlin 1859. Even in her childhood she
manifested an inclination towards eccentricities and poetical peculiarities
of many kinds. She entered into correspondence with Goethe, for whom she
entertained a violent passion, although he was then in his sixtieth year.
In 1835 she published Goethe's _Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde_ (Goethe's
Correspondence with a Child), containing, among others, the letters that
she alleged to have passed between her and Goethe. Her later writings dealt
with subjects like the emancipation of the Jews, and the abolition of
capital punishment. Her husband, Ludwig Achim von Arnim, born at Berlin in
1781, died 1831, distinguished himself as a writer of novels. In concert
with her brother, Clemens Brentano, he published a collection of popular
German songs and ballads entitled _Des Knaben Wunderhorn_.--Her daughter,
Gisela von Arnim, is known in literature by her _Dramatische Werke_ (3
vols., 1857-63).

AR´NO (ancient ARNUS), a river of Italy which rises in the Etruscan
Apennines, makes a sweep to the south and then flows westwards, divides
Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 miles below it, into the
Tuscan Sea, after a course of 130 miles.

ARNO´BIUS, an early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca
Veneria, in Numidia, and in 303 became a Christian; he died about 326. He
wrote seven books of _Disputationes adversus Gentes_ (or _Adversus
Nationes_), in which he refuted the objections of the heathens against
Christianity. This work betrays a defective knowledge of Christianity, but
is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology.

ARNOLD, an urban district or town of England, Nottinghamshire, 3 miles
north-east of Nottingham, with lace and hosiery manufactures, &c. It has a
church built in the twelfth century, and a tower dating from the fifteenth
century and restored in 1868 and 1877. Pop. 11,800.

AR´NOLD, Benedict, a general in the American army during the War of
Independence, born in 1741. He rendered his name infamous by his attempt to
betray the strong fortress of West Point, with all the arms and immense
stores which were there deposited, into the hands of the British. The
project failed through the capture of Major André, when Arnold made his
escape to the British lines. He received a commission as brigadier-general
in the British army, and took part in several marauding expeditions. He
subsequently settled in the West Indies, and ultimately came to London,
where he died in 1801.

AR´NOLD, Sir Edwin, K.C.I.E., poet, Sanskrit scholar, and journalist, born
1832. Educated at Oxford, where he took the Newdigate prize for a poem
entitled the _Feast of Belshazzar_ in 1852, he was successively second
master in King Edward VI's College at Birmingham, and principal of the
Sanskrit College at Poonah in Bombay. In 1861 he joined the editorial staff
of the _Daily Telegraph_, with which he was henceforth connected. He died
in 1904. He was author of _Poems, Narrative and Lyrical_; translations from
the Greek and Sanskrit; _The Light of Asia_, a poem on the life and
teaching of Buddha; _The Light of the World_; _Pearls of the Faith_; _Lotus
and Jewel_, &c.

AR´NOLD, Matthew, English critic, essayist, and poet, was born at Laleham,
near Staines, 1822, being a son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He was educated at
Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, and became a Fellow of Oriel College. He was
private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 1847-51; appointed inspector of
schools, 1851; professor of poetry at Oxford, 1858; published _A Strayed
Reveller and other poems_, 1848; _Empedocles on Etna_, 1853; _Merope_,
1858; _Essays in Criticism_, 1865; _On the Study of Celtic Literature_,
1867; _Schools and Universities on the Continent_, 1868; _St. Paul and
Protestantism_, 1870; _Literature and Dogma_, 1873; _Last Essays on Church
and Religion_, 1877; _God and the Bible_, 1878; _Discourses on America_,
1885, &c. He received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh, and that of
D.C.L. from Oxford, and lectured in Britain and in America. He died in
1888. A complete edition of his works in 15 vols. appeared in
1905.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. W. Paul, _Matthew Arnold_ (English Men of Letters
Series); G. Saintsbury, _Matthew Arnold_ (Modern English Writers Series);
G. W. E. Russell, _Matthew Arnold_ (Literary Lives Series); F. Bickley,
_Matthew Arnold and his Poetry_.

AR´NOLD, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby School, and professor of modern
history in the University of Oxford, born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight,
in 1795, died 1842. He entered Oxford in his sixteenth year, and in 1815 he
was elected Fellow of Oriel College, and both in that year and 1817 he
obtained the chancellor's prize for Latin and English essays. After taking
deacon's orders he settled at Laleham, near Staines, where he employed
himself in preparing young men for the universities. In 1828 he was
appointed headmaster of Rugby School, and devoted himself to his new duties
with the greatest ardour. While giving due prominence to the classics, he
deprived them of their exclusiveness by introducing various other branches
into his course, and he was particularly careful that the education which
he furnished should be in the highest sense moral and Christian. His
success was remarkable. Not only did Rugby School become crowded beyond any
former precedent, but the superiority of Dr. Arnold's system became so
generally recognized that it may be justly said to have done much for the
general improvement of the public schools of England. In 1841 he was
appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, and delivered his
introductory course of lectures with great success. His chief works are his
edition of Thucydides, his _History of Rome_ (unhappily left unfinished),
and his _Sermons_. There is an admirable memoir of him by A. P. Stanley,
Dean of Westminster (London, 2 vols., 1845).--Cf Lytton Strachey, _Eminent
Victorians_.

AR´NOLD OF BRESCIA, an Italian religious and political reformer and martyr
of the twelfth century. He was one of the disciples of Abélard, and
attracted a considerable following by preaching against the corruption of
the clergy. Excommunicated by Innocent II, he withdrew to Zürich, but soon
reappeared in Rome, where he was taken and burned (1155).

ARNOLD-FORSTER, Hugh Oakeley, grandson of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, and adopted
son of the late W. E. Forster, M.P., whose wife was his aunt, was born in
1855, died in 1909. He was educated at Rugby and University College,
Oxford. He sat as member of Parliament for West Belfast from 1892, for
Croydon from 1906, as a Liberal Unionist, was Parliamentary Secretary to
the Admiralty from 1900 to 1903, then Secretary of State for War, a
position which he held till Dec., 1905, having put forward sweeping
proposals for the improvement of our army. He wrote on various subjects,
especially books for popular instruction, including _How to Solve the Irish
Land Question_, _The Citizen Reader_, _This World of Ours_, _Things New and
Old_, _In a Conning Tower_, _A History of England_, _English Socialism of
To-day_, _Military Needs and Military Policy_, &c.

AR´NON, a river in Palestine, the boundary between the country of the
Moabites and that of the Amorites, afterwards of the Israelites, a
tributary of the Dead Sea. It is now called Wady-el-Mojib.

AR´NOT, or AR´NUT, a name of the agreeably flavoured farinaceous tubers of
the earth-nut or pig-nut (_Bunium flexu[=o]sum_ and _B. Bulbocast[)a]num_).
See _Earth-nut_.

AR´NOTT, Dr. Neil, an eminent physician and physicist, was born at
Arbroath, 1788, died 1874. Having graduated as M.A. at Aberdeen, he then
studied medicine, and was appointed a surgeon in the East India Company's
naval service. In 1811 he commenced practice in London. In 1837 he was
appointed extraordinary physician to the queen. In 1827 he published
_Elements of Physics_, and in 1838 a treatise on _Warming and Ventilation_,
&c. He is widely known as the inventor of a stove which is regarded as one
of the most economical arrangements for burning fuel, a ventilating
chimney-valve, and his water-bed for the protection of the sick against
bed-sores. In 1869 he gave £1000 to each of the four Scottish universities
and £2000 to London University for the promotion of the study of physics.
He was a strong advocate of a scientific as opposed to a purely classical
education.

ARNPRIOR, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 35 miles west of Ottawa, on
the right bank of the River Ottawa, where it is joined by the Madawaska,
and with important railway connections. Pop. 4405.

ARNSBERG ([.a]rnz´ber_h_), a town in Prussia, province Westphalia, capital
of the district of same name, on the Ruhr. Pop. 10,256.--The district of
Arnsberg has an area of 2972 sq. miles, and a population of 2,400,000.

ARNSTADT ([.a]rn´st[.a]t), a town of Germany, in Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,
11 miles south by west of Erfurt, upon the Gera, which divides it into two
parts. It has manufactures in leather, &c., and a good trade in grain and
timber. Pop. 17,907.

ARNSWALDE ([.a]rnz´v[.a]l-de), a town of Prussia, province Brandenburg, 39
miles south-east of Stettin. Pop. 8730.

AR´NULF, great-grandson of Charlemagne, elected King of Germany in A.D.
887; invaded Italy, captured Rome, and was crowned emperor by the Pope
(896); died A.D. 898.

AROI´DEÆ. See _Araceæ_.

AR´OLSEN, a German town, capital of Waldeck. Pop. 2793.

AROMAT´ICS, drugs, or other substances which yield a fragrant smell, and
often a warm pungent taste, as calamus (_Ac[=o]rus Cal[)a]mus_), ginger,
cinnamon, cassia, lavender, rosemary, laurel, nutmegs, cardamoms, pepper,
pimento, cloves, vanilla, saffron. Some of them are used medicinally as
tonics, stimulants, &c.

AROMATIC VINEGAR, a very volatile and powerful perfume made by adding the
essential oils of lavender, cloves, &c., and often camphor, to
crystallizable acetic acid. It is a powerful excitant in fainting, languor,
and headache.

ARO´NA, an ancient Italian town near the south extremity of Lago Maggiore.
Pop. 4474. In the vicinity is the colossal statue of San Carlo Borromeo, 70
feet in height, exclusive of pedestal 42 feet high.

AROOS´TOOK, a river of the north-eastern United States and New Brunswick, a
tributary of the St. John, length 120 miles.

AROU´RA, or ARU´RA, an ancient Egyptian measure of surface, according to
Herodotus the square of 100 cubits, containing, 21,904 sq. feet.

ARPAD, founder of the Magyar monarchy, born about 870, died 907. See
_Hungary_.

ARPEGGIO ([.a]r-pej´[=o]), the distinct sound of the notes of an
instrumental chord; the striking the notes of a chord in rapid succession,
as in the manner of touching the harp instead of playing them
simultaneously.

ARPENT ([.a]r-pä[n.]), formerly a French measure of land, equal to
five-sixths of an English acre; but it varied in different parts of France;
the Parisian arpent contained 32,400 sq. feet, the common arpent 40,000 sq.
feet.

ARPINO ([.a]r-p[=e]´n[=o]; ancient ARPINUM), a town of Southern Italy,
province of Caserta, celebrated as the birthplace of Gaius Marius and
Cicero. It manufactures woollens, linen, paper, &c. Pop. 10,309.

ARQUA ([.a]r´kw[.a]), a village of Northern Italy, about 13 miles
south-west of Padua, where the poet Petrarch died, 18th July, 1374. A
monument has been erected over his grave. Pop. 1700.

AR´QUEBUS, a hand-gun; a species of fire-arm of the sixteenth century,
resembling a musket. It was fired from a forked rest, and sometimes cocked
by a wheel, and carried a ball that weighed nearly 2 ounces. A larger kind
used in fortresses carried a heavier shot.

ARRACA´CHA. See _Aracacha_.

ARRACAN´. See _Aracan_.

AR´RACK. See _Arack_.

AR´RAGON. See _Aragon_.

AR´RAH, a town of British India, in Shahabad district, Bengal, rendered
famous during the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance of a body of
twenty civilians and fifty Sikhs, cooped up within a detached house, to a
force of 3000 sepoys, who were ultimately routed and overthrown by the
arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop. 46,170.

ARRAIGNMENT (ar-r[=a]n´-), the act of calling or setting a prisoner at the
bar of a court to plead guilty or not guilty to the matter charged in an
indictment or information. In Scots law the term is _calling the
diet_.--The _Clerk of Arraigns_ is an officer attached to assize courts and
to the Old Bailey, who assists in the arraignment of prisoners, and puts
formal questions to the jury.

AR´RAN, an island of Scotland, in the Firth of Clyde, part of Bute county;
length, north to south, 20 miles; breadth, about 10 miles; area, 165 sq.
miles, or 105,814 acres, of which about 15,000 are under cultivation. It is
of a wild and romantic appearance, particularly the northern half, where
the island attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell, 2866 feet high. The
coast presents several indentations, of which that of Lamlash, forming a
capacious bay, completely sheltered by Holy Island, is one of the best
natural harbours in the west of Scotland. On the small island of Pladda,
about a mile from the south shore, a lighthouse has been erected. The
geology of Arran has attracted much attention, as furnishing within a
comparatively narrow space distinct sections of the great geological
formations; while the botany possesses almost equal interest, both in the
variety and the rarity of many of its plants. Among objects of interest are
relics of Danish forts, standing stones, cairns, &c. Lamlash and Brodick
are villages. The island is a favourite resort of summer visitors, and is
reached by steamer from Ardrossan. Pop. 8294.

ARRAN, EARLS OF. See _Hamilton, Family of_.

ARRANGEMENT, in music, the adaptation of a composition to voices or
instruments for which it was not originally written; also, a piece so
adapted.

AR´RAN ISLANDS. See _Aran_.

ARRARO´BA. See _Araroba_.

ARRAS ([.a]-rä), a town of France, capital of the department Pas-de-Calais,
well built, with several handsome squares and a citadel, cathedral, public
library, botanic garden, museum, and numerous flourishing industries. In
the Middle Ages it was famous for the manufacture of tapestry, to which the
English applied the name of the town itself (arrazo). The battle of Arras
was fought and Vimy Ridge taken by the Allies on 9th April, 1917. Pop.
24,200.

ARREST´ is the apprehending or restraining of one's person, which, in civil
cases, can take place legally only by process in execution of the command
of some court or officers of justice; but in criminal cases any man may
arrest without warrant or precept, and every person is liable to arrest
without distinction, but no man is to be arrested unless charged with such
a crime as will at least justify holding him to bail when taken. _Magna
Charta_ and the _Habeas Corpus Act_ are the two great statutes for securing
the liberty of the subject against unlawful arrests and suits.

ARREST´MENT, in Scots law, a process by which a creditor may attach money
or movable property which a third party holds for behoof of his debtor. In
1870 an Act was passed for Scotland which provides that only that part of
the weekly wages of labourers, and of workpeople generally, which is in
excess of 20_s_. is liable to arrestment for debt.

ARREST OF JUDGMENT, in law, the staying or stopping of a judgment after
verdict, for causes assigned. Courts have power to arrest judgment for
intrinsic causes appearing upon the face of the record; as when the
declaration varies from the original writ; when the verdict differs
materially from the pleadings; or when the case laid in the declaration is
not sufficient in point of law to found an action upon.

ARRE´TIUM. See _Arezzo_.

ARRHENATH´ERUM, a genus of oat-like grasses, of which _A. elatius_,
sometimes called French rye-grass, is a valuable fodder plant.

ARRHENIUS, Svante August, famous Swedish physicist and chemist, born 19th
Feb., 1859, at Wyk, near Upsala. He was educated at the Universities of
Upsala (1876-81) and Stockholm (1881-4), spent two years in travelling, and
after doing much original research was appointed professor of physics at
the University of Stockholm. To him is due the establishment of the theory
of electrolytic dissociation, supplying a reasonable explanation of many
chemical phenomena otherwise insoluble. He subsequently extended the
application of the electrolytic theory to the phenomena of atmospheric
electricity. His dissertation _Sur la conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes_ appeared in 1884. Among his other works is _Worlds in the
Making_ (English translation, 1908).

AR´RIA, the heroic wife of a Roman named Cæc[=i]na Pætus. Pætus was
condemned to death in A.D. 42 for his share in a conspiracy against the
emperor Claudius, and was encouraged to suicide by his wife, who stabbed
herself and then handed the dagger to her husband with the words, 'It does
not hurt, Pætus!'

AR´RIAN, or FLAVIUS ARRIANUS, a Greek historian, native of Nicomedia,
flourished in the second century, under the emperor Hadrian and the
Antonines. He was first a priest of Ceres; but at Rome he became a disciple
of Epictetus, was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and was advanced
to the senatorial and even consular dignities. His extant works are: _The
Expedition of Alexander_, in seven books; a book _On the Affairs of India_;
an _Epistle to Hadrian_; a _Treatise on Tactics_; a _Periplus of the Euxine
Sea_; a _Periplus of the Red Sea_; and his _Enchiridion_, a moral treatise,
containing the discourses of Epictetus.

AR´RIS, in architecture, the line in which the two straight or curved
surfaces of a body, forming an exterior angle, meet each other.

ARRO´BA (Spanish), a weight formerly used in Spain, and still used in the
greater part of Central and South America. In the States of Spanish origin
its weight is generally equal to 25.35 lb. avoirdupois; in Brazil it equals
32.38 lb.--Also a measure for wine, spirits, and oil, ranging from 2¾
gallons to about 10 gallons.

ARRÖE, Danish island. See _Aeröe_.

ARRONDISSEMENT. See _France_.

ARROW. See _Archery, Bow_.

ARROWHEAD (Sagittaria), a genus of aquatic plants found in all parts of the
world within the torrid and temperate zones, nat. ord. Alismaceæ,
distinguished by possessing barren and fertile flowers, with a three-leaved
calyx and three coloured petals. The common arrowhead (_S. sagittifolia_),
the only native species in Britain, is known by its arrow-shaped leaves
with lanceolate straight lobes.

ARROWHEADED CHARACTERS. See _Cuneiform Writing_.

ARROW LAKE, an expansion of the Columbia River, in British Columbia,
Canada; about 95 miles long from N. to S.; often regarded as forming two
lakes--Upper and Lower Arrow Lake.

ARROWROCK DAM. See _Dams_ and _Reservoirs_.

[Illustration: Arrow-root (_Maranta arundin[=a]c[)e]a_)]

ARROW-ROOT, a starch largely used for food and for other purposes.
Arrow-root proper is obtained from the rhizomes or rootstocks of several
species of plants of the genus Maranta (nat. ord. Marantaceæ), and perhaps
owes its name to the scales which cover the rhizome, which have some
resemblance to the point of an arrow. Some, however, suppose that the name
is due to the fact of the fresh roots being used as an application against
wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows, and others say that _arrow_ is a
corruption of _ara_, the Indian name of the plant. The species from which
arrow-root is most commonly obtained is _M. arundin[=a]c[)e]a_, hence
called the _arrow-root plant_. Brazilian arrow-root, or tapioca meal, is
got from the large fleshy root of _Manihot utilissima_, after the poisonous
juice has been got rid of; East Indian arrow-root, from the large
rootstocks of _Curc[)u]ma angustifolia_; Chinese arrow-root, from the
creeping rhizomes of _Nelumbium speci[=o]sum_; English arrow-root, from the
potato; Portland arrow-root, from the corms of _Arum macul[=a]tum_; and
Oswego arrow-root, from Indian corn. Analyses made in 1902 and 1906 show
that the idea generally held of the nourishing qualities of arrow-root is a
delusion, and that the proteids, which are true muscle-builders, are
present in an extremely small extent. Arrow-root, however, mixed with eggs,
milk, and flavourings, is largely used in the dietary of invalids.

ARROWSMITH, Aaron, a distinguished English chartographer, born 1750, died
1823; he raised the execution of maps to a perfection it had never before
attained.--His nephew, John, born 1790, died 1873, was no less
distinguished in the same field; his _London Atlas of Universal Geography_
may be specially mentioned.

ARROYO ([.a]r-r[=o]´yo), the name of two towns of Spain, in Estremadura,
the one, called Arroyo del Puerco (pop. 5727), about 10 miles west of
Caceres; the other, called Arroyo Molinos de Montanches, about 27 miles
south-east of Caceres, memorable from the victory gained by Lord Hill over
a French force under General Gerard, 28th Oct., 1811.

AR´RU (or AROO) ISLANDS, a group belonging to the Dutch, south of western
New Guinea, and extending from north to south about 127 miles. They are
composed of coralline limestone, nowhere exceeding 200 feet above the sea,
and are well wooded and tolerably fertile. The natives belong to the Papuan
race, and some of them are Christians. The chief exports are trepang,
tortoise-shell, pearls, mother-of-pearl, and edible birds'-nests. Pop. of
group about 20,000.

ARSA´CES, the founder of a dynasty of Parthian kings (256 B.C.), who,
taking their name from him, are called Arsacidæ. There were thirty-one in
all. See _Parthia_.

AR´SAMAS, a manufacturing town in the Russian government of Nijni-Novgorod,
on the Tesha, 250 miles east of Moscow, with a cathedral and large convent.
Pop. 12,000.

AR´SENAL, a royal or public magazine or place appointed for the making,
repairing, keeping, and issuing of military stores. An arsenal of the first
class should include factories for guns and gun-carriages, small-arms,
small-arms ammunition, harness, saddlery, tents, and powder; a laboratory
and large store-houses. In arsenals of the second class workshops take the
place of the factories. The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, which manufactures
warlike implements and stores for the army and navy, was formed about 1720,
and comprises factories, laboratories, &c., for the manufacture and final
fitting up of almost every kind of arms and ammunition. Great quantities of
military and naval stores are kept at the dockyards of Chatham, Portsmouth,
Plymouth, and Pembroke. In France there are various arsenals or depots of
war-material, which is manufactured at Mézières, Toulouse, Besançon, &c.;
the great naval arsenals are Brest and Toulon. Until 1919 the chief German
arsenals were at Spandau, Strassburg, and Dantzig. The chief Austrian
arsenal was the immense establishment at Vienna, which included
gun-factory, laboratory, small-arms and carriage factories, &c. Russia had
her principal arsenal at Petrograd, with supplementary factories of arms
and ammunition at Briansk, Kiev, and elsewhere. In Italy Turin is the
centre of the military factories. There are a number of arsenals in the
United States, but individually they are of little importance.

AR´SENIC (symbol AS, atomic weight 75), a common element usually found
combined with metals as arsenides, the commonest of which is arsenical
pyrites, FeAsS. It has a steel colour and high metallic lustre, and
tarnishes on exposure to the air, first changing to yellow, and finally to
black. In hardness it equals copper; it is extremely brittle, and very
volatile, beginning to sublime before it melts. It burns with a blue flame,
and emits a smell of garlic. Its specific gravity is 5.76. It forms
compounds with most of the metals. Combined with sulphur it forms orpiment
and realgar, which are the yellow and red sulphides of arsenic. Orpiment is
the true _arsenicum_ of the ancients. With oxygen arsenic forms two
compounds, the more important of which is arsenious oxides or arsenic
trioxide (As_4O_6), which is the _white arsenic_, or simply _arsenic_ of
the shops. It is usually seen in white, glassy, translucent masses, and is
obtained by sublimation from several ores containing arsenic in combination
with metals, particularly from arsenical pyrites. Of all substances arsenic
is that which has most frequently occasioned death by poisoning, both by
accident and design. The best remedies against the effects of arsenic on
the stomach are ferric hydroxide or magnesic hydroxide, or a mixture of
both, with copious draughts of bland liquids of a mucilaginous consistence,
which serve to procure its complete ejection from the stomach. Oils and
fats generally, milk, albumen, wheat-flour, oatmeal, sugar or syrup, have
all proved useful in counteracting its effect. Like many other virulent
poisons it is a safe and useful medicine, especially in skin diseases, when
judiciously employed. It is used as a flux for glass, and also for forming
pigments. The arsenite of copper (Scheele's green) and a double arsenite
and acetate of copper (emerald green) were formerly largely used to colour
paper-hangings for rooms; but as poisonous gases are liable to be given
off, the practice has been to a great extent abandoned. Arsenic compounds
have been used for colouring confectionery, and other articles, bright
green, but their chief industrial use is in the preparation of
insecticides. Arsenic is found in crude oil of vitriol, and occasionally in
products such as grape-sugar, beer, &c., in the manufacture of which oil of
vitriol is employed. Plants die when placed in a solution of arsenic, but
corn is often steeped in such a solution, previous to planting, for
preventing smut, and the growth of the future plant is not injured thereby.

ARSHIN ([.a]r-sh[=e]n´), a Russian measure of length equal to 28 inches.

ARSIN´OË, a city of ancient Egypt on Lake Moeris, said to have been founded
about 2300 B. C., but renamed after Arsinoë, wife and sister of Ptolemy II
of Egypt, and called also _Crocodilopolis_, from the sacred crocodiles kept
at it.

AR´SIS, a term applied in prosody to that syllable in a measure where the
emphasis is put; in elocution, the elevation of the voice, in distinction
from _thesis_, or its depression. _Arsis_ and _thesis_, in music, are the
strong position and weak position of the bar, indicated by the down-beat
and up-beat in marking time.

AR´SON, in English law, the malicious burning of a dwelling-house or
outhouse of another man, which by the common law is felony, and which, if
any person is therein, is capital. Also, the wilful setting fire to any
church, chapel, warehouse, mill, barn, agricultural produce, ship,
coal-mine, and the like. In Scotland it is called _wilful fire-raising_,
and in both England and Scotland it is a considerable aggravation of the
crime if the burning is to defraud insurers.

ART, in its most extended sense, as distinguished from nature on the one
hand and from science on the other, has been defined as every regulated
operation or dexterity by which organized beings pursue ends which they
know beforehand, together with the rules and the result of every such
operation or dexterity. Science consists in _knowing_, art in _doing_. In
this wide sense it embraces what are usually called the useful arts. In a
narrower and purely æsthetic sense it designates what are more specifically
termed the fine arts, as architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and
poetry. The useful arts have their origin in positive practical needs, and
restrict themselves to satisfying them. The fine arts minister to the
sentiment of taste through the medium of the beautiful in form, colour,
rhythm, or harmony. See _Fine Arts_, _Painting_, _Sculpture_, &c.--In the
Middle Ages it was common to give certain branches of study the name of
arts.--Cf. A. C. R. Carter, _History of Art_, _The Year's Art_.

ART COLLECTIONS. See _Collections, Artistic_.

ART, Teaching of. With the advent of the present industrial age the
teaching of art has undergone a profound change. The fine and the
industrial arts have been equally affected. In mediæval times, and in the
earlier classic ages, the system of apprenticeship prevailed, and all
teaching of the arts and of the artistic crafts was given by masters of the
various arts or trades to the apprentices who worked under their guidance
as assistants. Standards of excellence were maintained by trade guilds, who
enforced rules as to workmanship as well as rules for the economic
conditions of each trade or craft. The painter of pictures, or of mural
decorations, was trained in the same way as any other craftsman, working as
an apprentice under a master.

When, in the last century, machinery driven by steam-power took the place
of hand labour in industry, the small independent workshops gradually
disappeared, as the industrial centres increased in those localities where
coal or raw material was most easily obtained; and, as the processes of
each trade or craft became more and more subdivided and specialized, the
old system of apprenticeship, which had become unnecessary, broke down. The
teaching and tradition of the small independent craft workshops had no
counterpart in the new centralized industrial systems. Even the painters of
pictures needed no longer to prepare their own materials, for special
industries arose, and mechanical processes were developed, for the work
which formerly had been done in the artists' workshops by apprentices. The
fine arts in this way suffered the loss of their old systems of teaching
and instruction.

To meet the need for a revival of art teaching in the crafts and other
industries, there arose a movement towards the centralization of teaching
in schools of art during the latter half of the nineteenth century.
Following the impulse given to that movement by the great exhibition in
1850, the British Government founded the schools of science and art in
London and in most of the important provincial towns. Earlier in the
century bodies of artists had founded national academies for the teaching
of art; and the teaching of drawing was gradually adopted as a part of
ordinary school education. Step by step training in schools of art or
technical schools took the place of the teaching formerly given during
apprenticeship in every craft workshop. The ancient guilds were replaced by
the new trades unions, but these took no part in the maintenance of
artistic standards nor of quality in workmanship.

At the present time the teaching of art begins with the early school
lessons in drawing, and is carried on in special technical classes or
schools of art, where teachers of the 'fine arts' and of the artistic
crafts give instruction to students preparing for professional work. In a
few of the artistic trades the system of apprenticeship still survives, but
the teaching given by that means is usually supplemented by attendance at a
school of art or technical school. Under the Education Act of 1918
attendance at technical classes in the daytime became compulsory for
apprentices in all industrial trades.

The subject of art teaching was formerly disregarded by the universities,
but has become definitely within their province since the founding of the
Slade professorships at Oxford, Cambridge, and London Universities, and of
the professorship of fine art at the University of Edinburgh.

The chief schools of art in Great Britain are the schools of the Royal
Academy in London, the Slade School at University College, London, and the
Royal College of Art at South Kensington, also the Central School of Arts
and Crafts, and the other large metropolitan schools of the London County
Council.

In most of the English provincial towns are municipal or other schools of
art under the control of the Board of Education.

In Scotland the chief schools are the four central institutions--the
Edinburgh College of Art, and the schools of art of Glasgow, Aberdeen, and
Dundee. In each of these a diploma is given on the satisfactory completion
of a prescribed course of study.

In Ireland the chief schools are those of the Royal Hibernian Academy in
Dublin, and the provincial schools of art under the Department of
Agriculture and Technology.

On the Continent the chief centre of artistic training has for many years
been in Paris. Advanced students from most European and American art
schools spend some of the later period of their study in the schools of
Paris, in painting, in sculpture, or in architecture. There is, naturally,
a valuable incentive and stimulation due to this gathering together of
advanced students from all countries, as well as to the high academic
tradition and sense of style of the French.

The 'atelier' system, which is followed in the French schools, is simple
and personal. The expenses of an 'atelier', or studio, are borne by a group
of students by the consent and under the guidance of an artist of
reputation, who visits the 'atelier' at stated intervals, but is not
concerned in its administration. In this way the relations between the
professor and his pupils are extremely direct and personal. Most of the
distinguished artists of Paris are attached to some 'atelier' to which
chosen pupils are admitted.

There are also in Paris excellent schools for training in the applied arts,
schools for furniture-making, printing, jewellery, and other artistic
trades. These are on private foundations, but also receive State aid.

The teaching of art that is given at the present day as a part of ordinary
general education attempts little more than a training in the elements of
drawing, with some practice in the use of colour. The purpose of the
drawing lesson is the attainment of skill in the representation of objects
rather than the training of the æsthetic sense, or of artistic judgment or
taste.

In the schools of art opportunities are provided for training in drawing
and painting, sculpture, and architecture, and in the general principles of
design in these arts, and in many of the artistic crafts and industrial
processes. In some localities, where particular industries or artistic
trades are concentrated, special schools for artistic and technical
training are provided. The present tendency is towards the development of
special schools for particular artistic trades or professions.

A complete system of training in any art must of necessity include: (1)
actual technical practice; (2) teaching of the canons of workmanship of the
art; (3) acquaintance with its historical development, especially with the
notable examples and the highest achievements of past masters in the art.

ARTA (ancient AMBRACIA), a gulf, town, and river of north-western Greece.
The town was transferred by Turkey to Greece in 1881 (pop. 8000). It stands
on the River Arta, which for a considerable distance above its mouth formed
a part of the boundary between Greece and Turkey.--The province of Arta has
an area of 395 sq. miles, and a pop. of 52,400.

ARTAXERX´ES (Old Pers. _Artakhsathra_, 'the mighty'), the name of several
Persian kings:--1. ARTAXERXES, surnamed Longim[)a]nus, succeeded his father
Xerxes I, 465 B.C. He subdued the rebellious Egyptians, terminated the war
with Athens, governed his subjects in peace, and died 425 B.C.--2.
ARTAXERXES, surnamed Mnemon, succeeded his father Darius II in the year 405
B.C. After having vanquished his brother Cyrus he made war on the Spartans,
who had assisted his enemy, and forced them to abandon the Greek cities and
islands of Asia to the Persians. On his death, 359 B.C., his son Ochus
ascended the throne under the name of--3. ARTAXERXES OCHUS (359 to 339
B.C.). After having overcome the Phoenicians and Egyptians, and displayed
great cruelty in both countries, he was poisoned by his general Bagoas.

ARTE´DI, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, born 1705, drowned at Amsterdam 1735.
He studied at Upsala, turned his attention to medicine and natural history,
and was a friend of Linnæus. His _Bibliotheca Ichthyologica_ and
_Philosophia Ichthyologica_, together with a life of the author, were
published at Leyden in 1738.

ARTEL, a name for co-operative associations in Russia. These associations
were known in ancient Russia as _drushina_ or _wataga_. The artels
originally consisted of bodies of men associating for the purpose of
jointly undertaking a piece of work and dividing the profits. Artels were
formed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries for the co-operation of
their members in hunting and fishing. Inspired and stimulated by the
Schulze-Delitzsch associations established in Germany, the Russian artels
have extended their activity to various branches of industrial life. There
are now consum artels, credit artels, and insurance artels, but the most
important are the artisan and industrial artels. Some of the artels,
however, are little more than trade guilds with mutual responsibility.

AR´T[)E]MIS, an ancient Greek divinity, identified with the Roman Diana.
She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto or Latona, and was the twin
sister of Apollo, born in the Island of Delos. She is variously represented
as a huntress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess of the nymphs, in a
chariot drawn by four stags; and as the moon-goddess, with the crescent of
the moon above her forehead. She was a maiden divinity, never conquered by
love, except when Endymion made her feel its power. She demanded the
strictest chastity from her worshippers, and she is represented as having
changed Actæon into a stag, and caused him to be torn in pieces by his own
dogs, because he had secretly watched her as she was bathing. The Artemisia
was a festival celebrated in her honour at Delphi. The famous temple of
Artemis at Ephesus was considered one of the wonders of the world, but the
goddess worshipped there was very different from the huntress goddess of
Greece, being of Eastern origin, and regarded as the symbol of fruitful
nature.

ARTEMI´SIA, Queen of Caria, in Asia Minor, about 352-350 B.C., sister and
wife of Maus[=o]lus, to whom she erected in her capital, Halicarnassus, a
monument, called the Mausol[=e]um, which was reckoned among the seven
wonders of the world.

ARTEMI´SIA, a genus of plants of numerous species, nat. ord. Compositæ,
comprising mugwort, southernwood, and wormwood. Certain alpine species are
the flavouring ingredient in absinthe. See _Wormwood_.

ARTEMI´SIUM, a promontory in Euboea, an island of the Ægean, near which
several naval battles between the Greeks and Persians were fought, 480 B.C.

AR´TEMUS WARD. See _Browne, Charles Farrar_.

AR´TERIES, the system of cylindrical vessels or tubes, membranous, elastic,
and pulsatile, which convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the
body, by ramifications which, as they proceed, diminish in size and
increase in number, and terminate in minute capillaries uniting the ends of
the arteries with the beginnings of the veins. There are two principal
arteries or arterial trunks: the _aorta_, which rises from the left
ventricle of the heart and ramifies through the whole body, sending off
great branches to the head, neck, and upper limbs, and downwards to the
lower limbs, &c.; and the _pulmonary artery_, which conveys venous blood
from the right ventricle to the lungs, to be purified in the process of
respiration.

ARTERIOT´OMY, the opening or cutting of an artery for the purpose of
blood-letting, as, for instance, to relieve pressure of the brain in
apoplexy.

[Illustration: Artesian Well. A. A. Outcrops of pervious stratum (C) acting
as collecting areas. B and D. Impervious stratum.]

ARTE´SIAN WELLS, so called from the French province of Artois, where they
appear to have been first used on an extensive scale, are perpendicular
borings into the ground through which water rises to the surface of the
soil, producing a constant flow or stream, the ultimate sources of supply
being higher than the mouth of the boring, and the water thus rising by the
well-known law. They are generally sunk in valley plains and districts
where the lower pervious strata are bent into basin-shaped curves. The rain
falling on the outcrops of these saturates the whole porous bed, so that
when the bore reaches it the water by hydraulic pressure rushes up towards
the level of the highest portion of the strata. The supply is sometimes so
abundant as to be used extensively as a moving power, and in arid regions
for fertilizing the ground, to which purpose artesian springs have been
applied from a very remote period. Thus many artesian wells have been sunk
in the Algerian Sahara, which have proved an immense boon to the district.
The water of most of these is potable, but a few are a little saline,
though not to such an extent as to influence vegetation. The hollows in
which London and Paris lie are both perforated in many places by borings of
this nature. At London they were first sunk only to the sand, but
afterwards into the chalk. One of the most celebrated artesian wells is
that of Grenelle, near Paris, 1798 feet deep, completed in 1841, after
eight years' work. Artesian wells are now common in many countries, and
have been sunk to the depth of a mile or more. As the temperature of water
from great depths is invariably higher than that at the surface, artesian
wells have been made to supply warm water for heating manufactories,
greenhouses, hospitals, fish-ponds, &c. They have also been made in the
United States and Australia for the purpose of irrigation. Petroleum wells
are generally of the same technical description. Artesian wells are now
made with larger diameters than formerly, and altogether their construction
has been rendered much more easy in modern times. See _Boring_.

ARTEVELD, or ARTEVELDE ([.a]r´te-velt, [.a]r´te-vel-de), the name of two
men distinguished in the history of the Low Countries.--1. Jacob van, a
brewer of Ghent, born about 1300, was selected by his fellow-townsmen to
lead them in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 he
was appointed captain of the forces of Ghent, and for several years
exercised a sort of sovereign power. A proposal to make the Black Prince,
son of Edward III of England, Governor of Flanders led to an insurrection
in which Arteveld lost his life (1345).--2. Philip, son of the former, at
the head of the forces of Ghent gained a great victory over the Count of
Flanders, Louis II, and for a time assumed the state of a sovereign prince.
His reign proved short-lived. The Count of Flanders returned with a large
French force, fully disciplined and skilfully commanded. Arteveld was rash
enough to meet them in the open field at Roosebeke, between Courtrai and
Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000 Flemings.

ARTHRI´TIS (Gr. _arthron_, a joint), any inflammatory distemper that
affects the joints, particularly chronic rheumatism or gout.

ARTHRO´DIA, a species of articulation, in which the head of one bone is
received into a shallow socket in another; a ball-and-socket joint.

ARTHROP´ODA, one of the two primary divisions (Anarthropoda being the
other) into which modern naturalists have divided the sub-kingdom Annulosa,
having the body composed of a series of segments, some always being
provided with articulated appendages. The division comprises Crustaceans,
Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Insects.

ARTHROZO´A, a name sometimes given to all articulated animals, including
the arthropoda and worms.

ARTHUR, Chester Alan, twenty-first President of the United States, born
1830, died 1886, was the son of Scottish parents, his father being pastor
of Baptist churches in Vermont and New York. He chose law as a profession,
and practised in New York. As a politician he became a leader in the
Republican party. During the civil war he was energetic as
quarter-master-general of New York in getting troops raised and equipped.
He was afterwards collector of customs for the port of New York. In 1880 he
was elected Vice-President, succeeding as President on the death of
Garfield in 1881.

AR´THUR, KING, an ancient British hero of the sixth century, son of Uther
Pendragon and the Princess Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall. He
married Guinevere, or Ginevra; established the famous order of the Round
Table; and reigned, surrounded by a splendid Court, twelve years in peace.
After this, as the poets relate, he conquered Denmark, Norway, and France,
slew the giants of Spain, and went to Rome. From thence he is said to have
hastened home on account of the faithlessness of his wife, and Modred, his
nephew, who had stirred up his subjects to rebellion. He subdued the
rebels, but died in consequence of his wounds, on the Island of Avalon. The
story of Arthur is supposed to have some foundation in fact, and has ever
been a favourite subject with our romanticists and our poets. It is
generally believed that Arthur was one of the last great Celtic chiefs who
led his countrymen from the west of England to resist the settlement of the
Saxons in the country. But many authorities regard him as a leader of the
Cymry of Cumbria and Strath-Clyde against the Saxon invaders of the east
coast and the Picts and Scots north of the Forth and the Clyde. See
_Grail_, _Merlin_, _Round Table_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Rhys, _Studies in the
Arthurian Legend_; W. Lewis Jones, _King Arthur in History and Legend_.

ARTHUR'S SEAT, a picturesque hill within the King's Park in the immediate
vicinity of Edinburgh; has an altitude of 822 feet; descends rollingly to
the N. and E. over a base each way of about five furlongs; presents an
abrupt shoulder to the S., and breaks down precipitously to the W. It is
composed of a diversity of eruptive rocks, with some interposed and
up-tilted sedimentary ones; and derives its name somehow from the legendary
King Arthur.

AR´TIAD (Gr. _artios_, even-numbered), in chemistry, a name given to an
element of even equivalency, as a dyad, tetrad, &c.: opposed to a perissad,
an element of uneven equivalency, such as a monad, triad, &c.

ARTICHOKE (_Cyn[)a]ra Scol[)y]mus_), sometimes called 'the Globe
Artichoke', a well-known plant of the nat. ord. Compositæ, somewhat
resembling a thistle, with large divided prickly leaves. The erect
flower-stem terminates in a large round head of numerous imbricated oval
spiny scales which surround the flowers. The fleshy bases of the scales
with the large receptacle are the parts that are eaten. Artichokes were
introduced into England early in the sixteenth century. The Jerusalem
artichoke (a corruption of the It. _girasole_, a sunflower), or _Helianthus
tuber[=o]sus_, is a species of sunflower, whose roots are used like
potatoes; it was introduced into England in the early part of the
seventeenth century.

ARTICLE, in grammar, a part of speech used before nouns to limit or define
their application. In English _a_ or _an_ is usually called the indefinite
article (the latter form being used before a vowel sound), and _the_, the
definite article, but they are also described as adjectives. _An_ was
originally the same as _one_, and _the_ as _that_. In Latin there were no
articles, and Greek has only the definite article.

ARTICLES, LORDS OF THE, in Scottish history, a committee chosen equally
from each estate or division of Parliament to prepare the various measures,
which, when completed, were laid before the Parliament for adoption or
rejection. They were first appointed in 1369, and gradually became a
recognized part of the Scottish legislative machinery. Abolished 1690.

ARTICLES, THE SIX, in English ecclesiastical history, articles imposed by a
statute (often called the Bloody Statute) passed in 1541, the thirty-third
year of the reign of Henry VIII. They decreed the acknowledgment of
transubstantiation, the sufficiency of communion in one kind, the
obligation of vows of chastity, the propriety of private masses, celibacy
of the clergy, and auricular confession. Acceptance of these doctrines was
made obligatory on all persons under the severest penalties; the Act,
however, was relaxed in 1544, and repealed in 1549.

ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, of the Church of England, a statement of the
particular points of doctrine, thirty-nine in number, maintained by the
English Church; first promulgated by a convocation held in London in
1562-3, and confirmed by royal authority; founded on and superseding an
older code issued in the reign of Edward VI. The first five articles
contain a profession of faith in the Trinity; the incarnation of Jesus
Christ, His descent to hell, and His resurrection; the divinity of the Holy
Ghost. The three following relate to the canon of the Scripture. The eighth
article declares a belief in the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds.
The ninth and following articles contain the doctrine of original sin, of
justification by faith alone, of predestination, &c. The nineteenth,
twentieth, and twenty-first declare the Church to be the assembly of the
faithful; that it can decide nothing except by the Scriptures. The
twenty-second rejects the doctrine of purgatory, indulgences, the adoration
of images, and the invocation of saints. The twenty-third decides that only
those lawfully called shall preach or administer the sacraments. The
twenty-fourth requires the liturgy to be in English. The twenty-fifth and
twenty-sixth declare the sacraments effectual signs of grace (though
administered by evil men), by which God excites and confirms our faith.
They are two: baptism and the Lord's supper. Baptism, according to the
twenty-seventh article, is a sign of regeneration, the seal of our
adoption, by which faith is confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord's
supper, according to article twenty-eight, the bread is the communion of
the body of Christ, the wine the communion of his blood, but only through
faith (article twenty-ninth); and the communion must be administered in
both kinds (article thirty). The twenty-eighth article condemns the
doctrine of transubstantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the
host; the thirty-first rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous;
the thirty-second permits the marriage of the clergy; the thirty-third
maintains the efficacy of excommunication. The remaining articles relate to
the supremacy of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists, &c. They were
ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All candidates for ordination must
subscribe these articles, but they are not binding upon laymen, except
judges and certain university officials. This formulary is now accepted by
the Episcopalian Churches of Scotland, Ireland, and America.

ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION are the rules framed by a company for the
administration of its affairs. Public companies usually have separate
articles of their own, but this is not essential. When a registered company
has no articles, its business procedure is regulated by the statutory form,
found in Schedule 1 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act, 1908, and known
as Table A. When separate articles are used they must be printed, signed,
stamped, and filed along with the memorandum of association. Unlike the
memorandum, the articles may be altered at any time, by special resolution,
provided the alteration is within the powers given by the memorandum. Thus,
where preferred shares are created by the memorandum, their privileges are
more secure than if merely issued under the articles. The articles are
intended merely for internal administration, and, while binding in
questions between the company and its members as such, they do not affect
third parties, unless the company has acted _ultra vires_ and this was
discoverable from the articles, which the public can inspect at a nominal
fee.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir F. B. Palmer, _Company Law_; A. Coles, _Guide for
the Company Secretary_; A. F. Topham, _Principles of Company Law_.

ARTICLES OF WAR. See _Military Law_.

ARTICULA´TA, the third great section of the animal kingdom according to the
arrangement of Cuvier, applied to invertebrates such as insects and worms,
in which the body displays a jointed structure. The name is now obsolete.
See _Arthropoda_.

ARTICULA´TION, in anatomy a joint; the joining or juncture of the bones.
This is of three kinds: (1) _Diarthr[=o]sis_, or a movable connection, such
as the ball-and-socket joint; (2) _Synarthr[=o]sis_, immovable connection,
as by suture, or junction by serrated margins; (3) _Symphysis_, or union by
means of another substance, by a cartilage, tendon, or ligament.

ARTIFICIAL LIMBS. Artificial limbs of a primitive kind have been in use
from very early times; but, as the material of which they were made was
perishable, few specimens have been preserved. In the museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons in London there is a good specimen of a Roman
artificial leg which is believed to date back to the third century B.C.
This leg is made of wood, covered with thin bronze; it has an iron
sole-plate, and was fastened on by means of a waist-belt.

In Irish legend we are told of Nuada, who led the tribe of the Dananns back
to Ireland, having an artificial hand made of silver; from this he received
the name of Argetlam or Silver-handed. In mediæval times Goetz von
Berlichingen, who lost his right hand at the siege of Landshut (1505), had
a hand made of iron to supply its place.

Great improvements have been made in the manufacture of artificial limbs
during the last fifty years. After the Franco-Prussian war the French
Government adopted an artificial arm and hand known as the 'Beaufort' and
issued it to the soldiers who required it. This hand had a movable thumb
controlled by a cord passing up the arm and fastened to a loop band over
the opposite shoulder. An Englishman named Heather Bigg invented a hand
with a movable thumb which was worked by a piston and controlled by a
rubber ball fastened under the arm-pit. These designs have been improved
upon from time to time, and an artificial hand can now be made which is
capable of opening and closing at will, and of lifting and holding light
articles.

Artificial legs vary in design, from the simple pin leg to ingenious
contrivances such as the 'Anglesey' leg, which is made of seasoned willow
wood with steel ankles and knee-joints. This 'Anglesey' leg is the standard
best-quality limb in Great Britain. The German artificial-limb makers use
leather instead of wood. These leather legs fit comfortably, but are too
heavy, as they have to be supported by steel bands.

ARTILLERY, all ordnance such as guns and howitzers as opposed to small arms
and machine-guns. The term is also used for the troops who serve these
arms.

Generally speaking, artillery is divided into field, heavy, and siege
artillery. For details of organization see _Army_. The earliest form of
artillery was a metal tube which was placed in a convenient position on the
ground. The charge of gunpowder was ignited by placing a match to a hole
bored at the closed end, and the resulting explosion forced the
projectile--a stone--more or less in the required direction. Later on this
primitive weapon was provided with wheels. In another form one man fired it
while a second man supported it on his shoulder. In the later Middle Ages
guns of various calibres were known by the names of birds of prey or
reptiles; among such were falcons and falconets, culverins and
demi-culverins. The fourteenth century saw the development of artillery for
siege purposes--chiefly by the Germans--and in the next century it began to
be employed in open warfare; while in 1537 the present Honourable Artillery
Company was formed in London to encourage the use of all 'weapons of
volley'. These weapons of volley were not even confined to fire-arms, but
included bows and cross-bows. The earliest English troops raised as
artillery personel were called the Regiment of Firelocks. Of late years
artillery science has made almost inconceivable progress, thanks to which,
_inter alia_, it is no longer necessary for the target to be visible from
the gun-position. This fact, combined with the use of smokeless powder,
makes the locating of hostile batteries exceedingly difficult. All field
artillery, by which is meant guns and howitzers, which accompany mobile
troops are designed on the quick-firing principle, by which the inevitable
recoil at the moment of firing is absorbed by an arrangement known as the
recoil-carriage, thus preventing any movement of the gun-carriage proper,
and avoiding unnecessary labour for the gun-detachments, while at the same
time allowing the men composing it to remain under cover of the shield with
which the guns are provided. With the quick-firing gun, propellent and
projectile are combined in one cartridge similar to that in use with small
arms; with the howitzer they are separated. This difference is due to the
fact that whereas guns are designed for a flat trajectory with a deep zone
of fire-effect, howitzers are intended for high-angle fire with an almost
vertical fall of shrapnel-bullets. This effect is produced by varying the
charge for different ranges. A field battery consists of 6 guns or
howitzers and 12 ammunition-wagons. Both guns and wagons are of the
limbered type, i.e. in two detachable parts, and the weight behind the team
of an English gun is approximately 2 tons.

As to tactical principles, it is recognized that the function of artillery
is to assist the other arms, that it cannot by itself win a battle, and
that its true _métier_ is to prepare the way for and assist the infantry.
During 1914-18 some 700,000 officers and men served with the Royal
Regiment.

ARTILLERY COMPANY, THE HONOURABLE, the oldest existing body of volunteers
in Great Britain, instituted in 1537, revived in 1610. It comprises six
companies of infantry, besides artillery, and furnishes a guard of honour
to the sovereign when visiting the city of London. Previous to 1842 the
Company elected their own officers, but since that date they have been
appointed by the Crown.

ARTILLERY SCHOOLS, institutions established for the purpose of giving a
special training to the officers, and in some cases the men, belonging to
the artillery service. In Great Britain the artillery schools are at
Woolwich and Shoeburyness. The Department of Artillery studies at Woolwich
give artillery officers the means of continuing their studies after they
have completed the usual course at the Royal Military College, and of
qualifying for appointments requiring exceptional scientific attainments.
The School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness gives instruction in gunnery to
officers and men, and conducts all experiments connected with artillery and
stores. The sands at the mouth of the Thames afford ample opportunity for
artillery practice and firing at long ranges. The Royal Artillery
Institution at Woolwich contains a museum, lecture-room, and
printing-press, from which professional and scientific papers are
periodically issued.

ARTIODAC´TYLA (Gr. _artios_, even numbered, _dakt[)y]los_, a finger or
toe), a section of the Ungulata or hoofed mammals, comprising all those in
which the number of the toes is even (two or four), including the
ruminants, such as the ox, sheep, deer, &c., and also a number of
non-ruminating animals, as the hippopotamus and the pig.

ARTISANS' AND LABOURERS' DWELLINGS ACT, an English Act of Parliament passed
in 1868 to empower town councils and other local authorities to demolish or
improve dwellings unfit for human habitation, and to build and maintain
better dwellings in lieu thereof. Other Acts for the same object were
passed in 1875, 1879, and 1882. See _Housing_.

ARTOCARPA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of plants, the bread-fruit order, by some
botanists ranked as a sub-order of the Urticaceæ or nettles. They are trees
or shrubs, with a milky juice, which in some species hardens into
caoutchouc, and in the cow-tree (_Bros[)i]mum Galactodendron_) is a milk as
good as that obtained from the cow. Many of the plants produce an edible
fruit, of which the best known is the bread-fruit (Artocarpus).

ARTOIS ([.a]r-twä), a former province of France, anciently one of the
seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, now almost completely included in
the department of Pas-de-Calais.

ARTOIS, THE BATTLE OF. See _European War_.

ARTS, the name given to certain branches of study in the Middle Ages,
originally called the 'liberal arts' to distinguish them from the 'servile
arts' or mechanical occupations. These arts were usually given as grammar,
dialectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Hence
originated the terms 'art classes', 'degrees in arts', 'Master of Arts',
&c., still in common use in universities, the faculty of arts being
distinguished from those of divinity, law, medicine, or science. See
_University_.

ARTSYBASHEV, Mikhail, Russian author, born in 1878. After a number of short
stories he wrote, at the age of twenty-five, a novel entitled _Sanin_,
published in 1907, which placed him at once among the most famous
contemporary Russian authors. Whatever opinion literary critics may hold of
this novel, his wonderful realism, simplicity of style, and psychological
analysis cannot be disputed.

ART UNIONS, associations for encouraging art, an object which they mainly
pursue by disposing of pictures, sculptures, &c., by lottery among
subscribers. They seem to have originated in France during the time of
Napoleon I. They soon afterwards took root in Germany, where they have been
very successful. The first art union established in Britain was that at
Edinburgh in 1834. Art unions were legalized by the Art Unions Act, 1846
See _Lottery_.

ARTVIN, a town in the Republic of Georgia, in the Caucasus, about 35 miles
inland from Batum. Pop. 6720.

ARUBA ([.a]-rö´b[.a]), an island off the north coast of Venezuela,
belonging to Holland (a dependency of Curaçoa), about 30 miles long and 7
broad; surface generally rock, quartz being abundant, and containing
considerable quantities of gold; a phosphate which is exported for manure
is also abundant. The climate is healthy. Pop. 9481 (1916).

ARU ISLANDS. See _Arru Islands_.

[Illustration: Cuckoo Pint or Wake Robin (_Arum macul[=a]tum_).

1, Spadix. 2, Stamen. 3, Female flower. 4, Fruit.]

A´RUM, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Araceæ. _A. macul[=a]tum_ (the common
wake-robin, lords-and-ladies, or cuckoo pint) is abundant in woods and
hedges in England and Ireland, but is rare in Scotland. It has acrid
properties, but its corm yields a starch which is known by the name of
Portland sago or arrowroot. At one time this was prepared to a considerable
extent in Portland Island. All the species of this genus develop much heat
during flowering.

AR´UNDEL, a town in Sussex, England, on the River Arun, 4 miles from its
mouth, the river being navigable to the town for vessels of 250 tons. The
castle of Arundel, the chief residence of the dukes of Norfolk, stands on a
knoll on the north-east side of the town. Pop. (1921), 2741.

AR´UNDEL, Thomas, third son of Richard FitzAlan, Earl of Arundel, born
1352, died 1413. He was Chancellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury.
He concerted with Bolingbroke to deliver the nation from the oppression of
Richard II, and was a bitter persecutor of the Lollards and followers of
Wycliffe.

ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, a series of ancient sculptured marbles discovered by
William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece at the expense of and for
Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who lived in the time of James I and
Charles I, and was a liberal patron of scholarship and art. After the
Restoration they were presented by the grandson of the collector to the
University of Oxford. Among them is the _Parian Chronicle_, a chronological
account of the principal events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian,
history, during a period of 1186 years, from the reign of Cecrops (1450
B.C.) to the archonship of Diognetus (264 B.C.).

ARUN´DO. See _Phragmites_.

ARUSPICES (a-rus´pi-s[=e]z), or HARUSPICES, a class of priests in ancient
Rome, of Etrurian origin, whose business was to inspect the entrails of
victims killed in sacrifice, and by them to foretell future events.

ARUWIMI, a large river of equatorial Africa, a tributary of the Congo, on
the north bank.

ARVAL BROTHERS (_Fratres Arv[=a]les_), a college or company of twelve
members elected for life from the highest ranks in ancient Rome, so called
from offering annually public sacrifices for the fertility of the fields
(Lat. _arvum_, a field).

ARVE ([.a]rv), a river rising in the Savoyan Alps, passes through the
valley of Chamonix, and falls into the Rhone near Geneva, after a course of
about 50 miles.

ARVIC´OLA, a genus of rodent animals, sub-ord. Muridæ or Mice. There are
three British species. _A. amphibia_ is the water-vole (or water-rat), and
_A. agrestis_ is the field-vole or short-tailed field-mouse. They are
prolific animals, having three or four litters in the year, each consisting
of from four to ten young.

A´RYAN, or INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. See _Indo-European Family_.

AS, a Roman weight of 12 ounces, answering to the libra or pound, and equal
to 237.5 grains avoirdupois, or 327.1873 grammes French measure. In the
most ancient times of Rome the copper or bronze coin which was called _as_
actually weighed an _as_, or a pound, but in 264 B.C. it was reduced to 2
ounces, in 217 to 1 ounce, and in 191 to ½ ounce.

[Illustration: As (half real size)--Specimen in British Museum]

A´SA, great grandson of Solomon and third King of Judah; he ascended the
throne at an early age, and distinguished himself by his zeal in rooting
out idolatry with its attendant immoralities. He died after a prosperous
reign of forty-one years.

ASAFE´TIDA, or ASAFOETIDA, a fetid inspissated sap from Central Asia, the
solidified juice of the _Narthex Asafetida_, a large umbelliferous plant.
It is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic, and in cases of flatulency, in
hysteric paroxysms, and other nervous affections. Notwithstanding its very
disagreeable odour it is used as a seasoning in the East, and sometimes in
Europe. An inferior sort is the product of certain species of Ferula.

ASAGRÆ´A. See _Sabadilla_.

ASA´MA, an active volcano of Japan, about 50 miles north-west of Tokio,
8260 feet high.

A´SAPH, a Levite and psalmist appointed by David as leading chorister in
the divine services. His office became hereditary in his family, or he
founded a school of poets and musicians, which were called, after him, "the
sons of Asaph". See _Psalms_.

ASAPH, ST., a small cathedral city and bishop's see in Wales, 15 miles
north-west of Flint; founded about 550 by St. Kentigern or St. Mungo,
bishop of Glasgow, and named after his disciple St. Asaph, from whom both
the diocese and town took their name. The cathedral was built about the
close of the fifteenth century; it consists of a choir, a nave, two aisles,
and a transept. Pop. 1833.

ASARABAC´CA, a small hardy European plant, nat. ord. Aristolochiaceæ
(_As[)a]rum europoeum_). Its leaves are acrid, bitter, and nauseous, and
its root is extremely acrid. Both the leaves and root were formerly used as
an emetic. It entered into the composition of medicated snuffs recommended
in cases of headache.

AS´ARUM. See _Asarabacca_.

ASBEN, AIR, or AHIR, a kingdom of Africa, in the Sahara. It consists of a
succession of mountain groups and valleys, with a generally western slope,
and attains in its highest summits a height of over 5000 feet. The valleys
are very fertile, and often of picturesque appearance. The inhabitants are
Tuaregs or Berbers, with an admixture of negro blood. They live partly in
villages, partly as nomads. The country is nominally ruled over by a
sultan, who resides in the capital, Agades. Pop. about 60,000.

ASBES´TOS, or ASBESTUS, a remarkable and highly-useful mineral, a fibrous
variety of several members of the hornblende family, composed of separable
filaments, with a silky lustre. The fibres are sometimes delicate,
flexible, and elastic; at other times stiff and brittle. It is
incombustible, and anciently was wrought into a soft, flexible cloth, which
was used as a shroud for dead bodies. In modern times it has been
manufactured into incombustible cloth, gloves, felt, paper, &c.; is
employed in gas-stoves; is much used as a covering to steam boilers and
pipes; is mixed with metallic pigments, and used as a paint on wooden
structures, roofs, partitions, &c., to render them fire-proof, and is
employed in various other ways, the manufacture having recently greatly
developed. Some varieties are compact, and take a fine polish, others are
loose, like flax or silky wool. _Ligniform asbestos_, or _mountain-wood_,
is a variety presenting an irregular filamentous structure, like wood.
_Rock-cork_, _mountain-leather_, _fossil-paper_, and _fossil-flax_ are
varieties. Asbestos is found in many parts of the world, but is chiefly
supplied by Italy, Canada, and Australia. Mineralogically it is distinct
from chrysotile, which is used for similar purposes.

ASBJÖRNSEN ([.a]s´byeurn-sen), Peter Kristen, born 1812, died 1885, a
distinguished Norwegian naturalist and collector of the popular tales and
legends, fairy stories, &c., of his native country.

ASBURY PARK, a small town on the coast of New Jersey, United States, a
great summer resort. Its population increases during the summer months from
10,000 to 100,000.

AS´CALON, or ASH´KELON, a ruined town of Palestine, on the sea-coast, 40
miles W.S.W. of Jerusalem. It was occupied by the Crusaders under Richard I
after a great battle with Saladin (1192) and by General Allenby's troops in
Nov., 1917.

ASCA´NIUS, the son of Æneas and Creusa, and the companion of his father's
wanderings from Troy to Italy.

AS´CARIS. See _Nematoda_.

ASCEN´SION (discovered on Ascension Day), an island of volcanic origin
belonging to Britain, near the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean, about
lat. 7° 55' S.; long. 14° 25' W.; 700 miles north-west of St. Helena; area,
about 34 sq. miles. Pop. 196 (1914). It is retained by Britain as a naval
sanatorium, coaling and victualling station, and store depot. It has a
steam factory, naval and victualling yards, hospitals, and a coal depot. It
is celebrated for its turtle, which are the finest in the world. Wild goats
are plentiful, and oxen, sheep, pheasants, guinea-fowl, and rabbits have
been introduced, and thrive well. The village of Georgetown, the seat of
government, stands on the west side of the island, which is governed under
the admiralty by a naval officer.

ASCENSION, RIGHT, of a star or other heavenly body, in astronomy, the arc
of the equator intercepted between the first point of Aries and that point
of the equator which comes to the meridian at the same instant with the
star.

ASCENSION DAY, the day on which the ascension of the Saviour is
commemorated, often called _Holy Thursday_: a movable feast, always falling
on the Thursday but one before Whitsuntide.

ASCET´ICISM and ASCET´ICS (from the Gr. _ask[=e]sis_, meaning practice,
bodily exercise, or athletic training). The early Christians, who devoted
themselves to severe exercises of piety and strove to distinguish
themselves from the world by abstinence from sensual enjoyments and by
voluntary penances, adopted the name to signify the practice of spiritual
things. Ascetics and asceticism have played an important part in the
Christian Church, but the principle of striving after a higher and more
spiritual life by subduing the animal appetites and passions has no
necessary connection with Christianity. Thus there were ascetics among the
Jews previous to Christ, and asceticism was inculcated by the Stoics, while
in its most extreme form it may still be seen among the Brahmans and
Buddhists. Monasticism was but one phase of asceticism. It must also be
borne in mind that in the history of asceticism, pagan, Christian, Jewish,
and Mohammedan, we are often dealing not only with religious but distinctly
abnormal temperaments. See _Monasticism_.

ASCH ([.a]sh), a town of Czecho-Slovakia, in the extreme north-western
corner of former Bohemia, with manufactures of cotton, woollen, and silk
goods, bleachfields, dyeworks, &c. Pop. 21,583.

ASCHAFFENBURG ([.a]-sh[.a]f´en-bör_h_), a town of Bavaria, on the Main and
Aschaff, 26 miles E.S.E. of Frankfort. The chief edifice is the castle of
Johannisberg, built between 1605 and 1614, and for centuries the summer
residence of the Elector. There are manufactures of coloured paper,
tobacco, liqueurs, &c. Pop. 29,891.

ASCHAM (as´kam), Roger, a learned Englishman, born in 1515 of a respectable
family in Yorkshire, died 1568. He was entered at St. John's College,
Cambridge, 1530, and was elected fellow in 1534 and tutor in 1537. He was
Latin secretary to Edward VI and also to Mary. He was tutor to Princess
Elizabeth during her girlhood, and he became her secretary after she
ascended the throne. In 1544 he wrote his _Toxophilus, or Schole of
Shooting_, in praise of his favourite amusement and exercise--archery.
Between 1563 and 1568 he wrote his _Scholemaster_, a treatise on the best
method of teaching children Latin. Some of his writings, including many
letters, were in Latin. He wrote the best English style of his time. His
life was written by Dr. Johnson to accompany an edition of his works
published in 1769.

ASCHERSLEBEN ([.a]sh´[.e]rz-l[=a]-ben), a town of Prussian Saxony, in the
district of Magdeburg, near the junction of the Eine with the Wipper.
Industries: woollens, machinery and metal goods, sugar, paper, &c. Pop.
28,968.

ASCID´IA (Gr. _askos_, a wine-skin), the name given to the 'Sea-squirts' or
main section of the Tunicata, a class of animals of low grade, resembling a
double-necked bottle, of a leathery or gristly nature, found at low-water
mark on the sea-beach, and dredged from deep water attached to stones,
shells, and fixed objects. One of the prominent openings admits the food
and the water required in respiration, the other is the excretory aperture.
A single _ganglion_ represents the nervous system, placed between the two
apertures. Male and female reproductive organs exist in each ascidian. They
pass through peculiar phases of development, the young ascidian appearing
like a tadpole-body. They may be _single_ or _simple_, _social_ or
_compound_. In _social ascidians_ the peduncles of a number of individuals
are united into a common tubular stem, with a partial common circulation of
blood. In these animals evolutionists see a link between the Mollusca and
the Vertebrata.

[Illustration: Ascidians

1, Perophora: _a_, mouth; _b_, vent; _c_, intestinal canal; _d_, stomach;
_e_, common tubular stem. 2, Ascidia echinata. 3, Ascidia virginea. 4,
Cynthia quadrangularis. 5, Botryllus violaceus.]

ASCLEPLIADA´CEÆ, an order of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, the distinguishing
characteristic of which is that the anthers adhere to the five stigmatic
processes, the whole sexual apparatus forming a single mass. The
pollination arrangements are peculiar, recalling those of orchids. The
members of this order are shrubs, or sometimes herbaceous plants,
occasionally climbing, almost always with a milky juice. Many of them are
employed as purgatives, diaphoretics, tonics, and febrifuges, and others as
articles of food. Asclepias is the typical genus. See _Asclepias_,
_Calotropis_, _Stapelia_, _Stephanotis_.

ASCLE´PIADES (-d[=e]z), the name of a number of ancient Greek
writers--poets, grammarians, &c--of whom little is known, and also of
several ancient physicians, the most celebrated of whom was _Asclepiades_,
of Bithynia, who acquired considerable repute at Rome about the beginning
of the first century B.C.

ASCLE´PIAS, or SWALLOW-WORT, a genus of plants, the type and the largest
genus of the nat. ord. Asclepiadaceæ. Most of the species are North
American herbs, having opposite, alternate, or verticillate leaves. Many of
them possess powerful medicinal qualities. _A. decumbens_ is diaphoretic
and sudorific, and has the singular property of exciting general
perspiration without increasing in any sensible degree the heat of the
body; _A. curassavica_ is emetic, and its roots are frequently sent to
England as ipecacuanha; the roots of _A. tuber[=o]sa_ are famed for
diaphoretic properties. Many other species are also used as medicines, and
several are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.

ASCLEPIOS. See _Æsculapius_.

AS´COLI, or ASCOLI PICENO (ancient, ASC[)U]LUM), a province in Central
Italy.--The capital of the province, also called _Ascoli Piceno_, episcopal
see of the Marches (the ancient Asc[)u]lum), is situated 90 miles
north-east of Rome and contains, among several handsome new buildings, the
remains of temples, an ancient theatre, &c. It has also many fine
pre-Renaissance buildings, such as the Gothic Church S. Francesco and the
Palazzo del Commune. At Castel Trosino, near Ascoli, a necropolis of the
seventh century was discovered in 1895. Population of the town, 28,882; of
the province, 261,835 (1915).

AS´COLI SATRIANO (ancient, ASC[)U]LUM AP[)U]LUM), a town of S. Italy,
province Foggia. Pop. 9700.

ASCOMYCE´TES (-t[=e]z), one of the main subdivisions of the Eumycetes or
Higher Fungi, distinguished by their principal spores being produced in
organs called _asci_. Typically, an _ascus_ is a cylindrical or club-shaped
structure containing at maturity eight _ascospores_, which are usually
liberated explosively and thereafter dispersed by the wind. As a rule
numerous asci are massed together in a layer or _ascus-hymenium_, which is
variously disposed on a more or less massive fruit-body, according to the
form and structure of which the group is further subdivided into a number
of sections and families, the chief being Erysiphales, Plectascineæ,
Pyrenomycetes, Discomycetes (q.v.).

ASCO´NIUS (Quintus A. Pedianus), a Roman writer of the first century A.D.,
who wrote a life of Sallust, a reply to the detractors of Virgil, and
commentaries on Cicero's orations, some of which are extant.

AS´COT, an English race-course adjacent to the S.W. extremity of the great
park of Windsor. The races, which take place in the second week in June,
constitute, for value of stakes and quality of horses, the best meeting of
the year, as it is the most fashionable.

AS´GARD (literally, gods' yard, or the abode of the gods), in Scandinavian
mythology the home of the gods or _Æsir_, rising, like the Greek Olympus,
from _midgard_, or the middle world, that is, the earth. It was here that
Odin and the rest of the gods, the twelve Æsir, dwelt--the gods in the
mansion called Gladsheim, the goddesses dwelling in Vingulf. Walhalla, in
which heroes slain in battle dwelt, was also here. Below the boughs of the
ash tree Yggdrasill the gods assembled every day in council.

ASGILL (as´gil), John, an eccentric English writer, a lawyer by profession,
born 1659, died 1738. In 1699 he published a pamphlet to prove that
Christians were not necessarily liable to death, death being the penalty
imposed for Adam's sin and Christ having satisfied the law. Having crossed
over to Ireland, he was beginning to get into a good practice, and was
elected to the Irish House of Commons, when his pamphlet was ordered to be
burned by the public hangman, and he himself was expelled the House. His
whole subsequent life was passed in pecuniary and other troubles, mostly in
the Fleet or within the rules of the King's Bench.

ASH (_Frax[)i]nus_), a genus of deciduous trees belonging to the nat. ord.
Oleaceæ, having imperfect flowers and a seed-vessel prolonged into a thin
wing at the apex (called a _samara_). There are a good many species,
chiefly indigenous to North America. The common ash (_F. excelsior_), the
only species indigenous to Central and Northern Europe, has a smooth bark,
and grows tall and rather slender. The branches are flattened; the leaves
have five pairs of pinnæ, terminated by an odd one, dark-green in colour;
lanceolate, with serrated edges. The flowers are produced in loose spikes
from the sides of the branches, and are succeeded by flat seeds which ripen
in autumn. It is one of the most useful of British trees on account of the
excellence of its hard tough wood and the rapidity of its growth, but often
suffers greatly from a canker caused by the fungus _Nectria ditissima_.
There are many varieties of it, as the weeping-ash, the curled-leaved ash,
the entire-leaved ash, &c. The flowering or manna ash (_F. Ornus_), by some
placed in a distinct genus (Ornus), is a native of the south of Europe and
Palestine. It yields the substance called manna, which is obtained by
making incisions in the bark, when the juice exudes and hardens. Among
American species are the white ash (_F. americana_), with lighter bark and
leaves; the red or black ash (_F. pubescens_), with a brown bark; the black
ash (_F. sambucifolia_), the blue ash, the green ash, &c. They are all
valuable trees. The mountain-ash or rowan belongs to a different order.

[Illustration: Common Ash (_Frax[)i]nus excelsior_)

1, Hermaphrodite flower. 2, Anthers of male flower.]

ASH, or ASHES, the incombustible residue of organic bodies (animal or
vegetable) remaining after combustion; in common usage, any incombustible
residue of bodies used as fuel; as a commercial term, the word generally
means the ashes of vegetable substances, from which are extracted the
alkaline matters called potash, pearl-ash, kelp, barilla, &c.

ASHAN´GO, a region in the interior of Southern Africa between lat. 1° and
2° S., and between the Ogowe and the Lower Congo, a mountainous country in
the French territory. The inhabitants belong to the Bantu stock, and among
them are a dwarfish people, the Obongo, said to be about 4½ feet high at
most.

ASHANTI´, a British territory in West Africa belonging to the Gold Coast
Colony, of which it forms a large inland portion, under a chief
commissioner; area about 20,000 sq. miles. It is in great part hilly,
well-watered, and covered with dense tropical vegetation, and rich forests
with excellent timber trees. The country round the towns, however, is
carefully cultivated. The crops are chiefly rice, maize, millet,
sugar-cane, cocoa, and yams, the last forming the staple vegetable food of
the natives. Rubber is also a product. The domestic animals are cows,
horses of small size, goats, and a species of hairy sheep. The wild animals
include the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, lion, hippopotamus, &c. Birds
are numerous, and crocodiles and other reptiles abound. Gold is abundant,
and mining concessions are now successfully worked. The Ashantis make
excellent cotton and silk cloths, articles in gold and other metals,
earthenware, leather, &c. Ashanti used to form a kingdom ruled
despotically, human sacrifices being very common. It is now under British
administration, and attention is given to education, sanitation,
agriculture, means of communication, &c. There are Government schools at
Coomassie and Sunyani and a number of missionary schools. The chief town is
Coomassie (or Kumassi), now reached by a railway from the coast (length 168
miles); its population is 24,000. The British first came in contact with
the Ashantis in 1807, and hostilities continued off and on till 1826, when
they were driven from the sea-coast. Immediately after the transfer of the
Dutch settlements on the Gold Coast to Britain in 1872--when the entire
coast remained in British hands--the Ashantis reclaimed the sovereignty of
the tribes round the settlement of Elmina. This brought on a war, leading
to a British expedition in 1874, in which Coomassie was captured. In 1896
the country became a British protectorate. In 1901 a rebellion had to be
put down, and next year Ashanti was fully annexed. Pop. 287,814
(1911).--Cf. R. A. Freeman, _Travels and Life in Ashantee and Jaman_.

ASH´BOURNE, a town of England, in Derbyshire, 12 miles N.W. of Derby, with
manufactures of cottons and lace. Pop. 4039.

ASH´BURTON, a town in Devonshire, England, 16 miles S.W. of Exeter, a
parliamentary borough till 1868, and till 1918 giving name to a
parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 2362.

ASH´BURTON, Alexander Baring, Lord, a British statesman and financier, born
1774, died 1848. A younger son of Sir Francis Baring, he was bred to
commercial pursuits, which for some years kept him in the United States and
Canada, and in 1810 he became head of the great firm of Baring Brothers &
Co. He sat in Parliament from 1806 to 1835, when he was raised to the
peerage, after being a member of Peel's Government (1834-5).

ASH´BURTON TREATY, a treaty concluded at Washington, 1842, by Alexander
Baring, Lord Ashburton, and the President of the United States; it defined
the boundaries between the States and Canada, &c.

ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH (ash´bi-del-a-zöch´), a town in Leicestershire, England,
on the borders of Derbyshire, with manufactures of hosiery, leather, &c.
Pop. (1921), 4983.

ASH´DOD, a place on the coast of Palestine, formerly one of the chief
cities of the Philistines, now an insignificant village.

A´SHER, one of Jacob's sons, and founder of the tribe called after him, who
occupied a fertile territory in Palestine along the coast between Carmel
and Lebanon.

ASHE´RA, an ancient Semitic goddess whose symbol was the phallus. In the
Revised Version of the Old Testament this word is used to translate what in
the Authorized Version is translated "grove", as connected with the
idolatrous practices into which the Jews were prone to fall.

ASH´FORD, a thriving town of England, in Kent, situated near the confluence
of the upper branches of the River Stour, with large locomotive and
railway-carriage works. It gives name to a parliamentary division of the
county. Pop. (1921), 14,355.

ASHINGTON, an urban district or town of England, Northumberland, north-east
of Morpeth, and about 2 miles from the sea, in a district of collieries.
Pop. (1921), 29,406.

ASHI´RA, a native race or people of Western Equatorial Africa, to the south
of the Ogowe River, in the French Congo Territory.

ASH´LAND, a city of the United States, in Wisconsin. Pop. (1920),
11,334.--Also a city of Kentucky. Pop. (1920), 14,729.

ASH´LAR, masonry consisting of stones squared and smoothed in front and
built in regular courses.

ASHLEY, LORD. See _Shaftesbury, First Earl of_.

ASHMEAD-BARTLETT, Sir Ellis, English politician, born in 1849. He entered
Parliament in 1880, and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from 1885 to 1892.
He served in the Græco-Turkish and South African wars, and was knighted in
1892. He died in 1902.

ASH´MOLE, Elias, English antiquary, born 1617, died 1692. He became a
chancery solicitor in London, but afterwards studied at Oxford, taking up
mathematics, physics, chemistry, and particularly astrology. He published
_Theatrum Chymicum_ in 1652. On the Restoration he received the post of
Windsor Herald, and other appointments both honourable and lucrative. In
1672 appeared his _History of the Order of the Garter_. He presented to the
University of Oxford his collection of rarities, to which he afterwards
added his books and MSS., thereby commencing the Ashmolean Museum.

ASH´TAROTH. See _Astarte_.

ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, a town of Lancashire, England, 4 miles from Wigan,
with collieries, cotton-mills, &c. Pop. (1921), 22,489.

ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Lancashire,
England, 6 miles east of Manchester, on the north bank of the River Tame, a
well-built place, with handsome streets and public buildings. The chief
employment is the cotton manufacture, but there are also collieries and
ironworks, which employ a great many persons. Pop. 51,080; (municipal
borough) (1921), 43,333.

ASHTON-UPON-MERSEY, a town or urban district of England, Cheshire, on the
south side of the Mersey, several miles south-west of Manchester. Pop.
(1921), 7780.

ASHURA´DA, a small island in the S.E. corner of the Caspian, formed by
Russia into a trading station.

ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, so called from a custom in the
Western Church of sprinkling ashes that day on the heads of penitents, then
admitted to penance. The period at which the fast of Ash-Wednesday was
instituted is uncertain; but it probably dates from the eighth century at
least. In the Roman Catholic Church the ashes are now strewn on the heads
of all the clergy and people present. In the Anglican Church Ash-Wednesday
is regarded as an important fast day.

ASIA, the largest of the great divisions of the earth; length, from the
extreme south-western point of Arabia, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, to
the extreme north-eastern point of Siberia--East Cape, or Cape Vostochni,
in Behring's Strait--6900 miles; breadth, from Cape Chelyuskin, in Northern
Siberia, to Cape Romania, the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula,
5300 miles; area estimated at 17,250,000 sq. miles, about a third of all
the land of the earth's surface. On three sides, N., E., and S., the ocean
forms its natural boundary, while in the W. the frontier is marked mainly
by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, the Black
Sea, the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, and the Red Sea. There is no proper
separation between Asia and Europe, the latter being really a great
peninsula of the former. Asia, though not so irregular in shape as Europe,
is broken in the S. by three great peninsulas, Arabia, Hindustan, and
Farther India, while the east coast presents peninsular projections and
islands, forming a series of sheltered seas and bays, the principal
peninsulas being Kamtshatka and Corea. The principal islands are those
forming the Malay or Asiatic Archipelago, which stretch round in a wide
curve on the S.E. of the continent. Besides the larger islands--Sumatra,
Java, Borneo, Celebes, Mindanao, and Luzon (in the Philippine group)--there
are countless smaller islands grouped round these. Other islands are
Ceylon, in the S. of India; the Japanese Islands and Sakhalin on the E. of
the continent; Formosa, S.E. of China; Cyprus, S. of Asia Minor; and New
Siberia and Wrangell, in the Arctic Ocean.

The mountain systems of Asia are of great extent, and their culminating
points are the highest in the world. The greatest of all is the Himálaya
system, which lies mainly between long. 70° and 100° E. and lat. 28° and
37° N. It extends, roughly speaking, from north-west to south-east, its
total length being about 1500 miles, forming the northern barrier of
Hindustan. The loftiest summits are Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high,
Godwin-Austen, 28,265, and Kanchinjinga, 28,156. The principal passes,
which rise to the height of 18,000 to 20,000 feet, are the highest in the
world. A second great mountain system of Central Asia, connected with the
north-western extremity of the Himálaya system by the elevated region of
Pamir (about long. 70°-75° E., lat. 37°-40° N.), is the Thian-Shan system,
which runs north-eastward for a distance of 1200 miles. In this direction
the Altai, Sayan, and other ranges continue the line of elevations to the
north-eastern coast. A north-western continuation of the Himálaya is the
Hindu Kush, and farther westward a connection may be traced between the
Himálaya mass and the Elburz range (18,460) feet, south of the Caspian, and
thence to the mountains of Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia Minor.

There are vast plateaux and elevated valley regions connected with the
great central mountain systems, but large portions of the continent are low
and flat. Tibet forms the most elevated table-land in Asia, its mean height
being estimated at 15,000 feet. On its south is the Himálayan range, while
the Kuen-Lun range forms its northern barrier. Another great but much lower
plateau is that which comprises Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Persia, and
which to the north-west joins into the plateau of Asia Minor. The principal
plain of Asia is that of Siberia, which extends along the north of the
continent and forms an immense alluvial tract sloping to the Arctic Ocean.
Vast swamps or peat-mosses called _tundras_ cover large portions of this
region. South-west of Siberia, and stretching eastward from the Caspian, is
a low-lying tract consisting to a great extent of steppes and deserts, and
including in its area the Sea of Aral. In the east of China there is an
alluvial plain of some 200,000 sq. miles in extent; in Hindustan are plains
extending for 2000 miles along the south slope of the Himálaya; and between
Arabia and Persia, watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, is the plain of
Mesopotamia or Assyria, one of the richest in the world. Of the deserts of
Asia the largest is that of Gobi (long. 90°-120° E., lat. 40°-48° N.),
large portions of which are covered with nothing but sand or display a
surface of bare rock. An almost continuous desert region may also be traced
from the desert of North Africa through Arabia (which is largely occupied
by bare deserts), Persia, and Baluchistan to the Indus.

POLITICAL MAP OF ASIA

[Illustration]

Some of the largest rivers of Asia flow northward to the Arctic Ocean--the
Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena. The Hoang-Ho and Yang-tse, and the Amoor,
are the chief of those which flow into the Pacific. The Ganges,
Brahmaputra, Irawadi, and Indus flow into the Indian Ocean. The Persian
Gulf receives the united waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris. There are
several systems of inland drainage, large rivers falling into lakes which
have no outlet.

The largest lake of Asia (partly also European) is the Caspian Sea, which
receives the Kur from the Caucasus (with its tributary the Aras from
Armenia), and the Sefid Rud and other streams from Persia (besides the
Volga from European Russia, and the Ural, which is partly European, partly
Asiatic). The Caspian lies in the centre of a great depression, being 83
feet below the level of the Sea of Azov. East from the Caspian is the Sea
of Aral, which, like the Caspian, has no outlet, and is fed by the Rivers
Amu-Darya (Oxus) and Syr-Darya. Still farther east, to the north of the
Thian-Shan Mountains, and fed by the Ili and other streams, is Lake
Balkhash, also without an outlet and very salt. Other lakes having no
communication with the ocean are Lob Nor, in the desert of Gobi, receiving
the River Tarim, and the Dead Sea, far below the level of the
Mediterranean, and fed by the Jordan. The chief fresh-water lake is Lake
Baikal, in the south of Siberia, between long. 104° and 110° E., a mountain
lake from which the Yenisei draws a portion of its waters.

Geologically speaking, large areas of Asia are of comparatively recent
date, the lowlands of Siberia, for instance, being submerged during the
tertiary period, if not more recently. Many geologists believe that
subsequently to the glacial period there was a great sea in Western Asia,
of which the Caspian and Aral Seas are the remains. The desiccation of
Central Asia is still going on, as is also probably the upheaval of a great
part of the continent. The great mountain chains and elevated plateaux are
of ancient origin, however, and in them granite and other crystalline rocks
are largely represented. Active volcanoes are only met with in the extreme
east (Kamtchatka) and in the Eastern Archipelago. From the remotest times
Asia has been celebrated for its mineral wealth. In the Altai and Ural
Mountains gold, iron, lead, and platinum are found; in India and other
parts rubies, diamonds, and other gems are, or have been, procured; salt in
Central Asia; coal in China, India, Central Asia, &c.; petroleum in the
districts about the Caspian and in Burmah; bitumen in Syria; while silver,
copper, sulphur, &c., are found in various parts.

Every variety of climate may be experienced in Asia, but as a whole it is
marked by extremes of heat and cold and by great dryness, this in
particular being the case with vast regions in the centre of the continent
and distant from the sea. The great lowland region of Siberia has a short
but very hot summer, and a long but intensely cold winter, the rivers and
their estuaries being fast bound with ice, and at a certain depth the soil
is hard frozen all the year round. The northern part of China to the east
of Central Asia has a temperate climate with a warm summer, and in the
extreme north a severe winter. The districts lying to the south of the
central region, comprising the Indian and Indo-Chinese Peninsulas, Southern
China, and the adjacent islands, present the characteristic climate and
vegetation of the southern temperate and tropical regions modified by the
effects of altitude. Some localities in Southern Asia have the heaviest
rainfall anywhere known. As the equator is approached the extremes of
temperature diminish till at the southern extremity of the continent they
are such as may be experienced in any tropical country. Among climatic
features are the monsoons of the Indian Ocean and the eastern seas, and the
cyclones or typhoons, which are often very destructive.

The plants and animals of Northern and Western Asia generally resemble
those of similar latitudes in Europe (which is really a prolongation of the
Asiatic continent), differing more in species than in genera. The principal
mountain trees are the pine, larch, and birch; the willow, alder, and
poplar are found in lower grounds. In the central region European species
reach as far as the Western and Central Himálaya, but are rare in the
Eastern. They are here met by Chinese and Japanese forms. The lower slopes
of the Himálaya are clothed almost exclusively with tropical forms. Higher
up, between 4000 and 10,000 feet, are found all the types of trees and
plants that belong to the temperate zone, there being extensive forests of
conifers. Here is the native home of the deodar cedar. The south-eastern
region, including India, the Eastern Peninsula, and China, with the
islands, contains a vast variety of plants useful to man and having here
their original habitat, such as the sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and indigo,
pepper, cinnamon, cassia, clove, nutmeg, and cardamoms, banana, coco-nut,
areca, and sago palms; the mango and many other fruits, with plants
producing a vast number of drugs, caoutchouc, and gutta-percha. The forests
of India and the Malay Peninsula contain oak, teak, sâl, and other timber
woods, besides bamboos, palms, sandal-wood, &c. The palmyra palm is
characteristic of Southern India; while the talipot palm flourishes on the
western coast of Hindustan, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula. The cultivated
plants of India and China include wheat, barley, rice, maize, millet,
sugar-cane, tea, coffee, indigo, cotton, jute, opium, tobacco, &c. In North
China and the Japanese Islands large numbers of deciduous trees occur, such
as oaks, maples, limes, walnuts, poplars, and willows, the genera being
European but the individual species Asiatic. Among cultivated plants are
wheat, and in favourable situations rice, cotton, the vine, &c. Coffee,
rice, sugar, &c., are extensively grown in some of the islands of the
Asiatic Archipelago. In Arabia and the warmer valleys of Persia,
Afghanistan, and Baluchistan aromatic shrubs are abundant. Over large parts
of these regions the date palm flourishes and affords a valuable article of
food. Gum-producing acacias are, with the date palm, the commonest trees in
Arabia. African forms are found extending from the Sahara along the desert
region of Asia.

Nearly all the mammals of Europe are found in Northern Asia, with numerous
additions to the species. Central Asia is the native land of the horse, the
ass, the ox, the sheep, and the goat. Both varieties of the camel, the
single and the double humped, are Asiatic. To the inhabitants of Tibet and
the higher plateaux of the Himálaya the yak is what the reindeer is to the
tribes of the Siberian plain, almost their sole wealth and support. The
elephant, of a different species from that of Africa, is a native of
tropical Asia. The Asiatic lion, which inhabits Arabia and Persia, and
still exists in the north-west of India, is smaller than the African
species. Bears are found in all parts, the white bear in the far north, and
other species in the more temperate and tropical parts. The tiger is the
most characteristic of the larger Asiatic Carnivora. It is found in Armenia
and throughout the entire continent, being absent, however, from the
greater portion of Siberia and from the high table-land of Tibet; it is
found also in Sumatra, Java, and Bali. In South-Eastern Asia and the
islands we find the rhinoceros, buffalo, ox, deer, squirrels, porcupines,
&c. In birds nearly every order is represented. Among the most interesting
forms are the hornbills, the peacock, the Impey pheasant, the tragopan or
horned pheasant, and other gallinaceous birds, the pheasant family being
very characteristic of South-Eastern Asia. It was from Asia that the common
domestic fowl was introduced into Europe. The tropical parts of Asia abound
in monkeys, of which the species are numerous. Some are tailed, others,
such as the orang, are tailless, but none have prehensile tails like the
American monkeys. In the Malay Archipelago marsupial animals, so
characteristic of Australia, first occur in the Moluccas and Celebes, while
various mammals common in the western part of the Archipelago are absent. A
similar transition towards the Australian type takes place in the species
of birds. (See _Wallace's Line_.) Of marine mammals the dugong is peculiar
to the Indian Ocean; in the Ganges is found a peculiar species of dolphin.
At the head of the reptiles stands the Gangetic crocodile, frequenting the
Ganges and other large rivers. Among the serpents are the cobra de capello,
one of the most deadly snakes in existence; there are also large boas and
pythons, besides sea and fresh-water snakes. The seas and rivers produce a
great variety of fish. The Salmonidæ are found in the rivers flowing into
the Arctic Ocean. Two rather remarkable fishes are the climbing perch and
the archer-fish. The well-known goldfish is a native of China.

Asia is mainly peopled by races belonging to two great ethnographic types,
the Caucasic or fair type, and the Mongolic or yellow. To the former belong
the Aryan, or Indo-European, and the Semitic races, both of which mainly
inhabit the south-west of the continent; to the latter belong the Malays
and Indo-Chinese in the S.E., as well as the Mongolians proper (Chinese,
&c.), occupying nearly all the rest of the continent. To these may be added
certain races of doubtful affinities, as the Dravidians of Southern India,
the Cingalese of Ceylon, the Ainos of Yesso, and some negro-like tribes
called Negritos, which inhabit Malacca and the interior of several of the
islands of the Eastern Archipelago. The total population is estimated at
823,000,000, or more than half that of the whole world, of which
330,000,000 inhabit Chinese territory, 302,000,000 British, and 25,000,000
Russian. Portions of Asia are under the control of European Powers (Russia,
Great Britain, Holland, France), of the United States of America, China,
and Japan. The chief States are China, Japan, Corea, Siam, Afghanistan,
Persia, and Arabia. The chief religions are the Brahmanism of India, the
Buddhism of Burmah, China, &c., the creeds of Confucius and Lao-tse in
China, and the various forms of Mahommedanism in Arabia, Persia, India, &c.
More than a half of the whole population profess some form of Buddhism.
Several native Christian sects are found in India, Armenia, Kurdistan, and
Syria.

Asia is generally regarded as the cradle of the human race. It possesses
the oldest historical documents, and, next to the immediately contiguous
kingdom of Egypt, the oldest historical monuments in the world. The Old
Testament contains the oldest historical records which we have of any
nation in the form of distinct narrative. The period at which Moses wrote
was probably 1500 or 1600 years before the Christian era. His and the later
Jewish writings confine themselves almost exclusively to the history of the
Hebrews; but in Babylonia, as in Egypt, civilization had made great
advances long before this time. The earliest seat of the Aryan race some
assign to the banks of the Oxus. Hence, perhaps from the pressure of the
Mongolian tribes to the north, they spread themselves to the south-east and
south-west, finally occupying Northern India, Persia, and other parts of
Western Asia, and spreading into Europe, perhaps about 2000-1500 B.C. In
China authentic history extends back probably to about 1000 B.C., with a
long preceding period of which the names of dynasties are preserved without
chronological arrangement. The kingdoms of Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and
Persia predominated by turns in South-Western Asia. In regard to the
history of these monarchies, much light has been obtained from the
decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions. The arms of the Pharaohs
extended into Asia, but their conquests there were short-lived. From Cyrus
(559 B.C.), who extended the empire of Persia from the Indus to the
Mediterranean, while his son, Cambyses, added Egypt and Libya to it, to the
conquest of Alexander (330 B.C.) Persia was the dominant Power in Western
Asia. Alexander's great empire became broken up into separate kingdoms,
which were finally absorbed in the Roman Empire, and this ultimately
extended to the Tigris. Soon after the most civilized portions of the three
continents had been reduced under one empire, the great event took place
which forms the dividing-line of history, the birth of Christ and the
spread of Christianity. In A.D. 226 a protracted struggle began between the
newer Persian Empire and the Romans, which lasted till the advent of
Mahomet, and the conquests of the Arabians. Persia was the first great
conquest of Mahomet's followers. Syria and Egypt soon fell before their
arms, and within forty years of the celebrated flight of Mahomet from Mecca
(the _Hejra_), the sixth of the caliphs, or successors of the Prophet, was
the most powerful sovereign of Asia. The Mongols next became the dominant
race. In 999 Mahmud, whose father, born a Turkish slave, became Governor of
Ghazni, conquered India, and established his rule. The dynasty of the
Seljuk Tartars was established in Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium, and Kharism,
and was distinguished for its struggles with the Crusaders. Othman, an emir
of the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, established the Ottoman Empire in 1300.
About 1220 Genghis Khan, an independent Mongol chief, made himself master
of Central Asia, conquered Northern China, overran Turkestan, Afghanistan,
and Persia; his successors took Bagdad and abolished the caliphate. In Asia
Minor they overthrew the Seljuk dynasty. One of them, Timur or Tamerlane,
carried fire and sword over Northern India and Western Asia, defeated and
took prisoner Bajazet, the descendant of Othman (1402), and received
tribute from the Greek emperor. The Ottoman Empire soon recovered from the
blow inflicted by Timur, and Constantinople was taken and the Eastern
Empire finally overthrown by the Sultan Mohammed II in 1453. China
recovered its independence about 1368 and was again subjected by the Manchu
Tartars (1618-45), soon after which it began to extend its empire over
Central Asia. Siberia was conquered by the Cossacks on behalf of Russia
(1580-4). The same country effected a settlement in the Caucasus about
1786, and has since continued to make steady advances into Central Asia.
The discovery by the Portuguese of the passage to India by the Cape of Good
Hope led to their establishment on the coast of the peninsula (1498). They
were speedily followed by the Spanish, Dutch, French, and British. The
struggle between the two last Powers for the supremacy of India was
completed by the destruction of the French settlements (1760-5). At present
the forms of government in Asia range from the primitive rule of the nomad
sheik to the constitutional monarchy of Japan.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sven Hedin,
_Through Asia_; H. F. Blanford, _Elementary Geography of India, Burma, and
Ceylon_; Max. Müller, _The Sacred Books of the East_; A. Little, _The Far
East_; R. Cobbold, _Innermost Asia_; Colonel A. Durand, _The Making of a
Frontier_; J. G. C. Chamberlain, _Continents and their Peoples_; E.
Huntington, _The Pulse of Asia_; E. C. Hannah, _Eastern Asia_.

ASIA, CENTRAL, a designation loosely given to the regions in the centre of
Asia east of the Caspian, also called Turkestan, and formerly Tartary. The
eastern portion belongs to China, the western to Russia. Russian Central
Asia comprises the Kirghiz Steppe (Uralsk, Turgai, Akmolinsk,
Semipalatinsk, &c.), and what was the government-general of Turkestan till
1918, besides the territory of the Turkomans, or Transcaspia and Merv. See
_Turkestan, Republic of_.

ASIA MINOR, the most westerly portion of Asia, being the peninsula lying
west of the Upper Euphrates, and forming part of Asiatic Turkey. It forms
an extensive plateau, with lofty mountains rising above it, the most
extensive ranges being the Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which border it on the
south and south-east, and rise to over 10,000 feet. There are numerous
salt- and freshwater lakes. The chief rivers are the Kizil-Irmak (Halys),
Sakaria (Sangarius), entering the Black Sea; and the Sarabat (Hermus) and
Menderes (Mæander), entering the Ægean. The coast regions are generally
fertile, and have a genial climate; the interior is largely arid and
dreary. Valuable forests and fruit-trees abound. Smyrna is the chief town.
_Anatolia_ is an equivalent name. See _European War_; _Turkey_.

ASIAGO, a town in Italy in the province of Vicenza, capital of the Seven
Communes (Sette Communi). In the great European War several battles were
fought on the Asiago Plateau. The town was evacuated by the Italians on
28th May, 1916, but retaken on 25th June, 1916. See _European War_.

ASIATIC SOCIETIES, learned bodies instituted for the purpose of collecting
information respecting the different countries of Asia, such as the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, founded in 1784 by Sir William Jones; and the Royal
Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, established by Colebrooke,
and opened in 1823. There are similar societies on the European Continent
and in America, such as the Société Asiatique at Paris, founded in 1822;
the Oriental Society of Germany (Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft),
founded in 1845; and the Oriental Society at Boston, founded in 1842.

ASIPHONA´TA, or ASIPHON´IDA, an order of lamellibranchiate, bivalve
molluscs, destitute of the siphon or tube through which, in the Siphonata,
the water that enters the gills is passed outwards. It includes the
oysters, the scallop-shells, the pearl-oyster, the mussels, and in general
the most useful and valuable molluscs.

ASIR. See _Hejaz_.

ASKABAD´, the administrative centre of the Russian province of Transcaspia,
situated in the Akhal Tekke oasis, and occupied by Skobelev in Jan., 1881,
after the sack of Geok Tepé. Its distance from Merv is 232 miles, from
Herat 388 miles. Pop. 54,000.

AS´KEW, Anne, a victim of religious persecution, born 1521, martyred 1546.
She was a daughter of Sir William Askew of Lincolnshire, and was married to
a wealthy neighbour named Kyme, who, irritated by her Protestantism, drove
her from his house. In London, whither she went probably to procure a
divorce, she spoke against the dogmas of the old faith, and, being tried,
was condemned to death as a heretic. Being put to the rack to extort a
confession concerning those with whom she corresponded, she continued firm,
and was then taken to Smithfield, chained to a stake, and burned.

ASKJA ([.a]sk´y[.a]), a volcano near the centre of Iceland, first brought
into notice by an eruption in 1875. Its crater is 17 miles in
circumference, surrounded by a mountain-ring from 500 to 1000 feet high,
the height of the mountain itself being between 4000 and 5000 feet.

AS´MANNSHAUSEN (-hou-zn), a Prussian village on the Rhine, in the district
of Wiesbaden, celebrated for its wine. Many judges prefer the red wine of
Asmannshausen to the best Burgundy, but it retains its merits for three or
four years only.

ASMO´DAI, or ASMO´DEUS, an evil spirit, who, as related in the book of
Tobit, slew seven husbands of Sara, daughter of Raguel, but was driven away
into the uttermost parts of Egypt by the young Tobias under the direction
of the angel Raphael. Asmodai signifies a desolater, a destroying angel,
identical with the demon A[=e]shma of the Zend-Avesta. He is represented in
the Talmud as the prince of demons who drove King Solomon from his kingdom.

ASMONÆ´ANS, a family of high priests and princes who ruled over the Jews
for about 130 years, from 153 B.C., when Jonathan, son of Mattathias, the
great-grandson of Chasmon or Asmonæus, was nominated to the
high-priesthood.

ASNIÈRES (än-y[=a]r), a town on the Seine, a N.W. suburb of Paris, a
favourite boating resort of the Parisians. Pop. 42,583.

ASO´KA, an Indian sovereign who reigned from 264 to 228 B.C. over the whole
of Northern India, grandson of Chandragupta or Sandracottus. He embraced
Buddhism, and forced his subjects also to become converts. Many temples and
_stupas_, or brick cupolas, still remaining are attributed to him.

ASO´KA (_Jonesia as[=o]ca_), an Indian tree, nat. ord. Leguminosæ, having a
lovely flower, showing orange, scarlet, and bright-yellow tints; sacred to
the god Siva, and often mentioned in Indian literature.

ASO´PUS, the name of several rivers in Greece, of which the most celebrated
is in Boeotia.

[Illustration: Asp (_Naja haje_)]

ASP, or ASPIC (_Naja_, or _Vip[)e]ra haje_), a species of viper found in
Egypt, resembling the cobra de capello or spectacle-serpent of the East
Indies, and having a very venomous bite. When approached or disturbed it
elevates its head and body, swells out its neck, and appears to stand erect
to attack the aggressor. Hence the ancient Egyptians believed that the asps
were guardians of the spots they inhabited, and the figure of this reptile
was adopted as an emblem of the protecting genius of the world. The
balancing motions made by it in the endeavour to maintain the erect
attitude have led to the employment of the asp as a dancing serpent by the
African jugglers. The "deaf adder that stoppeth her ear" of _Psalm_ lviii,
4, 5 is translated asp in the margin, and seems to have been this species.
Cleopatra is said to have committed suicide by means of an asp's bite, but
the incident is generally associated with the Cerastes or horned viper, not
with the haje. The name asp is also given to a viper (_Vipera aspis_)
common on the continent of Europe.

ASPARAGINE, or AMINOSUCCINAMIC ACID, CH_2CONH_2, CH(NH_2)COOH, is a white
crystalline substance of unpleasant acid taste found in the shoots of
asparagus, in potato and dahlia tribes, and in many other plants, from
which it may be extracted by means of water.

ASPAR´AGUS (_Aspar[)a]gus officin[=a]lis_), a plant of the order Liliaceæ,
the young shoots of which, cut as they are emerging from the ground, are a
favourite culinary vegetable. In Greece, and especially in the southern
steppes of Russia and Poland, it is found in profusion; and its edible
qualities were esteemed by the ancients. Pliny states that asparagus was in
his time cultivated in gardens, particularly at Ravenna. The best asparagus
is grown in gardens near the sea, and hundreds of acres are devoted to its
cultivation in Holland and Belgium. It grows wild in Essex and
Lincolnshire, but does not attain nearly to the size of the cultivated
plant. It is usually raised from seed; and the plants should remain three
years in the ground before they are cut; after which, for several years,
they will continue to afford a regular annual supply. The beds are
protected by straw or litter in winter. Its diuretic properties are
ascribed to the presence of a crystalline substance found also in the
potato, lettuce, &c.

ASPA´SIA, a celebrated woman of ancient Greece, was born at Miletus, in
Ionia, but passed a great part of her life at Athens, where her house was
the general resort of the most distinguished men in Greece. She won the
affection of Pericles, who united himself to Aspasia as closely as was
permitted by the Athenian law, which declared marriage with a foreign woman
illegal. Her power in the State has often been exaggerated, but it is
beyond question that her genius left its mark upon the administration of
Pericles. In 432-431 B.C. she was accused of impiety, and was only saved
from condemnation by the eloquence and tears of Pericles. After his death
(429 B.C.) Aspasia is said to have attached herself to a wealthy but
obscure cattle-dealer of the name of Lysicles, whom she raised to a
position of influence in Athens. Nothing more is known of her life. She had
a son by Pericles, who was legitimated (430 B.C.) by a special decree of
the people. There is a bust bearing her name in the Pio Clementino Museum
in the Vatican.

ASPATRIA, a town (urban district) of England, Cumberland, 8 miles
north-east of Maryport, with an agricultural college. Pop. 3340.

AS´PE, a town of Southern Spain, province of Alicante. Pop. (1921), 3525.

AS´PECT, in astrology, denotes the situation of the planets with respect to
each other. There are five different major aspects: the sextile, when the
planets are 60° distant; quartile, when they are 90° distant; trine, when
120° distant; opposition, when 180° distant; and conjunction, when both are
in the same longitude. The aspects were classed by astrologers as _benign_,
_malignant_, or _indifferent_, according to their fancied influences upon
human affairs.

ASPECT OF LAND. See _Exposure_.

AS´PEN, or trembling poplar (_P[=o]p[)u]lus trem[)u]la_), a species of
poplar indigenous to Britain and to most mountainous regions throughout
Europe and Asia. It is a beautiful tree of rapid growth and extremely
hardy, with nearly circular toothed leaves, smooth on both sides, and
attached to footstalks so long and slender as to be shaken by the slightest
wind; wood light, porous, soft, and of a white colour, useful for various
purposes.

ASPER, or ASPRE, a small Turkish coin, of which there are 120 in the
piastre, value 1/54d.

ASPERGILL´US, the brush used in Roman Catholic churches for sprinkling holy
water on the people. It is said to have been originally made of hyssop.

AS´PERN and ESSLINGEN (or ESSLING) (es´ling-en), two villages east of
Vienna, and on the opposite bank of the Danube; celebrated as the chief
contested positions in the bloody but indecisive battle fought between the
Archduke Charles and Napoleon I, 21st and 22nd May, 1809, when it was
estimated that the Austrians lost a third of their army, and the French no
less than half.

ASPER´ULA, the woodruff genus of plants.

ASPHALT, or ASPHAL´TUM, the most common variety of bitumen; also called
mineral pitch. Asphalt is a compact, glossy, brittle, black or brown
mineral, which breaks with a polished fracture, melts easily with a strong
pitchy odour when heated, and when pure burns without leaving any ashes. It
is found in the earth in many parts of Asia, Europe, and America, and in a
soft or liquid state on the surface of the Dead Sea, which, from this
circumstance, was called _Asphalt[=i]tes_. It is of organic origin, the
asphalt of the great Pitch Lake of Trinidad being derived from bituminous
shales, containing vegetable remains in the process of transformation.
Asphalt is produced artificially in making coal-gas. During the process
much tarry matter is evolved and collected in retorts. If this be
distilled, naphtha and other volatile matters escape, and asphalt is left
behind. It is sometimes called _Jew's Pitch_.

ASPHALTE (or ASPHALT) ROCK, a limestone impregnated with bitumen, found in
large quantities in various localities in Europe, as in the Val de Travers,
Neufchâtel, Switzerland; in the department of Ain in France; in Alsace,
Hanover, Holstein, Sicily, &c. These rocks contain a variable quantity of
bitumen (from 7 or 8 to 20 or 30 per cent) naturally diffused through them.
The Val de Travers asphalt was discovered in 1710. In 1837 an English
patent was taken out for its application to roads, pavements, terraces,
areas, roofs, &c. Since then other asphalte-rocks, as well as artificial
preparations made by mixing bitumen, gas-tar, pitch, or other materials
with sand, chalk, &c., have been brought into competition with it.

AS´PHODEL (_Asphod[)e]lus_), a genus of plants, ord. Liliaceæ, consisting
of perennials, with fasciculated fleshy roots, flowers arranged in racemes,
six stamens inserted at the base of the perianth, a sessile almost
spherical ovary with two cells, each containing two ovules; fruit a capsule
with three cells, in each of which there are, as a rule, two seeds. Two
species are cultivated in Britain as garden flowers, the yellow asphodel
(_Asphodelus lut[)e]us_) and the white asphodel (_Asphodelus albus_). The
English word 'daffodil' is a perversion of asphodel. The _Asphodelus
ram[=o]sus_, which attains a height of 5 feet, is cultivated in Algeria and
elsewhere, its tubercles yielding a very pure alcohol, and the residue,
together with the stalks and leaves, being used in making pasteboard and
paper. The asphodel was a favourite plant among the ancients, who were in
the habit of planting it round their tombs. In Greek religion it is
associated with Persephone, the dead, and the underworld.

ASPHYX´IA, literally, the state of a living animal in which no pulsation
can be perceived, but the term is more particularly applied to a suspension
of the vital functions from causes hindering respiration. The normal
accompaniments of death from asphyxia are dark fluid blood, a congested
brain and exceedingly congested lungs, the general engorgement of the
viscera, and an absence of blood from the left cavities of the heart while
the right cavities and pulmonary artery are gorged. The restoration of
asphyxiated persons has been successfully accomplished at long periods
after apparent death. The attempt should be made to maintain the heat of
the body and to secure the inflation of the lungs as in the case of the
apparently drowned. See _Respiratory System_.

ASPHYXIATING GAS. See _Poison Gas_.

ASPIC, a dish consisting of a clear savoury meat jelly, containing fowl,
game, fish, &c.

ASPIDISTRA, a genus of plants of the lily family, comprising three or four
species, natives of China and Japan, being plants with large smooth oblong
lanceolate leaves, rising from an underground rhizome, and with campanulate
flowers of a dull purplish or brownish colour. They are now very common in
Britain, being especially cultivated as indoor plants.

ASPID´IUM, a genus of ferns, nat. ord. Polypodiaceæ, comprising the
shield-fern and male-fern.

AS´PINWALL. See _Colon_.

AS´PIRATE, a name given to any sound like our _h_, to the letter _h_
itself, or to any mark of aspiration, as the Greek rough breathing ([Greek:
h]). Such characters or sounds as the Sanskrit _kh_, _gh_, _bh_, and the
Greek _ch_, _th_, _ph_, are called _aspirates_.

AS´PIRATOR, an instrument used to promote the flow of a gas from one vessel
into another by means of a liquid. The simplest form of aspirator is a
cylindrical vessel containing water, with a pipe at the upper end which
communicates with the vessel containing the gas, and a pipe at the lower
end also, with a stopcock and with its extremity bent up. By allowing a
portion of the water to run off by the pipe at the lower part of the
aspirator a measured quantity of air or other gas is sucked into the upper
part.

ASPLE´NIUM, a genus of ferns, of the nat. ord. Polypodiaceæ. Nine species
are found in Britain, among them the well-known Wall-rue.

ASPROMON´TE, a mountain of Italy in the south-west of Calabria, where
Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner with the greater part of his army,
in Aug., 1862.

ASPROPOT´AMO. See _Achelous_.

ASPULL, a town (urban district) of England, Lancashire, 2 or 3 miles
north-east of Wigan, with large collieries and other works. Pop. 7851.

ASQUITH, Herbert Henry, prominent politician of the Liberal party, born in
1852, educated at City of London School and Balliol College, Oxford, where
he graduated with high distinction. Called to the Bar in 1876, he became
Q.C. in 1890; in 1886 was elected member of Parliament for East Fife, and
held his seat for this constituency uninterruptedly until Dec., 1918, when
he was defeated. From 1892 to 1895 he was Home Secretary, being also made a
Privy Councillor in the former year. Both in regard to the South African
War and various other questions, when out of office, he spoke more in
harmony with the views of Lord Rosebery than with those of Sir H.
Campbell-Bannerman, but under the latter he accepted the post of Chancellor
of the Exchequer in the ministry formed in Dec., 1905. On the retirement of
Sir Henry in 1908 he succeeded him as Prime Minister. He at once hastened
to draw up the Liberal reform programme, the list of measures including the
Lloyd George Budget (1909), the Parliament Act (1911), the Insurance Act,
and the Irish Home Rule Bill. In May, 1915, a cabinet crisis having
resulted from disagreements, Asquith formed a Coalition Government, eight
Unionists being admitted. Towards the end of 1916 there was a feeling in
the country not only that the Coalition cabinet of twenty-three ministers
was unwieldy, but that Mr. Asquith's Government was not sufficiently
energetic and showed too much hesitation in dealing with the vital problems
of the war. Mr. Asquith therefore resigned on 5th Dec., 1916, and Mr. Lloyd
George formed a new ministry. Unseated in the General Election of 1918, Mr.
Asquith accepted the invitation to stand for Paisley in 1920. He was
returned by a majority of 2834.

AS´RAEL, the Mahommedan angel of death, who takes the soul from the body.

ASS (_Equus as[)i]nus_), a species of the horse genus, supposed by Darwin
to have sprung from the wild variety (_Asinus toeni[)o]pus_) found in
Abyssinia; by some writers to be a descendant of the _on[)a]ger_ or wild
ass, inhabiting the mountainous deserts of Tartary, &c.; and by others to
have descended from the kiang or djiggetai (_A. hemi[)o]nus_) of
South-Western Asia. The ass was used in Egypt long before the horse, and it
played an important part in Homeric Greece. According to Aristotle,
however, it was unknown in his time in Pontus, Scythia, and in the land of
the Celts. The ass seems to have been introduced into England in the days
of Ethelred, but did not become common before the end of the seventeenth
century. Both in colour and size the ass is exceedingly variable, ranging
from dark grey and reddish brown to white, and from the size of a
Newfoundland dog in North India to that of a good-sized horse. In the
south-western countries of Asia and in Egypt, in some districts of Southern
Europe, as in Spain, and in Kentucky and Peru, great attention has been
paid to selection and interbreeding, with a result no less remarkable than
in the case of the horse. Thus in Syria there appear to be four distinct
breeds: a light and graceful animal used by ladies, an Arab breed reserved
for the saddle, an ass of heavier build in use for ploughing and draft
purposes, and the large Damascus breed. The efforts made to raise the
deteriorated British breed have only been partially successful. The male
ass is mature at two years of age, the female still earlier. The she-ass
carries her young eleven months. The teeth of the young ass follow the same
order of appearance and renewal as those of the horse. The life of the ass
does not usually exceed thirty years. It is in general much healthier than
the horse, and is maintained in this condition by a smaller quantity and
coarser quality of food; it is superior to the horse in its ability to
carry heavy burdens over the most precipitous roads, and is in no respect
its inferior in intelligence, despite the reputation for stupidity which it
has borne from very ancient times. The skin is used as parchment to cover
drums, &c., and in the East is made into shagreen. The hybrid offspring of
the horse and the female ass is the hinny, that of the ass and the mare is
the mule; but the latter is by far the larger and more useful animal.
Asses' milk, long celebrated for its sanative qualities, more closely
resembles that of a woman than any other. It is very similar in taste, and
throws up an equally fluid cream, which is not convertible into butter.

ASSA. See _Piave, Battles of the_; _European War_.

ASSAB´, a bay of Africa on the south-west coast of the Red Sea, belonging
to the Italian territory of Eritrea, which has been acquired since Italy
established here a colony and free port in 1881.

ASSAFOETIDA. See _Asafetida_.

ASSAI-PALM (as-[=i]; _Euterpe olerac[)e]a_), a native of tropical S.
America, only about 4 inches in diameter and 60 or 80 feet high, with a
crown of leaves, beneath which a small fruit grows on branched horizontal
spadices. The pulp of the fruit mixed with water is used as a beverage.

ASSAL´, a salt lake in North-Eastern Africa, in Adal.

ASSAM´, one of the fifteen provinces of British India, separated from
Eastern Bengal and reconstituted in 1912; area, 53,015 sq. miles. It forms
a series of fertile valleys watered by the Brahmaputra and its tributaries,
the valley of the Brahmaputra, which is the main one, consisting of rich
alluvial plains, either but little elevated above the river, or so low that
large extents of them are flooded for three or four days once or twice in
the year, while the course of the river often changes. The climate is
marked by great humidity, and malarious diseases are common in the low
grounds; otherwise it is not unhealthy. The whole province, except the
cultivated area, may be designated as forest, the trees including teak,
sâl, sissoo, the date and sago palm, the areca palm (the betel-nut tree),
the Indian fig tree, &c. The article of most commercial importance is tea,
which was first exported in 1838, and the yield of which is now over
100,000,000 pounds annually. Other crops raised are rice, Indian corn,
pulse, oil-seeds, sugar-cane, hemp, jute, potatoes, &c. In the jungles and
forests roam herds of elephants, the rhinoceros, tiger, buffalo, leopard,
bear, wild hog, jackal, fox, goat, and various kinds of deer. Among
serpents are the python and the cobra. Pheasants, partridges, snipe, wild
peacock, and many kinds of water-fowl abound. Coal, petroleum, and
limestone are found in abundance; iron is smelted to a small extent;
gold-dust is met with; lime is exported to Bengal. There is no single
Assamese nationality, and the Assamese language is merely a modern dialect
of Bengali. Pop. 6,713,635, 3,637,828 of whom are Hindus, 1,886,528
Mahommedans, 66,430 Christians, 10,506 Buddhists, the rest being chiefly
hill tribes of aboriginal faiths. The labourers in the tea-gardens are
mostly drawn from Bengal. In 1826 Assam became a possession of Britain,
being taken from the Burmese, who had made themselves masters of it about
the end of the eighteenth century. The largest town is Sylhet (pop.
14,000).--Cf. E. A. Gait, _History of Assam_.

AS´SAPAN (_Sciuropt[)e]rus volucella_), the flying-squirrel of N. America,
a little animal with folds of skin along its sides which enable it to take
leaps of 40 or 50 yards.

ASSASS´INS (from _hashsh[=a]sh[=i]n_, drinkers of _hashish_), an Asiatic
order or society having the practice of assassination as its most
distinctive feature, founded by Hassan Ben Sabbah, the Himyarite, a _dai_
or missionary of the heterodox Mahommedan sect the Ismailites. The society
grew rapidly in numbers, and in 1090 the Persian fortress of Alamut fell
into their hands. Other territories were added, and the order became a
recognized military power. Its organization comprised seven ranks, at its
head being the Sheikh-al-Jebala or 'Old man of the mountains'. Upon a
select band fell the work of assassination, to which they were stimulated
by the intoxicating influence of _hashish_. For nearly two centuries they
maintained their power under nine sheikhs. Hassan, after a long and
prosperous reign, died in 1124. Most of his successors died violent deaths
at the hands of relatives or dependents. After proving themselves strong
enough to withstand the powerful sultans Noureddin and Saladin, and making
themselves feared by the Crusaders, the _Assassins_ were overcome by the
Tartar leader Hulaku. The last chief, Rokneddin, was killed for an act of
treachery subsequent to his capture, and his death was followed by a
general massacre of the assassins, in which 12,000 perished. Dispersed
bands led a roving life in the Syrian mountains, and it is alleged that in
the Druses and other small existing tribes their descendants are still to
be found. See _Crusades_; _Khoja_.

ASSAULT´, in law, an attempt or offer, with force and violence, to do a
corporal hurt to another, as by striking at him with or without a weapon.
If a person lift up or stretch forth his arm and offer to strike another,
or menace anyone with any staff or weapon, it is an assault in law.
Assault, therefore, does not necessarily imply a hitting or blow, because
in trespass for assault and battery a man may be found guilty of the
assault and acquitted of the battery. But every battery includes an
assault.

ASSAYE, or ASSYE (as-s[=i]´), a village in Southern India, in Hyderabad,
where Wellington (then Major-General Wellesley) gained a famous victory in
1803. With only 4500 troops at his disposal he completely routed the
Mahratta force of 50,000 men and 100 guns. The victory, however, cost him
more than a third of his men.

ASSAYING, the estimation of the amount of pure metal present in an ore or
an alloy. The term was originally applied to testing of gold and silver
only. It is now usually applied to the determination of the quantity of
valuable metal in an ore or alloy, and is also sometimes applied to the
estimation of any element which may affect the value of the ore.

Assaying, therefore, means the estimation of one or more metals in an ore
or alloy. Before an assay can be made, an average sample of the material
must be obtained. If an ore, pieces of material are taken from different
parts of the vein or, if already mined, from different parts of the dump.
The pieces are crushed up finely and divided into four equal parts. Two of
these parts are then mixed and divided into four again, and so on until an
average sample has been obtained. In the case of metals in ingots or bars,
samples are obtained by drilling and chipping corners or edges. Coins,
which are never homogeneous, may be rolled out into a thin sheet and cut
into small pieces. A preliminary examination is made to determine the
constituents. Finally an assay of the substance is made. The methods used
are determined by the metals and the proportions of these present in the
ore or alloy. Originally the term assaying was applied to dry methods, i.e.
the substance was heated in a special crucible with a suitable flux, and a
bead of metal was obtained which was weighed. An assay now may be carried
out in various ways, for example, by fusing with a reducing agent and
obtaining a bead of metal, or by dissolving the substance to be assayed in
suitable solvent and precipitating the metal as an insoluble salt, or
volumetric methods may be used. Dry assaying is still used for gold. The
assay depends on first heating the gold ore or alloy with lead in a porous
crucible, that is, _cupelling_ it. Lead oxidizes on heating in a furnace;
part volatilizes, and part of the oxide is absorbed by the cupel and
carries with it oxides of other metals with the exception of gold and
silver. The proportion of lead must be regulated, depending on the metals
alloyed with gold. A bead is obtained containing gold and silver. This is
beaten out into a thin plate, and then rolled out until it is thin enough
to be rolled up by hand. The gold alloy is rolled up in the fingers into a
cornette and treated with nitric acid. This dissolves silver, leaving a
brittle cornette of gold, which is thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed.
All gold alloys and silver alloys must be assayed, and their fineness
stamped on them. The Goldsmith's Company of London is the statutory
assay-master of England.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. and J. J. Beringer, _A Text-book
of Assaying_; E. A. Wraight, _Assaying in Theory and Practice_; J. Park, _A
Text-book of Practical Assaying_.

AS´SEGAI (from Ar. _as-zahayah_), a spear used as a weapon among the
Kaffirs of S. Africa, made of hard wood tipped with iron, and used for
throwing or thrusting.

ASSEMBLY, GENERAL, the supreme ecclesiastical court of the Established
Church of Scotland, consisting of delegates from every presbytery,
university, and royal burgh in Scotland. It has the countenance of a
representative of the king, styled the Lord High Commissioner, who is
always a nobleman. It holds its meetings annually and (according to the
present practice) in the month of May, usually sitting for ten or twelve
days. In its judicial capacity as a court of review, and as the court of
last resort, the General Assembly has a right to determine finally every
question brought from the inferior courts, by reference, complaint, or
appeal. It possesses, besides, a general superintendence of the discipline
of the Church, of the management of the inferior courts, of the conduct of
the clergy, and of the morals of the people. In its legislative capacity it
has the power of enacting statutes with regard to every subject of
ecclesiastical cognizance, which are binding on the Assembly itself, on the
inferior courts, and on the individual members of the Church. But by an Act
of Assembly in 1697, from its substance and design named the Barrier Act,
every proposition for a new law must first be considered in the form of an
overture; and though it should be approved of by the Assembly it cannot be
enacted as a statute till it has been first transmitted to the several
presbyteries of the Church for their consideration, and has received the
sanction of at least a majority of the presbyteries. The United Free Church
of Scotland has also a General Assembly similar in its constitution and
functions to that of the Established Church, and the same is the case with
the Presbyterian Churches of Ireland and America.

ASSEMBLY, NATIONAL (France), a body set up in France on the eve of the
Revolution. Upon the convocation of the States-General by Louis XVI the
privileged nobles and clergy refused to deliberate in the same chamber with
the commons or _tiers-état_ (third estate). The latter, therefore, on the
proposition of the Abbé Siéyès, constituted themselves an _assemblée
nationale_, with legislative powers (17th June, 1789). They bound
themselves by oath not to separate until they had furnished France with a
constitution, and the Court was compelled to give its assent. In the 3250
decrees passed by the Assembly were laid the foundations of a new epoch,
and, having accomplished this task, it dissolved itself, 30th Sept., 1791.

ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES. See _Westminster Assembly_.

ASSEMBLY, THE RIGHT OF, is an essential principle of popular government, as
understood by the British and American constitutions. The right of British
citizens to assemble peaceably for any purpose which is not strictly
prohibited by law is implied in the right of petition, as affirmed in the
Bill of Rights (q.v.). Unlawful assembly, which is a criminal offence, is
distinguished from the offence of riot. Whilst the latter is an actual
attempt to carry an unlawful purpose into effect, the former is defined as
"an assembly with intent to carry out a common purpose which may lead to a
breach of the peace".

AS´SEN, chief town of the province of Drenthe, Holland. Pop. 13,000.

ASSENT´, THE ROYAL, is the approbation given by the sovereign in Parliament
to a Bill which has passed both Houses, after which it becomes a law. It
may either be done in person, when the sovereign comes to the House of
Peers and the assent (in Norman French) is declared by the Clerk of
Parliament; or it may be done by letters-patent under the great seal,
signed by the sovereign.

AS´SER, JOHN, a learned British ecclesiastic, originally a monk of St.
David's, distinguished as the instructor, companion, and biographer of
Alfred the Great, who appointed him abbot of two or three different
monasteries, and finally Bishop of Sherborne, where he died in 908 or 910.
His life of Alfred, written in Latin in 893 (_Annales Rerum Gestarum
Ælfredi Magni_), is of very great value, though its authenticity has been
questioned. There are several English translations of it.

ASSESSED TAXES, taxes charged upon persons by means of a schedule or paper
sent to each, and strictly including such taxes as the income-tax, the
house-tax, local rates, &c. In Britain the so-called assessed taxes include
those upon servants, carriages, dogs, armorial bearings, &c., though these
are really excise licence duties.

ASSES´SOR, a person appointed to ascertain and fix the amount of taxes,
rates, &c.; or a person who sits along with the judges in certain courts,
and assists them with his professional knowledge.

AS´SETS (Fr. _assez_, enough), property or goods available for the payment
of a bankrupt or deceased person's obligations. Assets are personal or
real, the former comprising all goods, chattels, &c., devolving upon the
executor as saleable to discharge debts and legacies. In commerce and
bankruptcy the term is often used as the antithesis of 'liabilities', to
designate the stock in trade and entire property of an individual or an
association.--_Intangible_ (or fictitious) assets are those not represented
by any existing value, e.g. goodwill; _liquid_ assets are cash,
investments, or other immediately available funds.

ASSIDE´ANS, HASIDE´ANS, or HASIDIM ('the pious'), one of the two great
sects into which, after the Babylonish captivity, the Jews were divided
with regard to the observance of the law--the Hasidim accepting it in its
later developments, the Zadikim professing adherence only to the law as
given by Moses. See _Pharisees_, _Talmudists_, _Rabbinists_.

ASSIEN´TO, the permission of the Spanish Government to a foreign nation to
import negro slaves from Africa into the Spanish colonies in America, for a
limited time, on payment of certain duties. It was accorded to the
Netherlands about 1552, to the Genoese in 1580, and to the French Guinea
Company (afterwards the Assiento Company) in 1702. In 1713 the celebrated
_Assiento Treaty_ with Britain for thirty years was concluded at Utrecht.
By this contract the British obtained the right to send yearly a ship of
500 tons, with all sorts of merchandise, to the Spanish colonies. This led
to frequent abuses and contraband trade; acts of violence followed, and in
1739 a war broke out between the two Powers. At the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, four years more were granted to the British; but
by the Treaty of Madrid, two years later, £100,000 sterling were promised
for the relinquishment of the two remaining years, and the contract was
annulled.

ASSIGNATS ([.a]s-[=e]-ny[.a]), the name of the national paper currency in
the time of the French Revolution. Assignats to the value of 400,000,000
francs were first struck off by the Constituent Assembly, with the
approbation of the king, 19th April, 1790, to be redeemed with the proceeds
of the sale of the confiscated goods of the Church. On the 27th Aug. of the
same year Mirabeau urged the issuing of 2,000,000,000 francs of new
assignats, which caused a dispute in the Assembly. Vergasse and Dupont, who
saw that the plan was an invention of Clavière for his own enrichment,
particularly distinguished themselves as the opponents of the scheme.
Mirabeau's exertions, however, were seconded by Péthion, and 800,000,000
francs more were issued. They were increased by degrees to 45,578,000,000,
and their value rapidly declined. In the winter of 1792-3 they lost 30 per
cent, and, in spite of the law to compel their acceptance at their nominal
value, they continued to fall, till in the spring of 1796 they had sunk to
one three hundred and forty-fourth their nominal value. This depreciation
was due partly to the want of confidence in the stability of the
Government, partly to the fact that the coarsely-executed and
easily-counterfeited assignats were forged in great numbers. They were
withdrawn by the Directory from the currency, and at length redeemed by
mandats at one-thirtieth of their nominal value.

ASSIGNEE´, a person appointed by another to transact some business, or
exercise some particular privilege or power. Formerly the persons appointed
under a commission of bankruptcy, to manage the estate of the bankrupt on
behalf of the creditors, were so called, but now they are called
_trustees_.

ASSIGN´MENT is a transfer by deed of any property, or right, title, or
interest in property, real or personal. Assignments are usually given for
leases, mortgages, and funded property.

ASSINIBOI´A, the smallest of the four districts into which that portion of
the north-western territories of Canada now forming the provinces of
Saskatchewan and Alberta was divided in 1882. It lay on the west of
Manitoba, with Saskatchewan on the north and Alberta on the west, the
United States on the south. The name is now given to an electoral district
of the province of Saskatchewan. The region contains much good wheat land.
Regina was the capital, as it now is of the new province.

ASSINIBOINE, a river of Canada, which flows through Manitoba and joins the
Red River at Winnipeg, about 40 miles above the entrance of the latter into
Lake Winnipeg, after a somewhat circuitous course of about 500 miles from
the west and north-west. Steamers ply on it for over 300 miles.

ASSIOUT. See _Siout_.

ASSISI ([.a]s-s[=e]'s[=e]), a small town in Italy, in the province of
Umbria, 20 miles north of Spoleto, the see of a bishop, and famous as the
birthplace of St. Francis d'Assisi. The splendid church built over the
chapel where the saint received his first impulse to devotion is one of the
finest remains of mediæval Gothic architecture.

ASSI´ZES, a term chiefly used in England to signify the sessions of the
courts held at Westminster prior to Magna Charta, but thereafter appointed
by successive enactments to be held annually in every county. Twelve
judges, who are members of the highest courts in England, twice in every
year perform a _circuit_ into all the counties into which the kingdom is
divided (the counties being grouped into seven circuits), to hold these
assizes, at which both civil and criminal cases are decided. Occasionally
this circuit is performed a third time for the purpose of jail-delivery. In
London and Middlesex, instead of circuits, courts of _nisi prius_ are held.
At the assizes all the justices of the peace of the county are bound to
attend. Special commissions of assize are granted for inquest into certain
causes. In Scotland the term _assize_ is still applicable to the jury in
criminal cases.

Among the more important historic uses of the term _assize_ are its
application to any sitting or deliberative council, and its transference
thence to their ordinances, decrees, or assessments. In the latter sense we
have the Assizes of Jerusalem, a code of feudal laws formulated in 1099
under Godfrey of Bouillon; the Assizes of Clarendon (1166), of Northampton
(1176), and of Woodstock (1184); also the _assisæ venalium_ (1203), for
regulating the prices of articles of common consumption; the Assize of Arms
(1181), an ordinance for organizing the national militia, &c.

ASSMANSHAUSEN. See _Asmannshausen_.

ASSOCIATED COUNTIES, a term applied to Essex, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk,
and Hertford, with, subsequently, Huntingdon and Lincoln. The association
was formed in 1642 to raise an army for the Parliament and keep the war out
of their own districts. The successive leaders were Lord Grey of Wark, the
Earl of Manchester, and Cromwell.

ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, a doctrine of both psychological and philosophical
import. In psychology the term is used to comprise the conditions under
which one idea is able to recall another to consciousness. It is,
therefore, the doctrine which deals with the reproduction of past
experience by a present object of consciousness. The phrase 'association of
ideas' was first introduced by Locke, and dealt with by Berkeley and
Hartley, who became the founder of the so-called _Associationist School_.

ASS´ONANCE, in poetry, a term used when the terminating words of lines have
the same vowel sound but make no proper rhyme. Such verses, having what we
should consider false rhymes, are regularly employed in Spanish poetry; but
cases are not wanting in leading British poets. Mrs. Browning not only used
them frequently, but justified the use of them.

ASSOUAN ([.a]s-s[=o]-[.a]n´), or ASWAN (_Sy[=e]n[=e]_), a town of Upper
Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile, below the first cataract, opposite the
Island of Elephantine. The granite quarries of the Pharaohs are here. Pop.
15,000.

ASSOUAN DAM, a great dam constructed across the Nile in Upper Egypt, near
Assouan, at the foot of the first cataract. It is about a mile and a
quarter long, and is provided with a large number of sluices in two tiers.
It was originally built to a height of about 96 feet between 1898 and 1902,
and raised to a height of 112 feet above bed-rock between 1907 and 1911. It
is intended to regulate the supply of water for irrigation purposes to the
country lower down, the water being stored up at the time when the river is
high, and allowed to escape when it is required for the crops. When the
reservoir is full it forms a lake about 130 miles long. The dam was planned
by Sir William Willcocks, and the work carried out under Sir William
Garstin and Sir Benjamin Baker, at a cost of £5,000,000 (Egyptian).

ASSUMP´SIT, in English law, an action to recover compensation for the
non-performance of a _parole_ promise; that is, a promise not contained in
a deed under seal. Assumpsits are of two kinds, _express_ and _implied_.
The former are where the contracts are actually made in word or writing;
the latter are such as the law implies from the justice of the case; e.g.
employment to do work implies a promise to pay.

ASSUMPTION. See _Asuncion_.

ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF, the ecclesiastical festival celebrating the
miraculous ascent into Heaven of the Virgin Mary's body as well as her
soul, kept on the 15th of August. The legend first appeared in the third or
fourth century, and the festival was instituted some three centuries later.

ASSURANCE. See _Insurance_.

[Illustration: Assyrian bas-relief from the Palace of Nimrûd showing
Lion-hunting about 884 B.C.]

ASSYR´IA (the ASSHUR of the Hebrews, ATHURÂ of the ancient Persians), an
ancient monarchy in Asia, intersected by the upper course of the Tigris,
and having the Armenian Mountains on the north and Babylonia on the south;
area, about 50,000 sq. miles; surface partly mountainous, hilly, or
undulating, partly a portion of the fertile Mesopotamian plain. The
numerous remains of ancient habitations show how thickly this vast flat
must have once been peopled; now, for the most part, it is a mere
wilderness. Geographically and historically, however, Assyria and Babylonia
are interdependent, and the Assyrians and Babylonians are ethnographically
and linguistically the same race. Whereas, however, the classical authors
speak of Assyria to the exclusion of Babylonia, the decipherment of the
inscriptions has proved that Babylonia was the mother-country, and that
Assyria, except during a period of eight centuries, was a dependency of the
former. This discovery coincides with the contents of the tenth chapter of
_Genesis_. See _Babylonia_.

AST, Georg Anton Friedrich, German philosopher, 1776-1841. He wrote on
æsthetics and the history of philosophy, but is best known as an editor of
Plato, whose works he published with a Latin translation and commentary.

AS´TACUS. See _Crayfish_.

ASTAR´TE, a Syrian goddess, probably corresponding to the _Ashtaroth_ of
the Hebrews, and representing the productive power of nature. She was a
moon-goddess. Some regard her as corresponding to _Hera_ (_Juno_), and
others identify her with _Aphrodit[=e]_.

ASTATIC NEEDLE, a magnetic needle having another needle of the same
intensity fixed parallel to it, the poles being reversed, so that the
needles neutralize one another, and are unaffected by the earth's
magnetism; used in the _astatic galvanometer_.

AS´TER, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositæ, comprehending several
hundred species, scattered over Europe and Asia, but mostly natives of
North America. Many are cultivated as ornamental plants. One, _A.
Tripolium_, is native in Britain, and is found in salt marshes, having a
pretty purple flower. Asters generally flower late in the season, and some
are hence called Michaelmas or Christmas Daisies. The China Aster, not an
aster proper (_Aster_ or _Callist[)e]phus chinensis_), is a very showy
annual, of which there are many varieties.

ASTERABAD´. See _Astrabad_.

ASTE´RIA, a name applied to a variety of corundum, which displays an
opalescent star of six rays of light when cut with certain precautions; and
also to the _cat's-eye_, which consists of quartz, and is found especially
in Ceylon.

ASTER´IDÆ. See _Asteroidea_.

AS´TERISK, the figure of a star, thus *, used in printing and writing, as a
reference to a passage or note in the margin, or to fill the space when a
name, or the like, is omitted.

ASTEROI´DEA, the ord. of the Echinodermata to which the star-fishes belong.
See _Star-fishes_.

AS´TEROIDS, PLANETOIDS, or MINOR PLANETS, a numerous group of very small
planets revolving round the sun, in the great majority of cases at mean
distances, intermediate between those of Mars and Jupiter, in orbits of
large eccentricity at considerable inclination to the ecliptic. The
diameter of the largest is not supposed to exceed 450 miles, while most of
the others are very much smaller. Over one thousand are known, and new
members are being constantly discovered. The first to be discovered was
Ceres, on 1st Jan., 1801, and within seven years more Pallas, Juno, and
Vesta were seen. The diminutive size of these four bodies, and resemblances
in their orbits, gave rise to the opinion that they were but the fragments
of a planet that had formerly existed and had been brought to an end by
some catastrophe. For nearly forty years investigations were carried on,
but no more planets were discovered till 8th Dec., 1845, when a fifth
planet in the same region of the solar system was discovered. The rapid
succession of discoveries that followed was for a time taken as a
corroboration of the disruption theory, but the breadth of the zone
occupied makes the hypothesis of a shattered planet more than doubtful. In
recent years a few have been discovered which are at times considerably
within the orbit of Mars, the nearest perihelia being less than 15 million
miles beyond the earth's orbit. Another group, known as the 'Trojan
Planets', has been found, whose mean distances are practically identical
with that of Jupiter. The total mass of the asteroids cannot exceed
one-fourth that of the earth, and is probably much less. See _Planets_.

ASTEROL´EPIS, a genus of primitive ganoid fishes, found only in a fossil
state in the Old Red Sandstone. They were about 1 foot long, and the head
and body were enclosed in armour of strong bony plates.

ASTHMA (ast´ma), difficulty of respiration, returning at intervals, with a
sense of stricture across the chest and in the lungs, a wheezing, hard
cough at first, but more free towards the close of each paroxysm, with a
discharge of mucus, followed by a remission. Asthma is essentially a spasm
of the muscular tissue which is contained in the smaller bronchial tubes.
It generally attacks persons advanced in years, and seems, in some
instances, to be hereditary. The exciting causes are various--accumulation
of blood or viscid mucus in the lungs, noxious vapours, a cold and foggy
atmosphere, or a close, hot air, flatulence, accumulated fæces, violent
passions, organic diseases in the thoracic viscera, &c. In recent years a
treatment first used by Dr. Alexander Francis has come into prominence. By
far the most important part of the treatment consists in obviating or
removing the several exciting causes. It seldom proves fatal except as
inducing dropsy, consumption, &c.

ASTI ([.a]s´t[=e]), a town of Northern Italy, province of Alessandria, 28
miles E.S.E. of Turin, the see of a bishop, with an old cathedral. In the
Middle Ages it was one of the most powerful republics of Northern Italy. It
was the birthplace of Alfieri, the poet, whose statue adorns the principal
square. There is also an equestrian statue of King Humbert. The industries
comprise silk, matches, gold, mosaic wares, &c. A favourite wine is
produced in the neighbourhood. Asti, anciently _Asta_, was a place of some
importance under the Roman emperors, and in the Middle Ages was an
independent republic. Pop. 41,252.

ASTIG´MATISM (Gr. _a_, not, _stigma_, spot, mark), a malformation or
imperfection, congenital or accidental, of the globe of the eye, in
consequence of which the individual does not see objects clear and
distinct, but with a blurred outline. It is due to the cornea or
transparent outer coat of the eye not being regularly spherical, but having
different degrees of curvature in different directions. Usually the degree
of convexity is not the same horizontally as it is vertically, so that the
rays from an object, instead of converging into one focus, meet in more
than one. If a person with this defect is looking at vertical lines crossed
by horizontal ones he will see the one set more distinctly than the other,
though a slight movement will enable him to see the other distinctly also,
but not at the same time. Almost all eyes are more or less astigmatic, but
persons only become aware of it when it is excessive. Special lenses are
required to correct it--usually lenses plane in one direction and concave
or convex in the other. Short sight or long sight is often associated with
astigmatism, so that suitable spectacles cannot be very easily provided.

ASTLE, Thomas, English antiquary, born 1735, died 1803. He was a trustee of
the British Museum and keeper of the public records in the Tower. His chief
work, _The Origin and Progress of Writing_, appeared in 1784, and the
portion dealing with mediæval handwriting is still of value. He formed a
famous collection of MSS., the most valuable portion of which is now in the
British Museum.

ASTOM´ATA, one of the two groups into which the Protozoa are divided with
regard to the presence or absence of a mouth, of which organ the Astomata
are destitute. The group comprises two classes, Gregarinida and Rhizopoda.
See _Stomatoda_.

ASTON MANOR, formerly a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Warwickshire, England, situated about 1½ miles E.N.E. of Birmingham, and
engaged in similar branches of industry. It was incorporated with
Birmingham in 1911 and gives its name to one of its parliamentary
divisions. Pop. 75,029.

ASTOR, John Jacob, born near Heidelberg, Germany, 1703, died at New York,
1848. In 1783 he emigrated to the United States, settled at New York, and
became extensively engaged in the fur trade. In 1811 the settlement of
Astoria, founded by him, near the mouth of the Columbia River, was formed
to serve as a central depot for the fur trade between the lakes and the
Pacific. He subsequently engaged in various speculations, and died worth
£4,000,000, leaving £80,000 to found the Astor Library in New York. This
institution is contained in a splendid building, enlarged in 1859 at the
cost of his son, and comprises about 260,000 volumes. Since 1895 it has
formed part of the New York public library.--His great-grandson, William
Waldorf Astor, born in 1848, died in 1919, naturalized in England in 1899,
was made a baron in 1916 and a viscount in 1917.

ASTOR, LADY. Nancy Witcher, Viscountess Astor, married the second Viscount
Astor in 1906. She is a daughter of the late Colonel Chiswell Dabney
Langhorne, of Virginia, United States. In Nov., 1919, she was elected
member of Parliament for the Sutton division of Plymouth, and was the first
woman to take a seat in the House of Commons.

ASTOR´GA, a city of Spain, province of Leon; the _Asturica Augusta_ of the
Romans. It figured prominently during the Peninsular War; it was taken by
the French after an obstinate defence, 1810, and retaken by the Spaniards,
1812. Pop. 5682.

ASTO´RIA, a town of Oregon, United States, on the Columbia River, with
numerous salmon-canning establishments. Pop. 10,595. See _Astor_.

ASTRABAD´, a town of Persia, province of same name, about 24 miles E. of
the Caspian. It was formerly the residence of the Kajar princes, the
ancestors of the present Persian dynasty. It is very unhealthy, but is
still the centre of a considerable trade. Pop. estimated at from 10,000 to
30,000. The province of Astrabad has an area of 5800 sq. miles, and a pop.
of 150,000.

ASTRÆ´A, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Zeus and Themis, the goddess
of justice. During the golden age she dwelt on earth, but on that age
passing away she withdrew from the society of men and was placed among the
stars, where she forms the constellation Virgo. The name was given to one
of the asteroids, discovered in 1845. It revolves round the sun in 1511.10
solar days, and is about 2½ times the distance of the earth from the sun.

AS´TRAGAL, in architecture, a small semicircular moulding, with a fillet
beneath it, which surrounds a column in the form of a ring, separating the
shaft from the capital.

ASTRAG´ALUS, a genus of papilionaceous plants, herbaceous or shrubby, and
often spiny. _A. gummifer_ yields gum tragacanth.

ASTRAG´ALUS, the upper bone of the foot supporting the tibia; the buckle,
ankle, or sling bone. It is a strong irregularly-shaped bone, and is
connected with the others by powerful ligaments.

ASTRAKHAN ([.a]s-tr[.a]-_h_[.a]n'), a Russian city, capital of government
of same name, on an elevated island in the Volga, about 30 miles above its
mouth in the Caspian, communicating with the opposite banks of the river by
numerous bridges. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop and has a large
cathedral, as well as places of worship for Mahommedans, Armenians, &c. The
manufactures are large and increasing, and the fisheries (sturgeon, &c.)
very important. It is the chief port of the Caspian, and has regular steam
communication with the principal towns on its shores. In 1919 the town was
made a naval base by the Bolshevist Government of Moscow. Pop. 163,800,
composed of various races.--The government (or province) has an area of
91,042 sq. miles. It consists almost entirely of two vast steppes,
separated from each other by the Volga, and forming for the most part arid
sterile deserts. In 1918 the district of Astrakhan proclaimed its autonomy
and independence of Moscow. Pop. 1,427,500.

ASTRAKHAN, a name given to sheepskins with a curled woolly surface obtained
from a variety of sheep found in Búkhara, Persia, and Syria; also a rough
fabric with a pile in imitation of this.

ASTRALITE. See _Explosives_.

ASTRAL SPIRITS, spirits formerly believed to people the heavenly bodies or
the aerial regions. In the Middle Ages they were variously conceived as
fallen angels, souls of departed men, or spirits originating in fire, and
belonging neither to heaven, earth, nor hell. Paracelsus regarded them as
demoniacal in character.

ASTRIN´GENT, a medicine which contracts the organic textures and canals of
the body, thereby checking or diminishing excessive discharges. The chief
astringents are the mineral acids, alum, lime-water, chalk, salts of
copper, zinc, iron, lead, silver; and among vegetables catechu, kino,
oak-bark, and galls.

ASTROCA´RYUM, a genus of tropical American palms, species of which yield
oil and valuable fibre. Tucum oil and tucum thread are obtained from _A.
vulg[=a]re_.

AS´TROLABE, an instrument formerly used for taking the altitude of the sun
or stars, now superseded by the quadrant and sextant. The name was also
formerly given to an armillary sphere.--Cf. Chaucer, _Treatise on the
Astrolabe_.

ASTROLABE BAY, an inlet on the N.E. coast of Australian New Guinea.

ASTROL´OGY, literally, the science or doctrine of the stars. The name was
formerly used as equivalent to astronomy, but is now restricted in meaning
to the pseudo-science which pretends to enable men to judge of the effects
and influences of the heavenly bodies on human and other mundane affairs,
and to foretell future events by their situations and conjunctions. As
usually practised, the whole heavens, visible and invisible, were divided
by great circles into twelve equal parts, called _houses_. As the circles
were supposed to remain immovable, every heavenly body passed through each
of the twelve houses every twenty-four hours. The portion of the zodiac
contained in each house was the part to which chief attention was paid, and
the position of any planet was settled by its distance from the boundary
circle of the house, measured on the ecliptic. The houses had different
names and different powers, the first being called the house of life, the
second the house of riches, the third of brethren, the sixth of marriage,
the eighth of death, and so on. The part of the heavens about to rise was
called the _ascendant_, the planet within the house of the ascendant being
_lord of the ascendant_. The different _aspects_ of the planets were of
great importance. To _cast a person's nativity_ (or _draw his horoscope_)
was to find the position of the heavens at the instant of his birth, which
being done, the astrologer, who knew the various powers and influences
possessed by the sun, the moon, and the planets, could predict what the
course and termination of that person's life would be. The temperament of
the individual was ascribed to the planet under which he was born, as
_saturnine_ from _Saturn_, _jovial_ from _Jupiter_, _mercurial_ from
_Mercury_, _&c._, words which are now used with little thought of their
original meaning. The virtues of herbs, gems, and medicines were supposed
to be due to their ruling planets. The history of astrology, which was the
foster-sister of astronomy, goes back to the early days of the human race.
Egyptians and Hindus, as well as the nations on the Euphrates and Tigris,
were zealous astrologers. The Christian Church strongly opposed the
teachings of astrology, but its study spread among Jews and Arabs during
the Middle Ages. Francis Bacon abused the astrologers of his day, and Swift
wrote against them his famous _Prediction for the Year 1708, by Isaac
Bickerstaff, Esq._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. H. Bennet, _Astrology_; G. Wilde,
_Chaldean Astrology Up-to-date_; A. Maury, _La Magie et l'astrologie à
l'antiquité et au moyen âge_; A. J. Pearce, _Textbook of Astrology_.

ASTRON´OMY (from Gr. _astron_, a heavenly body, and _nemein_, to classify
or arrange) is that science which investigates the motions, distances,
magnitudes, and various phenomena of the heavenly bodies. The science may
be divided into several branches. _Descriptive astronomy_ denotes merely a
presentation of astronomical facts in a systematic but popular form;
_practical astronomy_ treats of the instruments used in observing the
celestial bodies, the methods of their employment, and the manner of
deducing results from the observations; investigation of the causes of the
motions of these bodies was formerly termed _physical astronomy_, but now
generally _dynamical_ or _gravitational astronomy_; _physical astronomy_ or
_astro-physics_ is the comparatively modern branch which deals with their
physical conditions, radiation, temperature, and chemical constitution.
Recent years have added two new fields of investigation which are full of
promise for the advancement of astronomical science. The first of
these--_celestial photography_--has furnished us with invaluable
light-pictures of the sun, moon, and other bodies, and has recorded the
existence of myriads of stars invisible even to the best telescopes; while
the second, _spectrum analysis_, now employed by many scientists, reveals
to us a knowledge of the physical constituents of the universe, telling us
for instance that in the sun (or his atmosphere) there exist many of the
elements familiar to us on the earth. It is also applied to the
determination of the velocities with which stars are approaching, or
receding from, our system; and to the measurement of movements taking place
within the solar atmospheric envelopes. From analysis of some of the
unresolved nebulæ the inference is drawn that they are not star-swarms but
simply incandescent gas; whence a second inference results favourable to
the hypothesis of the gradual condensation of nebulæ, and the successive
evolutions of suns and systems.

The most remote period to which we can go back in tracing the history of
astronomy refers us to a time about 2500 B.C., when the Chinese are said to
have recorded the simultaneous conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars,
Mercury, and the moon. This remarkable phenomenon is found, by calculating
backward, to have taken place 2460 B.C. Astronomy has also an undoubtedly
high antiquity in India. The mean annual motion of Jupiter and Saturn was
observed as early as 3062 years B.C.; tables of the sun, moon, and planets
were formed, and eclipses calculated. In the time of Alexander the Great,
the Chaldeans or Babylonians had carried on astronomical observations for
1900 years. They regarded comets as bodies travelling in extended orbits,
and predicted their return; and there is reason to believe that they had
correct ideas regarding the solar system. The priests of Egypt gave
astronomy a religious character; but their knowledge of the science is
testified to only by their ancient zodiacs and the position of their
pyramids with relation to the cardinal points. It was among the Greeks that
astronomy took a more scientific form. Thales of Miletus (born 639 B.C.)
predicted a solar eclipse, and his successors held opinions which are in
many respects wonderfully in accordance with modern ideas. Pythagoras (500
B.C.) and his followers formed theories of the planetary system. They
taught the sphericity and revolution of the earth, but placed an imaginary
'Central Fire', not the sun itself, at the centre of the system. Great
progress was made in astronomy under the Ptolemies, and we find Timochares
and Aristyllus employed about 300 B.C. in making useful planetary
observations. But Aristarchus of Samos (born 267 B.C.) is said, on the
authority of Archimedes, to have far surpassed them, by teaching the double
motion of the earth around its axis and around the sun. A hundred years
later Hipparchus determined more exactly the length of the solar year, and
the eccentricity of the ecliptic, discovered the precession of the
equinoxes, and even undertook a catalogue of the stars. It was in the
second century after Christ that Claudius Ptolemy, a famous mathematician
of Pelusium in Egypt, propounded the system that bears his name, viz., that
the earth was the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and
planets revolved around it in the following order: nearest to the earth was
the sphere of the moon; then followed the spheres of Mercury, Venus, the
Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; then came the sphere of the fixed stars;
these were succeeded by two _crystalline_ spheres and an outer sphere named
the _primum mobile_ or first movable, which last was again circumscribed by
the _coelum empyreum_, of a cubic shape, wherein happy souls found their
abode. The Arabs began to make scientific astronomical observations about
the middle of the eighth century, and for 400 years they prosecuted the
science with assiduity. Ibn-Yunis (A.D. 1000) made important observations
of the perturbations and eccentricities of Jupiter and Saturn. In the
sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus, born in 1473, introduced the system
that bears his name, and which recognized the sun's central place in the
solar system, and that all the other bodies, the earth included, revolve
around it. This arrangement of the universe (see _Copernicus_) came at
length to be generally received on account of the simplicity it substituted
for the complexities and difficulties of the theory of Ptolemy. The
observations and calculations of Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer, born in
1546, continued over many years, were of the highest value, and secured for
him the title of regenerator of practical astronomy. His assistant and
pupil, Kepler, born in 1571, was enabled, principally from the data
provided by his master's labours, to arrive at those laws which have made
his name famous: 1. That the planets move, not in circular, but in
elliptical orbits, of which the sun occupies a focus. 2. That the radius
vector, or imaginary straight line joining the sun and any planet, moves
over equal spaces in equal times. 3. That the squares of the times of the
revolutions of the planets are as the cubes of their mean distances from
the sun. Galileo, who died in 1642, advanced the science by his
observations and by the new revelations he made through his telescopes,
which established the truth of the Copernican theory. Newton, born in 1642,
carried physical astronomy suddenly to comparative perfection. Accepting
Kepler's laws as a statement of the facts of planetary motion, he deduced
from them his theory of gravitation. The science was enriched towards the
close of the eighteenth century by the discovery by Herschel of the planet
Uranus and its satellites, the resolution of the Milky Way into myriads of
stars, and the investigation of nebulæ and of double and triple stars. The
splendid analytical researches of Lalande, Lagrange, Delambre, and Laplace
mark the same period. The nineteenth century opened with the discovery of
the first four minor planets; and the existence of another planet
(Neptune), more distant from the sun than Uranus, was, in 1845,
independently predicted by Leverrier and Adams. Of late years the sun has
attracted a number of observers, the spectroscope and photography having
been especially fruitful in this field of investigation. By various methods
the sun's mean distance has been ascertained within very small limits of
error, and found to be nearly 93,000,000 miles. Many additions have been
made to the known secondary planets or satellites, including some with
retrograde motions. A vast number of asteroids has been discovered, and the
width of the zone occupied by them found to be much more extensive. Much
success has been achieved in ascertaining the parallax of fixed stars.

The objects with which astronomy has chiefly to deal are the earth, the
sun, the moon, the planets, the fixed stars, comets, nebulæ, and meteors.
The stellar universe is composed of an unknown host of stars, many millions
in number. Those visible to the naked eye were in ancient times grouped
into the constellations still recognized. The nebulæ are cloud-like patches
of light scattered all over the heavens. Some of them have been resolved
into star-clusters, but many of them are masses of incandescent gas. Of the
so-called fixed stars, many form binary or multiple systems, the members
revolving in orbits under each other's attractions, while other more
scattered groups are moving clusters, travelling in parallel paths through
space like flocks of birds. Variable stars and extinct or dark stars are
also known. The fixed stars preserve, at least to unaided vision, an
unalterable relation to each other, because of their vast distance from the
earth. Their apparent movement from east to west is the result of the
earth's revolution on its axis in twenty-four hours from west to east. The
planets have not only an apparent, but also a real and proper motion,
since, like our earth, they revolve around the sun in their several orbits
and periods. The nearest of these bodies to the sun is _Mercury_. _Venus_,
the second planet from the sun, is to us the brightest and most beautiful
of all the planets. The _Earth_ is the first planet accompanied by a
satellite or moon. _Mars_, the next planet, has two satellites, discovered
in 1877. Its surface has a variegated character, and the existence of land,
water, snow, and ice has been inferred. The _Asteroids_, of which over 1000
are known, form a broad zone of small bodies, at distances from a little
beyond the earth's to that of Jupiter. _Jupiter_, the largest planet, has
at least nine satellites, of which the two outermost have retrograde
motion. Its surface is diversified by spots, markings, and bands parallel
to its equator. _Saturn_, with its nine or more satellites and broad thin
rings in its equatorial plane, is, perhaps, the most striking telescopic
object in the heavens. _Ur[)a]nus_--discovered by Herschel in 1781--is
accompanied by four satellites. _Neptune_, the farthest removed from the
sun, has one satellite, the motion of which is retrograde. Besides the
planets, quite a number of comets are known to be members of the solar
system. The physical constitution of these bodies is still one of the
enigmas of astronomy. The observation of meteors has recently attracted
much attention. They are seen in largest numbers in the autumn months.
Meteor streams are supposed to represent the results of the disintegration
of comets. Among the more modern astronomers we may mention: Gustav
Kirchhoff, G. B. Donati, Christian Doppler, H. C. Vogel, Sir William
Huggins, Simon Newcomb, and Sir David Gill. See _Earth_, _Sun_, _Moon_,
_Planet_, _Comet_, _Stars_, _Asteroids_, _Celestial Photography_,
_Spectrography_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. N. Lockyer, _Dawn of Astronomy_;
Sir G. C. Lewis, _Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients_; Sir.
F. W. Dyson, _Astronomy_; Sir R. Ball, _Atlas, and Popular Guide to the
Heavens_; G. P. Serviss, _Astronomy with an Opera-glass_; _The Pleasures of
the Telescope_; A. M. Clerke, _History of Astronomy during the 19th
Century_, H. Macpherson, _Romance of Modern Astronomy_; C. A. Young,
_General Astronomy_; G. F. Chambers, _Handbook of Astronomy_ (3 vols.);
E. W. Maunder, _Astronomy of the Bible_; A. C. D. Crommelin, _The Star
World_; Agnes Giberne, _Sun, Moon, and Stars_ (popular).

ASTROPALIA, an island in the Ægean Sea. It was occupied during the Balkan
war of 1912 by the Italians under Admiral Presbitero and General d'Ameglio.

ASTROPHYSICS. See _Spectroscopy_.

ASTUR. See _Goshawk_.

ASTU´RIA, or THE ASTURIAS, a Spanish principality, now forming the province
of Oviedo, on the north coast of Spain; an alpine region, with steep and
jagged mountain ridges, valuable minerals, luxuriant grazing lands, and
fertile well-watered valleys. The heir apparent of Spain has borne since
1388 the title of Prince of the Asturias. See _Spain_.

ASTY´AGES (-j[=e]z), last king of the Medes, 593-558 B.C., deposed by
Cyrus, an event which transferred the supremacy from the Medes to the
Persians.

ASUNCION ([.a]-s[u:]n-th[=e]-on´), or NUESTRA SEÑORA DE LA ASUNCION (Eng.
_Assumption_), the chief city of Paraguay, on the River Paraguay,
picturesquely situated and with good public buildings. It was founded in
1537 on the feast of the Assumption. Its trade is mostly in the yerba tea,
hides, tobacco, oranges, &c. It was taken and plundered by the Brazilians
in 1869. A railway runs for a short distance into the interior. Pop.
(1920), 99,836.

[Illustration: Aswail (_Ursus labi[=a]tus_)]

AS´WAIL, the native name for the sloth-bear (_Ursus labi[=a]tus_) of the
mountains of India, an uncouth, unwieldy animal, with very long black hair,
inoffensive when not attacked. Its usual diet consists of roots,
bees'-nests, grubs, snails, ants, &c. Its flesh is in much favour as an
article of food. When captured young it is easily tamed.

ASY´LUM, a sanctuary or place of refuge, where criminals and debtors
sheltered themselves from justice, and from which they could not be taken
without sacrilege. Temples were anciently asylums, as were Christian
churches in later times. (See _Sanctuary_.) The term is now usually applied
to an institution for receiving, maintaining, and, so far as possible,
ameliorating the condition of persons labouring under certain bodily
defects or mental maladies; sometimes also a refuge for the unfortunate.

ASYLUM, RIGHT OF. See _Extradition_.

ASYMPTOTE (as'im-t[=o]t), in geometry, a line which is continually
approaching a curve, but never meets it, however far either of them may be
prolonged. This may be conceived as a tangent to a curve at an infinite
distance. See _Conic Sections_.

ASYN´DETON, a figure of speech by which connecting words are omitted; as 'I
came, I saw, I conquered', or Cicero's 'Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit'.

ATACAMA ([.a]-t[.a]-kä'm[.a]), a desert region on the west coast of S.
America belonging to Chile, partly in the province of Atacama, partly in
the territory of Antofagasta. It mainly consists of a plateau extending
from Copiapó northward to the River Loa, and lies between the Andes and the
sea. It forms the chief nitrate district of Chile, there being also rich
silver-mines, while gold is also found, as well as argentiferous lead,
copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron; with guano on the coast. The northern
portion belonged to Bolivia until 1904. The Chilian province of Atacama has
an area of 30,711 sq. miles, and a pop. of 63,893.

ATACA´MITE, a combination of the hydroxide and chloride of copper,
occurring abundantly in some parts of South America, as at Atacama, whence
it has its name. It is worked as an ore in South America, and is exported
to England.

ATAHUAL´PA, the last of the Incas, succeeded his father in 1529 on the
throne of Quito, whilst his brother Huascar obtained the kingdom of Peru.
They soon made war against each other, when the latter was defeated, and
his kingdom fell into the hands of Atahualpa. The Spaniards, taking
advantage of these internal disturbances, with Pizarro at their head
invaded Peru, and advanced to Atahualpa's camp. Here, while Pizarro's
priest was telling the Inca how the Pope had given Peru to the Spaniards,
fire was opened on the unsuspecting Peruvians, Atahualpa was captured, and,
despite the payment of a vast ransom in gold, was executed (1533).

ATALAN´TA, in Greek mythology, a famous huntress of Arcadia. She was to be
obtained in marriage only by him who could outstrip her in a race, the
consequence of failure being death. One of her suitors obtained from
Aphrod[=i]t[=e] (Venus) three golden apples, which he threw behind him, one
after another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick them up, and was not
unwillingly defeated. There was another Atalanta belonging to Boeotia, who
cannot very well be distinguished, the same stories being told about both.

ATAMAN. See _Hetman_.

AT´AVISM (Lat. _at[)a]vus_, an ancestor), in biology, the tendency to
reproduce the ancestral type in animals or plants which have become
considerably modified by breeding or cultivation; the reversion of a
descendant to some peculiarity of a more or less remote ancestor. See
_Mendelism_, _Natural Selection_, _Evolution_, _Heredity_. The term
_atavism_ is also frequently used in sociological literature, in the sense
of reversion to more primitive types, as explanation of criminal instincts
and pathological phenomena.

ATAXY, or ATAXIA, in medicine, irregularity in the animal functions, or in
the symptoms of a disease. See _Locomotor Ataxy_.

ATBA´RA, the most northerly tributary of the Nile. It rises in the
Abyssinian highlands, receives several large tributaries, and enters the
Nile about 18° N. The town of Atbara is situated about 380 miles S.E. of
Wadi Halfa. The battle of Atbara, between the British under Earl Kitchener
(then Sir Herbert), and the followers of the Mahdi, was fought on 8th
April, 1898.

ATCHAFALAY´A ('Lost Water'), a river of the United States, an outlet of the
Red River which strikes off before the junction of that river with the
Mississippi, flows southward, and enters the Gulf of Mexico by Atchafalaya
Bay. Its length is about 225 miles.

ATCHEEN´. See _Acheen_.

ATCH´ISON, a city of Kansas, United States, on the Missouri, about 30 miles
from Leavenworth, an important railway centre with an increasing trade.
Pop. (1920), 12,630.

A´T[=E], among the Greeks, the goddess of hate, injustice, crime, and
retribution, daughter of Zeus according to Homer, but of [)E]ris (Strife)
according to Hesiod.

AT´ELES, a genus of American monkeys. See _Spider-monkey_.

ATELIERS NATIONAUX ([.a]-tl-y[=a] n[.a]-syo-n[=o]), or national workshops,
were established by the French Provisional Government in 1848. They
interfered much with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw
themselves on the Government for work. The breaking up of the system led to
disorders, but it was abolished in July, 1848.

ATELLA´NÆ FAB´ULÆ (called also OSCAN PLAYS), a kind of light interlude, in
ancient Rome, performed not by the regular actors, but by freeborn young
Romans; it originated from the ancient _Atella_, a city of the Oscans. They
were the origin of the Italian _commedie dell'arte_. Cf. Munk, _De Fabulis
Atellanis_.

ATESH´GA (the place of fire), a sacred place of the Guebres or Persian
fire-worshippers, on the Peninsula of Apsheron, on the W. coast of the
Caspian, visited by large numbers of pilgrims, who bow before the sacred
flames which issue from the bituminous soil.

ATH (ät), a fortified town of Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, on the
Dender; it carries on weaving, dyeing, and printing cottons. It was the
scene of fighting in Nov., 1918. Pop. 11,108.

ATHABAS´CA, a river and lake of Canada. The river rises on the eastern
slopes of the Rocky Mountains not far from Mount Hooker, in the province of
Alberta, flows N.E. and N., and falls into Lake Athabasca after a course of
about 600 miles.--_Lake Athabasca_, or Lake of the Hills, is about 190
miles S.S.E. of the Great Slave Lake, to which its waters are carried by
means of the Slave River. It is about 200 miles in length from east to
west, and 35 miles wide where widest, but narrows to a point at either
extremity.--The former district of _Athabasca_, in 1905 divided between the
two new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, had British Columbia on the
west, Keewatin on the east, Alberta and Saskatchewan districts on the
south, the parallel of 60° on the north, being crossed by the Athabasca and
the Peace Rivers. Lake Athabasca is partly in Alberta, partly in
Saskatchewan.

ATHALI´AH, daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and wife of Joram, King of
Judah. After the death of her son Ahaziah, she opened her way to the throne
by the murder of forty-two princes of the royal blood. She reigned six
years; in the seventh the high-priest Jehoiada placed Joash, the young son
of Ahaziah, who had been secretly preserved, on the throne of his father,
and Athaliah was slain. Cf. 2 _Kings_, xi. The story of Athaliah supplied
Racine with the plot of one of his most famous tragedies.

ATHANA´SIAN CREED, a creed or exposition of Christian faith, supposed
formerly to have been drawn up by St. Athanasius, though this opinion is
now generally rejected, and the composition often ascribed to Hilary,
Bishop of Arles (about 430). It is an explicit avowal of the doctrines of
the Trinity (as opposed to Arianism, of which Athanasius was a great
opponent) and of the incarnation, and contains what are known as the
'damnatory clauses', in which it declares that damnation must be the lot of
those who do not believe the true and catholic faith. It is contained in
the _Book of Common Prayer_, to be read on certain
occasions.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. J. A. Hort, _Two Dissertations_; G. D. W.
Ommanney, _Critical Dissertation on the Athanasian Creed_; J. A. Robinson,
_The Athanasian Creed_; E. C. S. Gibson, _The Three Creeds_; R. O. P.
Taylor, _Athanasian Creed in the Twentieth Century_.

ATHANA´SIUS, ST., Archbishop of Alexandria, a renowned father of the
Church, born in that city about A.D. 296, died 373. While yet a young man
he attended the Council at Nice (325), where he gained the highest esteem
of the fathers by the talents which he displayed in the Arian controversy.
He had a great share in the decrees passed here, and thereby drew on
himself the hatred of the Arians. Shortly afterwards he was appointed
Archbishop of Alexandria. The complaints and accusations of his enemies at
length induced the Emperor Constantine to summon him in 334 before the
Councils of Tyre and Jerusalem, when he was suspended, and afterwards
banished to Trèves. The death of Constantine put an end to this banishment,
and Constantius recalled the holy patriarch. His return to Alexandria
resembled a triumph. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342. Again
in 355 he was sentenced to be banished, when he retired into those parts of
the desert which were entirely uninhabited. He was followed by a faithful
servant, who, at the risk of his life, supplied him with the means of
subsistence. Here Athanasius composed many writings, full of eloquence, to
strengthen the faith of the believers, or expose the falsehood of his
enemies. When Julian the Apostate ascended the throne, toleration was
proclaimed to all religions, and Athanasius returned to his former position
at Alexandria. His next controversy was with the heathen subjects of
Julian, who excited the emperor against him, and he was obliged to flee in
order to save his life. The death of the emperor and the accession of
Jovian (363) again brought him back; but Valens becoming emperor, and the
Arians recovering the superiority, he was once more compelled to flee. He
concealed himself in the tomb of his father, where he remained four months,
until Valens allowed him to return. From this period he remained
undisturbed in his office till he died. Of the forty-six years of his
official life he spent twenty in banishment, and the greater part of the
remainder in defending the Nicene Creed. Athanasius was not so much a
speculative theologian as a great Christian pastor (cf. L. Duchesne,
_Histoire ancienne. de l'Église_, 1907). His writings, which are in Greek,
are on polemical, historical, and moral subjects. The polemical treat
chiefly of the doctrines of the Trinity, the incarnation of Christ, and the
divinity of the Holy Spirit. The historical ones are of the greatest
importance for the history of the Church. See _Athanasian Creed_.

A´THEISM (Gr. _a_, priv., and _Theos_, God), the disbelief of the existence
of a God or supreme intelligent being; the doctrine opposed to _theism_ or
_deism_. The term has been often loosely used as equivalent with
_infidelity_ generally, with deism, with pantheism, and with the denial of
immortality. The most famous exponents of atheism were La Mettrie, Holbach,
Feuerbach, and Carl Vogt; whilst Comte and Haeckel have put forward systems
of thought essentially atheistic.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Flint, _Anti-theistic
Theories_; J. S. Blackie, _Natural History of Atheism_; F. A. Lange,
_History of Materialism_.

ATH´ELING, a title of honour among the Anglo-Saxons, meaning one who is of
noble blood. The title was gradually confined to the princes of the blood
royal, and in the ninth and tenth centuries was used exclusively for the
sons or brothers of the reigning king.

ATHELING, Edgar. See _Edgar Atheling_.

ATH´ELNEY, formerly an island in the midst of fens and marshes, now drained
and cultivated in Somersetshire, England, about 7 miles southeast of
Bridgwater. Alfred the Great took refuge in it during a Danish invasion,
and afterwards founded an abbey there.

ATH´ELSTAN, King of England, born 895, died 941, succeeded his father,
Edward the Elder, in 925. He was victorious in his wars with the Danes of
Northumberland, and the Scots, by whom they were assisted. After a signal
overthrow of his enemies at Brunanburgh he governed in peace and with great
ability.

ATH[=E]´NA, or ATH[=E]N[=E], a Greek goddess, identified by the Romans with
Minerva, the representative of the intellectual powers; the daughter of
Zeus (Jupiter) and M[=e]tis (that is, wisdom or cleverness). According to
the legend, before her birth Zeus swallowed her mother, and Athena
afterwards sprang from the head of Zeus with a mighty war shout and in
complete armour. In her character of a wise and prudent warrior she was
contrasted with the fierce Ares (Mars). In the wars of the giants she slew
Pallas and Enceladus. In the wars of the mortals she aided and protected
heroes. She is also represented as the patroness of the arts of peace. The
sculptor, the architect, and the painter, as well as the philosopher, the
orator, and the poet, considered her their tutelar deity. She is also
represented among the healing gods. In all these representations she is the
symbol of the thinking faculty, the goddess of wisdom, science, and art;
the latter, however, only in so far as invention and thought are
comprehended. In the images of the goddess a manly gravity and an air of
reflection are united with female beauty in her features. As a warrior she
is represented completely armed, her head covered with a gold helmet. As
the goddess of peaceful art she appears in the dress of a Grecian matron.
To her insignia belong the Ægis, the Gorgon's head, the round Argive
buckler; and the owl, the cock, the serpent, an olive branch, and a lance
were sacred to her. All Attica, but particularly Athens, was sacred to her,
and she had numerous temples there. Her most brilliant festival at Athens
was the Panathenæa.

ATHENÆ´UM, the temple of Athena or Minerva, at Athens, frequented by poets,
learned men, and orators. The same name was given at Rome to the school
which Hadrian established on the Capitoline Mount for the promotion of
literary and scientific studies. In modern times the same name is given to
literary clubs and establishments connected with the sciences. It is also
the title of several literary periodicals.

ATHENÆ´US, a Greek rhetorician and grammarian, who lived at the end of the
second and beginning of the third century after Christ, author of an
encyclopædic work, in the form of conversation, called _The Professors at
the Dinner-table_ (_Deipnosophistæ_), which is a rich but ill-arranged
treasure of historical, antiquarian, philosophical, grammatical, &c.,
knowledge.

ATHENAG´ORAS, a Platonic philosopher of Athens, a convert to Christianity,
who wrote a Greek _Apology for the Christians_, addressed to the Emperor
Marcus Aurelius, in 177, one of the earliest that appeared.

ATH´ENS (Gr. _Ath[=e]nai_, Lat. _Ath[=e]næ_), anciently the capital of
Attica and centre of Greek culture, now the capital of the kingdom of
Greece. It is situated in the central plain of Attica, about 4 miles from
the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Ægina, an arm of the Ægean Sea running in
between the mainland and the Peloponnesus. It is said to have been founded
about 1550 B.C. by Cecrops, the mythical Pelasgian hero, and to have borne
the name Cecropia until under Erechtheus it received the name of Athens in
honour of Ath[=e]n[=e]. The Acropolis, an irregular oval crag 150 feet
high, with a level summit 1000 feet long by 500 in breadth, was the
original nucleus of the city, which, according to tradition, was extended
by Theseus when Athens became the head of the confederate Attic States. The
three chief eminences near the Acropolis--the Areopagus to the north-west,
the Pnyx to the south-west, and the Museum to the south of the Pnyx--were
thus included within the city boundary as the sites of its chief public
buildings, the city itself, however, afterwards taking a northerly
direction. On the east ran the Ilissus and on the west the Cephissus, while
to the south-west lay three harbours--Phalerum, the oldest and nearest; the
Piræus, the most important; and Munychia, the Piræan Acropolis. At the
height of its prosperity the city was connected with its harbours by three
massive walls (the 'long walls'). The architectural development of Athens
may be dated from the rule of the Pisistratids (560-510 B.C.), who are
credited with the foundation of the huge temple of the Olympian Zeus,
completed by Hadrian seven centuries later, the erection of the Pythium or
temple of the Pythian Apollo, and of the Lyceum or temple of Apollo
Lyceus--all near the Ilissus; and to whom were due the enclosure of the
Academy, a gymnasium and gardens to the north of the city, and the building
of the Agora with its Portico or Stoa, Bouleuterium or Senate-house,
Tholus, and Prytaneum. With the foundation of Athenian democracy under
Clisthenes, the Pnyx or place of public assembly, with its semicircular
area and cyclopean wall, first became of importance, and a commencement was
made of the Dionysiac theatre (theatre of Dionysus or Bacchus) on the south
side of the Acropolis. After the destruction wrought by the Persians in 480
B.C., Themistocles reconstructed the city upon practical lines and with a
larger area, enclosing the city in new walls 7½ miles in circumference,
erecting the north wall of the Acropolis, and developing the maritime
resources of the Piræus; while Cimon added to the southern fortifications
of the Acropolis, placed on it the temple of Wingless Victory, planted the
Agora with trees, laid out the Academy, and built the Theseum on an
eminence north of the Areopagus; his brother-in-law, Peisianax, erected the
famous Stoa Poecil[=e], a hall with walls covered with paintings (whence
the _Stoics_ got their name). Under Pericles the highest point of artistic
development was reached. An Odeum was erected on the east of the Dionysiac
theatre for the recitations of rhapsodists and musicians; and with the aid
of the architects Ict[=i]nus, Callicrates, and Mnesicles, and of the
sculptor Phidias, the Acropolis was perfected. Covering the whole of the
western end rose the Propylæa, the splendid structure through which the
Acropolis was entered, constructed of Pentelic marble and consisting of a
central gateway portico with two wings in the form of Doric temples. Just
outside the Propylæa was the small temple of Wingless Victory. A short
distance within the entrance stood the bronze statue of Athena Promachus, a
colossal work of Phidias, 66 feet high, showing the goddess in complete
armour and leaning on a lance. Beyond it to the left was the Erechtheum,
the shrine of Athena Polias, guardian of the city, containing a very
ancient and sacred statue of Athena in olive-wood; while to the right, on
the highest part of the Acropolis, was the marble Parthenon or temple of
Athena, the crowning glory of the whole. This renowned structure, still
glorious in its ruins, was built under the auspices of Pericles, Phidias
being the sculptor and artistic adviser, and Ict[=i]nus and Callicrates the
architects. It is in the Doric style, and among its numerous sculptures
were fifty life-size statues, while in the interior was a chryselephantine
(gold and ivory) figure of the goddess, 39 feet high. (See _Parthenon_.)
Minor statues and shrines occupied the rest of the area of the Acropolis,
which was for the time wholly appropriated to the worship of the guardian
deities of the city. The Acropolis museum, a building of recent date,
contains an interesting and valuable collection of works of art found here.
In the interval between the close of the Peloponnesian War and the battle
of Chæronea few additions were made to the city. But the long walls and
Piræus, destroyed by Lysander, were restored by Conon, and under the orator
Lycurgus the Dionysiac temple was completed, the Panathenaic stadium
commenced, and the choragic monuments of Lysicrates and Thrasyllus erected.
Later on Ptolemy Philadelphus gave Athens the Ptolemæum near the Theseum,
Attalus I the stoa north-east of the Agora, Eumenes II that near the great
theatre, and Antiochus Epiphanes carried on the Olympieum. Under the Romans
it continued a flourishing city, Hadrian in the second century adorning it
with many new buildings, and constructing an aqueduct, finished by his son
Antoninus Pius. At this time also a wealthy citizen, Herodes Atticus, did
much to beautify the city, and in particular constructed an Odeum, the
ruins of which are still conspicuous. Indeed Athens was at no time more
splendid than under the Antonines, when Pausanias visited and described it.
But after a time Christian zeal, the attacks of barbarians, and robberies
of collectors made sad inroads among the monuments. About A.D. 420 paganism
was totally annihilated at Athens, and when Justinian closed even the
schools of the philosophers, the reverence for buildings associated with
the names of the ancient deities and heroes was lost. The Parthenon was
turned into a church of the Virgin Mary, and St. George stepped into the
place of Theseus. Finally, in 1456, the place fell into the hands of the
Turks. The Parthenon became a mosque, and in 1687 was greatly damaged by an
explosion at the siege of Athens by the Venetians. Enough, however, remains
of it and of the neighbouring structures to attest the splendour of the
Acropolis; while of the other buildings of the city, the Theseum, or temple
of Theseus, and the Horologium, or temple of the Winds, are admirably
preserved, as are also structures belonging to the Pnyx, Panathenaic
stadium (restored and again used for games), &c. The Theseum, indeed, is
said to be the best preserved building of all ancient Greece, and is hardly
less imposing than the Parthenon. Of more than a hundred columns that
belonged to the Olympieum or temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by
Hadrian, only fifteen are still standing. Soon after the commencement of
the war of liberation in 1821 the Turks surrendered Athens, but captured it
again in 1826-7. The Great Powers now intervened to bring about the
independence of Greece. The Turks evacuated Athens in 1833, and the troops
of King Otho then entered the city. In 1835 it became the royal residence,
and it soon began to make rapid progress, though its natural position is by
no means advantageous. The modern city mostly lies north, north-east, and
north-west of the Acropolis, and consists mainly of straight and well-built
streets. Among the principal buildings are the royal palace, a stately
building with a façade of Pentelic marble (completed 1843), the university,
the academy of science, national museum of archaeology, public library,
exhibition building, polytechnic institute, theatre, and observatory. There
are two universities, the National University, opened in 1836, and the
Capodistrian University with 3250 students. There are valuable museums, in
particular the National Museum and that in the Polytechnic School, which
contains the Schliemann collection, &c. These are constantly being added to
by excavations. There are four foreign archæological schools or institutes,
the French, German, American, and British. The Zappeion or exhibition
building is a handsome structure, erected at the expense of the brothers
Zappas to exhibit Greek industries. Tramways have been made in the
principal streets, and the city is connected by tramway and railway (6
miles) with its port, the Piræus. Athens has also railway connection with
the north and west of the kingdom as well as with the Peloponnesus. The
Piræus is the chief Greek centre of trade and industry. Water is brought
from Mount Pentelicus on the north-east, the aqueduct begun by Hadrian
being utilized in supplying the city. Pop. 167,479, and including the
Piræus 241,058.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Gardner, _Ancient Athens_; J. E.
Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_; W. Warde Fowler,
_The City-State_, chapter vi; W. M. Leake, _Topography of Athens and the
Demi_; C. H. Weller, _Athens and its Monuments_.

ATHENS, the name of many places in the United States, the chief being in
Georgia, and containing the Georgia University and the State college of
agriculture. It carries on the cotton manufacture, has manufactures of
agricultural implements, &c., and is a centre of trade. It was founded in
1801. Pop. 14,913.

ATH´ERINE (_Ather[=i]na_), the name of a genus of small fishes abundant in
the Mediterranean and caught in British waters, especially on the coasts of
the south of England, some of them being highly esteemed as food. They are
also known as _Sand-smelts_. There are two British species.

ATHERO´MA, in pathology, a term applied to a change that may take place in
the inner coat of an artery, consisting in a kind of fatty degeneration,
leading to an aneurism or bursting. Also an encysted tumour containing
matter of a curdy appearance.

ATH´ERSTONE, a town in Warwickshire, England, 8 miles S.E. of Tamworth, and
equidistant (100 miles) from London, Liverpool, and Lincoln. It has
manufactures of hats, and is the reputed birthplace of the poet Drayton.
Pop. (1921), 20,849 (rural district).

ATH´ERTON, town of England, Lancashire, 13 miles north-west of Manchester;
cotton-factories, collieries, and ironworks give chief employment to the
inhabitants. Pop. (1921), 19,863.

ATHLETES (ath´l[=e]ts; Gr. _athl[=e]tai_, from _athlos_, a contest,
_athlon_, a prize), originally, in ancient Greece, combatants who took part
and contended for a prize (_athlon_) in the public games. The profession
was an honourable one; tests of birth, position, and character were
imposed, and crowns, statues, special privileges, and pensions were among
the rewards of success. (See _Games_.) The word is used in a similar sense
at the present day, but is more especially applied to persons who can
exhibit feats of strength. Games and athletic competitions, if they do not
hold such an honourable position to-day as they did in antiquity, are still
practised with great enthusiasm and excite the keenest interest in their
patrons.

ATHLETIC SPORTS, a general name for certain physical exercises demanding a
special natural ability, and embodying a variety of events which
conventionally include not only running and jumping but such feats of
strength as putting the weight and throwing the hammer. The selection of
these events at any athletic meeting is a somewhat arbitrary one, and the
inclusion of those which require strength and skill rather than speed and
agility rests more on a traditional than a logical basis. A particular
feature which distinguishes these exercises as athletic sports is the
presence of the idea of competition; thus running and walking, as isolated
exercises, can be called 'sports' only when men compete against one
another, although the factor of competition may be only indirectly present,
as when an athlete endeavours to beat a record.

In this country athletic sports have long been a national characteristic,
and records, more or less authentic, have been handed down for the last
hundred years or more. Until comparatively recently, such sports have been
the prerogative of the British Isles; but during the last thirty years the
United States have adopted them with enormous enthusiasm and success, and
more recently still the vogue has extended throughout the Continent, and
good results have been obtained by representatives from France, Germany,
Italy, Austria, Sweden, and Finland, as well as from all the Colonies. In
this country no school, no matter how small or how humble its pretensions,
fails to hold its athletic meeting annually. The same applies to all
colleges of the leading universities, Oxford and Cambridge, the best
representatives of which compete against one another, whilst the smaller
universities hold similar competitions. In addition, a large number of
clubs are in existence throughout the country for the promotion and
encouragement of sports, the whole system of athletics being under the
Amateur Athletic Association (founded in 1880), whose rules and regulations
for the correct maintenance of athletics in the best interests of
amateurism are regarded as a standard throughout the world. Under its
auspices an annual meeting--the Amateur Championships--is held. This
meeting is open to the whole world, and many of the championships have been
held at one time or another by distinguished visitors from America, the
Colonies, and the Continent. At the time of writing, the association is
considering the project of holding two distinct annual meetings, one of
which shall, as hitherto, be unrestricted, the other confined to residents
in the British Isles. This, which is the most important meeting of the
year, has taken place uninterruptedly since its origin in 1866 with the
exception of the military interval, 1915-8, and has been successfully
resumed in 1919. For the past fourteen or fifteen years the meeting has
been held in London on the first Saturday in July, and this practice will
probably be a permanent one, although hitherto the venue was, in rotation,
London, the Midlands, and the North. The university and inter-university
meetings are held before Easter, the former at the respective university
towns, the latter at Queen's Club, London. Among other important
representative contests may be mentioned the Public Schools' Championships
(usually in April), the United Hospitals' Championships, the Irish, the
Scottish, the Welsh, the Midland and the Northern Counties' Championships.
During the war, athletics were practically restricted to the services, and
the Army Athletic Championships, held in Aug., 1919, was a successful
reunion of soldier athletes from the various theatres of war, and included,
for the first time in history, coloured troops.

The standard inter-university meeting comprises ten events, namely, flat
races--100 yards, ¼ mile, ½ mile, 1 mile, and 3 miles; 120-yards hurdle
race; the high jump and long jump; putting the weight and throwing the
hammer. These events appear in the programme of the Amateur Championship
meeting, with the substitution of a 4-miles race for the 3 miles, and the
addition of a 220-yards race, a 2-miles walking race, a 2-miles
steeplechase (representing a miniature cross-country event), and the pole
jump. A relay race, in which four representatives from each club run half a
mile, a quarter of a mile, 220 yards, and 220 yards respectively, is also
included as a standard event; whilst at the 1919 meeting a race of 440
yards over hurdles appeared for the first time, and will probably occupy a
permanent place in the programme. Two additional Amateur Championship
events, 7-miles walk and 10-miles flat race, are usually held at a separate
meeting in the spring.

In addition to the preceding British meetings, a great International
contest, the Olympic Games, is held every four years in a country selected
by the Olympic committee. This meeting is truly international, the last
before 1914 having taken place at Stockholm in 1912, when representatives
from the most distant parts of the world competed with representatives from
every country in Europe in a remarkably elaborate programme, which
included, in addition to the preceding, such feats as throwing the javelin
and the discus, and the classic 'Marathon race' over the traditional
distance of 26¼ miles. The 1920 Olympic meeting was arranged to take place
at Antwerp.

Although many excellently arranged athletic sports are held successfully
upon a grass course, at any important meeting the races are contested upon
a properly-constructed cinder-path, a quarter or a third of a mile in
length, and in shape an oval flattened on two sides so as to include as
much straight as possible. The width of the running path is variable, but
18 to 24 feet may be regarded as an average. The centre is of grass, and
spaces are prepared for the hurdle race, for the jumps, and the other
events which are described as the _field_, as opposed to _track_, events.

Flat races are classified as 'sprint races', 'middle distance' and 'long
distance' races, although the distinction between these is somewhat
arbitrary. Whether or no a man is actually capable of running the whole
distance in question at full speed, the term 'sprint' is applied to those
distances in which an attempt is made to put forth a continuous maximum
effort. The limit is, by general consent, fixed at 300 yards. At any good
meeting the 100-yards race will be run in 10 seconds; at the very best
meeting this time will be beaten; and many runners have been credited with
9-4/5 seconds, a few, under exceptional conditions, with 9-3/5 seconds. The
record for 220 yards is 21-1/5 seconds. Middle-distance running includes
races from a quarter mile to a mile, and races are held at 440 yards, 600
yards, 880 yards, 1000 yards, 1 mile, and very occasionally at ¾ mile. With
modern specialization, however, it is rare to find any one runner capable
of supremacy at more than one of these distances. The ¼ mile is the common
ground for the sprinter and the middle-distance runner, and 48 seconds has
been beaten on several occasions, although it may be said that anything
inside 50 seconds is a first-class performance. The record for 600 yards is
1 minute 11 seconds. The ½-mile race has demonstrated latterly, perhaps,
the greatest advance of all; and whilst anything under 2 minutes may still
be regarded as a good performance, a championship event will most always be
won in 3 or 4 seconds faster time; whilst at an Olympic meeting the
wonderful record of 1 minute 52½ seconds has been made. The mile, which was
originally regarded as a long-distance event, is now legitimately
considered as within the capacity of a middle-distance runner. At any
first-class meeting 4 minutes 20 seconds will be accomplished, and any
diminution of this time may be regarded as of superlative merit. The
record, which has stood since 1886, is 4 minutes 12¾ seconds, although a
recent performance in America, which is a tiny fraction of a second faster,
has yet to be passed. Over 1 mile, long-distance running begins, and, as
considerable staying-power is required, it is not unusual to find one man
prove champion at 4 miles and 10 miles, and even the 1-mile race in the
same year. No runner has yet achieved the capacity of running 12 miles
within the hour, although two or three have been within a few hundred yards
of this distance. About ten years ago the fashion became a craze of
contesting 'Marathon races' in which all sorts of distances, quite
independent of the classic 26¼ miles, were employed. At rare intervals very
long-distance running, such as 50 miles, is indulged in. For any distance
over 20 miles a special form of endurance is called for, rather than
orthodox running in good style. As a competition 'walking' is an
unsatisfactory exercise, because of the extreme difficulty in deciding when
the athlete is still fulfilling the orthodox regulation as to what
constitutes fair 'heel and toe', inasmuch as the style of a man who is
ostensibly walking, yet actually progressing at a rate faster than 9 miles
an hour (faster than the average untrained person can run), is exceedingly
difficult to analyse. About fifteen years ago long-distance walking became
exceedingly popular, and hundreds of competitors attempted the classic walk
to Brighton and back.

The usual hurdle race is over 120 yards, with ten flights of hurdles 10
yards apart, so that a distance of 15 yards separates the start from the
first flight, and the same distance the last flight from the finish. The
hurdles are 3½ feet high, with perfectly-level top rails. In correct
'hurdling' the 'three-stride method' is essential, that is to say, three
strides are taken on the flat between the hurdles, and the athlete rises 6
feet from the obstacle, taking it in his stride, so that retardation of
speed is reduced to a minimum. The skill and accuracy of an accomplished
hurdler is remarkable, and the race is frequently run inside 16 seconds; a
record of 15 seconds, and even a trifle less, has been accomplished.

In this country, running long jump and high jump (and to a less extent the
pole jump) alone are practised to any extent, although as occasional events
the standing high and long jumps are contested, and, still less frequently,
the old-fashioned hop, step, and jump. In the long jump the athlete employs
all the impetus he can acquire by a sprint of about 30 yards. The ideal
aimed at is to run at the fastest speed which is consistent with reaching
the taking-off board with accuracy, and then to leap as high as possible. A
fraction of an inch under 25 feet has been cleared on two occasions,
although it may be said that anything over 24 feet is exceptional, and that
any jumper capable of 23 feet consistently has a good chance to win an
Amateur Championship. The high jump requires skill of a very peculiar
character. Whilst the novice regards this feat as dependent on momentum,
and takes a correspondingly long run to acquire speed, the crack performer
employs his capacity of manipulating his body and limbs so as to cross the
bar in a horizontal position. In this way the prodigious height of 6 feet 7
inches has been cleared. In general it may be said that first-class jumping
begins at 6 feet.

Pole jumping, a particularly pretty event to watch, has never been
practised to any great extent in this country, and, in fact, does not even
appear to be so popular here as twenty years ago. The pole employed is of
light but strong bamboo about 14 feet long, with a sharp ferrule at one
end, which is stuck firmly into the ground. By the help of the pole, which
is firmly grasped near the other end, the jumper elevates himself to the
bar, over which he throws his legs and his body, finally relinquishing his
hold of the pole, to fall on the opposite side. Recent years have witnessed
the development of great skill in this event, particularly by the
Americans, Canadians, and Swedes, and 13 feet has been cleared.

The weight or shot is an iron ball weighing 16 lb., which must be put with
one hand only from the shoulder within a circle of 7 feet diameter.
Although great strength is essential, skill in utilizing the whole of the
body plays a very important part. Over 50 feet has been put on several
occasions.

The 'hammer' is a ball of lead or iron attached by a wire to a handle. The
total length must not exceed four feet; the weight of the whole must be at
least 16 lb. The performer grasps the handle with one or both hands, and,
standing within a 7-foot circle, swings the ball round and round to acquire
impetus, which is then increased by rapid rotatory movements of his body.
Once again skill and co-ordination must be wedded to strength. A crack
performer has thrown over 175 feet.

Throwing the javelin and discus are classical rather than popular events,
and their cultivation is fashionable only when an Olympic contest is
imminent. Among other 'strong-men' contests, which have long been favourite
sports in Scotland, are tossing the _caber_ and putting the stone. The
latter is usually a very heavy implement weighing about 56 lb.; the 'caber'
is the trunk of a fir or other tree, freed from branches, which is held
upright close to the chest by the smaller end, and thrown so as to alight
on the heavier end.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Encyclopædia of Sports and Games_;
_Annual Sporting and Athletic Register_; F. A. M. Webster, _The Evolution
of the Olympic Games, 1829_ B.C.-A.D. _1914_; G. Le Roy, _Athlétisme_;
E. W. Hjertberg, _Athletics in Theory and Practice_; P. Withington, _The
Book of Athletics_.

ATHLONE´, a town of Ireland, divided by the Shannon into two parts, one in
Westmeath, the other in Roscommon; about 76 miles west of Dublin. Its
position has made it one of the chief military depots, and a centre of
trade by river, canal, and railway. It manufactures woollen goods, linens,
&c. Up to 1885 it sent one member to Parliament. Pop. 7500.

ATH´OLL, or ATHOLE, a mountainous and romantic district in the north of
Perthshire, Scotland, giving the title to a duke of the Murray family who
owns a large area there.

ATHOR, HATHOR, or HET-HER, an Egyptian goddess, identified with
Aphrod[=i]t[=e] or Venus. Her symbol was the cow bearing on its head the
solar disc and hawk-feather plumes. Her chief temple was at Denderah. From
her the third month of the Egyptian year derived its name.

A´THOS (now HAGION OROS or MONTE SANTO, that is, Holy Mountain), a mountain
6700 feet high, terminating the most eastern of the three peninsulas of
Macedonia that jut in parallel directions into the Archipelago. The name,
however, is frequently applied to the whole peninsula, which is about 30
miles long by 5 broad. It is covered with forests, and plantations of
olive, vine, and other fruit-trees. Both the surface and coast-line are
irregular. The Persian fleet under Mardonius was wrecked here in 493 B.C.,
and to avoid a similar calamity Xerxes caused a canal, of which traces may
yet be seen, to be cut through the isthmus that joins the peninsula to the
mainland. On the peninsula there are situated about twenty monasteries and
a multitude of hermitages, which contain from 6000 to 8000 monks and
hermits of the order of St. Basil. The libraries of the monasteries are
rich in literary treasures and manuscripts. Every nation belonging to the
Greek Church has here one or more monasteries of its own, which are
annually visited by pilgrims. After having passed in the fifteenth century
from the sovereignty of the Greek Emperors of Byzantium to that of the
Sultans, it fell again into the hands of the Greeks, who occupied it in
Nov., 1912. Each of the twenty monasteries is a little republic in itself,
and until 1912 they used to pay an annual tribute of nearly £4000 to the
Turks, and were governed by a synod of twenty monastic deputies and four
presidents meeting weekly. They are now ruled either by abbots chosen for
life, or by a board of overseers elected for a certain number of years. The
revenue of the community is derived from pilgrims, and from a considerable
trade in amulets, rosaries, crucifixes, images, and wooden furniture.

ATHY´, a town in Ireland, county of Kildare, 37 miles south-west of Dublin,
on the Barrow, which is here joined by the Grand Canal. Its chief trade is
in corn. Pop. 3535.

ATIT´LAN, a lake and mountain of Central America in Guatemala. The lake is
about 24 miles long and 10 broad; the mountain is an active volcano 12,160
feet high.

ATLAN´TA, a city in the United States, capital of Georgia, on an elevated
ridge, 7 miles south-east of the Chattahoochee River. It is an important
railway centre; carries on a large trade in grain, paper, cotton, flour,
and especially tobacco, and possesses flour-mills, paper-mills, ironworks,
&c. Here are Atlanta University for negro men and women, a theological
college, a medical college, &c. Atlanta suffered severely during the Civil
War, and a battle was fought there on 22nd July, 1864. A fire which broke
out on 21st May, 1917, caused damage estimated at more than £1,000,000.
Pop. (1920), 200,600.

ATLAN´TES, or TELAM[=O]NES, in architecture, male figures used in place of
columns or pilasters for the support of an entablature or cornice. Female
figures so employed are termed _caryatides_.

ATLANTIC CITY, a fashionable watering-place of the United States, on the
coast of New Jersey. It is an important air port, and has an aerodrome
covering about 160 acres. Pop. 50,682.

ATLANTIC OCEAN, the vast expanse of sea lying between the west coasts of
Europe and Africa and the east coasts of North and South America, and
extending from the Arctic to the Antarctic Ocean; greatest breadth, between
the west coast of Northern Africa and the east coast of Florida, 4150
miles; least breadth, between Norway and Greenland, 930 miles. The total
area of the North Atlantic (including the inland seas) is 13,262,000 sq.
miles; the area of the South Atlantic is 12,627,000 sq. miles. The
principal inlets and bays are Baffin's and Hudson's Bays, the Gulf of
Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, the North Sea, the Bay of Biscay, and the Gulf
of Guinea. The principal islands north of the equator are Iceland, the
Faroe and British Islands, the Azores, Canaries, and Cape Verde Islands,
Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the West India Islands; and south of the
equator, Ascension, St. Helena, and Tristan da Cunha.

The great currents of the Atlantic are the Equatorial Current (divisible
into the Main, Northern, and Southern Equatorial Currents), the Gulf
Stream, the North African and Guinea Current, the Southern Connecting
Current, the Southern Atlantic Current, the Cape Horn Current, Rennel's
Current, and the Arctic Current. The current system is primarily set in
motion by the trade-winds which drive the water of the intertropical region
from Africa towards the American coasts. The Main Equatorial Current,
passing across the Atlantic, is turned by the S. American coast, along
which it runs at a rate of 30 to 50 miles a day, till, having received part
of the North Equatorial Current, it enters the Gulf of Mexico. Issuing
thence between Florida and Cuba under the name of the Gulf Stream, it flows
with a gradually-expanding channel nearly parallel to the coast of the
United States. It then turns north-eastward into the mid-Atlantic, the
larger proportion of it passing southward to the east of the Azores to
swell the North African and Guinea Current created by the northerly winds
off the Portuguese coast. The Guinea Current, which takes a southerly
course, is divided into two on arriving at the region of the north-east
trades, part of it flowing east to the Bight of Biafra and joining the
South African feeder of the Main Equatorial, but the larger portion being
carried westward into the North Equatorial drift. Rennel's Current, which
is possibly a continuation of the Gulf Stream, enters the Bay of Biscay
from the west, curves round its coast, and then turns north-west towards
Cape Clear. The Arctic Current runs along the east coast of Greenland
(being here called the Greenland Current), doubles Cape Farewell, and flows
up towards Davis' Strait; it then turns to the south along the coasts of
Labrador and the United States, from which it separates the Gulf Stream by
a cold band of water. Immense masses of ice are borne south by this current
from the Polar seas. In the interior of the North Atlantic there is a large
area comparatively free from currents, called the Sargasso Sea, from the
large quantity of sea-weed (of the genus Sargassum) which drifts into it. A
similar area exists in the South Atlantic. In the South Atlantic the
portion of the Equatorial Current which strikes the American coast below
Cape St. Roque flows southward at the rate of from 12 to 20 miles a day
along the Brazil coast under the name of the Brazil Current. It then turns
eastward and forms the South Connecting Current, which, on reaching the
South African coast, turns northward into the Main and Southern Equatorial
Currents. Besides the surface currents, an under current of cold water
flows from the poles to the equator, and an upper current of warm water
from the equator towards the poles.

The greatest depth as yet discovered is north of Porto Rico, in the West
Indies, namely 27,360 feet. Cross-sections of the North Atlantic between
Europe and America show that its bed consists of two great valleys lying in
a north-and-south direction, and separated by a ridge, on which there is an
average depth of 1800 fathoms. The mean depth of the North Atlantic is 2047
fathoms, that of the South Atlantic 2067 fathoms. A ridge, called the
_Wyville-Thomson Ridge_, with a depth of little more than 200 fathoms above
it, runs from near the Butt of Lewis to Iceland, cutting off the colder
water of the Arctic Ocean from the warmer water of the Atlantic. The South
Atlantic, of which the greatest depth yet found is over 3000 fathoms,
resembles the North Atlantic in having an elevated plateau or ridge in the
centre with a deep trough on either side. The saltness and specific gravity
of the Atlantic gradually diminish from the tropics to the poles, and also
from within a short distance of the tropics to the equator. In the
neighbourhood of the British Isles the salt has been stated at one
thirty-eighth of the weight of the water. The North Atlantic is the
greatest highway of ocean traffic in the world. It is also a great area of
submarine communication, by means of the telegraphic cables that are laid
across its bed. See _Oceanography_.

ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See _Telegraph_.

ATLAN´TIDES (-d[=e]z), a name given to the Pleiades, which were fabled to
be the seven daughters of Atlas or of his brother Hesperus.

ATLAN´TIS, an island which, according to Plato, existed in the Atlantic
over against the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), was the home
of a great nation, and was finally swallowed up by the sea. The legend has
been accepted by some as fundamentally true; but others have regarded it as
the outgrowth of some early discovery of the New World.

ATLAN´TOSAURUS, a gigantic fossil reptile, ord. Dinosauria, obtained in the
upper Jurassic strata of the Rocky Mountains, attaining a length of 110
feet or more.

ATLAS, an extensive mountain system in North Africa, starting near Cape Nun
on the Atlantic Ocean, traversing Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis, and
terminating on the coast of the Mediterranean; divided generally into two
parallel ranges, running W. to E., the Greater Atlas lying towards the
Sahara and the Lesser Atlas towards the Mediterranean. The principal chain
is about 1500 miles long, and the principal peaks rise above or approach
the line of perpetual congelation, Miltsin in Morocco being 11,400 feet
high, and Tizi Likumpt being 13,150. The highest elevation is perhaps Tizi
Tamyurt, estimated at fully 15,000 feet. Silver, antimony, lead, copper,
iron, &c., are among the minerals. The vegetation is chiefly European in
character, except on the low grounds and next the desert.

ATLAS, in Greek mythology, the name of a Titan whom Zeus condemned to bear
the vault of heaven.--The same name is given to a collection of maps and
charts, and was first used by Gerard Mercator in the sixteenth century, the
figure of Atlas bearing the globe being given on the title-pages of such
works.

ATLAS, in anatomy, is the name of the first vertebra of the neck, which
supports the head. It is connected with the occipital bone in such a way as
to permit of the nodding movement of the head, and rests on the second
vertebra or _axis_, their union allowing the head to turn from side to
side.

AT´LAS, a kind of silk or silk-satin fabric of Eastern manufacture.

ATMIDOM´ETER, an instrument for measuring the evaporation from water, ice,
or snow. It somewhat resembles Nicholson's hydrometer, being constructed so
as to float in water and having an upright graduated stem, on the top of
which is a metal pan. Water, ice, or snow is put into the pan, so as to
sink the zero of the stem to a level with the cover of the vessel, and as
evaporation goes on the stem rises, showing the amount of evaporation in
grains.

ATMOM´ETER, an instrument for measuring the amount of evaporation from a
moist surface in a given time. It is often a thin hollow ball of porous
earthenware in which is inserted a graduated glass tube. The cavity of the
ball and tube being filled with water and the top of the tube closed, the
instrument is exposed to the free action of the air; the relative rapidity
with which the water transuding through the porous substance is evaporated
is marked by the scale on the tube as the water sinks.

AT´MOSPHERE, primarily the gaseous envelope which surrounds the earth; but
the term is applied to that of any orb. Twilight effects show that the
atmosphere is sufficiently dense up to a height of 40 miles to scatter or
reflect to an appreciable degree the sun's rays, while the phenomena of
meteors, which are rendered luminous through friction, show that it
extends, though in extremely attenuated form, to 100 or even 200 or more
miles. It exerts on every part of the earth's surface a pressure of about
15 (14.73) lb. per sq. inch. The existence of this atmospheric pressure was
first proved by Torricelli, who thus accounted for the rush of a liquid to
fill a vacuum, and who, working out the idea, produced the first barometer.
The average height of the mercurial column counterbalancing the atmospheric
weight at the sea-level is a little less than 30 inches; but the pressure
varies from hour to hour, and, roughly speaking, diminishes in geometrical
progression with arithmetical increase in altitude. Of periodic variations
there are two maxima of daily pressure, occurring when the temperature is
about the mean of the day, and two minima, when it is at its highest and
lowest respectively; but the problems of diurnal and seasonal oscillations
have yet to be fully solved. The pressure upon the human body of average
size is no less than 14 tons, but as it is exerted equally in all
directions no inconvenience is caused by it. It is sometimes convenient to
take the atmospheric pressure as a standard for measuring other fluid
pressures; thus the steam pressure of 30 lb. per sq. inch on a boiler is
spoken of as a pressure of two atmospheres.

The atmosphere, first subjected to analysis by Priestley and Scheele in the
latter part of the eighteenth century, consists practically of oxygen and
nitrogen in the almost constant proportion of 20.81 volumes of oxygen to
79.19 volumes of nitrogen, or, by weight, 23.01 parts of oxygen to 76.99 of
nitrogen. The gases are associated together, not as a chemical compound,
but as a mechanical mixture. Upon the oxygen present depends the power of
the atmosphere to support combustion and respiration, the nitrogen acting
as a diluent to prevent its too energetic action. It had long been known
that atmospheric nitrogen appeared to have a very slightly greater density
than nitrogen obtained from other sources. Lord Rayleigh and Sir William
Ramsay found that the fact was due to a still more inert gas which forms
nearly 1 per cent of the air, and which had not previously been separated
from nitrogen. This has been named _argon_. Besides these gases, the
atmosphere also contains aqueous vapour in variable quantity, ozone,
carbonic acid gas, traces of ammonia, nitric acid, and, in towns,
sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid gas. In addition to its gaseous
constituents the atmosphere is charged with dust, bacteria, &c. For other
gases which are present in traces, see _Neon_. See _Climate_;
_Meteorology_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Flammarion, _L'Atmosphère_; Sir Napier
Shaw, _The Weather Map_.

ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE, name given by early inventors to engines in which the
piston is restored to the bottom of its stroke by atmospheric pressure.

ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY, so called in consequence of the motive power being
derived from the pressure of the atmosphere, or from compressed air. The
idea of thus obtaining motion was first suggested by the French engineer
Papin, about 200 years ago. In 1810, and again in 1827, Medhurst published
a scheme for 'propelling carriages through a close-fitting air-tight tunnel
by forcing in air behind them'; and in 1825 a similar project was patented
by Vallance of Brighton. About 1835 H. Pinkus, an American residing in
England, patented a pneumatic railway. The carriages were to travel on an
open line of rails, along which a cast-iron tube of between 3 and 4 feet
diameter was to be laid, having a longitudinal slit from 1 to 2 inches wide
and closed by a flexible valve along its upper side, through which a
connection could be formed between the leading carriage and a piston
working within the tube. This method was improved by Messrs. Clegg &
Samuda, who in 1840 tried some experiments on a portion of the West London
Railway with sufficient success to induce the Government to advance a loan
to the Dublin and Kingstown Railway Company, for the construction of a
pneumatic line from Kingstown to Dalkey. It was opened for passenger
traffic at the end of 1843, and was worked for many months. The London and
Croydon Company subsequently obtained powers for laying down an atmospheric
railway by the side of their other line from London to Croydon, and in
experimental trips in 1845 a speed of 30 miles an hour was obtained with
sixteen carriages, and of 70 miles with six carriages. But during the
intense heat of the summer of 1846 the iron tube frequently became so hot
as to melt the composition which sealed the valve, and the line had to be
worked by locomotives. The mechanical difficulty of commanding a sufficient
amount of rarefaction led to the abandonment of the system for railway
purposes. It has been revived, however, for the conveyance of letters and
parcels in towns by means of tubes of moderate diameter laid beneath the
streets. See _Pneumatic Dispatch_.

[Illustration: Atoll]

ATOLL´, the Polynesian name for coral islands of the ringed type enclosing
a lagoon in the centre. They are found chiefly in the Pacific in
archipelagos, and occasionally are of large size. Suadiva Atoll is 44 miles
by 34; Rimsky 54 by 20. See _Coral_.

ATOMIC THEORY, a theory as to the existence and properties of atoms (see
_Atoms_); especially, in chemistry, the theory accounting for the fact that
in compound bodies the elements combine in certain constant proportions, by
assuming that all bodies are composed of ultimate atoms, the weight of
which is different in different kinds of matter. It is associated with the
name of Dalton, who systematized and extended the imperfect results of his
predecessors. On its practical side the atomic theory asserts three _Laws
of Combining Proportions_: (1) The Law of Constant or Definite Proportions,
teaching that in every chemical compound the nature and relative weights of
the constituent elements are definite and invariable; thus water invariably
consists of 8 parts by weight of oxygen to 1 part by weight of hydrogen;
(2) The Law of Multiple Proportions, according to which the several
proportions in which one element unites with a given weight of another
invariably bear towards each other a simple relation; thus 1 part by weight
of hydrogen unites with 8 parts by weight of oxygen to form water, and with
16 (i.e. 8×2) parts of oxygen to form peroxide of hydrogen; (3) The Law of
Combination in Reciprocal Proportions, that the proportions in which two
elements combine with a third also represent the proportions in which, or
in some simple multiple of which, they will themselves combine; thus in
olefiant gas hydrogen is present with carbon in the proportion of 1 to 6,
and in carbonic oxide, oxygen is present with carbon in the proportion of 8
to 6, 1 to 8 being also the proportions in which hydrogen and oxygen
combine with each other. The theory that these _proportional numbers_ are,
in fact, nothing else but the relative weights of atoms so far accounts for
the phenomena that the existence of these laws might have been predicted by
the aid of the atomic hypothesis long before they were actually discovered
by analysis. In themselves, however, the laws do not prove the theory of
the existence of ultimate particles of matter of a certain relative weight;
and although many chemists, even without expressly adopting the atomic
theory itself, have followed Dalton in the use of the terms _atom_ and
_atomic weight_, in preference to _proportion_, _combining weight_,
_equivalent_, and the like, yet in using the word _atom_ it should be held
in mind that it merely denotes the combining weights of the elements. These
will remain the same whether the atomic hypothesis which suggested the
employment of the term be true or false. Dalton supposed that the atoms are
spherical, and invented certain symbols to represent the mode in which he
conceived they might combine. The latest atomic hypothesis is one which
assigns an electrical structure to the atom. See _Chemistry_;
_Electricity_; _Matter_. Cf. H. E. Roscoe and A. Harden, _New View of
Dalton's Atomic Theory_; Sir J. J. Thomson, _Atomic Theory_.

ATOMIC WEIGHTS. See _Chemistry_; _Molecular Weights_.

ATOMISTS. See _Atoms_.

ATOMS, for many years regarded as the ultimate indivisible particles of the
chemical elements. The idea originated with some of the ancient
philosophers (the atomists), more especially Democritus (450 B.C.),
Epicurus, and Lucretius (99-55 B.C.), and was developed into a definite
theory by Dalton (1804). According to Dalton the atoms of any one element
are alike in all their properties, but differ from the atoms of other
elements, and when chemical combination occurs it takes place between the
atoms of the combining elements (see _Chemistry_). Various views have been
held with regard to the nature of atoms. Newton regarded them as hard,
ponderable particles, perfectly unalterable, and concluded that the
difference between substances was due to different kinds of atoms. Lord
Kelvin propounded the view that the properties of atoms might be explained
by those of vortices or vortex rings in a homogeneous frictionless fluid.
As a result of the researches of British and French physicists on radium,
the latest view is that matter and electricity are closely connected, that
atoms are not indivisible, but complex aggregates containing positive and
negative electrons, the differences between the atoms depending mainly on
the numbers of these electrons and their velocity. See _Radium_.

ATONEMENT, in Christian theology, the special work of Christ effected by
His life, sufferings, and death. The first explicit exposition of the
evangelical doctrine of the atonement is ascribed to Anselm, Archbishop of
Canterbury, in 1093.

ATRATO ([.a]-trä´t[=o]), a river of S. America, in the north-west of
Colombia, emptying itself by nine mouths into the Gulf of Darien; it is
navigable by steamers of some size for 250 miles, and has long been the
subject of schemes for establishing water-communication between the
Atlantic and Pacific.

ATRAULI, a town of India, United Provinces, Aligarh district, clean, well
built, and with a good trade. Pop. 16,560.

       *       *       *       *       *


Corrections made to printed original.

Article Animalcule. "but most of them are strictly microscopic.":
'miscroscopic' in original.








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