English Grammar and Composition for Public Schools

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

AND

COMPOSITION

FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

G. H. ARMSTRONG, M.A., B.Pæd.,

Principal Borden St. School, Toronto.

TORONTO:

The Hunter, Rose Co., Limited, Temple Building.

It is not considered necessary to offer an apology for the publication of a work on English grammar and composition for the Public Schools of Ontario.

The plan of the work is inductive and practical, and the author has endeavored to make the book a useful one for the purposes of teaching. Every principle is presented through the observation of examples of good English.

The study of grammar aids the student to master his mother-tongue, but its chief function is to secure mental discipline. For the development of the intellectual powers, the capable teacher, well furnished with rational methods, will find this study superior to all others. It is a study in recognizing similarities, in distinguishing differences, in making abstractions, in forming generalizations. The object of Parts I.-IV. of this book is to contribute something to the science of elementary English grammar.

Part V. treats of composition. The usual exercises in completing half-built sentences, in straightening out wrecks of sentences, in combining simple sentences into complex sentences, in expanding phrases into clauses, etc., will not be found therein. They have done quite enough towards fostering stupidity in our schools. The art of expression is acquired through steady practice, therefore pupils should write compositions not once a week, but during part of every period, about things which they understand. They should be taught good form in expression, and trained to correct their own exercises.

This part of the work, though brief, will be found suggestive. Teachers and pupils have not been deprived of the pleasure and profit of an independent examination of the construction of the prose selections.

This little volume owes something to several English grammars, and the debt is hereby acknowledged.

Is there a complete thought expressed in each of the following groups of words?—

Which of the foregoing sentences declares something, which expresses a command, which asks a question, and which expresses a sudden feeling?

A sentence that expresses a command or request is called an imperative sentence.

A sentence that expresses a sudden or strong feeling is called an exclamatory sentence.

State the use or office of each of the following sentences, and tell the kind of sentence:—

LESSON II.

Name the thing which is spoken of in each of the following sentences, and what is said about it:—

The part of a sentence that expresses the thing spoken of is called the subject.

The part of a sentence that expresses what is said about the subject is called the predicate.

The subject of a declarative sentence is generally placed before the predicate, but it is sometimes placed after the predicate; as,

The subject of an imperative sentence is thou, ye or you. It is seldom expressed; as,

Name the subject and the predicate and state the kind of sentence of each of the following:—

1. Write four examples of an assertive sentence and name the subject and the predicate of each sentence.

2. Write four examples of an imperative sentence and name the subject and the predicate of each sentence.

3. Write four examples of an interrogative sentence and name the subject and the predicate of each sentence.

4. Write four examples of an exclamatory sentence and name the subject and the predicate of each sentence.

LESSON III.

LESSON IV.

Name the nouns for which the words printed in italics are used in the following sentences:—

By the use of the pronoun, a person or thing is referred to without naming it, and the too frequent repetition of the same noun is avoided.

Select the pronouns in the following sentences, and state the noun for which each is used:—

2. Write a sentence containing a pronoun used for the names of the speaker and others.

3. Write a sentence containing a pronoun used for the name of a person spoken to.

4. Write a sentence containing a pronoun used for the name of a person spoken of.

5. Write a sentence containing a pronoun used for the names of two or more persons spoken of.

6. Write a sentence containing a pronoun used for the name of a thing that has been previously spoken of.

LESSON V.

Select the words in the following sentences that are used to describe or point out the things named by the nouns:—

The word tall describes this particular man. The word this points out the particular book that is meant. Such words modify the nouns with which they are used.

Model.—The adjectives in the first sentence are a, rusty, a and silver. A points out or indicates the species of the thing knife. Rusty describes the thing knife.

LESSON VI.

Select the words in the following sentences that tell or assert something of the thing spoken of:—

Name the verbs in the following sentences, and state what each tells or asserts:—

Write sentences containing each of the following words used as subjects, and underline the verbs:—

LESSON VII.

Name the words in the following sentences that modify the verbs, that show how, when or where actions were performed:—

An adverb may also modify the meaning of another adverb; as, She writes more rapidly than you.

An adverb is a word that is used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

State the adverbs in the following sentences, and name the word which each modifies:—

LESSON VIII.

Name the words in the following sentences that express the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word:—

A word that is used to express the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence is called a preposition.

The noun or pronoun which the preposition connects in sense with some other word in the sentence, is called its object; as, The men are in the field.

Select the prepositions, and state the words between which each shows a relation:—

1. Write three sentences each containing a preposition expressing a relation between a noun and a verb. Underline the object.

2. Write three sentences each containing a preposition expressing a relation between two nouns. Underline the object of the preposition.

3. Write three sentences each containing a preposition expressing a relation between a noun and an adjective.

Name the words that connect sentences, or words or phrases, used in the same way in the following sentences:—

A word that connects sentences, or words, or phrases, used in the same way in a sentence, is called a conjunction.

Select the conjunctions in the following sentences, and tell what each connects:—

LESSON X.

Name the words in the following sentences that express sudden or strong feeling:—

Interjections express a variety of feelings, such as joy, sorrow, surprise, pain, contempt and strong desire.

Select the interjections in the following sentences, and state the feeling expressed by each:—

We have now learned all the different classes of words in our language and the name of each class.

Since each class performs a certain office or part in the sentence, the different classes are called parts of speech.

State the office of each word in the following sentences, and tell what part of speech it is:—

LESSON XII.

The part of speech or grammatical value of words is always determined by their use or function in the sentence.

State the use or function of the italicized words in the following sentences, and tell the part of speech of each word:—

LESSON XIII.

Select in the following sentences the nouns that are names of particular persons or things, and the nouns that are names of all the members of a class of persons or things:—

A name of a particular or individual person or thing is called a proper noun; as, Mary, Saturday, Lake Ontario.

A name that applies to all the members of a class of persons or things is called a common noun; as, girl, desk, river.

1. Write five sentences, each containing a proper noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

2. Write five sentences, each containing a common noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

Select in the following sentences the nouns that are names of objects which have a real and separate existence outside of the mind, and those which are names of things that have no real existence and are only thought of in the mind:—

A noun that is the name of an object which has a real and separate existence outside of the mind, is called a concrete noun; as, gold, water.

A noun that is the name of something which has not a real and separate existence outside of the mind, is called an abstract noun; as, truth, justice.

1. Write five sentences each containing a concrete noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

2. Write five sentences each containing an abstract noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

Note.—All nouns may be classified into (1) proper and common, (2) concrete and abstract, hence the two preceding classifications are perfect. The classifications which follow are imperfect, since they do not include all nouns.

Name the nouns in the following sentences that denote a collection of objects:—

A noun of the singular form that stands for a collection or number of things is called a collective noun; as, He owns a herd of cattle.

Write five sentences each containing a collective noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

Select the nouns ending in ing that are derived from verbs and have lost all verbal function in the following sentences:—

A noun ending in ing that is derived from a verb and has lost all verbal function, is called a verbal noun; as, There is good sleighing now.

Write five sentences each containing a verbal noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

LESSON XIV.

Nouns that denote things neither male nor female, have no gender; as, book, tree.

Select the gender-nouns in the following sentences, and give the gender of each:—

LESSON XV.

Which form of the following words denotes one thing, and which more than one thing?—

The form of a word which names one thing is called singular, and the noun is said to be in the singular number. The form of a word which names more than one thing is called plural, and the noun is said to be in the plural number.

1. The plural is generally formed by adding s to the singular form; as pin, pins; book, books.

2. Some nouns form the plural by adding es to the singular form; as, match, matches; tax, taxes.

Note the following words:—fox, bush, glass, loss, hero, negro, cargo, echo, potato, tomato.

3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, form the plural by adding s to the singular form; as, day, days; valley, valleys.

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, form the plural by changing the y into i and adding es; as, lily, lilies; copy, copies.

4. Some nouns ending in f or fe form the plural by changing f or fe to v and adding es; as, knife, knives.

Note the following:—wife, life, wolf, loaf, half, leaf, thief, shelf, calf, self.

5. A few nouns form the plural by adding en to the singular form; as, ox, oxen; child, children; brother, brethren.

6. Some nouns form the plural by changing the vowel of the singular; as, man, men; goose, geese.

8. Some compound nouns make the principal word plural, and some make both words plural; as, son-in-law, sons-in-law; man-servant, men-servants.

Which of the italicized words in the following sentences is used as the subject of the sentence, which to denote ownership, and on which does the action expressed by the verb end?

The word upon which the action expressed by the verb ends is called the object of the verb.

Point out in the following sentence a noun used as the subject of the verb, a noun used to denote ownership, a noun used as the object of a verb, and a noun used as the object of a preposition:—

The relation which a noun or pronoun bears to some other word in the sentence is called case.

A noun used as the subject of a verb is in the nominative case; as, The slate is broken. A noun used to denote ownership or possession is in the possessive case; as, Mary’s book is torn. A noun used as the object of a verb or a preposition is in the objective case; as, He left his pencil on the desk.

Name the case of all the nouns and pronouns in the following sentences, and state the reason for the case of each:—

1. Write four sentences each containing a noun in the nominative case, and underline examples.

2. Write four sentences each containing a noun in the possessive case, and underline examples.

3. Write four sentences each containing a noun in the objective case, and underline examples.

LESSON XVIII.

Point out the nouns in the possessive case in the following sentences, and state how the possessive is formed:—

The possessive case of a singular noun is always formed by adding ’s to the word.

The possessive case of a plural noun that ends in s is formed by adding the ’ (apostrophe) only; as boys, boys’.

The possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in s is formed by adding the ’s; as men, men’s.

A noun that is used as the subject of a sentence is said to be in the subject nominative case, or briefly in the nominative case; as, The sun shines brightly.

A noun that is used in the predicate with the verb to be to make a statement, is said to be in the predicate nominative case to the verb; as, This man is a poet.

Note.—The verb to be (am, is, are, was, were, shall be, will be, have been, had been, etc.,) expresses being, never action, and hence cannot take a grammatical object.

A noun that is added to another noun to explain it, is said to be in the appositive (apposition) nominative case; as Brown, the merchant, is here.

A noun that is used as the name of a person or thing addressed is said to be in the nominative of address; as I wish you long life, my friend.

A noun that has no relation to any word in the sentence is said to be in the nominative absolute; as, The game being over, I withdrew.

Select all the nominatives in the following sentences, and state the class to which each belongs:—

LESSON XX.

The object which represents that which is directly affected by the action of the verb, is called the direct object; as, This man taught me drawing.

The object which represents that which is less directly affected by the action of the verb, and a relation which may be expressed by the prepositions to or for, is called the indirect object; as, This man taught me drawing.

Select all the objects in the following sentences, and classify them into direct and indirect:—

LESSON XXI.

To parse a noun is to state the class to which it belongs, its gender, number, case, and its grammatical relation to other words in the sentence.

The changes in meaning and use which nouns undergo with or without a change in form, are called their inflections.

Model.—John, a proper, concrete noun; masculine gender; singular number; nominative case, subject of lost.

Teacher’s, a common, concrete noun; masculine or feminine gender; singular number; possessive case, possessing book.

Book, a common, concrete noun; singular number; objective case, object of the verb lost.

Street, a common, concrete noun; singular number; objective case, object of the preposition on.

LESSON XXII.

Name the pronouns in the following sentences, and state which denote the speaker, which the person spoken to, and which the person or thing spoken of:—

A pronoun that shows by its form whether it denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person spoken of, is called a personal pronoun.

A pronoun that denotes the speaker or any company of whom the speaker is one, is in the first person; as, I am here. We are going soon.

A pronoun that denotes a person spoken to, is in the second person; as, You look well.

A pronoun that denotes the person or thing spoken of, is in the third person; as, I found it.

Select the personal pronouns in the following sentences, state the person of each, and the noun to which each pronoun of the third person refers:—

LESSON XXIII.

Name the pronouns in the following sentences that point out or call attention to anything:—

Pronouns which point out or call attention to the objects for which they stand, are called demonstrative pronouns.

The demonstrative pronouns are this, and that with their plurals these, and those.

This and these are used to refer to something nearer; that and those to something farther off. You is sometimes a demonstrative pronoun; as, You are the winner. The personal pronoun of the third person is sometimes classed as a demonstrative pronoun, because it is said to point out or call attention to the object for which it stands.

Compare: I am sure he did it. I saw your brother and he is going to come to-morrow.

LESSON XXIV.

Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, that are used to express emphasis, and those that are used as reflexives, that is, as objects denoting the same person or thing as the subject:—

Pronouns that are used to express emphasis, and those that are used as reflexives, are called compound personal pronouns.

Select the pronouns that relate, or carry the mind back, to a noun going before, and join to that noun a modifying statement, in the following sentences:—

The clause that expresses the principal thought of a sentence is called the principal or independent clause; as, My brother found the ball which he lost.

The clause that depends on some other part of the sentence for its meaning is called a dependent or subordinate clause; as, My brother found the ball which he lost.

A word that relates to a preceding noun or pronoun, and connects a dependent clause with that noun or pronoun, is called a relative pronoun.

2. Which is applied to animals and to things without life; as This is the deer which he shot. I want the pen which you have.

3. That is applied to persons, to animals, and to things; as, This is the lady that was hurt. Here is the knife that I found.

4. What does not have its antecedent expressed; as, I know what [that which] you require.

5. When as is used as a relative it is generally preceded by such; as, We are such stuff as dreams are made on.

6. When but is used as a relative it has a negative force, equivalent to that not; as,

Pronouns that are formed by adding so, ever, and soever, to the simple pronouns, are called compound relative pronouns; as whoso, whichever, whatsoever.

Name the relative pronouns, their antecedents, the clauses they connect, and the case of each:—

Classify the relatives in the following sentences into those that add new facts to their antecedents, and into those that restrict or limit their meaning:

LESSON XXVI.

Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, that are used in asking questions:—

A pronoun that is used in asking a question is called an interrogative pronoun; as, Who gave you the orange?

Who refers to persons; which refers to persons or to things; what refers to things.

Note.—Which differs from who in being selective; as, Which of the books is yours?

Select the interrogative pronouns in the following sentences, and give the case of each:—

LESSON XXVII.

Point out the pronouns in the following sentences that do not stand for any particular persons or things:—

Pronouns which do not stand for particular or definite persons or things, are called indefinite pronouns; as, Few believed him.

The principal words used as indefinite pronouns are all, any, other, another, both, some, such, few, many, one, none, each, either, neither, and words made by joining some, any, every and no to the words one, thing and body.

Select the indefinite pronouns in the following sentences, and give the case of each:—

LESSON XXVIII.

To parse a pronoun is to state the class to which it belongs, its gender, person, number, case, and its grammatical relation to other words in the sentence.

I, a personal pronoun; masculine or feminine gender; first person; singular number; nominative case, subject of have.

which, a relative pronoun; third person; singular number; objective case, direct object of the verb gave.

you, a personal pronoun; masculine or feminine gender; second person; singular or plural number; nominative case, subject of the verb gave.

me, a personal pronoun; masculine or feminine gender; first person; singular number; objective case, indirect object of the verb gave.

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences that express quality or kind in the objects named by the nouns with which they are used:—

Adjectives that express quality or kind in the objects named by the nouns with which they are used, are called qualifying adjectives; as, These kind girls took some fresh flowers to a sick woman.

Qualifying adjectives that are formed from proper nouns are called proper adjectives. They begin with capital letters; as, He gave her an English coin.

Select the qualifying adjectives in the following sentences, and state the nouns they qualify:—

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, that express the quantity or number of the objects named by the nouns with which they are used:—

Adjectives that express the quantity or number of the objects named by the nouns with which they are used, are called quantifying adjectives; as, He won the second prize.

Select the quantifying adjectives in the following sentences, and state the noun each modifies:—

LESSON XXXI.

Adjectives that are sometimes used as pronouns are called pronominal adjectives; as, These books are mine. All boys can learn.

1. Possessive adjectives. These are the possessive forms of the personal pronouns used as adjectives. They are given in Lesson XXII., and are as follows:—my or mine, thy or thine, our or ours, your or yours, his, her or hers, its, their or theirs.

2. Interrogative adjectives. These are which and what when used with a noun to ask a question; as, Which poem will you recite? What wrong have you done?

3. Relative adjectives. These are the words which and what used relatively with a noun; as, I know which pen you prefer. I see what course you are taking.

4. Indefinite adjectives. These are the words which, when used without nouns, are indefinite pronouns; as, Few persons believe his story. [See Lesson XXVII.]

5. Demonstrative adjectives. These are this, these; that, those; yon, yonder, when used with nouns; as, That tree is very tall. Yon ship is coming nearer.

To the foregoing list of demonstrative adjectives we may add a, an, and the, since they are demonstrative in their nature, that is they are used to point out, but they have no pronominal use; as, The man is well again. An apple is on the table.

Select the pronominal adjectives in the following sentences, give the kind of each and the word it modifies:—

LESSON XXXII.

In the following sentences what degree of quality do the different forms of the adjective large express?

In sentence number 2, two balls are compared. In sentence number 3, three or more balls are compared. Hence the change of form of adjectives to express different degrees of quality is called comparison.

The form of the adjective, which merely expresses the quality, is called the positive degree; as, I have a small pen.

The form of the adjective that expresses a higher or lower degree of the quality, is called the comparative degree; as, Charles has a smaller pen than mine.

The form of the adjective that expresses the highest or the lowest degree of the quality, is called the superlative degree; as, The teacher has the smallest pen in the room.

Most adjectives of one syllable form the comparative by adding er to the simple form, and the superlative by adding est to the same form; as,

Most adjectives of more than one syllable are composed by prefixing more and most, or less and least to the simple form; as,

The following adjectives of two syllables are often compared by adding er and est: happy, pleasant, common, noble, able, narrow.

Name each adjective in the following sentences, state its degree, and give the word it modifies:—

LESSON XXXIII.

kind, a qualifying adjective; positive degree; (kind, kinder, kindest), modifying the noun girls.

LESSON XXXIV.

Name the verbs in the following sentences that express an action or feeling that goes out from the agent or doer to something else, and the verbs that express an action or feeling that does not go out to anything, but remains with the doer:—

A verb that expresses an action or feeling that goes out from the agent or doer to something else, is called a transitive verb; as, He wrote a letter. We love our friends.

A verb that expresses being, a state, or an action or feeling that does not go out to anything, but remains with the doer, is called an intransitive verb; as, He is here. She sleeps now. The wind blows from the north. This man feels sick.

Note.—The same verb may be used either transitively or intransitively; as, I see the house. I see through this paper.

Some verbs have only an intransitive use because they do not express action; as, be, seem, appear, remain, become, etc.

LESSON XXXV.

Point out each verb that is used by itself to make a complete statement, and each verb that is not used by itself to make a complete statement:—

When a verb by itself makes a complete statement, it is called a verb of complete predication; as, Birds fly.

When a verb by itself does not make a complete statement, it is called a verb of incomplete predication; as, This man is a merchant.

Select the verbs of incomplete predication, and state the word or words that complete the predication:—

LESSON XXXVI.

With a certain form of the verb, its subject names the actor; with another form of the verb, the subject names the thing acted upon. This change in the form of the verb is called voice.

A transitive verb that represents the person or thing named by its subject as acting is said to be in the active voice; as, James struck the horse.

A transitive verb that represents the person or thing named by its subject as being acted upon is said to be in the passive voice; as, The horse was struck by James.

Name the voice of each verb in the following sentences, and state the reason in each case:—

Point out in the following sentences a verb that states something as a fact, one that is used in asking a question, one that mentions something merely thought of, and one that expresses a command:—

A verb that is used to state something as a fact, to ask a question, or to express a condition relating to an actual state of things, is in the indicative mode; as, He reads well. Does he read well? If he was guilty, his punishment was too light.

A verb that is used to express something merely thought of is in the subjunctive mode; as, I wish that he go. If he were present I would speak to him. Thy kingdom come.

Note.—The verb in conditional sentences is in the subjunctive mode only when it expresses something merely thought of.

A verb that expresses a command or request is in the imperative mode; as, Come into the house. Open your book.

LESSON XXXVIII.

The preceding lesson treated of verbs that are limited by their subjects as to number and person; as, I am here. John is here. The boys are here. Hence these verbs are called finite verbs.

This lesson will treat of verbs that are not so limited; hence they are called infinitive verbs.

Select from the following sentences forms of verbs that are used (1) as a noun, (2) as an adverb, and (3) as an adjective:—

The form of the verb that does not make an assertion, and that is not limited as to person and number is called the infinitive.

The infinitive may be used as the complement of verbs of incomplete predication; as, He appeared to hesitate.

There are two infinitives, the simple infinitive with or without to, and the infinitive in ing; as, I like to row a boat. He may go. She is fond of writing letters.

The infinitive has a variety of uses. Its grammatical value in English is always determined by its function in the sentence.

Name the infinitives in the following sentences, tell the grammatical value of each, and state the reason:—

Select the words in the following sentences that are used to modify nouns, and also imply action or being:—

A word that participates in the nature of the verb and the adjective is called a participle; as, Leaving the room, we walked into the garden. I found a treasure hidden in the ground.

A participle qualifies a noun or pronoun, like an adjective, and takes modifiers like a verb. A participle formed from a transitive verb takes an object.

A participle that is used to denote unfinished action is called a present or imperfect participle; as, Jumping the fence, I ran across the field.

A participle that is used to denote finished action is called a past or perfect participle; as, He gave me a pencil painted red.

Classify the participles in the following sentences and tell what each modifies:—

Determine the grammatical value of the italicized words in the following sentences, according to the use of each:—

LESSON XL.

State the time of the action in each of the following sentences, and point out the different forms of the verb:—

The change which takes place in the verb to mark this change of time, is called tense.

There are three natural divisions of time—present, past, and future, so that there are three corresponding tenses—present, past, and future.

A verb that denotes an action in the present time is in the present tense; as, I speak.

A verb that denotes an action in the past time is in the past tense; as, I spoke.

A verb that denotes an action in the future time is in the future tense; as, I shall speak.

Besides these three simple tenses, there are three perfect tenses, which denote action as completed.

Point out a verb in the following sentences that denotes an action completed in present time, one that denotes an action completed in past time, and one that denotes an action completed in future time:—

A verb that denotes an action as completed at the present time is in the present perfect tense; as, I have spoken.

A verb that denotes an action as having been completed before a certain past time is in the past perfect or pluperfect tense; as, I had spoken before you came.

A verb that denotes an action to be completed before a certain future time is in the future perfect tense; as, I shall have spoken before he will arrive.

The present and the past tenses are indicated by the form of the verb itself. The other tenses are formed by the aid of other verbs, called auxiliary verbs.

LESSON XLI.

Point out the different forms of the verb that are used with the different subjects:—

The different forms that a verb takes to agree with the person and number of its subject are called person and number forms.

Observe that there is no change in the action expressed by the verb; it has merely adapted itself to the person and number of its subject.

The third person singular has, in the present indicative, the ending s or es, and the old form eth; as, He walks; He goes; He dreameth.

The second person singular has the ending est or st in both the present and the past tenses; as, Thou lovest; Thou lovedst.

The first person singular and the plural forms for all the persons have no endings to mark person and number, with but one exception, the verb to be; as, I am; We are; I was; We were.

Write out the present tense forms, indicative mode, of the following verbs, using the personal pronouns for subjects:—

LESSON XLII.

Point out how the past tense and perfect participle of the following verbs are formed:—

A verb that forms its past tense and perfect participle by adding ed or d to the present tense form, is a verb of the weak or new conjugation; as, look, looked, looked.

A verb that forms its past tense by changing the vowel of the present, and its perfect participle by adding n or en to the present, is a verb of the strong or old conjugation; as, fall, fell, fallen.

Note.—Verbs of the old conjugation are called strong because they form their past tense within themselves. Verbs of the new conjugation are called weak because they form their past tense by the aid of an additional syllable.

Weak verbs are called verbs of the new conjugation because the method of forming the past tense by the addition of ed or d is of more recent origin than the method of the strong conjugation.

If we know the present tense form, the past, and the perfect participle of any verb, we can tell to which conjugation it belongs, and can give all its inflections of person, number, tense, and mode, therefore the present tense form, the past and the perfect participle, are called the principal parts of the verb. When we give all the inflections of a verb, or indicate them by the principal parts, we conjugate it.

LESSON XLIII.

We have learned that regular verbs of the weak conjugation form their past tense and perfect participle by adding ed or d to the present tense form.

In some verbs the ed or d of the past tense is sounded like t, and in many cases the spelling has changed to t. A few verbs shorten the vowel of the present; as, feel, felt, felt. Other verbs of this conjugation change the vowel before adding d; as, tell, told, told; and a number that end in t or d make no change; as, set, set, set.

We learned in Lesson XLII. that regular verbs of the strong conjugation form their past tense by changing the vowel of the present, and their perfect participle by adding en or n to the present.

LESSON XLV.

We have learned in Lesson XL. that the verb has different forms of itself to express a difference between present and past time only, and when we wish to express that an act took place any other time, we use another verb to aid the principal verb.

State which of the italicized verbs in the following sentences is used independently, to express its own meaning, and which is used to aid another verb to express its meaning:—

A verb that is used to help to conjugate other verbs is called an auxiliary verb; as, We have found your book.

The auxiliary verbs that aid in distinguishing the time of an action are have, shall, will, do and be.

Have is used as an auxiliary with the perfect participle of a verb, to form the perfect tenses; as,

When have denotes possession it is an independent verb; as My friends have a canary.

In which of the following sentences is have an independent verb, and in which is it an auxiliary:—

The auxiliaries shall and will are used with the infinitive to form the future tense of a verb. To denote simple futurity shall is used in the first person, and will in the second and third persons; as, I shall go to-morrow; You will go again; He will go next year.

To make a promise or to denote determination, will is used in the first person, and shall in the second and third persons; as, I will get it for you; You shall not go; He shall do that work.

The present and past tenses of do are used as auxiliaries with the present infinitive, (1) to express emphasis; as, I do study every evening. (2) To express a denial; as, I did not do it. (3) To ask questions; as, Did you see him?

Name the sentences in which do is used as an independent verb, and those in which it is used as an auxiliary, and explain the use of each auxiliary:—

1. The verb to be is used as an auxiliary with the perfect participle of a transitive verb, to form the passive voice; as, I am hurt.

2. The verb to be is used as an auxiliary with the present participle of a verb, to form the progressive form; as, I am writing.

3. The verb to be, without the participle of another verb, is used to express (1) existence; as, Whatever is, is right. (2) To act as a copula (connecting word); as, Sugar is sweet. Whatever is, is right.

LESSON XLVIII.

In the last three lessons we have studied the auxiliaries used in distinguishing the time of an action. We shall now study the auxiliaries can, may, must, ought, should and would, which enable us to express other distinctions.

Can is used to denote power or ability; as, I can sing. He could write very rapidly.

May is used to denote permission, possibility, or a wish; as, You may leave the room. He might succeed again. May you be there too.

Could and might are used sometimes in a conditional sense; as, They might stay here if we could help them.

The phrases made by the auxiliaries may and can with the infinitive of a verb are sometimes called potential verb-phrases, because they express that an action is possible from the subject having power to perform it.

Must has no other form. It is used to denote necessity or obligation; as, I must remain here.

Ought is the old past of the verb owe. It is used to denote duty or obligation; as, I ought to help him.

The phrases made by the auxiliaries must and ought, with the infinitive of a verb, are sometimes called obligative verb-phrases, because they imply obligation.

Should and would are especially used with the infinitive of a verb to express a conditional statement; as, I should do so if I had the opportunity. He would come if I asked him.

Since the phrases formed by should and would with the infinitive of a verb imply a condition, they are called conditional verb-phrases.

1. Should and would are often used in expressing the condition itself; as, If he should be here, they would know it.

2. They have sometimes their more independent meanings of ought and be determined; as, I should go, I know. She would come, no matter what happened.

State the use of the verbs may, can, must, ought, should and would in the following sentences:—

Write sentences containing the following verbs used correctly—can, may, must, ought, should, would. State the use in each case.

LESSON L.

To parse a verb is to state its class, its conjugation, its voice, its mode, its tense, its person, and number, and its subject.

Have broken, a verb, transitive; strong conjugation (break, broke, broken); active voice; indicative mode; present perfect tense, third person; plural number, agreeing with its subject boys.

Help, a verb, transitive; weak conjugation (help, helped, helped); active voice; subjunctive mode; present tense; third person; plural number, agreeing with its subject they.

Shall be, a verb, intransitive; strong conjugation (am, was, been); indicative mode; future tense; first person; singular number, agreeing with its subject I.

Model.—Being provided with tools, they planted a row of stakes within their palisade, to form a double fence.

Planted, a verb, transitive; weak conjugation (plant, planted, planted); active voice; indicative mode; past tense; third person; plural number, agreeing with its subject they.

To form, a present infinitive; active voice; used as an adverb to modify planted.

Parse the verbs, the infinitives, and the participles in the following sentences:—

LESSON LI.

2. Adverbs of place and motion; as, John stood there for an hour. They are going back.

4. Adverbs of degree and measure; as, He is quite ill. She is a very industrious woman.

5. Model adverbs—those that express certainty or uncertainty; as, I shall surely come. You are probably right.

1. An adverb that simply modifies another word is called a simple adverb; as, Slowly and sadly we laid him down.

2. An adverb that not only modifies a word, but also connects the clause of which it forms a part with another clause, is called a conjunctive adverb; as, I shall go when he comes.

3. An adverb that is used to ask a question is called an interrogative adverb; as, Why did they take it away?

To parse an adverb is to state the kind of adverb, its degree of comparison, if it has any, and what it modifies.

Where, a conjunctive adverb, showing place. It modifies put and connects the clause, [where] you put it with the clause, I know.

What do the prepositions in the following sentences connect, and what relations do they express?—

Prepositions express a great variety of relations. The most common relations are as follows:—

On, a preposition, connecting the noun bridge with the verb stood, and showing the relation of place.

At, a preposition, connecting the noun midnight with the verb stood, and showing the relation of time.

LESSON LIV.

Point out in the following examples conjunctions that connect sentences or parts of a sentence of equal rank, and those that connect sentences that are not of equal rank:—

A conjunction that connects sentences or parts of a sentence of equal rank, is called a co-ordinating conjunction; as, The night is cold and clear. It was sold, but I did not want it. I know he came home, and took it away.

A conjunction that connects a dependent or subordinate clause to a principal clause, is called a subordinating conjunction; as, James said that he was sick. I cannot go unless he come.

And, a co-ordinating conjunction, connecting the two principal clauses, The teacher gave me a book, and I read it.

That, a subordinating conjunction, connecting the subordinate clause, he might go, to the principal clause, his mother said.

1. Write three sentences each containing a co-ordinating conjunction. Underline example.

2. Write three sentences each containing a subordinating conjunction. Underline example.

LESSON LV.

As an interjection bears no grammatical relation to the other words of a sentence, its parsing consists in naming the parts of speech, and the feeling expressed.

Syntax treats of the relations which words bear to one another in sentences, and of the order in which the words are arranged. The relation of a word in a sentence is called its construction.

LESSON LVI.

1. Subject nominative. The noun may be used as the subject of a verb; as, Boys play. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.

2. Predicate nominative. A noun that is used to form a complete predicate, and refers to the same person or thing as the subject, is in the nominative case after the verb; as, John became king. A noun so used is called a predicate noun or predicate nominative. The verbs be, seem, become, appear, look are followed by a predicate nominative.

3. Apposition. A noun added to another noun to explain its meaning is said to be in apposition to the first noun; as,

4. Nominative of address. A noun that is used in addressing a person or thing, is in the nominative case of address; as, Man, thy years are few.

5. Nominative absolute. A noun that is not related to any other word in the sentence is in the nominative absolute case; as, The day being bright, I went for a drive.

6. Object of a verb. A noun or pronoun on which the action expressed by a verb ends, is called the grammatical object of the verb; as, I broke my pen.

7. Object of a preposition. A noun or pronoun which a preposition connects in sense to some other word in the sentence, is called the object of the preposition; as, He came from the country.

8. Indirect object. A noun or pronoun that is used to show to or for whom or what something is done, is called the indirect object; as, He gave me a watch. The word watch is the direct object of gave.

9. Possession. A noun that is used to denote ownership is in the possessive case; as, My friend’s hat is missing.

10. Adverbial object. A noun that is used like an adverb to express time, distance, weight, or value, is called an adverbial objective; as, He walked five miles. It is worth eight dollars.

11. Retained object. When an active verb, taking two objects, is changed into the passive voice, one object becomes the subject of the passive verb, but the other is retained as object; as, He was forgiven his offence.

12. Cognate object. When the objective has a similar or cognate meaning to that of the verb, it is called a cognate object; as, She sung us a song.

13. Predicate objective. When a noun is in the predicate relation to an objective subject, it is called a predicate objective; as, I know him to be an honest man.

14. An objective predicate. A noun that completes the meaning of a transitive verb and describes its object, is called an objective predicate; as, They elected him president. The verbs call, make, appoint, choose, elect, and those of like nature, take the objective predicate.

LESSON LVII.

What is the gender, person, and number of the italicized pronouns in the following sentences?—

Name the case and state the construction of each noun and pronoun in the following sentences:—

Name the adjectives in the following sentences, that are used to modify nouns directly, and those that are used to modify nouns as part of the predication or assertion made about them:—

1. An adjective that modifies a noun directly is said to be in the attributive relation; as, A grand tree is the stately oak.

2. An adjective that modifies a noun as part of the predication or assertion made about it, is called a predicate adjective; as, This apple is sweet. I am glad you succeeded.

3. An adjective that is joined to a noun in a loose and indirect way is said to be used in the appositive relation; as, All history, ancient or modern contributes towards my theory.

What person and number forms are the verbs in the following sentences, and why?—

The verb agrees with its subject in person and number; as, The teacher has my pen.

1. A collective noun requires a verb in the singular when it means the collection as a whole, and a verb in the plural when it means the separate individuals of which it is composed; as, The committee (as a whole) has decided it. The committee (as individuals) have decided it.

2. Two or more singular nouns connected by and take a verb in the plural; as, James and Mary are here. Music and drawing were taught during the term.

If two or more singular nouns connected by and are preceded by each, every, or no, the verb is in the singular, because they refer to things considered separately; as, Every man and woman was lost.

3. When two or more singular subjects are thought of as one thing, the verb is singular; as, Bread and butter is sufficient.

4. Two singular subjects connected by either—or, neither—nor take a verb in the singular, but if the subjects are plural, the verb is plural; as, Either a horse or a cow is in the field. Neither the boys nor the girls are here.

What is the person and number of the verbs in the following sentences, and give the reason in each case?—

LESSON LX.

An adverb is sometimes used with the value of a predicate adjective; as, The sun is up. We were there.

An adverb may even qualify a preposition; as, He went far beyond his instructions. The thorn ran deep into his foot.

LESSON LXI.

The logical order of the parts of a sentence is: 1. The subject (with its attributes); 2. The verb; 3. The object (with its attributes) or the complement; 4. The adverbial modifiers.

A member of a sentence may be given prominence by taking it out of its logical position and placing it first. This causes the arrangement of the other members to be changed and the sentence thus acquires emphasis by the members being placed out of their ordinary positions.

5. In subjunctive clauses without if; as, Had I your advantages I should improve them.

8. When the real subject is a clause, and the representative subject is it; as, It is well known that he received money.

1. When it is an interrogative or relative pronoun; as, Whom did you see? I saw the man whom you want.

1. When they consist of a phrase or clause; as, I love the song of birds. The book that I found is here.

2. When they consist of two or more adjectives; as, And fast through the midnight dark and drear, the vessel swept.

The adjectives a, an and the always precede the noun. When the noun is qualified by another adjective, these adjectives generally precede it, but they stand between the following adjectives and the noun to which they refer:—

The relative is always the first word in its clause, but when it is governed by a preposition, the preposition generally precedes it; as, I found the knife which you lost. I know the person to whom you refer.

The adverbial modifier, when a phrase, generally follows the verb, or the object if the verb be transitive; as, James fell into the lake. He found an apple on the ground.

The adverbial modifier, when a single word, generally follows an intransitive verb, and either precedes a transitive verb, or follows its object; as, This river flows rapidly. He did his work well.

When there are a number of adverbial modifiers in a sentence, they should be distributed over the sentence; as, At the request of my father, I gladly left my studies, to accompany him.

An adverb may stand in any part of the sentence, but its meaning generally varies with its position, hence the adverb should be placed as near as possible to the word or words it modifies.

Certain adverbs and conjunctions are correlative (that is, having a mutual relation) to one another. Be careful to use the proper correlatives; as, He is esteemed not only for his accomplishments, but also for his piety.

The correlatives must be attached to the corresponding words and phrases; as, They gave me neither money nor shoes. I assisted only in the evening, not in the morning.

The preposition generally stands immediately before the word it governs; as, We live in Toronto.

1. When the noun has attributive adjectives, the preposition precedes the adjective; as, I walked through a beautiful park.

2. When the object of the preposition is a relative, the preposition sometimes stands at the end of the clause; as, My brother owns the building which he lives in, [in which he lives is preferable.]

3. In poetry the preposition often follows its object; as, The heavy night hung dark the hills and waters o’er.

4. When two verbs or adjectives in association are followed by different prepositions, the prepositions must be repeated after each; as, He found him a man whom he agreed with on a few subjects, and differed from on many; or, He found him a man with whom he agreed on a few subjects, from whom he differed on many.

LESSON LXII.

Model II.—Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace to silence envious tongues.

A clause that has the function of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, is called a subordinate clause.

Select the principal clauses and the subordinate clauses in the following sentences, and state the function of each subordinate clause:—

A clause that has the function of a noun, is called a noun clause; as, He said he knew his lesson. How I shall reach my destination is the question.

A clause that has the use or function of an adjective, is called an adjective clause; as, He found the book which he lost.

A clause that has the use or function of an adverb, is called an adverbial clause; as, I shall go where they are. He will destroy it unless we hinder him.

A sentence that consists of one principal clause, and one or more subordinate clauses, is called a complex sentence; as, I have met the person of whom you speak.

A sentence that consists of two or more independent clauses, is called a compound sentence; as, James came home, but John remained there.

A compound sentence that is made up of complex sentences, or simple and complex sentences, is called a compound-complex sentence; as, We entered the building, and a man who was working there, gave us information about it.

Name the clauses in the following sentences, and state the kind and relation (if any) of each:—

1. Whilst I was thus musing, I cast my eyes towards the summit of a rock that was not far from me, where I discovered one in the habit of a shepherd, with a musical instrument in his hand.—Addison.

2. King Harold had a rebel brother in Flanders, who was a vassal of Harold Hardrada, king of Norway.—Dickens.

3. Those who knew him best affirmed that this Mr. Toil was a very worthy character, and that he had done more good, both to children and grown people, than anybody else in the world.—Hawthorne.

4. Portia, when she returned, was in that happy temper of mind which never fails to attend the consciousness of having performed a good action; her cheerful spirits enjoyed everything she saw: the moon never seemed to shine so brightly before; and when that pleasant moon was hid behind a cloud, then a light which she saw from her house at Belmont as well pleased her charmed fancy.—Lamb.

5. Once upon a time, there lived a very rich man, and a king besides, whose name was Midas; and he had a little daughter, whom nobody but himself ever heard of, and whose name I either never knew, or have entirely forgotten. So, because I love odd names for little girls, I choose to call her Marygold.—Hawthorne.

6. I rose and prepared to leave the Abbey. As I descended the flight of steps which lead into the body of the building, my eye was caught by the shrine of Edward the Confessor, and I ascended the small staircase that conducts to it, to take from thence a general survey of this wilderness of tombs.—Irving.

Analysis of (A.)

Kind, a principal clause.

Subject, boy.

Adj. mod. of subj., the.

Predicate, does know.

Object, part.

Adj. modifiers of obj., this, of the wood.

Adv. mod. of pred., not.

Analysis of (A.)

Kind, a principal clause.

Subject, owl.

Adj. modifiers of subj., the, moping.

Predicate, does complain.

Adv. modifiers of pred.,

from yonder ivy-mantled

tower, to the moon,

of such as, wandering . . . .

. . . . reign.

Model VII.—Train up a child in the way he should go; and when he is old, he will not depart from it.—Bible.

6. It is a great day when the sled is loaded with the buckets, and the procession starts for the woods.—Warner.

7. Meantime the French had given way, and were flying in all directions.—Warburton.

8. I believe there is no permanent greatness to a nation except it be based upon morality.—Bright.

9. Gilliatt had thrust his arm deep into the opening; the monster had snapped at it.—Hugo.

11. The Turks spread gradually over the battlefield below us, slaughtering as they advanced.—Forbes.

12. There were many boys in the room by whom that little scene was taken to heart before they slept.—Hughes.

13. General Brock, who had risen as usual before day-break, hearing the cannonading, galloped from Niagara to the scene of action.—Miss Machar.

14. In walking one day up the mountain behind Montreal, I leaned over a paling which enclosed the water reservoir of the city.—Argyle.

15. Then was committed that fearful crime, memorable for its singular atrocity, memorable for the tremendous retribution which followed.—Macaulay.

21. Happy is the man whose good intentions have borne fruit in deeds and whose evil thoughts have perished in the blossom.—Scott.

22. There was one tall Norman knight who rode before the Norman army on a prancing horse, throwing up his heavy sword and catching it, and singing of the bravery of his countrymen.—Dickens.

23. This dashed the spirits of the Iroquois, and they sent a canoe to call to their aid five hundred of their warriors, who were mustered near the mouth of the Richelieu.—Parkman.

24. The parent who sends his son into the world uneducated, defrauds the community of a useful citizen and bequeaths to it a nuisance.—Chancellor Kent.

25. The smoke which hung upon the field rolled in slow and heavy masses back upon the French lines, and gradually discovered to our view the entire of the army.—Lever.

31. Columbus tried to pacify them with gentle words and promises of large rewards; but finding that they only increased in clamor, he assumed a decided tone.—Irving.

32. Wolfe and the troops with him leaped on shore; the light infantry, who found themselves borne by the current a little below the intrenched path, clambered up the steep hill, staying themselves by the roots and boughs of the maple and spruce and ash trees that covered the precipitous declivity.—Bancroft.

33. The boys, who were twelve and ten years old, aided by the soldiers, whom her words had inspired with some little courage, began to fire from the loop-holes upon the Iroquois.—Parkman.

34. She had told Tom, however, that she would like him to put the worms on the hook for her, although she accepted his word when he assured her that worms couldn’t feel.—George Eliot.

35. The beadle, who performed it, had filled his left hand with yellow ochre, through which, after every stroke, he drew the lash of his whip, leaving the appearance of a wound upon the skin, but in reality not hurting him at all.—Cowper.

LESSON LXV.

2. The pronoun I and the interjection O should be written in capitals; as, O father! I hear the church bells ring.

4. A proper adjective should begin with a capital letter; as, We speak the English language.

5. The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital letter; as,

6. The names of the days of the week and the names of the months of the year should begin with capital letters; as, Saturday, August.

7. Titles of individuals, and titles of books and newspapers should begin with capital letters; as, Lord Aberdeen, Governor-General of Canada. Harper’s Round Table.

8. All names of the Deity, and words standing for His name, should begin with capital letters; as, Creator, Supreme Being.

9. Names of peoples and languages should begin with capital letters; as, Italians, Greek.

10. The first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital letter; as, She answered, “This shall never be.”

1. A declarative or assertive sentence, and an imperative sentence should be followed by a period; as, Your friend gave me a book. Open the door.

2. An interrogative sentence should be followed by the interrogation mark; as, When did you come?

3. An exclamatory word or sentence should be followed by the exclamation mark; as, But hush! hark! A deep sound strikes like a rising knell!

5. The title of a composition, the address and the signature of a person, should be followed by a period.

6. Words that are in the same grammatical relation should be separated by commas; as, He is honest, capable, and sympathetic.

Two words that are in the same grammatical relation and connected by and, or, or nor, should not be separated by a comma; as, She is kind and good.

7. Words or phrases in apposition should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, Lady Aberdeen, the wife of the Governor of Canada, has gone on an ocean voyage.

8. A transposed phrase or clause, not closely united with the sentence, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; as, In their large cities, the Egyptians built massive temples.

9. Words or phrases placed between closely related parts of a sentence should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, Their whole army, in fact, did not exceed thirty thousand men.

10. The name of a person addressed should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; as, James, hand me the brush.

11. The clauses of a compound sentence, when short and closely connected, should be separated by a comma; as, I finished my work, and then came home.

12. The clauses of a compound sentence, if they are contracted, or are long, or are not closely connected, should be separated by a semicolon; as, Man counts his life by years; the oak, by centuries. His left hand only was free; his open knife was in this hand.

13. A direct quotation should be enclosed by quotation marks; as, He said, “I shall go.” “He is a tall and stately king,” said Harold; “but his end is near.”

14. If a quotation is short, it should be separated from the preceding part of the sentence by a comma; as, He replied, “I am a Briton born.”

15. If a quotation is long, or if it is formally introduced by as follows, these words, etc., it should be separated from the preceding part of the sentence by a colon; as, He replied in these words: “I am a Briton born, and a Briton I shall die.”

16. When an unexpected break, pause, or turn occurs in a sentence, it should be indicated by a dash; as,

17. Explanatory words which are not necessary to the sense of the passage, should be enclosed in marks of parenthesis; as,

18. The parts of a compound word when they have not become united into one word, are connected by a hyphen; as, to-day, wind-organ.

A hyphen is also used at the end of a line when a word is divided into syllables.

Every one who desires to become a good speaker or writer must acquire a knowledge of words; he must possess a large vocabulary, and be master of the significance and application of the words of which it is composed.

To this end he should read the best authors, converse with the educated, and use the words he thus acquires in his own conversation. The dictionary should be in daily use to learn the exact meaning and force of new words.

1. Select the words that are familiar to the educated, and that are used by good writers.

2. Employ words in the sense they are used by the best writers and speakers. This knowledge is obtained from the dictionary and from observation in reading the best authors.

3. Use the word that expresses the exact meaning intended to be conveyed. A knowledge of the distinction of synonyms is best acquired by keeping a list of words of nearly the same meaning, and carefully studying the sense in which each is used.

Distinguish the meaning of the following words, and write sentences in which they are accurately used:—

Sit, set; may, can; think, guess; expect, suspect; lie, lay; hanged, hung; teach, learn; stop, stay; fly, flee; among, between; each other, one another.

A complete thought expressed in words is called a sentence. In a single sentence every part should be subordinate to one principal assertion.

A sentence that is so constructed that the complete meaning is delayed till the close, is called a periodic sentence; as, From many lands, comes the cry for help. Even on the driest day this vapor is never absent from our atmosphere.

A sentence that is so constructed that it may be stopped before the end, sometimes in several places, and still be complete in sense, is called a loose sentence; as, Those scenes, rude and humble as they are, have kindled beautiful emotions in his soul, | noble thoughts, and definite resolves; | and he speaks forth what is in him, not from any outward call of vanity or interest, but because his heart is too full to be silent.—Carlyle.

A sentence that is so constructed that the different elements are made to answer to each other and set each other off by similarity of form, is called a balanced sentence; as, In peace, children bury their parents; in war, parents bury their children. He defended him when living, amidst the clamors of his enemies; and praised him when dead, amidst the silence of his friends.

A short sentence is more easily understood and more animated than a long sentence.

A long sentence gives more scope than a short one, for the addition of particulars, and for the expansion of the main thought.

Emphatic places of the Sentence. The natural emphatic places of a sentence are the beginning and the end. If we wish to give special distinction to some particular word or phrase, it must occupy one of these positions. Since the beginning and the end of a sentence are the natural places for the subject and predicate respectively, the subject is made emphatic by placing it at the end, and the predicate by placing it at the beginning of the sentence; as, Flashed all their sabres bare.

LESSON LXIX.

A connected series of sentences dealing with a single topic is called a paragraph. It is a whole composition and is complete in itself.

1. Every paragraph should possess unity, that is, it should have a definite subject or topic to which all parts of the structure are related, forming elements, in its development.

2. The sentences that compose a paragraph should follow one another in natural order, showing a logical progress of thought. This principle is called continuity.

3. The connection of each sentence in the paragraph, with the preceding one, should be made clear, and also the connection between the paragraphs themselves.

He kept his course westward taking advantage of the trade wind which blows steadily from west to east between the tropics. (Topic sentence). With this favorable breeze (Explicit reference) they were wafted gently but speedily over a tranquil sea, so that for many days they did not shift a sail.

Nevertheless the situation of Columbus was daily becoming critical; his crews began to grow extremely uneasy at the length of the voyage; they were already beyond the reach of succor, and beheld themselves still borne onward over the boundless wastes of what appeared to them a mere watery desert. They were full of vague terrors, and harassed their commander by incessant murmurs, or fed each other’s discontents, gathering together in little knots, and stirring up a spirit of mutiny. There was great danger of their breaking forth into open rebellion, and compelling Columbus to turn back. In their secret conferences they exclaimed against him as a mad desperado, and even talked of throwing him into the sea.—Irving.

2. How does the author make connection or attain explicit reference between the two paragraphs?

3. Show that the sentences of the second paragraph follow one another in a natural and logical order.

4. In the second paragraph, point out the means by which the author relates each sentence to the preceding one.

LESSON LXX.

The two great divisions of composition are prose and poetry. The grand distinction in form is metre or measure. The chief object of prose is to instruct, to convince, or to persuade; while the chief object of poetry is to give pleasure or inspiration. Both kinds of composition employ figurative or representative language to please, to adorn, to illustrate, or to explain.

1. An expressed comparison is called a simile; as, He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax.

2. An implied comparison is called a metaphor; as, She is an angel. This news was a dagger to his heart.

3. When the name of one object is put for some other, so related that one naturally suggests the other, the figure is called metonymy; as, The pen shall supersede the sword. No man reveres the crown more than I do.

4. When life and mind are attributed to inanimate objects, the figure is called personification; as, The mountains looked on Marathon, and Marathon looked on the sea. The smiling spring comes round once more.

5. When two unlike things are contrasted, that each may appear more striking, the figure is called antithesis; as, Go or stay, whichever you will. Success wins attention; failure wins neglect.

6. When the mind is aroused by a contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really intended, the figure is called an epigram; as, The favorite has no friend. Genius is an immense capacity for taking trouble.

7. When something absent is addressed as if present, the figure is called apostrophe; as, O, death, where is thy sting?

8. When the language expresses the contrary of what is meant, the figure is called irony; as, No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you.—Job.

Name the figures in the following passages, and state what is gained by the use of each:—

LESSON LXXI.

The skilful adaptation of expression to thought is called style. The essential qualities of style in composition are clearness, force, and beauty.

Some of the means by which clearness is secured are:—(1) by discrimination in the choice of words; (2) by explicit reference; (3) by contrast; (4) by the orderly arrangement of phrases and sentences.

The quality of force is gained by means of—(1) brevity; (2) suggestive words; (3) illustrations and comparisons; (4) the use of interrogation and exclamation; (5) the employment of contrast; (6) the repetition of words; (7) the order of words; (8) the use of the particular instead of the general term.

The quality of beauty is secured by means of—(1) good taste in the use of words; (2) alliteration; (3) happy phrases; (4) balanced structure; (5) rhythm. The composition must possess elevation of thought withal.

Other qualities of style sometimes present in good writing are:—simplicity, pathos, picturesqueness, humour, satire, and harmony.

. . . The ground was white in spots with half-melted snow. A few whirls of snow had come down in the night, and the air was too cold to change to rain. Some green leaves, in sheltered nooks, had accepted the advances of the sun and were preparing for the summer. But that which I came to search after was trailing arbutus, one of the most exquisite of all Nature’s fondlings.

I did not seek in vain. The hills were covered with it. Its gay whorls of buds peeped forth from ruffles of snow in the most charming beauty. Many blossoms, too, quite expanded, did I find; some pure white, and a few more deliciously suffused with pink. For nearly an hour I wandered up and down, in pleasant fancies, searching, plucking, and arranging these most beautiful of all early blossoms.

Who would suspect by the leaf what rare delicacy was to be in the blossom? Like some people of plain and hard exterior, but of sweet disposition, it was all the more pleasant from the surprise of contrast. All winter long the little thing must have slumbered with dreams, at least, of spring. It has waited for no pioneer or guide, but started of its own self and led the way for all the flowers on the hillside.

Its little viny stem creeps close to the ground, humble, faithful, and showing how the purest white may lay its cheek in the very dirt without soil or taint.

The odor of the arbutus is exquisite, and as delicate as the plant is modest. Some flowers seem determined to make an impression on you. They stare at you. They dazzle your eyes. If you smell them, they overfill your sense with their fragrance. They leave nothing for your gentleness and generosity, but do everything themselves.

But this sweet nestler of the spring hills is so secluded, half-covered with russet leaves, that you would not suspect its graces, did you not stoop to uncover the vine, to lift it up, and then you espy its secluded beauty.

If you smell it, at first it seems hardly to have an odor. But there steals out of it at length the finest, rarest scent, that rather cites desire than satisfies your sense. It is coy, without designing to be so, and its reserve plays upon the imagination far more than could a more positive way.

Without doubt there are intrinsic beauties in plants and flowers, and yet very much of pleasure depends upon their relations to the seasons, to the places where they grow, and to our own moods. No midsummer flower can produce the thrill that the earliest blossoms bring, which tell us that winter is gone, that growing days have come!—Henry Ward Beecher.

1. Are all the essential or cardinal qualities of style illustrated in the foregoing extract? By what means does the author secure each of the qualities found in this composition?

2. What other qualities of style do you find in this selection? Give examples of each.

The chief varieties of prose composition are Letters, Narrations, Descriptions, and Expositions.

Letters are of two kinds, familiar letters or letters of friendship, and business letters.

The parts of a letter are the heading, the address, the salutation, the body, the conclusion, and the signature.

The heading should show where and when the letter was written. It should include the address of the writer in full, and the date.

Every important part of the heading should begin with a capital letter. Every abbreviated word should be followed by a period, and the parts of the heading should be separated by commas. A period should be placed at the close of the heading.

The heading should be placed about an inch and a half from the top of the page, and should begin about the middle of the sheet. It may occupy a part of a line, or of two lines.

The address shows to whom the letter is written and his place of residence. It may be placed at the beginning or at the close of a letter. In business letters the best place is at the beginning, and in familiar letters at the close. The address, when placed at the beginning of a letter, should begin near the left margin of the sheet and one inch below the last line of the heading. It should not occupy more than two lines.

The salutation is the greeting with which we begin the letter. There is a variety of forms in keeping with our different relations. The most formal salutation is “Sir.” If our relations are somewhat familiar, we use “Dear Sir,” “My dear Sir,” “Dear Mr. Williams,” etc. In addressing a business firm the salutation is “Gentlemen.”

The body of a letter begins one space below the salutation, and just where the salutation closes. A margin of one-half inch, at least, should be left on the left-hand side of the sheet. Each succeeding paragraph should begin in line with the first word of the first paragraph.

The conclusion consists of the complimentary close and follows the body of the letter. It depends upon the relation of the persons. The closing words in business letters are:—Yours truly, Yours respectfully, Very truly yours, etc. The closing words in letters of friendship are:—Yours sincerely, Your loving friend, Your affectionate niece, etc.

The signature follows the complimentary close, in the next space and to the right. It should end at the right-hand side of the sheet.

2. You are clerking for a bookseller. Write a letter to a publisher, ordering a stock of books.

4. You have been absent from school for some days. Write your teacher a note of explanation.

LESSON LXXIII.

Narrations of fact include history, biography, and travels. Narrations of imaginary incidents are called fiction or stories.

4. When there is more than one important event, one is brought up to a certain point, then dropped until the others reach this particular place in the narrative.

The father of James Barry, the Irish painter, was a sailor, who was disgusted with his idle, dreamy, good-for-nothing son. His mother perceived his natural ability, but tried to dissuade him from study for the sake of his health. He had therefore to prosecute his art studies in the face of the greatest difficulties. At length, while yet a boy, he ventured to send to a public exhibition in Dublin his first matured production—“St. Patrick’s Arrival on the Coast of Cashel.”

When the exhibition opened, Barry with beating heart entered it with the crowd. To his infinite delight, it quickly gathered around his picture, and murmurs of approval arose on every side. Suddenly the throng made way for one whose judgment none might dispute—the orator, statesman, and philosopher, Edmund Burke. Having examined the composition closely, he praised it warmly, ungrudgingly. “Who is the painter?” he asked; “Where is he?”

Then the unknown stranger, the ill-dressed, pallid little boy, could contain his fierce delight no longer. “I am the painter!” he exclaimed from amid the crowd. “You, a boy; impossible!” was the reply from many lips. But when Edmund Burke advanced to congratulate him, he was overpowered. He burst into a sudden gush of tears, covered his face with his hands, and rushed from the room.—Royal School Series.

There is a pretty story told of Queen Victoria and Jenny Lind. It belongs to the year 1848, and shows how the modesty of two women—the Queen of England, and the Queen of song—made a momentary awkwardness which the gentle tact of the singer overcame.

It was on a night when Jenny Lind was to sing at her Majesty’s Theatre that the Queen made her first appearance after the memorable Chartist day. For the great artist, too, this was a first appearance, for it was the beginning of her season at a place where the year before she had won unparalleled fame.

It happened that the Queen entered the royal box at the same moment that the prima donna stepped upon the stage. Instantly a tumult of acclamation burst from every corner of the theatre. Jenny Lind modestly retired to the back of the stage, waiting till the demonstration of loyalty to the sovereign should subside.

The Queen, refusing to appropriate to herself that which she imagined to be intended for the artist, made no acknowledgment. The cheering continued, increased, grew overwhelming, and still there was no acknowledgment, either from the stage or the royal box.

At length, when the situation became embarrassing, Jenny Lind, with ready tact, ran forward to the footlights and sang “God Save the Queen,” which was caught up at the end of the solo by the orchestra, chorus and audience. The Queen then came to the front of her box and bowed, and the opera was resumed.—Youth’s Companion.

Examine carefully the construction of the foregoing incidents. How far do they illustrate the principles of narration?

Write a composition of about six paragraphs on one of the following subjects:—

It was on Friday morning, the 12th of October, that Columbus first beheld the new world. As the day dawned he saw before him a level island, several leagues in extent, and covered with trees like a continuous orchard. Though apparently uncultivated, it was populous; for the inhabitants were seen issuing from all parts of the woods and running to the shore. As they stood gazing at the ships, they seemed by their attitudes and gestures to be lost in astonishment. Columbus made signal for the ships to cast anchor, and the boats to be manned and armed. He entered his own boat, richly attired in scarlet, and holding the royal standard; two other boats followed with the captains and other officers, each with a banner of the enterprise emblazoned with a green cross, having on either side the letters F. and Y., the initials of the Castilian monarchs Ferdinand and Ysabel, surmounted by crowns.

As he approached the shore, Columbus, who was disposed for all kinds of agreeable impressions, was delighted with the purity and suavity of the atmosphere, the crystal transparency of the sea, and the extraordinary beauty of the vegetation. He beheld, also, fruits of an unknown kind upon the trees which overhung the shores. On landing, he threw himself on his knees, kissed the earth, and returned thanks to God with tears of joy. His example was followed by the rest, whose hearts, indeed, over-flowed with the same feelings of gratitude. Columbus then rising, drew his sword, displayed the royal standard, and assembling around him the two captains, with the rest who had landed, he took solemn possession in the name of the Castilian sovereigns, giving the island the name of San Salvador.—Washington Irving.

While Robert Bruce was gradually getting possession of the country, and driving out the English, Edinburgh, the principal town of Scotland, remained with its strong castle in possession of the invaders. Sir Thomas Randolph, a nephew of Bruce, and one of his best supporters, was extremely desirous to obtain this important place; but, as you well know, the castle is situated on a very steep and lofty rock, so that it is difficult, or almost impossible, even to get up to the foot of the walls, much more to climb over them. So, while Randolph was considering what was to be done, there came to him a Scottish gentleman named Francis, who had joined Bruce’s standard, and asked to speak with him in private. He then told Randolph that, in his youth he had lived in the Castle of Edinburgh, and that his father had then been keeper of the fortress. It happened at that time that Francis was much in love with a lady who lived in a part of the town below the castle, which is called the Grassmarket. Now, as he could not get out of the castle by day to see the lady, he had practised a way of clambering by night down the castle crag on the south side, and returning up at his pleasure; when he came to the foot of the wall he made use of a ladder to get over it, as it was not very high on that point, those who built it having trusted to the steepness of the crag. Francis had come and gone so frequently in this dangerous manner that, though it was now long ago, he told Randolph that he knew the road so well that he would undertake to guide a small party of men by night to the bottom of the wall, and as they might bring ladders with them, there would be no difficulty in scaling it. The great risk was that of being discovered by the watchmen while in the act of ascending the cliff, in which case every man of them must have perished.

Nevertheless, Randolph did not hesitate to attempt the adventure. He took with him only thirty men (you may be sure they were chosen for activity and courage), and came one dark night to the foot of the crag, which they began to ascend under the guidance of Francis, who went before them on his hands and feet, up one cliff, down another, and round another, where there was scarce room to support themselves. All the while these thirty men were obliged to follow in a line, one after the other, by a path that was fitter for a cat than a man. The noise of a stone falling, or a word spoken from one to another, would have alarmed the watchman. They were obliged, therefore, to move with the greatest precaution. When they were far up the crag, and near the foundation of the wall, they heard the guards going their rounds to see that all was safe in and about the castle. Randolph and his party had nothing for it but to lie close and quiet, each man under the crag as he happened to be placed, and trust that the guards would pass by without noticing them. And while they were waiting in breathless alarm, they got a new cause of fright. One of the soldiers of the castle, wishing to startle his comrade, suddenly threw a stone from the wall and cried out, “Aha, I see you well!” The stone came thundering down over the heads of Randolph and his men, who naturally thought themselves discovered. If they had stirred or made the slightest noise they would have been entirely destroyed, for the soldiers above might have killed every man of them merely by rolling down stones. But being courageous and chosen men, they remained quiet, and the English soldiers, who thought their comrade was merely playing them a trick (as, indeed, he was), passed on without further examination.

Then Randolph and his men got up, and came in haste to the foot of the wall, which was not above twice a man’s height in that place. They planted the ladders they had brought, and Francis mounted first to show them the way. Sir Andrew Grey, a brave knight followed him, and Randolph himself was the third man who got over. Then the rest followed. When once they were within the walls there was not much to do, for the garrison were asleep and unarmed, excepting the watch, who were speedily destroyed. Thus was Edinburgh Castle taken in the year 1313.—Scott’s Tales of a Grandfather.

Make an analysis of the foregoing extracts. What principles of narration are illustrated in each?

Write a composition of five or six paragraphs on one of the following subjects:—

It was a bright morning in the old city of Rome many hundred years ago. In a vine-covered summer-house in a beautiful garden, two boys were standing. They were looking at their mother and her friend, who were walking among the flowers and trees.

“Did you ever see so handsome a lady as our mother’s friend?” asked the younger boy, holding his tall brother’s hand. “She looks like a queen.”

“Yet she is not so beautiful as our mother,” said the elder boy. “She has a fine dress, it is true; but her face is not noble and kind. It is our mother who is like a queen.”

“That is true,” said the other. “There is no woman in Rome so much like a queen as our own dear mother.”

Soon Cornelia, their mother, came down the walk to speak with them. She was simply dressed in a plain white robe. Her arms and feet were bare, as was the custom in those days; and no rings nor chains glittered about her hands and neck. For her only crown, long braids of soft brown hair were coiled about her head; and a tender smile lit up her noble face as she looked into her sons’ proud eyes.

They bowed before her, as Roman lads were taught to do, and said, “What is it, mother?”

“You are to dine with us to-day, here in the garden; and then our friend is going to show us that wonderful casket of jewels of which you have heard so much.”

The brothers looked slyly at their mother’s friend. Was it possible that she had still other rings besides those on her fingers? Could she have other gems besides those which sparkled in the chains about her neck?

When the simple outdoor meal was over a servant brought the casket from the house. The lady opened it. Ah, how those jewels dazzled the eyes of the wondering boys! There were ropes of pearls, white as milk, and smooth as satin; heaps of shining rubies, red as the glowing coals; sapphires as blue as the sky that summer day; and diamonds that flashed and sparkled like the sunlight.

“Ah!” whispered the younger, “if our mother could only have such beautiful things!”

“Is it true, Cornelia, that you have no jewels?” asked her friend. “Is it true, as I have heard it whispered, that you are poor?”

“No, I am not poor,” answered Cornelia, and as she spoke she drew her two boys to her side; “for here are my jewels. They are worth more than all your gems.”

I am sure that the boys never forgot their mother’s pride and love and care; and in after years, when they had become great men at Rome, they often thought of this scene in the garden. And the world still likes to hear the story of Cornelia’s jewels.—Fifty Famous Stories.

It was New Year’s Eve. An aged man was standing by a window. He raised his mournful eyes towards the deep blue sky, where the stars were floating like white lilies on the surface of a clear calm lake. Then he cast them on the earth where few more hopeless beings than himself now moved towards their certain goal—the tomb.

Already he had passed sixty of the stages which lead to it, and had brought from his journey nothing but errors and remorse. His health was destroyed, his mind vacant, his heart sorrowful, and his old age devoid of comfort.

The days of his youth rose up in a vision before him, and he recalled the solemn moment when his father had placed him at the entrance of two roads—one leading into a peaceful, sunny land, covered with a fertile harvest, and resounding with soft, sweet songs; the other leading the wanderer into a deep, dark cave, whence there was no issue, where poison flowed instead of water, and where serpents hissed and crawled.

He looked toward the sky, and cried out in his agony:—“O youth, return! O, my father, place me once more at the entrance to life, that I may choose the better way!” But the days of his youth, and his father, had both passed away.

He saw wandering lights float away over dark marshes and then disappear. These were like the days of his wasted life. He saw a star fall from heaven and vanish in darkness. This was an emblem of himself; and the sharp arrows of unavailing remorse struck home to his heart. Then he remembered his early companions who entered on life with him, but who, having trod the paths of virtue and of labor, were now honored and happy on this New Year’s Eve.

In the midst of these thoughts, there sounded suddenly from the church-tower the music of the New Year, like distant holy hymnings. The tones falling on his ear recalled his parents’ early love for him, their erring son; the lessons they had taught him; the prayers they had offered up on his behalf. Over-whelmed with shame and grief he dared no longer look toward that heaven where his father dwelt; his darkened eyes dropped tears, and with one despairing effort he cried aloud, “Come back, my early days, come back!”

And his youth did return, for all this was but a dream which visited his slumbers on New Year’s Eve. He was still young, his faults alone were real. He thanked God fervently that time was still his own, that he had not yet entered the deep, dark cavern, but that he was free to tread the road leading to the peaceful land where sunny harvests wave.

Ye who still are young, lingering on the threshold of life doubting which fate to choose, remember that when years are passed and your feet stumble on the dark mountains, you will cry bitterly, but cry in vain, “O youth, return! O, give me back my early days!”—Jean Paul Richter.

LESSON LXXIV.

Composition that presents a picture of an object or a place is called description.

The three classes of objects that we most frequently desire to describe are (1) material objects, as buildings, (2) natural scenery, and (3) persons.

1. A general plan of the whole should be included with the enumeration of the parts. The form and magnitude of objects often furnish this plan.

2. The object or scene should be described from the most favorable point of view.

3. The most striking and interesting features should be selected and arranged so that they will easily combine into a whole. Aim to give the reader a distinct and vivid picture of the subject.

As soon as you get inside the belt of wood, and begin to go down to the pond, the damp, and the dusk, and the scent of the dead leaves make you feel as if you were in a very old church. Plenty of wake-robin also grows in the wood, with its leaves like spotted spearheads, and its stumpy red and purple pencils wrapped up in faded green satin (“lords and ladies,” I think we used to call them when I was a youngster). The sweet flag grows all about the pond, and in it too. The corn-flag brightens up its banks with great yellow flowers; and the iris nods its purple blossoms on them, looking a great deal nicer than it smells. Big tangled sheaves of bright green forget-me-not, dotted with tiny stars of blue and gold, bulge over and into, and straggle along, the water. A great part of the pond is choked and carpeted with crow-silk and water-flannel, and moor-ball, spangled with glassy air-bubbles and bright-backed little beetles. White water-lilies, and yellow water-lilies spread a splendid service of china and gold on glossy green table-cloths, for the water-fairies to take supper off by moonlight; and yet, for all that, the great pond is a melancholy place. Big fish mope motionless in its corners, as if they had something on their minds. Little fish leap through its duck-weed, almost covered with the green scum, not as if they did it for the fun of the jump and splash, but to keep for a moment out of the jaws of the shark-like pike that is waiting for them. The pond’s great pike—it has only one, according to village report—is said to have dragged into its waters a dog that came to lap them. No one ever bathes in the pond. Steel-blue dragon-flies zig-zag over the water on their gauzy wings, and two or three kingfishers flash backwards and forwards across it like streaks of variegated lightning.—Anon.

Then we went down to Derwentwater. It was a warm and clear twilight. Between the dark green lines of the hedges we met maidens in white, with scarlet opera cloaks, coming home through the narrow lane. Then we got into the open, and found the shores of the silver lake, and got into a boat and sailed out upon the still waters, so that we could face the wonders of a brilliant sunset.

But all that glow of red and yellow in the north-west was as nothing to the strange gradations of colour that appeared along the splendid range of mountain-peaks beyond the lake. From the remote north round to the south-east they stretched like a mighty wall; and whereas, near the gold and crimson of the sunset they were of a warm, roseate, and half-transparent purple, as they came along into the darker regions of the twilight they grew more and more cold in hue and harsh in outline. Up there in the north they had caught the magic colors, so that they themselves seemed but light clouds of beautiful vapor; but, as the eye followed the line of twisted and mighty shapes, the rose color deepened into purple, the purple grew darker and more dark, and greens and blues began to appear over the wooded islands and shores of Derwentwater. Finally, away down there in the south, there was a lowering sky, into which rose wild masses of slate-colored mountains, and in the threatening and yet clear darkness that reigned among these solitudes we could see but one small tuft of white cloud that clung coldly to the gloomy summit of Glaramara.

That strange darkness in the south boded rain; and, as if in anticipation of the wet, the fires of the sunset went down, and a gray twilight fell over the land. As we walked home between the tall hedges, there was a chill dampness in the air; and we seemed to know that we had at last bade good-bye to the beautiful weather that had lit up for us the blue water and green shores of Grasmere.—William Black.

Describe the scene in a picture hanging in your school-room, or an incident that it suggests.

Not far from this village, perhaps about two miles, there is a little valley, or rather lap of land, among high hills, which is one of the quietest places in the whole world. A small brook glides through it, with just murmur enough to lull one to repose; and the occasional whistle of a quail or tapping of a woodpecker is almost the only sound that ever breaks in upon the uniform tranquillity.

I recollect that, when a stripling, my first exploit in squirrel-shooting was in a grove of tall walnut-trees that shades one side of the valley. I had wandered into it at noon-time, when all nature is peculiarly quiet, and was startled by the roar of my own gun, as it broke the Sabbath stillness around, and was prolonged and reverberated by the angry echoes. If ever I should wish for a retreat, whither I might steal from the world and its distractions, and dream quietly away the remnant of a troubled life, I know of none more promising than this little valley.

From the listless repose of the place, and the peculiar character of its inhabitants, who are descendants from the original Dutch settlers, this sequestered glen has long been known by the name of Sleepy Hollow; and its rustic lads are called the Sleepy Hollow boys throughout all the neighboring country. A drowsy, dreamy influence seems to hang over the land, and to pervade the very atmosphere.

Certain it is that the place still continues under the sway of some witching power, that holds a spell over the minds of the good people, causing them to walk in a continual reverie. They are given to all kinds of marvellous beliefs; are subject to trances and visions; and frequently see strange sights, and hear music and voices in the air. The whole neighborhood abounds with local tales, haunted spots, and twilight superstitions. Stars shoot and meteors glare oftener across the valley than in any other part of the country; and the nightmare, with her whole ninefold, seems to make it the favorite scene of her gambols.

It is remarkable that the visionary propensity I have mentioned is not confined to the native inhabitants of the valley, but is unconsciously imbibed by everyone who resides there for a time. However wide awake they may have been before they entered that sleepy region, they are sure, in a little time, to inhale the witching influence of the air, and begin to grow imaginative—to dream dreams, and see apparitions.—Washington Irving.

Lisbon, like ancient Rome, is built on at least seven hills. It is fitted by situation to be one of the most beautiful cities in the world. Seated, or rather enthroned, on such a spot, commanding a magnificent harbor, and overlooking one of the noblest rivers of Europe, it might be more distinguished for external beauty than Athens in the days of her freedom. Now, it seems rather to be the theatre in which the two great powers of deformity and loveliness are perpetually struggling for the mastery. The highest admiration and the most sickening disgust alternately prevail in the mind of the beholder. Never was there so strange an intermixture of the mighty and the mean—of the pride of wealth and the abjectness of poverty—of the memorials of greatness and the symbols of low misery—of the filthy and the romantic. I will dwell, however, on the fair side of the picture; as I envy not those who delight in exhibiting the frightful or the gloomy in the moral or natural world. Often after traversing dark and wretched streets, at a sudden turn, a prospect of inimitable beauty bursts on the eye of the spectator. He finds himself, perhaps, on the brink of a mighty hollow, scooped out by nature amidst hills, all covered to the top with edifices, save where groves of the freshest verdure are interspersed; or on one side a mountain rises into a cone far above the city, tufted with woods, and crowned with some castellated pile, the work of other days. The views fronting the Tagus are still more extensive and grand. On one of these I stumbled a few evenings after my arrival, which almost suspended the breath with wonder. I had labored through a steep and narrow street almost choked with dirt, when a small avenue on one side, apparently more open, tempted me to step aside to breathe the fresher air. I found myself on a little plot of ground, hanging apparently in the air, in the front of one of the churches. I stood against the column of the portico absorbed in delight and wonder. Before me lay a large portion of the city—houses descended beneath houses, sinking almost precipitously to a fearful depth beneath me, whose frameworks, covered over with vines of delicate green, broke the ascent like prodigious steps, by which a giant might scale the eminence. The same “wilderness of buildings” filled up the vast hollow, and rose by a more easy slope to the top of the opposite hills, which were crowned with turrets, domes, mansions, and regal pavilions of a dazzling whiteness. Beyond the Tagus, on the southern shore, the coast rose into wild and barren hills, wearing an aspect of the roughest sublimity and grandeur, and in the midst, occupying the bosom of the great vale, between the glorious city and the unknown wilds, lay the calm and majestic river, from two to three miles in width, seen with the utmost distinctness to its mouth, on each of which the two castles which guard it were visible, and spread over with a thousand ships—onward, yet further, far as the eye could reach, the living ocean was glistening, and ships, like specks of purest white, were seen crossing it to and fro, giving to the scene an imaginary extension, by carrying the mind with them to far distant shores. It was the time of sunset, and clouds of the richest saffron rested on the bosom of the air, and were reflected in softer tints in the waters. Not a whisper reached the ear. “The holy time was quiet as a nun breathless with adoration.” The scene looked like some vision of blissful enchantment, and I scarcely dared to stir or breathe lest it should vanish away.—Talfourd.

Riding three-and-three, came a kaleidoscope of dazzling horsemen, equerries, aides-de-camp, attaches, ambassadors and princes, all the pomp of all the nations of the earth—scarlet and gold, azure and gold, purple and gold, emerald and gold, white and gold—always a changing tumult of colors that seemed to live and gleam with a light of their own. It was enough. No eye could bear more gorgeousness. No more gorgeousness could there be, unless princes are to clothe themselves in rainbows and the very sun.

The prelude was played, and now the great moment was at hand. Already carriages were rolling up full of the Queen’s kindred, full of her children and children’s children, but we hardly looked at them. Down there, through an avenue of eager faces, through a storm of white, waving handkerchiefs, through roaring volleys of cheers, there was approaching a carriage drawn by eight cream-colored horses. The roar surged up the street, keeping pace with the eight horses. The carriage passed the barrier; it entered the churchyard; it wheeled left and then right. It drove up to the very steps of the Cathedral.

We all leaped up. Cheers broke into screams, and the enthusiasm swelled to delirium. The sun, watery until now, shone out suddenly, clear and dry, and there was a little, plain, flushed old lady, all in black, with a silver streak under her black bonnet, and with a simple white sunshade, sitting quite still, with the corners of her mouth drawn tight, as if she was trying not to cry; but that old lady was the Queen and you knew it. You did not want to look at the glittering uniforms now, nor yet at the bright gowns and young faces in the carriages, nor yet at the stately princes, though by now all these were ranged in a half-circle round her. You could not look at anybody but the Queen, so very quiet, so very grave, so very punctual, and so unmistakably every inch a lady and a Queen.

It was almost pathetic, if you will, that small, black figure, in the middle of these shining cavaliers, this great army, this roaring multitude, but it was also very glorious. When other kings of the world drive abroad, an escort rides close at the wheels of their carriages. The Queen drove through her people quite plain and open, with just one soldier at the curbstone between her and them. Why not? They are quite free. They have no cause to fear her. They have much cause to love her. Was it not all for her; gala trappings of the streets, men, horses, guns and the living walls of British men and women? for the Queen summed up all that had gone before—all the soldiers and sailors, the big-limbed colonials, and the strange men from unheard-of islands over the sea. We know now what that which had come before all stood for. We know as we had never known before what the Queen stands for. The Empire had come together to revere and bless the mother of the Empire; the mother of the Empire had come to do homage to the one Being more majestic than she.

There were the archbishops, bishops and deans, in gold and crimson caps, and white, orange and gold embroidered vestments, waiting on the steps. There, through gaps in the pillars and scaffoldings, you could see all her Ministers and great men, a strange glimpse of miniature faces, as in some carefully labored picture, where each face stands for an honored name.

All stood, and the choir sang the Te Deum. Next rose up a melodious voice intoning prayers. The Queen bowed her head, and then the whole choir and the company outside the Cathedral and the whole company in the stands, at the windows, on the house tops, and away down the street, all standing, all uncovered, began to sing the One Hundredth Psalm: “Come ye before Him and rejoice.” The Queen’s lips were tight, and her eyes, perhaps it was fancy, looked dim; but then, “Three cheers for the Queen,” and the Dean, pious man, was wildly waving that wonderful crimson cap, and the pillars and roofs were ringing as if they must come down. Then “God Save the Queen,” a lusty peal, till you felt drowned in sound.

The Queen looked up and smiled, and the Queen’s smile was the end of it all—a smile that broke down the sad mouth—a smile that seemed half-reluctant, so wistful, yet so kind, so sincere, so motherly.—G. W. Steevens in London Daily Mail.

Examine each of the foregoing passages for principles of description. Notice the way in which the theme is introduced, the selection and arrangement of details, and the effective conclusion.

A composition in which the subject is explained, interpreted, discussed, proved, or illustrated, is called exposition.

This division of prose composition includes essays, speeches, sermons, lectures, and debates.

In narrative and descriptive composition, the materials are obtained through the senses, but in exposition they are derived from general and abstract thought. Since the manner in which two minds will approach the treatment of any subject will be as diverse as the minds themselves, no definite rules can be laid down for the guidance of the learner, but the following hints may be given:—

(1) Having selected his subject, the pupil should think over the exact force and meaning of the terms in which the subject is proposed, so as to have a clear conception of the ground it covers.

(2) In the next place, he should determine the mode in which he will treat his subject. He may commence with the general statement and proceed to prove and illustrate it, or he may commence with the examination of particulars, and proceed to the general truth.

(3) The pupil’s attention must now be given to the division of his subject. The logical order of the several parts should be preserved.

(4) Having decided on his plan or frame-work, the pupil has now to obtain the necessary information under each head. This he may derive from reflection, from conversation, and from reading. As thoughts are obtained he should note them down.

(5) After the composition is written out, the pupil should review it carefully to see if his thoughts have been expressed in the proper place, and in the most suitable manner. After a careful criticism by himself, he should write out his composition again.

Experience amply shows that nothing valuable is to be attained without labor. Exceptional cases apart, the rule of life is that what costs us nothing is little worth, and that what is esteemed among men is the prize of effort and self-denial. The rich harvest which rewards the husbandman is the fitting sequel to a year of watchful and provident exertion; the successful merchant reaches his envied fortune by the closest vigilance combined with the most skilful calculation; whilst the splendid structure of knowledge which the student aspires to rear is only built up by long years of patient and sustained devotion.

Yet it is possible that labor may end in disappointment. Mere capacity of working carries with it no guarantee of ultimate success. For one may be always working, and yet may achieve little. “One thing to-day, another to-morrow,” indicates a fickleness of temper which has rendered many an active life well-nigh useless. Labor to be effective must be steady. Energy must be under the guidance of purpose. It is the resolute concentration, and not the fitful ebullition of effort, which surmounts all obstacles. The fabled contest of speed between the hare and the tortoise expresses in a homely way the truth which is patent to general observation, that the cause of failure in any pursuit is more commonly to be found in want of perseverance than in want of ability.

Most readers are familiar with the incident in the life of Robert Bruce, strongly illustrative of the virtue of perseverance. The King, almost despairing of success in his efforts to restore freedom to his country, was lying one day in his little cabin, when his attention was caught by a spider. The little animal, hanging at the end of a long thread of its own spinning, was trying to swing itself from one beam in the roof to another, for the purpose of fixing the line for its web. Not till the seventh attempt did it succeed; but its success encouraged the King to make one effort more. His perseverance met with its reward; for, as he had never before gained a victory, so he never afterwards suffered any serious defeat.

If, then, perseverance is the secret of success in life, it is surely worth while for all to cultivate this virtue. The effort may be trying and painful at first, but repetition gradually makes it easy, and even pleasant. We should enter on the path of effort betimes, too, before habits of self-indulgence have been acquired, which renders perseverance impossible. Nothing is more certain than that this virtue is amongst the most precious legacies which maturer years can inherit from a laborious and well-spent youth.—James Currie.

Advices, I believe, to young men—and to all men—are very seldom much valued. There is a great deal of advising and very little faithful performing. And talk that does not end in any kind of action is better suppressed altogether. I would not therefore go much into advising; but there is one advice I must give you. It is, in fact, the summary of all advices, and you have heard it a thousand times, I dare say; but I must, nevertheless, let you hear it the thousand and first time, for it is most intensely true, whether you will believe it at present or not—namely, that above all things the interest of your own life depends upon being diligent now, while it is called to-day, in this place where you have come to get education.

Diligent! That includes all virtues in it that a student can have; I mean to include in it all qualities that lead into the acquirement of real instruction and improvement in such a place. If you will believe me, you who are young, yours is the golden season of life. As you have heard it called, so verily it is the seed-time of life, in which if you do not sow, or if you sow tares instead of wheat, you cannot expect to reap well afterwards, and you will arrive at, indeed, little, while in the course of years, when you come to look back, and if you have not done what you have heard from your advisers—and among many counsellors there is wisdom—you will bitterly repent when it is too late.

At the season when you are in young years the whole mind is, as it were, fluid, and is capable of forming itself into any shape that the owner of the mind pleases to order it to form itself into. The mind is in a fluid state, but it hardens up gradually to the consistency of rock or iron, and you cannot alter the habits of an old man, but as he has begun he will proceed and go on to the last.

By diligence, I mean among other things—and very chiefly—honesty in all your inquiries into what you are about. Pursue your studies in the way your conscience calls honest. More and more endeavor to do that. Keep, I mean to say, an accurate separation of what you have really come to know in your own minds, and what is still unknown. Leave all that on the hypothetical side of the barrier, as things afterwards to be acquired, if acquired at all; and be careful not to stamp a thing as known only when it is stamped on your mind, so that you may survey it on all sides with intelligence.

There is such a thing as a man endeavoring to persuade himself, and endeavoring to persuade others, that he knows about things when he does not know more than the outside skin of them, and he goes flourishing about with them. There is also a process called cramming—that is, getting up such points of things as the examiner is likely to put questions about. Avoid all that as entirely unworthy of an honorable habit.

Be modest and humble, and diligent in your attention to what your teachers tell you, who are profoundly interested in trying to bring you forward in the right way, as far as they have been able to understand it. Try all things they set before you, in order, if possible, to understand them, and to value them in proportion to your fitness for them. Gradually see what kind of work you can do; for it is the first of all problems for a man to find out what kind of work he is to do in this universe. In fact, morality as regards study is, as in all other things, the primary consideration, and overrides all others. A dishonest man cannot do anything real; and it would be greatly better if he were tied up from doing any such thing. He does nothing but darken counsel by the words he utters. That is a very old doctrine, but a very true one; and you will find it confirmed by all the thinking men that have ever lived in this long series of generations of which we are the latest.

One remark about your reading. I do not know whether it has been sufficiently brought home to you that there are two kinds of books. When a man is reading on any kind of subject, in most departments of books—in all books, if you take it in a wide sense—you will find that there is a division of good books and bad books—there is a good kind of book and a bad kind of book. I am not to assume that you are all ill-acquainted with this; but I may remind you that it is a very important consideration at present. It casts aside altogether the idea that people have that if they are reading any book—that if an ignorant man is reading any book, he is doing rather better than nothing at all. I entirely call that in question. I even venture to deny it. It would be much safer and better, would he have no concern with books at all than with some of them. There are a number, an increasing number, of books that are decidedly to him not useful. But he will learn also that a certain number of books were written by a supreme, noble kind of people—not a very great number—but a great number adhere more or less to that side of things. In short, as I have written it down somewhere else, I conceive that books are like men’s souls—divided into sheep and goats. Some of them are calculated to be of very great advantage in teaching—in forwarding the teaching of all generations. Others are going down, down, doing more and more, wilder and wilder mischief.

And for the rest, in regard to all your studies here, and whatever you may learn, you are to remember that the object is not particular knowledge—that you are going to get higher in technical perfections, and all that sort of thing. There is a higher aim lies at the rear of all that, especially among those who are intended for literary, for speaking pursuits—the sacred profession. You are ever to bear in mind that there lies behind that, the acquisition, of what may be called wisdom—namely, sound appreciation and just decision as to all the objects that come round about you, and the habit of behaving with justice and wisdom. In short, great is wisdom—great is the value of wisdom. It cannot be exaggerated. The highest achievement of man—“Blessed is he that getteth understanding.” And that, I believe, occasionally may be missed very easily; but never more easily than now, I think. If that is a failure, all is a failure.—Carlyle.

Examine carefully the foregoing expositions. Notice the definite plan on which each is constructed.

Punctuation has been corrected without note. Other errors have been corrected as noted below.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.

Part First.	—Sentences & Classes of Words
	Lessons I—XII

Part Second.	—Classes & Inflections of Parts of Speech
	Lessons XIII—LV

Part Third.	—Syntax
	Lessons LVI—LXI

Part Fourth.	—Analysis of Sentences
	Lessons LXII—LXIV

Part Fifth.	—Composition
	Lessons LXV—LXXV

Abbreviations

Index

1.	There are seven provinces in Canada.
2.	Then the fly lit his lamp of fire.
3.	The bloom of that fair face is wasted.
4.	The boy stood on the burning deck.
5.	And then my heart with pleasure fills,
	And dances with the daffodils.
6.	He goes on Sunday to the church
	And sits among his boys.
7.	I hear in the chamber above me
	The patter of little feet,
	The sound of a door that is opened,
	And voices soft and sweet.
8.	A violet by a mossy stone,
	Half hidden from the eye!
	Fair as a star, when only one
	Is shining in the sky.

1.	The teacher went home when he finished the lesson.
2.	The mother kissed her boy when she received him.
3.	A baby was sleeping,
	Its mother was weeping
	For her husband was far on the wild raging sea.

1.	Men find plants where they least expect them.
2.	The parents returned home when they found their child.
3.	The king took the hand of his friend and pressed it to his heart.
4.	A boy who is always grumbling will lose the friends that he has, and will not make many new ones.
5.	The ball lies where you left it.
6.	The boy’s father was anxious to send him to college, and therefore he studied the Latin grammar till he could bear it no longer.
7.	Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot
	O’er the grave where our hero we buried.
8.	As John and Charles were walking by the river, they both fell into it.
9.	Tell me what brings you, gentle youth, to Rome;
	To make myself a scholar, sir, I come.
10.	Then the maiden clasped her hands and prayed
	That savèd she might be;
	And she thought of Him who stilled the wave
	On the Lake of Galilee.

1.	I found a rusty knife with a silver handle.
2.	Wise ministers and brave warriors flourished during Elizabeth’s reign.
3.	The sick girl was watched by a skilful nurse.
4.	Otters are much prized for their soft, glossy black fur.
5.	I lingered near the hallowed seat with listening ear.
6.	His withered cheek and tresses gray,
	Seemed to have known a better day.
7.	Her aged hand on his strong young arm
	She placed; and so, without hurt or harm
	He guided the trembling feet along,
	Proud that his own were firm and strong.
8.	His hair is crisp, and black, and long,
	His face is like the tan;
	His brow is wet with honest sweat,
	He earns whate’er he can,
	And looks the whole world in the face,
	For he owes not any man.

1.	The maple leaf is an emblem of Canada.
2.	Honor thy father and thy mother.
3.	Who gathered these beautiful flowers?
4.	How sweetly the birds sing in spring!

1.	The sun rises in the East.
2.	Every door opens to a smile.
3.	Keep thy heart with all diligence.
4.	Who is the author of that book?
5.	How tenderly a mother cares for her child!
6.	Every morn is the world made new.
7.	Sharpen this pencil for me.
8.	What bright uniforms the soldiers wear!
9.	The plowman homeward plods his weary way.
10.	How many lines have you written?

1.	Write four declarative sentences.
2.	Write four imperative sentences.
3.	Write three interrogative sentences.
4.	Write two exclamatory sentences.

1.	Gold is a precious metal.
2.	Flowers grow in the fields.
3.	The sailor’s home is on the sea.
4.	The flag of England floats above the citadel.

1.	The city of Ottawa is the capital of Canada.
2.	Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower.
3.	All the children were gathering flowers.
4.	Our friends have arrived in the city.
5.	Home they brought her warrior dead.
6.	John Cabot discovered Canada in 1497.
7.	All along the banks were the skeletons of canoes.
8.	Through this forest ran a beautiful river.
9.	Colder and louder blew the wind.
10.	Down sunk the bell with a gurgling sound.

	Listen to the singing of the birds.
	Carry these books for me.
	Praise ye the Lord.

1.	Who hath not lost a friend?
2.	Gather up the fragments.
3.	Here comes the train!
4.	Why did you take away my book?
5.	The shades of night were falling fast.
6.	How lightly she trips along!
7.	In one corner of the room stood my grandfather’s clock.
8.	Send this note to the post.
9.	How strange our old home looks!
10.	At the dawn of day he ascended the hill.

1.	The shoes worn by the soldiers were made in England.
2.	Near this tree is the grave of a pioneer.
3.	Chaucer is the father of English poetry.
4.	Love had he found in huts where poor men lie.

1.	The name of a place.
2.	The name of a person.
3.	The name of a tree.
4.	The name of a metal.
5.	The name of an article of food.
6.	The name of an animal.
7.	The name of a quality.
8.	The name of an action.

1.	A tall man gave me this book.
2.	That little boy has a kind sister.
3.	I bought two sweet oranges.
4.	These grassy fields are owned by a rich man.

	in,	water,	ring,	pin,	cover.
	round,	this,	lock,	cork,	silver.

1.	Contentment is better than gold.
2.	Virtue is its own reward.
3.	Truth crushed to earth, shall rise again,—
	The eternal years of God are hers.—Bryant.

	boy,	man,	uncle,	hero,	emperor,
	girl,	woman,	aunt,	heroine,	empress.

Masculine.	Feminine.
gentleman,	lady,
husband,	wife,
king,	queen,
monk,	nun,
nephew,	niece,
sir,	madam,
son,	daughter,
uncle,	aunt,
bachelor,	maid or spinster,
drake,	duck,
hart,	roe,
ram,	ewe,
stag,	hind,
buck,	doe,
earl,	countess,
wizard,	witch.

1.	What quality of thing is spoken of.
2.	How many things are spoken of.
3.	Which thing is referred to.

1.	Boys play.
2.	The sun shines.
3.	The snow melts.
4.	Mountains are high.

1.	The girls gathered some water-lilies.
2.	That house was built last century.
3.	He slept for three hours.
4.	The gardener fell from a high tree.
5.	The coachman struck the horse, and it kicked him.
6.	King Edward I. nearly conquered Scotland.
7.	She must weep or she will die.
8.	And still they rowed amidst the roar
	Of waters fast prevailing:
	Lord Ullin reached that fatal shore,
	His wrath was changed to wailing.

1.	The girls recited well.
2.	The teacher often read a story.
3.	I left my pencil there.

1.	Here let us sit and talk of former times.
2.	I never saw so clear a sky.
3.	How proudly they strode along!
4.	Now let me die in peace.
5.	The grass is too damp yet.
6.	The face of the country suddenly changed.
7.	The next night it came again.
8.	The storm came on before its time;
	She wandered up and down,
	And many a hill did Lucy climb,
	But never reached the town.

1.	We withdrew from the room.
2.	The boys ran through the hall.
3.	This box is made of paper.
4.	I went to school with him.

1.	He threw the ball over the fence.
2.	An old man fell into a pond.
3.	A stranger came within our gates.
4.	From many lands comes the cry for help.
5.	The boat went under the water.
6.	This letter was written by my sister.
7.	At noon I went home.
8.	I chatter over stony ways,
	In little sharps and trebles.
	I bubble into eddying bays,
	I babble on the pebbles.

1.	The sun shone out brightly and the mist cleared away.
2.	You may go, but I must remain here.
3.	Cold and damp was the maiden’s grave.
4.	The grass grows in the valley and on the mountain side.

1.	I went to school, but my brother did not.
2.	My books are in my bag, or I have lost them.
3.	The boys ran away because they were afraid.
4.	Though I fail, I shall attempt to do it.
5.	He was a king, yet he was not happy.
6.	The rich and the poor meet together.
7.	Iron is more useful than gold.
8.	They had full warning, so that they are without excuse.
9.	I am sure that he did it.
10.	The morning came, the chaise was brought,
	But yet was not allowed
	To drive up to the door lest all
	Should say that she was proud.

1.	Hurrah! the work is done.
2.	Alas! we were too late.
3.	Hush! she is sleeping now.
4.	Bravo! he has reached the boat.

The Project Gutenberg eBook of English Grammar and Composition for Public Schools

LESSON I.

LESSON II.

LESSON III.

LESSON IV.

LESSON V.

LESSON VI.

LESSON VII.

LESSON VIII.

LESSON IX.

LESSON X.

LESSON XI.

LESSON XII.

LESSON XIII.

LESSON XIV.

LESSON XV.

LESSON XVI.

LESSON XVII.

LESSON XVIII.

LESSON XIX.

LESSON XX.

LESSON XXI.

LESSON XXII.

LESSON XXIII.

LESSON XXIV.

LESSON XXV.

LESSON XXVI.

LESSON XXVII.

LESSON XXVIII.

LESSON XXIX.

LESSON XXX.

LESSON XXXI.

LESSON XXXII.

LESSON XXXIII.

LESSON XXXIV.

LESSON XXXV.

LESSON XXXVI.

LESSON XXXVII.

LESSON XXXVIII.

LESSON XXXIX.

LESSON XL.

LESSON XLI.

LESSON XLII.

LESSON XLIII.

LESSON XLIV.

LESSON XLV.

LESSON XLVI.

LESSON XLVII.

LESSON XLVIII.

LESSON XLIX.

LESSON L.

LESSON LI.

LESSON LII.

LESSON LIII.

LESSON LIV.

LESSON LV.

LESSON LVI.

LESSON LVII.

LESSON LVIII.

LESSON LIX.

LESSON LX.

LESSON LXI.

LESSON LXII.

LESSON LXIII.

LESSON LXIV.

LESSON LXV.

LESSON LXVI.

LESSON LXVII.

LESSON LXVIII.

LESSON LXIX.

LESSON LXX.

LESSON LXXI.

LESSON LXXII.

LESSON LXXIII.

LESSON LXXIV.

LESSON LXXV.

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

1.	Oh! my tooth is aching again.
2.	Alas! he heeded not my warning.
3.	Hark! what means that distant cry?
4.	Pshaw! it is nothing but the wind.
5.	Hurrah! for England’s Queen.
6.	Ho! breakers on the weather bow.
7.	But O! eternity’s too short
	To utter all Thy praise.
8.	Hold! if ’twas wrong, the wrong is mine.

1.	A rolling stone gathers no moss.
2.	I live for those who love me.
3.	The man walked across the bridge.
4.	The cherries on this tree are ripe.
5.	I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.
6.	This boy lost his kite in a tree.
7.	The village master taught his little school.
8.	Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
9.	Crash! a terrific cry broke from three hundred hearts.
10.	I never was on the dull, tame shore,
	But I loved the great sea more and more.

1.	We have a quire of paper.
2.	Our friends paper their walls every year.
3.	He put his hat in a paper box.
4.	It is a fine day.
5.	Magistrates fine those who break the laws.
6.	The penalty is a fine of twenty dollars.
7.	I know that story.
8.	He has the book that I require.
9.	We know that he is just.
10.	The word that is sometimes used to connect sentences.
11.	Give him the iron pail.
12.	The girls iron the clothes in the morning.
13.	He has a piece of iron.

Model:—	Come in. An adverb.
	My hat is in the room. A preposition.
	The word in was omitted. A noun.

1.	These little girls live with their parents in Toronto.
2.	Mary and Harold are going to visit their friends.
3.	On a little mound, Napoleon
	Stood on our storming day.—Browning.

1.	His family live in England.
2.	The army advanced during the night.
3.	The verdict is given by a jury.
4.	A committee of six was appointed by the members.

1.	That is good ploughing.
2.	His writing is very legible.
3.	The singing was admired by all.

Masculine.	Feminine.
heir,	heiress,
baron,	baroness,
count,	countess,
prince,	princess,
negro,	negress,
actor,	actress,
Jew,	Jewess,
lion,	lioness,
governor,	governess,
abbot,	abbess,
victor,	victress,
marquis,	marchioness,
peer,	peeress,
host,	hostess,
duke,	duchess,
master,	mistress,
deacon,	deaconess,
poet,	poetess,
executor,	executrix,
hero,	heroine,
czar,	czarina,
sultan,	sultana,
infante,	infanta,
widower,	widow,
bridegroom,	bride,
fox,	vixen.

Masculine.	Feminine.
man-servant,	maid-servant,
cock-sparrow,	hen-sparrow,
he-goat,	she-goat.

1.	Mary and her friend went for a sail on the lake.
2.	The hero of this story is a young boy.
3.	Great authors are seldom seen by the people.
4.	Tell my mother that her other sons shall comfort her old age.
5.	He fled with his wife and child.
6.	My sister went home with her aunt.
7.	Both a prince and a poet were there.
8.	Little Effie shall go with me to-morrow to the green,
	And you’ll be there, too, mother, to see me made the Queen:
	For the shepherd lads on every side ’ill come from far away,
	And I’m to be Queen of the May, mother, I’m to be Queen of the May.—Tennyson.