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Title: A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect

Author: Joseph Edkins

Release date: May 14, 2020 [eBook #62128]

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF COLLOQUIAL CHINESE, AS EXHIBITED IN THE SHANGHAI DIALECT ***

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A GRAMMAR

OF

COLLOQUIAL CHINESE,

AS EXHIBITED IN THE

SHANGHAI DIALECT

BY
J. EDKINS, B.A., Univ. Coll. Lond.
Of the London Missionary Society.


SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED.


SHANGHAI:
PRESBYTERIAN MISSION PRESS.
1868.

iii

PREFACE

to first edition 1853.

Among works on Chinese Grammar, that of Prémare, written a century and a half ago, still stands preeminent. Besides a more extended knowledge, he possessed a better appreciation of the peculiar beauties of Chinese style, than any other writer on the subject. But it has been justly remarked that his work, abounding in good examples, is deficient in order, and the exhibition of principles. Remusat, in his accurate and learned work, has made great use of Prémare, but he has given less attention than his predecessor, to those numerous groups, in which ideas or sounds are repeated, and he says nothing on propositions. The deficiency that the reader of these works feels in the treatment of groups of words, has been pointed out by Bazin in his clever Essay on Colloquial Mandarin. He quotes the section on words, in Gutzlaff’s Notices on Chinese Grammar, containing a classification of compound words. Partly from the suggestion of that work, and more from his own researches, he has constructed a comprehensive system of grouped words (mots composés).

The little work now in the hands of the reader, is an attempt to elucidate colloquial Chinese, by taking a limited field of enquiry, that of the dialect of a single district. By this means it has been hoped, something might be done to help the causes of Chinese philology, by collecting facts, which writers having a wider scope, have overlooked.

iv

There are aids for the study of the southern dialects of China, but no one has yet written on the speech of the rich and populous province of Kiáng-nán. On Missionary and Commercial grounds, it is time that some attempt should be made to supply this want.

The mandarin student will meet with scarcely any new idioms here. Of words, there are a few tens not used in the fashionable colloquial. It is in sounds that the greatest variation exists, and an attempt has therefore been made to form a correct nomenclature for tones, and for the alphabetic elements of spoken words. For the latter, Sir W. Jones’ system, as introduced by J. R. Morrison in the Chinese Repository, has, with a few necessary modifications, been adopted as by far the best.

For the tones, a new nomenclature is here proposed, based on their real character, as distinct from the arbitrary names, which, though they doubtless represented exactly the tones used by their author, are not applicable, except for convenience sake, to those of other dialects.

Upwards of twenty natural tones, from which each dialect chooses its own set, varying from four to eight, are here described. The early Roman Catholic Missionaries wrote much on this singular characteristic of spoken Chinese, but Bayer in his abstract of their system, in the Museum Sinicum, has not given a very intelligible account of it.

Attention has been paid throughout to the mode of grouping words, as a subject second to none in interest and importance. Some similarity, though an independent one, will be found here to the system adopted by M. Bazin.

The grammars of Morrison and Marshman, beside the excellent works already alluded to, have been of occasional service, v especially the latter, which with all its diffuseness, is a useful and suggestive book.

The assistance of friends has been kindly afforded. To Dr. Medhurst special thanks are due, for revising the sheets as they passed through the press, thus adding much to the correctness of the work; and to Rev. T. M’Clatchie, for material assistance in regard to the laws of Shanghai tones.


vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I.
on sound, 1–57.
Section Page
1. Alphabet. Table of sounds. 1.
2. On the Chinese tones. Natural tones described. Tones of several dialects. 6.
3. On Shanghai tones. Tones in state of transition. Relation of tones to music and accents. 13.
4. Alphabetic elements of the sounds. The 36 initials of the Dictionaries, Represent the sounds of the old language, and are now a provincial pronunciation. The Shanghai dialect, a branch of that system. Finals. Comparative table of Shanghai and Mandarin finals. The final consonants n, ng and k. 43.
PART II.
on the parts of speech, 58–162.
Section Page
1. Native divisions. Division proposed by a native grammarian. 58.
2. Relation of the dialect to the written language, and to other dialects. Primitive words exemplified. Relation to the mandarin of the Historical Romances. Compared with the dialect of Sú-cheú. 60.
3. On Substantives. 66.
4. On Numeral and Quantitative Auxiliary Substantives. Distinctive Particles. Significant Particles. Weights and measures. Collectives. 81.
5. On Adjectives. 89.
6. On Pronouns. 101.
7. On Verbs. Modes of grouping. Kinds of Verbs. Mode. Tense. 111.
8. Propositions, and Postpositions. 134.
9. On Adverbs. 136.
10. On Conjunctions. 154.
11. On Expletives and Interjections. 160.

vii

PART III.
on syntax, 163–214.
Section Page
1. On Government. 163.
2. Interchange of the Parts of Speech. Adjective as Substantive. Verb as Substantive, and as Adjective, &c. 164.
3. On Government of Words in Groups. 170.
4. On Repetition. 176.
5. On Order in Groups. 181.
6. On Simple Propositions. 187.
7. On Subordinate Sentences. 196.
8. On Coordinate Sentences. 205.
9. On Antithesis. 210.
10. On Rhythmus. 212.
Appendix
I. On the 文理 or higher colloquial used by literary men. 215.
II. On the Native Tables of Initials and Finals. Imitated from the Sanscrit. Geographical outline of the dialects that agree with the dictionary system. 216.
Addenda.
Errata

viii

RULES FOR USING THE ORTHOGRAPHY HERE ADOPTED.

  1. The accent marks long vowels í, é, á, ó, ú, pronounced as the vowel in feel, fail, father, foal, fool.
  2. Vowels not accented are the five short vowels corresponding to these; e.g. in fin, fen, fan, fop, fun.
  3. The remaining vowels are ö, ü, au, û, eu, pronounced as in könig, une, auburn, 書, 頭.
  4. The initial consonants k, t, p, f, s, are pronounced high and with the English and Scotch sound. When k, t, p, take an aspirate as in the pronunciation of some parts of Ireland and the United States, they are written k’, t’, p’. These with the vowels and h’ a strong aspirate, constitute the upper series.
  5. The initials g, d, b, y, z with ng, n, m, l, rh, a soft aspirate h, and vowel initials form the lower series. The italic k, t, etc., are to be pronounced two full musical notes lower than the roman k, t, etc., and are counted as the same with g, d, &c.
  6. The nasals m, ng, n, without a vowel are italicised.
  7. Final n when italicised is pronounced very indistinctly.
  8. The superior commas on the left and right of a word, mark the second and third tones. Final h, k and g, indicate the short tone. Words not thus marked are all in the first tone.

The series is known by the initial as in the native mode of spelling, 反切, Fan-t’sih. The capital letters denote dialects as—

S. Shánghái sound.
M. Mandarin
C. Colloquial
R. Reading

1


A GRAMMAR

OF THE

SHANGHAI DIALECT,


PART 1.
ON SOUND.

Section 1. Alphabet.

1. The alphabetical symbols we shall need to employ are the following:—

Symbols. Pronunciation and Examples.
á as a in father; 揩 k’á, wipe; 拜 pá‘,worship.
a as a in sand, or in hat; 鉛 k’an, lead; 蠟 lah, wax.
au as in Paul, or as a in fall, or o in gone; 老 ’lau, old. Aú expresses the mandarin sound.
b or p as in 病 ping‘, sickness; 生病 sáng bing‘, to be sick.
d or t as in 道 tau‘, doctrine; 神道 zun dau‘, men canonized for their virtues.
dz a compound of d and z; 盡 dzing‘, exhaust.
dzz do. as dze in adze. The second z marks a peculiar vowel sound which is sometimes between i and e, 辭 dzz, to leave.
é as ai in fail, or a in male; 來 lé, come.
e as e in led or let; 十 seh, ten.
eu nearly as ou in cousin lengthened; 手 ’seu, hand. Eú expresses the mandarin sound, as ow in cow.
f as in 夫 fú, or 轎夫 kiau‘ fû, chair-bearer.
g or k2 as in 其 kí, he, before i, ü often heard like ji; 共衆 kóng‘ tsóng‘, altogether.
h a feeble aspirate, often lost; 合 heh, combine; 皇 hwong, emperor. When quite lost, as in the latter word, it will be omitted.
h and h’ a strong guttural aspirate, nearly equivalent to sh when occurring before í and ü; 海 ’hé, sea; 喜 ’h’í, glad. Before í and ü, the superior comma will be used.
í as i in marine; 西 sí, west.
i as i in sing or sit; 心 sing, heart.
dj nearly as j in June; 序 djü‘, preface. This sound may also be read z. The natives use either.
k 古今 ’kú kiun, ancient and modern.
k’ a strongly aspirated sound 空 k’ung, empty. It is often mistaken by foreign ears when occurring before i and ü, for the aspirated c‘h but should be separated from that sound in careful pronunciation; 去 k’í‘, go; usually heard chi‘ aspirated. [1]
l 禮 ’li, propriety.
m or m 米 ’mí, rice; 唔沒 m méh, there is no more.
n 女, ’nü, woman.
ng or ng a nasal consonant used at the beginning or close of a syllable. When no distinct vowel sound accompanies it, it is marked ng; 江 kong, river; 我 ’ngú I; 五 ’ng, five
au, en, ûn a slight nasal, best heard before another word; 但 tan‘, but; 敢 ’kén, dare; 幹 kûn, dry; 算 sûn‘, count; 搬轉 pèn ’tsén, to whril round.
ó as o in go; 怕 p’ô‘, fear.
o as o in gong and got; 當 tong, ought, bear; 落 loh, fall.
ö as ö in Göthe; 端 tön, correct; 看 k’ön‘, see; 奪 töh, rob.
p3 比 pí, compare.
p’ as p with a strong aspirate; 譬 p’i‘, like.
rh a peculiar Chinese sound, the same as in mandarin; 而 rh, and.
s 所 ’sú, which, therefore.
sz a peculiar Chinese sibilant, [2] pronounced as in mandarin, and nearly as se in castle, whistle, t, l, being supposed omitted; 詩 sz, poetry.
t 多 tú, many.
t’ as t with a strong aspirate; 拖 t’ú to draw.
ts 做 tsú‘, do.
ts’ the last strongly aspirated; 秋 ts‘ieu, Autumn.
tsz a peculiar Chinese sibilant, pronounced as in mandarin, as ts in hats; 子 ’tsz, a son; 知 tsz, know.
ts’z the above with a strong aspirate 雌 ts’z, female.
ú as u in rule; 素 sú‘, common, plain.
u as u in run; 門 mun, door; 等 ’tung, wait.
ü French u as in vertu; German ü as in Tübingen; 虛 hü empty.
û 處 ts’û‘ place. This vowel is between ó and ú.
v or f feh, Buddha; 房 fong, house. More of v than f.
w 光 kwong, light; 王 wong, king.
y yeu‘, right-hand; 要 yau‘, to want.
z or s siáng‘, elephant; 坐 zú‘, sit.
An apostrophe ’ preceding the word, denotes the second tone.
A comma ‘ following the word, denotes the third tone.
The fourth tone will be written with h, k or g final.
Words left unmarked are in the first tone.[3]
[1] When a native is asked whether k‘i‘ or c‘hi‘ is the more correct pronunciation of 去 he replies the former. Yet the orthography by c‘hi‘ seems to the foreigner more like the true sound. The fact is that the sound is in a state of transition from k‘i to c‘hi.
[2] This sound is better described as s and a peculiar vowel ï or t, s, and ï. The mark ï denotes a vowel peculiar to China but like e in castle.
[3] The further subdivision into upper and lower tones needs no mark, being indicated uniformly by the initial letter. Thus, b, g, d, z, l, m, n, r, and any letters italicized are in the lower tones; other initial letters denote upper tones. There are a few exceptions which will be noted afterwards. A final italic letter denotes a nasal.

4

2. Mandarin pronunciation wants several of these sounds. Among the vowels, the short a and e together with û are omitted, and au, eu, are lengthened into aú, eú. Among the consonants, b, d, g, dj, m ng, n, dz, dzz, v and z are wanting.

3. The Shánghái dialect is deficient in the sh, ch and soft j of mandarin and of Sú-cheú pronunciation.

4. Of the above sounds, those foreign to the English, language, and therefore needing particular attention, are the following:—

Of vowels, eu as in 口 ’k’eu, mouth; ö as in 安 ön, rest. û as in 鑽 tsûn, to bore. A final r should be carefully avoided in these three sounds. Oe is not so common in this dialect as in that of Sú-cheú, where it occurs in 船 jön, boat, 滿 ’mön, full, etc., etc. The vowel ü, (French u), is often convertible with û. Thus 書 sû, book is pronounced sü at Súng-kiáng and to the east of the Hwáng-p’ú, while it becomes sz in Paú-shán district.

Of consonants, note well the sibilants sz, tsz, dzz, with rh, and the nasals m, n, ng, also the strong aspirate h’; also the three aspirated mutes p’, k’, t’, and ng at the beginning of a syllable.

5. The native arrangement of the alphabet, as found in the tables prefixed to K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, is borrowed from the Sanscrit.[1] The natural order of the letters as formed by the organs of speech, is as far as possible preserved, and the system adopted contrasts advantageously with the irregularity of the English and other alphabets. The pronunciation there registered is what Chinese authors call the 南音 Nán yin, Southern pronunciation, as it was early in the Christian era. It probably agrees in the main with the modern speech of Sú-cheú, Háng-chú and the surrounding cities. That the pronunciation of Sháng-hiá is one of its dialects, appears from the slightest examination of the tables in question. It is characterized by the same division into Yin and Yáng, i.e.5 hard and soft, or thin and broad consonants, which form the basis of arrangement, in those tables, and agrees in many of the details. Vide Appendix on K’áng-hí’s tables of Initials and Finals.

[1] Vide Preface to Morrison’s Dictionary, and Marshman’s Clavis Sinica. None of the western alphabets appear to have been so scientifically arranged as the Sanscrit.

6. In the native system, while the consonants are accurately distinguished, the initial vowels are placed together, under only two heads. In this respect therefore, we depart from it in the following table. The initials sh, zh, ch, f’, and some others are also omitted as not applicable to our dialect. The imperfect nasal consonants are inserted, though as local variations they have no place in the native tables. In naming the classes, western terms have been adopted.

Tabular view of the alphabetic sounds of the Shánghái dialect.

Fifteen vowels.
Quantity of syll. Value.
long or short. á father
do. a hand, back
long au Paul
do. é May
short e let
long eu cousin
do. í marine
long or short. i sing
do. ó go
do. o long, lock
do. ö Göthe
long ú rule
long or short. u sun, suck
long ü Tübingen
do. û as in 書 sû
Thirty three consonants.
High Low
Thin Asperated Broad Nasals & Liquids Imperfect nasals
Mutes k, t, p k’, t’, p’ g, d, b ng, n, m ng, n, m
Labio-dentals f v
Sibilants and aspirates s, sz, tz, tsz, h’ ts’, ts’z z, zz, dz, dj, dzz, h ni
Semi-vocals l, rh

If from these consonants, we subtract the combinations of t and d, with s and z, the aspirated mutes, and ní, as capable of resolution, there remain twenty three in all. Of those that are left, sz and zz may also be supposed to be made up of s, z, and an indistinct vowel ï, heard in English after the l of beetle, needle, etc.

6

Section 2. On the Tones.

7. In order to determine the position of the Shánghái patois among the dialects of China, something must be said on tones generally. Chinese pronunciation may for our present purpose, be considered in three or more general divisions, according to the number of tones.

(1.) The first of these is the Northern mandarin. 北音 Pih yin, where four or five tones are in use. It is the pronunciation of the Emperor’s court, and professedly of the government officers throughout the empire. It is also spoken in considerable purity in the parts north of the Yáng tsz Kiáng (hence its name), and in the provinces of Sz-ch’uen, Kwei-cheú, Yün-nán, and parts of Kwangsi and Hunan.

(2.) The second in the Southern pronunciation, 南音 Nán yin, spoken in the part of Kiáng-sú, that is south of the Yáng-tsz’-kiáng, in Cheh-kiáng and part of Kiáng-sí. This is mainly the pronunciation out of which the mandarin grew and which is followed in the Dictionaries, from K’ang-hí upwards, nearly to the Hán dynasty.[1] The tones are four in number, each subdivided into kaú and tí, upper and lower, or as they are also denominated yin and yáng, feminine and masculine. These upper and lower series of tones are also distinguished, by different initial consonants, the one taking g, d, b, v, z, etc., and the other k, t, p, f, s, etc. The variations that exist even between contiguous districts, are very numerous, a circumstance which furnishes a mark of distinction between this part of China and the mandarin provinces, where orthographical differences are few.

(3.) The pronunciation of the other provinces presents many extensive departures from the true mandarin. The tones are seven or eight in number, and are often found inverted in position, as well as contradictory in nature to the names they bear. The Fúh-kien and Canton dialects have long been the subject of foreign study, and have received abundant illustration. Ngán-hwei and Kiangsi have also many eccentricities of pronunciation.

[1] Vide in K’áng-hí, the Fán-ts’eih spelling, quoted from the previously existing Dictionaries. In K’áng-hí’s table of sounds, the former model is to some extent departed from, in favour of the Northern mandarin. The terms 北音南音 are common both in books, and in the conversation of the natives. Mandarin pronunciation has also its dictionaries, such as 五方元音, but it is the old tonic dictionaries and new works founded on them to which reference is here made.

8. The tones may be partially described according to their natural character. In attempting this, we intentionally avoid for the present, the usual Chinese terms 平上去入 ping, even, záng, rising, k’ü‘, going, zeh, entering, because, being the same in all dialects, they do not in the majority of cases, represent the actual effect of the sounds on the ear. When first adopted in the reign of Liang wu ti, A.D. 402 to 450, they must have represented the tones of the dialect, spoken by Shen yoh[1] the writer who selected them a native of Hu cheu only 100 miles from Sháng-hái. But when applied according to universal practice, to the sounds given to the same characters in other parts of the empire, these four names convey no idea of the actual pronunciation. The descriptions given of the tones by native authors, are consequently often incomprehensible.

A. Upper acute tone. We pronounce monosyllabic words, when speaking with moderate emphasis, in a quick descending tone. It is heard in commands as Gó, Fíre, Go at ônce. In naming any object, English speakers usually adopt this intonation for a monosyllable, or the penultimate of a dissyllable. It might be called the affirmative tone. It represents the 上平 záng‘ bing, or upper first tone at Sháng-hái and Sú-cheú, as 天 t’íen heaven; while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the second, and in the mandarin of Pe-king, the first tone.

B. Upper even tone. This is a sound without deflection like a long note in music, and is not so common in English conversation as the former. When high in key, it is in Sháng-hái the upper second tone, as in 水 sz; water; 火 hú, fire, 土 t’ú, earth. In Sz-ch’uen mandarin, and in the Fúh-kien of Amoy, it is the upper first tone.

8

C. Upper quick rising tone. This is nearly like the staccato of musical notation, and is usually heard in interjections of surprise and indignation, and frequently in questions. If quick and high, it is in Sháng-háe the upper third tone, as 信 sing, a letter, 菜 ts’é, vegetables. In Pe-king mandarin. It is the lower first tone.

D. Upper slow rising tone. This is a prolonged intonation rising more slowly than the last, and is not needed for the Sháng-háe dialect.

E. Upper short tone. This is the intonation of syllables short in quantity. Long and short quantity may be predicated of vowels or of syllables. In Latin, the short ă of m-ă-gis, becomes long by position in magnus. The converse of this example takes place in Sháng-hái pronunciation, where the long and short a and o are all found in a short tone.[2] In such cases, we write them all with a final h; the presence or absence of the accent marking the quantity of the vowel, while that of h marks the quantity of the syllable; as in 濕 sáh, wet; 薩 sah, in Pú sah, disciple of Buddha; 哭 k’óh weep; 悪 oh, wicked. This tone might be divided into two, as it ascends or descends; but as only the former occurs in Sháng-hái sounds, we count but one of these, to avoid too great subdivision.

F. Lower acute tone. In proceeding to tones in a lower pitch of voice, we enumerate them in an order corresponding to that followed above; thus the same natural description, except as regards key, will readily apply to them. The lower acute tone is not needed for the Shánghái sounds, except in cases of combination. In the Sú-cheú dialect, it represents the lower second tone, while in Fúh-kien, if set very low, it will be the upper third tone.

G. Lower even tone. A low musical sound without deflection. It is the lower first tone at Sháng-hái, as in 能 nung, can. 埋, má, bury. In the mandarin of Nán-king, it is the upper first tone, while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the lower third tone.

9

H. Lower quick rising tone. This intonation is nearly that of any common word, when spoken interrogatively, as I? Yes? Indeed? It is the lower third tone of Sháng-hái, and the lower first of Nán-king and Amoy.

I. Lower slow rising tone. This is the intonation of remonstrance as in “Et tù Brute,” if were spoken in a deep and rather lengthened tone. So in many antithetical sentences, as “We seek not yoùrs but yoú,” the former accented word is in a low slow rising tone, and the latter in a quick falling tone. Writers on Elocution mark them with the grave and acute, accents respectively.

J. Lower short tone. The remarks appended to the corresponding upper tone apply also to this. 學習 hoh dzih, to learn and practice.

K. Upper circumflex. This is an intonation high in key and having two deflections, apparently ascending and descending. It may be quick or slow in time. It is not used in Sháng-hái pronunciation. When slow it is the second tone of Nán-king.

L. Lower circumflex. This corresponds to the preceding in character and time, but differs from it in key. When, quick, it is the lower first tone of the district east of Sú-cheú.

[1] Shen yoh 沈約 was high in favour with the emperor Liang wu ti whose capital was Nanking. Nan shï 南史 c. 57.
[2] If different symbols were invented for the long and short vowels, so that syllables only should be considered long and short, this anomaly would disappear. All alphabets are deficient in vowel marks.

9. While selecting most of their tones from those thus described, some dialects would require a more minute subdivision, and perhaps two high and two low divisions of each series might be found necessary. The preceding arrangement however, will be sufficient to give some conception of the variety of tonic effects, whether harmonious or discordant the listener must judge, existing in the speech of China. If it be recollected that independently of these differences in tones, there are also numberless variations in the alphabetic form of the sounds, an accurate knowledge of so Protean a language might seem unattainable, were it not that the characters are everywhere the same. What one pronounces in a high shrill accent, and another in a prolonged whine, and another in a low musical intonation, they all write in the same form; and if asked what is its tone, they give the same reply.

10

The Chinese have themselves described the tones according to their natural character. We quote the following translation of some verses in K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, from Medhurst’s Hok-kien Dictionary.

“The even tone travels on a level road, neither elevated nor depressed.
“The high tone exclaims aloud, being fierce, violent, and strong.
“The departing tone is distinct and clear, gruffly travelling to a distance.
“The entering tone is short and contracted, being hastily gathered up.”[1]

This description must be taken as answering to the tones spoken by the native writer from whom it is taken.

[1] 平聲平道莫低昂
上聲高呼猛烈强
去聲分明哀遠道
入聲短促急收藏

10. The terms used by the Chinese to describe sounds in reference to tones, are such as—

高 低, kau tí, high and low (key of the tone).

陰 陽, yun yáng, high and low (key of the tone).

緩 急, wén‘ kih, slow and quick (time of the tone).

平 仄 ping tsáh, even, deflected. 仄 is further divided into 上 去 入 záng‘, k’ü‘, zeh, rising, departing, entering.

To these we add to express quantity apart from tone:—

長 短 dzáng, ’dön,[1] long and short (time in reference to the syllables).

These terms include all the principles, on which our arrangement of natural tones has been made: thus—

The first two pairs define the upper and lower tones.

The third pair embraces differences in time, the quick and slow tones.

The fourth pair includes even tones and those having deflections, which may rise or fall, and be one or two in number.

The fifth pair distinguishes the three first tones from the fourth.

11

In an article in the Chinese Repository on the Birmese and Shán languages (Vol. V. page 71), there are some facts respecting tones as employed in those countries. The Sháns, inhabiting the country that separates Birmah from China, have two deflected tones rising and falling respectively, two tones short in quantity also rising and falling, and a low even tone.

The Birmese have the two deflected tones, and one short tone.

The Shán language is fundamentally the same as the Siamese, which also has tones.

[1] This is one of the words where d is heard in the upper series instead of t. Other cases of departures from the usual law will be subsequently pointed out.

11. TABLE OF TONES IN SEVERAL DIALECTS.[1]

i. mandarin tones. 北音
Tones Nan-King Pe-king Hó-nan
K‘ai-fung
Sz-ch’uen
Upper First, 上平 l, e, u, e, or
u, q, f,
u, q, e, u, e,
Second, l, s, r, l, q, r, l, q, r, q, f,
Third, q, f, l, q, f, l, q, f, l, s, r,
Fourth, sh, u, e,
l, q, r,
l, q, f, &c.
u, q, e,
l, q, r,
l, q, r,
l, q, e, or
l, q, f,
Lower first, 下平 l, q, r, l, q, r, u, q, r, l, q, e, or
l, q, f
ii. kiang-nan and cheh-kiang. 南音
Tones Sú-cheú Sháng-hái Ning-pó
Upper Series First, 上平 u, q, f, u, q, f, u, q, f,
Second, 上上 u, e, u, e, u, s, r,
Third, 上去 u, s, r, u, q, r, u, e,
Fourth, 上入 u, sh, u, sh, u, sh,
Lower Series First, 下平 l, q, r, l, e, l, s, c, q, f,
Second, 下上 l, q, f, l, s, r, l, s, r,
Third, 下去 l, s, r, l, q, r, l, s, r, or e,
Fourth, 下入 l, sh, l, sh, l, sh,

12

iii. fuh-kien.
Tones Amoy and Cháng-cheú
Upper, first, u, e,
do. second, u, q, f,
do. third, l, f,
do. fouth. u, sh, f,
Lower, first, l, q, r,
do. second, u, q, f,
do. third, l, e,
do. fouth. u, sh, f,
[1] u, upper. l, lower. r, rising. f, falling. q, quick. s, slow. e, even. c, circumflex. sh, short.

12. Nán-king is here placed among those that belong to the 北音 or Northern Mandarin division. A native author[1] says, that this city and two others 淮陽 Hwái yáng and 徐海 Sü hái use the northern pronunciation.

The large Dictionaries are uniform in the adoption of the pronunciation in our (ii.) division, as their basis of spelling. They usually speak of only four tones, distinguishing the upper from the lower by the initial letter. This is also the universal practice among the educated class vivâ voce. They do not speak of 帝 ti‘ emperor and 地 di‘ earth, as different in tone, the one the upper third tone, the other the lower, but as different in the alphabetical form tí, dí.

The division into eight tones is preferable for a foreign reader, because (1) there is a difference in elevation of voice, 帝 tí‘ being at an interval of a fourth in the musical scale more or less, higher than 地 dí‘. (2) Although the third and fourth tones, upper and lower, are deflected at Sháng-hái in a similar way, so that they may be regarded as the same tones, this is not the case with the first and second, which differ decidedly in character.

The fourth tone in the 北音 Póh yun, class (i.) is in the Northern provinces, long in quantity. The words included under it are distributed among the other tones, and must be learnt separately, in order that they may be correctly pronounced; e.g. of words written chúh, some such as 竹, 竺, 燭 13 are at K’ai-fóng-fú in the upper first tone, while 軸, 祝, 昨 are in the lower first tone.[2]

[1] Vide 李氐音鑑. The author was a native of Peking.
[2] The analogy between the Chinese tones and the Greek accents probably led the Catholic Missionaries to call the former accentus. The distinction between accent and quantity which existed in Greek, has been found also in Sanscrit in the Vedas. (Vide Bopp’s Sanscrit Grammar, section 80.) In both, there were three accents, acute, grave and circumflex. The grave is described as the negation of the acute and to be understood where that mark is not written. The acute was a rising in tone; while the circumflex is said to have raised and depressed the tone on the same syllable. (Vide Valpy’s, Greek Grammar.) Taking accent and quantity together, we obtain four distinctions of sound, which is the nominal number of tones in Chinese. The fundamental difference in the structure of polysyllabic and monosyllabic languages prevents the analogy from being carried far; the tones in one case being fixed to syllables, and in the other to words. But when it is remembered that those two branches of the great Indo-European stem are among the most ancient of languages, not much later in origin than the Chinese itself, and one of them its geographical neighbour, the fact of these delicate differences of sound existing till now in that language, becomes interesting as throwing light on some of the most precious remains of the literature of the past. Grammarians would not speak with such hesitation, as they do, when describing these peculiar intonations of the civilized races of the old world, if they had heard and could discriminate the Chinese tones. Late speculations on the change in language-forming power that has taken place in modern times, have referred to the gradual diminution of inflexions in new languages, and to other circumstances, as instances of it. From these has been argued the decay of a certain faculty once possessed by the human race. The limited use of accents fixed to words in newly-formed languages, may be viewed as another illustration of it. Clearly-marked alphabetical differences, as now preferred to those nicer distinctions of sounds, which perhaps were familiar alike to the most cultivated branches of the Great Arian family, and to the ancient and modern Chinese. It may be added that the use of many of the Hebrew accents is but imperfectly known in modern times.

Section 3. On the Shanghai tones.

13. We shall illustrate the tones one by one with numerous examples, adding a translation for the use of those who wish to acquire at the same time, a vocabulary of common phrases. We have hitherto regarded tones as they are heard, when the sound is enunciated emphatically and single. But there are certain changes which occur in combinations of two or more words in rapid conversation, which can be only explained by examples of such groups arranged in separate columns. In the observations appended to each table, the more prominent 14 of these variations will be pointed out, and the place of the accent determined.[1]

The vowel marks employed in this work are repeated here, that the eye of the reader may be familiarized with them:—

Long vowels. Short vowels. Other vowels.
á rather. a sang. au au Paul.
é ray. e set. eu eu as in 頭 teu.
í read. i sing. ö Göthe.
ó road. o song. ü vertu.
ú rude. u sung. û as in 書 sû.

In writing mandarin, the following will also be used:—

á, ú, combined. Prolongation of au.
cow. Prolongation of eu.
ei kine. The Greek, ei.

The accents denote long vowels, and a symbol is never used for more than one sound. This is the principle of the orthography usually called Sir W. Jones’ system. It was proposed by the Hon. J. R. Morrison in 1836, in the Chinese Repository, (vol, 5, page 22), for application to the Chinese language. For this part of China, modifications are needed in the details, and hence the differences in the system here adopted, from that described by the writer of that article, and in Williams’ Chinese Vocabulary, etc.

The long vowels all have, what is called in England, the Italian pronunciation.

The sound eu is something like the French eu in douleur, or the common short English u as in bun prolonged ’or the corresponding mandarin sound eú as in 口 ’k’eú, Premare uses eou, and Klaproth eu; from them we have borrowed it. In the lengthened form, it is a diphthong eú or uú, as in English cloud. The shorter form eu has no exact English equivalent.

[1] In an Essay on the Hok-kien tones by the Rev. S. Dyer of Malacca, descriptions of them with a musical notation are given. Tables of examples for groups of two like those we now give, but without the Chinese characters, are annexed.

15

14. The upper first tone. This is the common quick falling sound, usually given in. English pronunciation, to any monosyllable when standing alone, and spoken with emphasis.

瓜 kwó, melon. 鍾 tsúng, bell.
風 fóng, wind. 多 tú, many.
輕 k’iung, light. 飛 fí, to fly.

That it may be readily compared with the other tones, by such as have a native assistant at hand, some examples are here given of the same alphabetical sound, varied according to the four upper tones.

希喜戲歇 hí ’hí hí‘ hih
多覩妒篤 tú ’tú tú‘ tóh,
枯苦課哭 k’ú ’k’ú k’ú‘ k’óh,

In the fourth word of each series, the vowels change, í into i, and ú into ó. The Chinese regard them as different only in tone; to a foreign ear, the difference is one both of time, as the syllables are long and short, and of vowels sound, as the long i becomes short i, and long u becomes long o.

15. As examples of combination, take first those which have the upper first tone in the penultimate, (p, s, k, j, in roman type, represent the four upper tones in their order; in italic type, the lower).

Tones. Place of the Accent.
p.p. 今朝 kiun tsau, to-day, ult.
相公 siáng kóng, sir, husband,
工夫 kúng fú, work, pen.
當中 tong tsóng, in the middle, ult.
p.s. 天頂 t’íen ting, the zenith,
多少 tú sau, how many?
恩主 un tsû, benefactor,
p.k. 眞正 tsun tsung, truly,
相信 siang sing, believe, be fond of,
聲氣 sáng kí, (c’h) sound of voice, pen.
p.j. 中國 tsúng kóh, China,
彎曲 wan k’ióh, (c’h) winding, crooked, ult.
p.p. 中原 tsóng niön, China,
天堂 t’íen dong, heaven,
差人 ts’á niun, a messenger, 16 pen.
p.s. 天理 t’íen lí, heavenly reason, ult.
裝滿 tsong mén, to pack full,
新米 sing mí, new rice, pen.
p.k. 天地 t’íen dí, heaven and earth, ult.
天亮 t’íen liáng, daybreak,
鄕下 h’iáng au, in the country, pen.
p.j. 風俗 fóng zóh, custom, ult.
新閘 sing zah, village near Shanghai,

Obs. In this table, the tone preserves its natural character throughout, but when followed by the quick rising tones, as in p, k, and p, k, or by the short tones, or by a word hurried over without emphasis on account of its unimportance, it is heard with a more distinct accent than in other cases. When the accent is upon the other word, this tone needs to have the voice rest upon it for a time, to prevent its becoming the third tone.

The tone which is the same as this in the Amoy dialect, undergoes a regular change, in combinations such as those in this table. When standing first of two words, it becomes an upper quick rising tone. Thus though a tone be identical when pronounced alone in two dialects, it does not follow that its laws of combination are also the same. For much important information on the Hok-kien tones, and the laws of combination in that dialect, the writer is indebted to Rev. J. Stronach of Amoy.

16. Examples of the upper first tone in the antepenultimate or when first in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.
p.p.p. 蘇州人 Sú-tseu niun, a Sú-cheú man, ult.
p.s.p. 天主堂 t’íen-tsû dong, Roman Catholic Chapel,
p.k.k. 挑過去 t’iau kú-k’í, carry it past, ant.
p.j.k. 當得住 tong tuh-dzû, able to stand against,
p.p.p. 朝辰頭 tsau-zun deu, in the morning,
p.s.k. 千里鏡 ts’íen-lí kiung, telescope, ult.
p.k.p. 三字經 san-zz’ kiung, the Three Character Classic, 17
p.j.k. 追勿上 tsûi veh-zong, cannot overtake him, ant.
p.s.s. 多好狗 tú-hau keu, a number of dogs,

Obs. i. In the example standing last but two, if 經 is accented, it preserves its proper character, but if, as is often the case, 三 is accented, 經 becomes even and falls in pitch.

Obs. ii. The accent often varies between the first and the last syllable. In regard to position, it is the latter that should receive it. But in reference to tone, that now under illustration admitting emphasis freely, overbears the accent of position.

17. Examples of upper first tone standing last in a combination of two or three.

Tones. Accent.
p.p. 當心 tong sing, take care, pen.
燒香 sau h’iáng, burn incense, ult.
s.p. 祖宗 tsú tsóng, ancestors, pen.
頂多 ting tú, greatest number of,
講書 kong sû, explain books,
水晶 sz tsing, rock crystal, ult.
k.p. 貴庚 kwé káng, your honourable age?
放心 fong sing, be content,
j.p. 插花 ts’ah hwó, insert flowers,
忒多 t’uk tú, too many,
p.p. 明朝 ming tsau, to-morrow, pen.
良心 liáng sing, good heart, conscience,
k.p.p. 啥晨光 sá zun-kwong, what time, ant.
s.p. 母親 mú ts’ing, mother, ult.
老兄 lau hiúng, venerated brother,
k.p. 地方 tí fong, a place,
念經 nian kiung, chant sacred books,
j.p. 逆風 niuh fóng, contrary wind,

Obs. In the groups p.p., s.p., and p.p. in this table, the tone of the last word falls and becomes even. In such cases, the initial consonants remain unaffected. Thus, 工夫 kúng fú cannot become kúng vú, though, fú falls in key. The same18 change may sometimes be observed after the third and fourth tones.

18. Examples of this tone, as the second in a group, of three.

Tones. Accent.
s.p.k. 小生意 siau sáng-í, small retail trade, pen.
k.p.p. 雇工人 kú-kóng niun, workman,
j.p.k. 束腰帶 sóh-yan tá, waist-band,
p.p.k. 文昌殿 vun-ts’áng díen, temple of the patron of Literature,
s.p.p. 軟心腸 niön sing-dzáng, merciful heart, ult.
k.p.j. 大英國 ta-yung kóh, England, ant.
j.p.p. 讀書人 tók-sû niun, educated man, ult.

Obs. i. There is a secondary accent on some other syllable in groups of three, which sometimes predominates over the other. We have not attempted to record more than one. E.g. 讀 the antepenultimate of the last example is often heard with a decided accent.

Obs. ii. An inspection of these tables will shew that the first tone attracts the accent to itself in many instances, and that through rapidity of pronunciation, or from the accent being placed on the word before, it tends to fall in key and become even.

Obs. iii. In regard to position the accent prefers the last syllable.

19. The upper second tone. It is a high even tone without deflection, and forms a principal element in producing that curious singing effect in many dialects, which the foreigner notices in first listening to Chinese pronunciation.

Ex. 水 sz, water. 好 hau, good.
火 hú, fire. 討 t’au, beg.
許 hé, promise. 點 tíen, point (verb or subs.)

20. Examples of the upper second tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Tones. Accent.
p.s. 恩典 un tíen, favour, pen.
酗酒 h’iúng tsieu, intoxicated,
s.s. 滾水 kwun sz, boiling water, 19 pen.
頂好 ting hau, the best possible,
k.s. 救火 kieú hú, save from fire, ult.
要緊 yau kiun, important,
j.s. 作主 tsok tsû, to be master,
出首 ts’eh seu, accuser,
p.s. 門口 mun k’eu, door-way,
財主 dzé tsû, rich man,
s.s. 勉强 míen k’iáng, by compulsion, (c‘h)
耳𦖋 ní tú, ears,
k.s. 面孔 míen k’óng, face,
j.s. 折手 zeh seu, maimed hand,
曆本 lih pun, almanac,
p.j.s. 燒熱水 sau nyih sz, prepare hot water,
p.k.s. 唔要緊 m yau kiun, not important, ant.
j.j.s. 勿缺少 veh k’iöh sau, not deficient, (c‘h) ult.
j.j.s. 實骨子 seh kweh tsz, in reality, pen.

Obs. i. The last syllable, when preceded by a word in the upper first tone, is usually heard to fall in key, as in the first two of the above examples.

Obs. ii. In some examples, the tone under illustration often changes into a quick falling tone, as in 救火 kieu‘ ’hú, pronounced kieu‘ hú, and 勉强 pronounced míen‘ k’iáng.

21. Examples of the upper second tone in the antepenultimate.

Tones. Accent.
s.p.p. 請先生 ts’ing síen-sáng, engage a teacher, ant.
s.s.p. 考舉人 k’au kü-niun, be examined for Master of Arts decree, pen.
s.s.k. 手低下 seu tí-au, under (my) control, ant.
s.j.k. 打磕瞌 táng k’eh-ts’óng, nod the head when sleeping, ult.
s.p.p. 火輪船 hú-lun zén, steamer,
s.k.k. 土地廟 t’ú-dí miau, temple of the Lares arvales,
s.j.s. 考勿起 k’au-veh-k’í, cannot venture to be examined,

Obs. For purposes of accentuation 下, 打, and 勿 in the20 above examples may be called enclitics or proclitics. As such they leave the emphasis to rest on the significant words.

22. Examples of the second tone in the penultimate of a group of two.

Tones. Accent.
s.p. 小干 siau kûn, a boy, ult.
喜歡 h’í hwén, glad,
j.s.s. 白滾水 páh kwun-sz, simply boiling water (weak tea),
打窵 táng tiau, shoot birds,
水手 sz seu, sailors,
s.k. 寶貝 pau pé, precious,
請教 ts’ing kiau, will you inform me?
小菜 siau ts’é, vegetables,
s.j. 可惜 k’ó sih, alas! pen.
曉得 h’iau tuh, understand,
打鐵 táng t’ih, work in iron, ult.
s.p. 水牛 sz nieu, water buffalo,
保全 pau dzíen, preserve,
水桐 sz dóng, water bucket,
s.s. 苦惱 k’ú nau, unfortunate,
倒滿 tau mén, pour full,
s.k. 胆大 tan dú, courageous,
體面 t’í míen, respectable,
請坐 ts’ing zú, please sit down,
s.j. 搶奪 ts’iáng döh, rob and plunder,
寶石 pau záh, precious stone,

Obs. The accent is usually on the last word, and it is especially marked when that word is in the first or third tone. When the penultimate assumes the accent, it frequently changes to the upper rising tone, but this is apparently nothing more than an occasional irregularity, produced by rapid pronunciation. Native assistants generally deny the existence of these and all such changes; but on having their attention drawn more closely to the subject, they admit that there are exceptional cases.

23. Examples of the same tone standing second in a 21 group of three.

Tones. Accent.
p.s.p. 齊祖宗 tsá tsú-tsóng, sacrifice to ancestors, ult.
s.s.k. 比比看 pí-pí k’ön, compare them,
k.s.j. 做好日 tsú hau-nyih, keep a wedding, pen.
j.s.p. 一本頭 ih-pun deu, just one volume, ult.
p.s.p. 秦如皇 dzing sz wong, the emperor who burnt the books,
k.s.j. 字紙簏 zz-tsz lóh, written-paper basket,
j.s.p. 踛起來 lók k’í-lé, stand up,

Obs. i. The penultimate is heard higher in key than the others. The last falls, but retains the principal accent more or less distinctly.

Obs. ii. The secondary accent is usually on the first word, except in the example 做好日, where the penultimate word changes into an upper rising tone, and receives the accent.

24. The upper third tone. This tone being both high in key and deflected upwards, is difficult to imitate correctly.

Ex. 葬 tsong, bury. 變 píen, change. 四 sz, four.
寸 ts’un, inch. 姓 sing, family name. 店 tíen, shop.

Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.

Tones. Accent.
k. p. 意思 í sz, object, idea, pen.
看書 k’ön sû, to read, ult.
種花 tsóng hwó, plant cotton or flowers,
k.s. 放火 fong hú, set on fire, pen.
禁止 kiung tsz, forbid,
k.k. 富貴 fú kwé, rich and honourable, ult.
教訓 kiau h’iün, instruct,
k.j. 愛惜 é sih, love and pity,
過歇 kú h’ih, at present,
k.p. 算盤 sûn bén, Chinese abacus,
教門 kiau mun, form of instruction,
k.s. 怕冷 p’ó láng, afraid of cold,
快馬 k’wá mó, a swift horse,
k.k. 對面 dé míen, the opposite, 22 ult.
算命 n ming, to calculate destiny,
k.j. 氣力 k’í lih, strength, pen.
做賊 tsú zuh, be a thief, ult.

Obs. i. It may be useful as an aid to memory, to notice that verbs are very numerous in this tone. The majority of the above examples will illustrate this remark.

Obs. ii. In the first example 意 í is irregular, and is pronounced in the first tone.

Obs. iii. When the accent is decidedly on the last word, as in most of the examples, the penultimate is very short and pronounced with the least possible emphasis.

Obs. iv. In the examples, k, k, penultimate word is in rapid pronunciation, heard even, like the second tone. Thus 照‘ 應‘ is pronounced ’tsau yung‘.

25. Examples of the same tone, as the antepenultimate of three words.

Tones. Accent.
k.p.s. 照規矩 tsau kwé-kü, follow the custom, pen.
k.s.k. 種小菜 tsóng siau-ts’é, plant vegetables,
k.k.k. 世界上 sz-ká long, in the world, ult.
k.j.p. 派出來 p’á ts’eh-lé, place in divisions, ant.
k.p.k. 啥時候 sá zz-eu, what time?,
k.p.p. 做成功 tsú zung-kóng, to complete, ult.
k.s.s 敬父母 kiung ’vú-mú, reverence parents,
k.j.k. 帶勿動 tá veh-dóng, cannot carry, ant.

Obs. To keep the first word short in time, and deflected upwards, is the chief requisite in examples of this kind, If the voice were allowed to rest on it, it would necessarily become the first or second tone.

26. Examples of the upper third tone standing last of two or three words.

Tones. Accent.
p.k. 生意 sáng í, trade, pen.
東喊 tóng han, eastwards,
爽快 song k’wá, in good health,
s.k. 寫信 siá sing, write a letter, ult.
打算 táng sûh, consider, plan, 23 pen.
k.k. 正派 tsung p’á, correct conduct, ult.
做戲 tsú h’í, act a play,
j.k. 得意 tuh í, obtain one’s wishes,
失信 seh sing, be unfaithful,
p.k. 皇帝 wong tí, emperor,
回信 wé sing, letter in answer,
s.k. 禮拜 lí pá, worship,
馬掛 mo kwó jacket,
k.k. 造化 ’zau hwó, fortunately, to create,
地界 tí ká, boundary of land,
罪過 zé kú, sin, an impropriety, pen.
k.j.k. 看勿見 k’ön veh-kíen, do not see, ant.
p.j.k. 搖勿過 yau veh-kú, cannot row past,
j.k.k. 勿要怕 veh-yau p’ó, do not fear, pen.
j.j.k. 勿適意 veh suh-í, not in health, ult.
s.s.k 冷小菜 láng siau ts’é, cold vegetables,

Obs. i. The almost unbroken regularity of the accent in these examples, arises partly from the last word being the proper place for it, and partly from the tone under illustration being naturally adapted to receive it.

Obs. ii. In the examples p, k, the last word falls in key, and its upward deflection and initial consonant remain unaffected.

Obs. iii. The examples k, k, follow the same law as in Art. 24. Obs. iv. In 打算 the former word being merely an auxiliary particle, is short in time as if it were táng‘.

27. Examples of the upper third tone as the penultimate in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.
p.k.p. 担過來 tan kú-lé, bring it over, ant.
s.k.k. 寫信去 siá-sing k’í, send a letter,
k.k.s. 細細哩 sí-sí lí, accurately,
j.k.k. 忒過分 t’uk kú-vun, excessive, ult.
p.k.j. 難過歇 nan kú-h’ih, at present,
s.k.k. 理性上 lí-sing long, according to reason, ant.
k.k.p. 右半爿 yeu pén ban, right-hand side, ult.
j.k.j. 勿見得 veh kíen tuh, it is not likely, 24 pen.

Obs. i. The middle word is always carefully shortened in tone.

Obs. ii. When the last word is one of less significance than the others, it frequently loses the accent.

28. The upper fourth tone. This tone is a short syllable, high and bent upwards. It has k final after the vowels á, ó, o, u, after other vowels k is not heard.

Ex. 角 kok, horn; 刻 k’uk, quarter of an hour; 法 fah, method.

Examples in which it is the first of a group of two.

Tones. Accent.
j.p. 出身 ts’eh sun, rank or profession, ult.
發風 fah fóng, wind rising,
j.s. 爀顯 hok h’íen, lightning,
出產 ts’eh ts’an, field productions,
j.k. 百姓 pák sing, people (hundred names,)
j.j. 法則 fah tsuh, method,
j.p. 出門 ts’eh mun, to go from home,
客人 k’áh niun, stranger, guest, pen.
磕頭 k’eh deu, to make a prostration, ult.
j.s. 瞎眼 hah ngan, blind eyes,
j.k. 識字 suh zz, able to read,
質地 tseh dí, natural powers,
k.j. 濶狹 k’weh ah, width, (broad, narrow,) pen.
骨肉 kweh nióh, blood relations,

Words of the fourth tone naturally short, are here in a position unfavourable for the accent. Even the few cases of exception marked, do not take it exclusively on the penultimate.

29. Examples of the same tone in the antepenultimate.

Tones. Accent.
j.p.s. 忒伊兩 t’eh-í liáng, with him, ult.
j.s.p. 縮轉來 sók tsén-lé, return,
j.k.j. 撥過歇 peh-kú-h’ih, given, ant.
j.k.p. 跌下來 tih ’au-lé, fall down, ult.
j.p.p. 織成功 tsuh zung-kóng, completely woven, 25 ult.
j.s.j. 搨顔色 t’ah gnan suh, paint on colours, pen.
j.j.p. 角落頭 koh-loh deu, corner, ult.

The secondary accent is on the first syllable in these examples.

30. Examples of this tone standing last of two or three words.

Tones. Accent.
p.j. 天色 t’íen suh, weather, pen.
分別 fun pih, difference,
s.j. 手筆 seu pih, hand-writing, ult.
寶塔 pau t’ah, pagoda,
k.j. 算法 sûn fah, method of calculation,
j.j. 吃粥 k’íuk tsóh, eat rice water,
p.j. 頭髮 teu fah, hair, pen.
沉殺 dzun sah, be drowned,
s.j. 顔色 gnan suh, colour,
五十 ng seh,[1] fifty,
k.j. 二十 ní seh twenty,
吝嗇 ling sih parsimonious,
j.j. 沒殺 meh sah be drowned, ult.
立刻 lih k’uh immediately,
p.p.j. 骷髏骨 kú leu kweh scull,
p.p.j. 龍華塔 lúng hwó t’ah Lúng-hwá pagoda,

In the first two examples, the penultimate being in the upper first tone, the last word may be heard to fall in key.

In those marked k, j, the first word is lengthened in pronunciation, and thus passes into the lower second tone.

[1] The character 十 is read zeh The sound seh as heard in conversation is irregular.

31. Examples of the upper fourth tone standing second in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.
p.j.p. 推出來 t’é t’seh-lé, investigate, ult.
s.j.p. 保國家 pau kók-kiá, defend one’s country,
k.j.j. 背脊骨 pé-tsih kweh, back-bone,
j.j.p. 脚節頭 kiák tsih-deu, toes, 26
p.j.k. 跑得動 pau tuh-dóng, able to walk, ant.
k.j.s. 話得好 wó tuh-hau, well spoken,
j.j.p. 額角頭 ngák koh-deu, forehead, ult.

The secondary accent may often be distinctly heard on the first word in these examples.

32. A few examples of large groups are here appended.

Tones.
p.p.s.s. 清清爽爽 ts’ing-ts’ing song-song, distinct,
p.k.j.k. 忠孝節義 tsóng-hiau tsih ní, fidelity, filial piety, chastity and uprightness,
j.k.j.k 各到落處 kok-tau-lok-ts’û, everywhere,
s.s.p.p. 喜喜歡歡 h’í-h’í hwén-hwén, glad,
k.k.k.k. 正正派派 tsung-tsung p’á-p’á, good conduct,
j.j.j.j. 瞎七瞎八 hah-t’sih hah-pah, all in confusion,
j.j.j.s. 七曲八裊 ts’ih-k’ióh pah-niau, winding about,
p.j.s.s.s. 金木水火土 kiun mók sûi hú t’ú, metal, wood, water, fire and earth,
k.k.j.k.s. 看過歇個者 k’ön-kú-h’ih-k’ú-tsé, have seen it,
p.p.j.j.j. 青黃赤黑白 t’sing wong t’suh huh pah, blue, yellow, red, black, and white
p.p.p.j.p. 東西南北中 tung sí nén póh tsóng, east, west, south, north and middle,
p.k.j.s.s. 聽過歇拉者 t’ing-kú-h’ih-lá-tsé, I have heard it,

For analysing such groups as these, all that would seem to be necessary, is to divide them into smaller combinations. Dissyllables and trisyllables may thus be formed, and linked together by the hyphen as above. They then fall under the same laws as preceding examples, and the accent of position will be usually on the last word.

When a number of particles are collected, as in k’ön‘-kú‘-h‘ih-kú-’tsé, they are heard like a word of five syllables with an accent in the first and last syllables. The English words acceptableness, peremptorily, necessarily, may be compared 27 with examples of this kind; without the last two words, the accent would be on the first and third.

In the last example, the first accent is on 聽 t’ing, the second on 拉 lá, which being in a long tone, attracts it.

When there is a string of substantives together, as in enumerating the five colours, the five elements, the five constant virtues, etc. more time is allowed for the pronunciation of each. The hyphen has therefore been omitted in such cases.

33. Collecting these results, the following general remarks may be made on the upper tones.

I. The principal accent prefers the last syllable, but enclitic particles often reject it, while it is attracted most readily by the first and third tones.

The reverse of this is true at Ch’á-p’ú and Hái-ning to the South-west of Sháng-hái, where the penultimate takes the accent.

II. A secondary accent occurs in groups of three, which rests on the most significant word, or on the tones naturally requiring most stress of voice, the first and third.

III. An interchange takes places between the second and third tones, when either of them stands before a word which is the same in tone.

IV. The first tone becomes the lower first, i e. even, low and rising at the end, when standing last, if the word preceding takes the accent. After the third tone, upper and lower, it does not vary.

V. The first tone is lengthened in time in the penultimate, when the stress of the voice is on the last word, and the third, when in that position, shortened.

VI. The upper tones tend to fall in key, where they come after the first tone, and when they do so, always preserve their initial consonants. After any other tone, they usually keep their proper elevation.

34. In entering on the lower tones we meet with new consonants, G, D, B, NG, N, M, L, R. The exceptions will be found noticed in Art. 56.

Lower first tone. This is a long low tone deflected upwards at the end. East of the Hwáng-p’ú river and in the 28 city of Sháng-hái, this tone is as here described. But to the westward of that river, the quick low circumflex very soon takes its place, and is met with to the immediate neighbourhood of Sú-cheú and Háng-cheú. It appears to consist of a quick rising and quick falling tone pronounced rapidly together.

Ex. 篷 póng, sail; 龍 lóng, dragon; 門 mun, door.

35. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.

Tones. Accent.
p.p. 唐詩 tóng sz’, poetry of Táng dynasty, pen.
文章 vun tsáng, essays composed by rule,
p.s. 牙齒 ngá ts’z, teeth,
常久 dzáng kieu, long time,
p.k. 憑據 píng kü, evidence, ult.
同姓 tóng síng, of the same name,
p.j. 頭髮 teu fah, hair,
p.p. 停船 ting zén, stop a boat,
p.p. 窮人 kióng niun, poor man, pen.
p.s. 文禮 vun lí, elegance in style,
騎馬 kí mó, to ride, ult.
p.k. 和尙 u zong, priest,
强盜 kiáng dau, robber,
p.j. 題目 tí móh, a theme, pen.
牛肉 nieu nióh, beef,

Obs. i. The accent is predominantly on the penultimate word, and the lower first tone is thus seen to be one of those, that attracts to itself the stress of the voice. In this combination the penultimate is always carefully enunciated in a low key.

Obs. ii. Where we have written t, k, p, the corresponding soft consonants d, g, b, if the ear only were consulted, might sometime be employed; but an orthography ought to be consistent, and it appears to us that the best imitation on the whole of the native sounds, will be secured by writing the latter symbols in the last word of a combination, and the former in the penultimate. The only case it is believed, 29 where this method does not fully represent the true pronunciation, is in such words as 窮, 强, kióng, kiáng, and others whose initial is in mandarin k’ and which are in the lower first tone. There could be no objection to the use of g in those cases, except the want of uniformity among the mute consonants; keeping the letter k, it will be enough to inform the reader, that there is a peculiar thickness of sound, and a consonant difficult to write with any of our alphabetic symbols.

36. Examples of the lower first tone, as the antepenultimate in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.
p.p.p. 黃昏星 wong-hwun sing, evening star, ult.
p.s.p. 神主牌 zun-tsû bá, ancestral table,
p.k.p. 前世寃 dzíen-sz’ yön, enemy of a former life,
p.p.j. 磨刀石 mu tau záh, grinding hone,
p.p.j. 如來佛 zû-lé veh, title of Buddha,
p.s.j. 前兩日 zíen liáng-nyih, two days ago, ant.
p.k.p. 堂弟兄 dong tí-hiúng, cousin on father’s side,
p.j.p. 擡勿來 dé veh-lé, cannot carry it, ult.

Obs. The first word in this table, as in the preceding, needs to be studiously kept low, even, and undeflected.

37. Examples of the lower first tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Tones. Accent.
p.p. 京城 kiung zung, metropolis, ult.
功勞 kúng lau, merit,
s.p. 賞頭 song deu, reward,
k.p. 進城 tsing dzung, enter the city,
性情 sing dzing, disposition,
j.p. 北門 póh mun, north gate,
p.p. 城頭 dzung deu, city wall,
衙門 ngá mun, mandarin’s office,
s.p. 老爺 lau yá, a title of respect,
k.p. 養牛 yáng nieu, keep buffaloes,
k.p. 樹皮 zû bí, bark of trees, 30 ult.
j.p. 月牙 niöh ngá, moon’s horns,
木頭 móh deu, wood,
j.p.p. 黑心人 huh-sing niun, black-hearted man, ant.
k.k.p. 蓋地皮 tí-bí, possess land, ult.
k.p.p. 算希奇 n hí-gí, regard as remarkable,
j.p.p. 木頭人 móh-deu niun, wooden image, ant.
k.j.p. 舊木頭 kieu móh-deu, old wood, ult.

Obs. In the groups not marked p, p, and p, p, the last word changes to the upper quick falling tone. In the remaining instances it preserves its even character. The way is prepared for reciprocal changes between the upper and lower series, by the initial consonants being different. The alphabetical distinction prevents the confusion, that would arise from this intermingling of sounds.

38. Examples of the lower first tone, as the penultimate of three.

Tones. Accent.
p.p.s. 新房子 sing vong-tsz, a new house, pen.
s.p.p 主人家 tsû niun-ká, master of family, ult.
k.p.p. 做人家 tsú niun ká, to be economical,
k.p.p. 要銅錢 yau dóng-dien, he wants money, ant.
s.p.p. 老人家 lau niun-ká, an old man, ult.
s.p.p. 洞庭山 tóng-ding san, island in the Great Lake,
j.p.k. 十王殿 seh-wong dien, temple of the ten kings.

Obs. After the deep deflected tone preceding it in s, p, p, the penultimate in these examples is usually raised to the upper falling tone.

39. Lower second tone. This tone properly a low protracted tone rising at its close, contains in it a number of words whose pronunciation is not fixed. These words, sometimes counted in this tone, and at other times in the next in order, are in other parts of China in the third tone. It will be better to consider them under the heading to which they 31 belong in other dialects, and present here such examples as are free from this uncertainty in tone.

Ex. 有 yeu, have; 五 ng, five; 里 lí, Chinese mile.

40. Examples of the lower second tone in the penultimate of two words.

Tones. Accent.
s.p. 眼睛 ngan tsing, eyes, ult.
老君 lau kiün, founder of Taúism,
s.s. 冷水 láng sz, cold water, pen.
鈕子 nieu tsz, button,
s.k. 理性 lí sing, reason, ult.
買處 má ts’û, means of buying,
s.j. 免脫 míen t’eh, forgive,
s.p. 領頭 ling deu, neckband,
女人 nü niun, woman,
s.s. 永遠 yúng yön, very long time,
s.k. 引誘 yun yeu‘, to tempt,
領路 ling lú, lead the way,
s.j. 擄掠 lú liáh, rob,

Obs. i. The tone under illustration, keeps its natural character throughout. No initial letters occur but l, m, ng, n, r, and the vowels. Words beginning with mutes and sibilants that were originally in this tone, are in course of transition to the lower third tone. V from w in mandarin, remains in the second tone.

Obs. ii. The low deflected tone in the penultimate of s.p. and s.s. so affects the last words, that they are heard in the quick falling tone.

Obs. iii. This tone is difficult to describe as distinct from the preceding, from the fact that both tend upwards; the former deviates slightly, after beginning even; the latter begins low and ascends through its whole time. The first is in its general character even, but when compared with the pure monotone in the Amoy dialect, to which it is most nearly allied, there is a difference perceptible that needs to be specified. It is heard we believe with this peculiarity when pronounced alone, and when standing last in a binary combination, 32 if it does not then change to the upper first tone. When first in order, it is even. It was before observed, that the first upper tone, when last in order, changes to the first lower. In the sound then heard, when enunciated with the true native drawl, the same may be noticed.

Obs. iv. There is nothing even in the second tone when alone, except when enunciated in a high key. When last in order it often rises to the upper second tone, and is then heard even.

For ready comparison of the sounds, a few examples of words in the lower tones are here appended:—

良, 兩, 亮, liáng, in the tones p.s.k.
埋, 買, 賣, má,
泥, 你, 義, ní,
人, 忍, 認, niun, (r. zun),
油, 有, 佑, yeu,
題, 弟, 地, dí,
隨, 罪, 睿, zûe,

The last two words here marked as in the second tone will be shewn immediately to be so for this district.

41. Examples of the same tone as the antepenultimate in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.
s.p.j. 冷天色 láng t’íen-suh, cold weather, ult.
s.s.s. 耳𦖋管 ní-tú kwén, ear cavity,
s.k.p. 老太婆 lau t’á bú, aged dame,
s.k.p. 買進來 má tsing-lé, to buy,
s.k.s. 武藝子 vú-ní tsz, capacity for an art or business, pen.
s.k.p. 領事官 ling-zz kwén, foreign consul, ult.

42. Examples of this tone as the last in a group of two or three words.

Tones. Accent.
p.s. 杴米 k’íen mí, grind rice, ult.
s.s. 小雨 siau ü, small rain,
k.s. 囥籠 k’ong lóng, to hide,
j.s. 搭鈕 tah nieu, an iron hook,
j.s. 瞎眼 hah ngan, blind, 33 ult.
p.s. 情理 dzing lí, reasonable, reason,
s.s. 美女 mé nü, beautiful woman,
k.s. 盡禮 dzing lí, do everything properly,
j.s. 落雨 loh ü, it rains,
着冷 dzáh láng catch cold,
p.p.s. 珍珠米 tsun-tsû mí, Indian corn,
k.s.s. 最苦惱 tsûe k’ú nau, very miserable,
s.k.s. 有道理 yeu ’dau-lí, virtue, ant.
j.j.s. 勿勒裡 veh leh-lí, not at home,
k.j.s. 話勿理 wó veh-lí, will not listen,

Obs. In 情理 and 盡禮 where a difference of accent might have been expected, the distinction is kept in the native pronunciation, entirely by means of the tones. In many of these cases, the last word rises and becomes even, i.e. passes into the upper second tone. Thus, 眼 ngan and 理 lí, become high and even.

43. Examples of the same tone, as the penultimate in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.
p.s.p. 裝滿之 tsong-mén tsz, having packed full, ant.
k.s.k. 看冷破 k’ön láng p’ú, despise others, pen.
p.s.s. 情理點 dzing-lí tíen, be more reasonable, ant.
k.s.s. 廿五里 nian-ng lí, twenty-five Chinese miles.
j.s.k. 洛眼淚 loh ngan-lí, to weep, ult.
s.s.k. 五里路 ng-lí lú, five Chinese miles,

44. Before proceeding to those words whose tone is undecided, it may be first observed, that in the Tonic Dictionaries,[1] there is a large class of characters ranged under the second tone, not found there, either in the dialects of the Southern provinces, or in the Northern mandarin as registered by Prémare. These words have for their initials, only the sibilant and mute consonants z, dz, zh, b, d, g, with the vowels, and v from f. In the modern pronunciation of Háng-cheú and Sú-cheú, they are also found as in other parts of the empire in the third tone. It follows that they must have 34 made the transition, since the Dictionary system was completed. The earliest works containing it, quoted in K’áng-hí, are said in the preface to have been written in the Liáng and Táng dynasties,[2] and must consequently be regarded as the tradition of at least a thousand years. While this change has taken place in the sound of a large class of very common words, through the greater part of China, it is curious to notice, that the older pronunciation still lingers in the colloquial practice of one part at least of central China.

Even if the inventors of the syllabic spelling confined themselves in the first instance to the usage of the Kiáng provinces, whik north and south of them a different pronunciation prevailed, still this change has taken place in the large cities of Cheh-kiáng and Kiáng-nán, which are now one with their neighbours. In our own dialect it has not yet been completed. After a sufficient time perhaps, this anomaly will have its term, and the boundaries of the tones be as sharply defined, as according to the laws of Chinese pronunciation they ought to be. There are moreover other illustrations that may be drawn from the Dictionaries, of secular changes (to adopt the phraseology employed in sciences of higher mark) occurring in the tones of China.

[1] The names of some of the most commonly used are 詩韻集成, 詩韻含英.
[2] 自說文以後, 字書善者, 於粱則玉篇, 於唐則廣韻. “From the Shwóh-wun downward, the best Dictionaries, were Yúh-p’ien in the Liáng, and Kwáng Yün in the Táng dynasties,” etc. Liáng A.D. 502 to 560, T’áng 617 to 917.

45. Lower third tone. The words that were primarily in this tone, are always heard with the quick rising pronunciation that properly belongs to it. It is like “the tone given to some words, when spoken ironically, or to the word ‘indeed!’ when used as an exclamation.” (Medhurst’s Hok-kien Dictionary.)

The words referred to in the last article, are placed here rather than in the second tone, because the other dialects are unanimous in doing so. In fact, however, they are in Sháng-hái usage more in the last tone than in this. The following words for example, when pronounced alone, have the long sound.

35

後 ’heu, 上 ’záng, 動 ’tóng, 奉 ’vóng 坐 ’zú, 部 ’pú,
禍 ’hú, 是 ’zz, 弟 ’tí, 父 ’vú, 罪 dzûi, 緩 ‘hn,
倖 ’hyung, 市 ’zz, 道 ’tau, 婦 ’vú, 造 ’zau, 罷 ’pó,
跪 ’k 緒 ’dzü, 蕩 ’tong, 犯 ’van, 重 ’dzóng, 下 ’hiá,
近 ’kiun, 善 ’zén, 丈 ’dzáng, 在 ’dzé

⁂ In the department of 嘉興 Ka-hiung, occupying the space between those of Háng-cheú and Súng-kiáng, these words are never in the third tone.

Any of these words that occasionally become verbs in the books, being commonly in other parts of speech, are in that case always marked as belonging to the third tone in good editions of native works. E.e. 上꜄ 下꜄ 善꜄ 弟꜄ 後꜄ when they become verbs, change from the second to the third tone and are so marked. All the authorities are uniform in these matters; and the Dictionaries specify the tones by name, assigning the primary sense to the second tone, and the secondary sense, in all these cases a verb, to the third tone.

46. These words though when standing isolated, they keep the old dictionary tone, are liable to such frequent changes in combination, that teachers who have not studied the subject, are at a loss to affix their true tone. In the following examples, these variations will be indicated as they occur, by the apostrophe on the left, and inverted comma on the right, for the second and third tones respectively.

Tones. Accent.
k.k. 坐坐 ’zú zú‘, sit down, ult.
s.k. 請坐 ts’ing ’zú, please sit down, pen.
k.p. 上頭 ’zong deu, above, ult.
p.k. 皇上 wong záng‘, emperor,
p.k. 兄弟 h’iúng dí‘, younger brother, pen.
k.p. 弟兄 ’tí h’iúng, brothers, ult.
k.k. 味道 mí dau‘, taste,
k.p. 道臺 tau dé, Revenue Commissioner,
k.p. 道爺 tau‘ yá, Revenue Commissioner,
k.k. 罪過 zé‘ kú, sin, pen.
k.k. 定罪 ting ’dzûe, to condemn,
k.k. 是個 zz‘ kú, it is so,
j.k. 勿是 veh ’zz, it is not so, ult.
j.k. 活動 weh ’dóng, living and moving,
k.p. 動身 tóng sun, move one’s-self,
s.k. 寡婦 kwó ’vú, a widow, pen.
p.k. 夫婦 fu vú‘, husband and wife, ult.
p.k. 爲善 wé ’zén, be virtuous, 36 pen.
k.k. 善報 ’zén pau, reward of virtue, ult.
p.p.k.k. 明知過犯 ming tsz kú ’van, wilfully transgress,
k.j. 犯法 van‘ fah, break the law,
k.j.k. 是勿是 zz‘ veh zz, is it so or not?
k.j.k. 並勿是 ping veh zz, certainly not, ant.
k.j. 造屋 ’zau óh, build a house, ult.
k.p.s. 造完者 zau‘ wén tsé, finished building, pen.
p.k.p.k. 街市頭上 ká ’zz deu long, in the streets, ult.
k.p. 市頭 zz‘ deu, the street,
k.s.k. 動咾動 tóng lau dóng’, moving,
k.p.s. 重來死 dzóng‘ lé sí, very heavy,
k.k. 看重 k’ön ’dzóng, value highly,

Obs. It will be seen that among these examples, there are nearly as many of the quick or third tone, as of the longer one. Taking the usage all in all, the balance in cases of grouping is however, in favour of the quicker form. When alone the original tone is used almost exclusively. In reading there is about the same amount of variation as in colloquial usage. The quicker tone usually, but not exclusively, prefers to stand last, leaving the penultimate of a combination to the longer tone.

47. In regard to the words that have always been in the lower third tone, there is as much regularity of pronunciation as in any other tone.

Ex. 病 ping, disease; 話 wó, words, to speak; 大 tú, great.

The following are examples where this tone occurs in the penultimate of a group of two.

Tones. Accent.
k.p. 順風 zun fóng, fair wind, ult.
k.s. 硯子 níen tsz, ink stone, pen.
k.k. 定當 ting tong, to fix, ult.
k.j. 外國 ngá kóh, foreign state,
賣脫 má teh, to sell off, pen.
k.p. 浪頭 long deu, waves, ult.
k.k. 面貌 míen mau, countenance,
k.k. 謝謝 siá ziá, I thank you,
k.j. 念佛 nian veh, chant Buddhist classics,

48. Examples of this tone in the antepenultimate of three.

Tones. Accent.
k.p.p. 硬心腸 ngáng sing-dzáng, hard heart, 37 ult.
k.j.p. 外國人 ngá-koh niun, foreigner, ant.
k.j.j. 靜出出 zing’ t‘seh t‘seh, quiet and empty,
k.p.j. 硬如鐵 ngáng zû t’ih, hard as iron, ult.
k.p.s. 大娘子 tú niáng-tsz, wife, pen.
k.j.j. 飯粒屑 vaun lih-sih, rice crumbs, ant.

Obs. In the fourth example 子 being an enclitic, throws back the accent on the penultimate. In the last, the accent is on the first word for a similar reason.

49. Examples of the lower third tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Tones. Accent.
p.k. 街上 ká long, in the streets, pen.
多謝 tú ziá, many thanks, ult.
燒飯 sau van, cook rice,
s.k. 响亮 h’iáng liáng, distinct in sound,
k.k. 頂大 ting dú, the greatest,
性命 sing ming, life
j.k. 看病 k’ön bing, cure diseases,
p.k. 國度 kóh dú, a kingdom,
城外 dzung ’ngá, outside the city wall,
s.k. 隨便 dzûe bien, as you please,
k.k. 忍耐 zun (or niun) né, patient,
話壊 wó wá, speak ill of,
命令 ming ling, a command,
j.k. 月亮 niöh liáng, moonlight,
s.s.k. 果子樹 kú tsz zû, fruit-bearing tree,
k.p.k. 送羮飯 sóng káng van, give away food, pen.
j.s.k. 瘧子病 ngok (r. niák) tsz bing, fever and ague, ult.

In the first example, long is always in the third tone. With 街上 ká long or 山上 san long, compare the English convict, wisdom, darkness. If the last words however, were not a mere enclitic, the comparison of pronunciation would fail, the accent being on the ultimate.

50. Examples of the same tone in the penultimate of a group of three.

38

Tones. Accent.
p.k.s. 虛字眼 h’ü-zz ngan, particles, ant.
p.k.k. 多謝儂 tú ziá nóng, many thanks to you,
j.k.p. 執定之 tseh-ding tsz, obstinate,
p.k.p. 城外頭 dzung ngá-deu, outside the city, ult.
s.k.k. 兩樣個 liáng-yáng kú, different, pen.
k.k.k. 念念看 ’nian-nian k’ön, read a little aloud, ant.
j.k.k 勿碍啥 veh-ngé sá, no matter, pen.
p.k.p. 嘸用人 m-yúng niun, a useless man,

Obs. When an enclitic stands last, as in the 3rd, 5th, and 7th examples, the lower third tone preceding it takes the accent.

51. Lower fourth tone. While this may be described as the lower short rising tone, and represented as short in quantity, it should be observed, that two long vowels, and several diphthongs are also admitted to it. The same is true of the short tone in the upper scale. These vowels and diphthongs are á, ó, (vide art. 6,), and iák, iah, iók, iöh, iuk, wák, wah, weh, wok.

Ex. 賊 zuk, thief; 挾 káh, to press; 掘 kiöh, to dig.

52. Examples of this tone when standing last of two words.

Tones. Accent.
p.j. 遮沒 tsó meh, cover over, ult.
s.j. 土白 t’ú báh, local dialect,
k.j. 對敵 dé dih, oppose enemies,
j.j. 覺着 koh (g) záh, become aware of, pen.
出力 t’seh lih (liuk), exert strength,
p.j. 明白 ming báh, clear, to understand, ult.
重疊 dzóng deh, tautology,
s.j. 煖熱 n nyih, warm,
k.j. 樹木 zû móh, trees,
j.j. 毒藥 tóh (g) yáh, poison, pen.

Obs. The long tones preserve their character before the short tone with great accuracy.

53. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of two words.

Tones. Accent.
j.p. 陌生 mák sáng, strange, unknown, ult.
j.p. 畧些 liák sü, a little, 39 ult.
j.s. 落水 lok sz, ebb tide,
j.k. 孛相 peh siáng, amusement, do nothing,
j.j. 狭窄 hah tsah, narrow-minded,
落脫 lok t’eh, let fall, pen.
j.p. 別人 pih niun, another man, ult.
j.k. 實在 seh zé, truly,
j.j. 目錄 móh (g) lóh, table of contents,

Obs. The terminating consonants of the fourth tone, in some dialects are three, k, t, p, corresponding to the final ng, n, m, of words in the other tones. Only the first of these is audible in Shánghái pronunciation. It occurs after á, ó, o, u. It is heard k before consonants of the upper series, particularly s, t; and g before those of the lower series, particularly z, d. Both will be found exemplified in these two tables.

54. Examples of combinations of three.

Tones. Accent.
j.p.s. 學生子 hok-sáng tsz, scholar, pen.
j.j.k. 勿一定 veh ih ding, not necessarily, ant.
j.k.p. 落下來 loh ’au-lé, fall down,
j.k.j. 白話脫 páh (g) wó-t’eh, speak to no purpose, pen.
p.j.s. 担勿起 tan veh-k’í, cannot lift, ant.
p.j.j. 尋勿着 dzing-veh-dzáh, cannot find, ult.

Obs. The first of these may be compared to a trissyllable with an accent on the penultimate, as “convicted,” i.e. if 生 sáng be pronounced high. The syllables adjacent to the accent in English are so contracted in time as to sound more like words in short tones or enclitics, than in long tones. Should 生 fall to the lower first tone as it often does, the similarity would not hold.

55. Examples of larger groups in the lower tones.

56. General remarks on the lower tones.

I. The initial consonant is a test for any word being in the upper or lower series. Thus, all the broad mutes and sibilants, the weak aspirate, with the liquids and nasals are in the lower tones. The other consonants with the strong aspirate are in the upper series. The following in the higher tones are exceptions.

Ex. 端, 短, 斷, 對, 答, 鬥, 躭, dön, ’dön, dön‘, dé‘, deh, deu‘, dén. 拉, 咯, lá, lóh. Yet 對 is heard té‘ in té‘ deu, adversary. This is caused by the accent falling on 頭 deu.

This furnishes the principle of the orthography adopted in the present work. The initial letter being an index to the tone, it is needless to employ distinct tonal marks for the upper and lower series. In the same way, the Fan t‘sieh or native syllabic spelling marks the series by the first word, and the particular tone by the sound. Thus 夫 fú is spelt with 方徒 fang dú. The initial F of the first word combined with the U final of the second, gives the sound fu in the first tone. We add an example or two from K’áng-hí:—

The first word tells us, whether the sound required is high or low, and the second to which of the four tones it belongs. The pronunciation of the words borrowed for this purpose is supposed known.

II. The orthography is in many instances not fixed. Words sometimes heard g, d, b, are at other times heard k, t, p. The sounds g, d, b, occur after a word in combination; while k, t, p occur when no word precedes. To indicate that they are always low in pitch, they are printed in italics. V, z, come partially under the same rule. The rest dz, dzz, are scarcely heard in the thin form at all, and are therefore spelt with d in this work. Another peculiarity is that z and dz are interchangeable. Z is more common in conversation; dz in reading.

III. There are many words having sibilants or mutes, or the weak aspirate for their initial consonants, of which the tone is uncertain, being sometimes in the second, and at 41 other times in the third. The liquids and vowels have not this peculiarity, and it only belongs to words that were originally in the second tone.

IV. The first tone, when last in a binary combination, rises to the upper first, except when preceded by the first tone, upper or lower. The initial consonant remains broad as in other cases.

V. The other tones also frequently rise to the upper series when standing last, each to its corresponding tone, and the initial consonant is unaffected.

VI. The laws of accent are the same as in the upper tones. The last word of a combination being usually accented, affords the best opportunity for the discrimination of the tones.

57. Relation of Tones to Music. It is only when they are even, that a musical notation can fully and correctly represent the tones. For deflection, so essential to the latter, is not allowed in music, being destructive of harmony. The short and quick tones may however be described as staccato notes, and the violin may be made in passing from one note to another, to produce a continuous sound, which has been adduced in “The Chinese as they are,” to illustrate the deflections. In regard to time, so minutely subdivided in music, there do not appear be more than two classes of tones, the quick and the slow. Kircher supposed that the five tones were the first five notes in an octave do, re, mi, fa, sol; but in reality, differences of elevation are usually not more than two for one dialect. The interval between the two series varies, it being greater for example, in some parts of the north of China, than in Kiáng-nán, where it is about half an octave.

58. Relation of Tones to Accents in other languages. So far as accent only means the distinction of loud and soft, there seems no analogy. For the Chinese tones may be pronounced as gently or sonorously as the speaker pleases, and loudness in this language also constitutes accent as distinct from tone. In the common accents of English conversation however, there is usually a difference in deflection, or as it is called by some writers, modulation. There is one tone (1) 42 for assertion and determination, and another (2) for asking questions; and these differ not in time, or in loudness, but in the fact that they are deflected downwards and upwards respectively. Again, the tone of interrogation (2) is commonly quick, while that of sarcasm (3) is often slow. Those who read aloud, too often confine themselves almost exclusively to the monotone, a fourth variation (4). Now it is these very distinctions of deflection and time that form the essence of the Chinese tones, and they are in daily use in our own language, as aids in expressing the feelings, as marks of emphasis, and as a means of relieving the voice by interchange. All that a foreigner has to do then in imitating the Chinese tones is to apply forms of utterance, to which he is already accustomed, to those words in which the Chinese employ them, and to treat the tone thus individualized, whichever it may be, as a part of the word, to be learned contemporaneously with the vowels and consonants. With regard to the doubly deflected tones, and those that are less familiar to us, the ancient Greeks would have had an advantage we do not possess. Their circumflex was made up of two tones, the acute and grave combined. (Buttman Gr. Gram. Sect. 9.) Every syllable had a tone, and the tones were placed on either long or short vowels. There seem also to have been dialectic and secular varieties. These four facts are all suggestive of a similarity in their enunciation to that of China. Mr. Lay in the work alluded to above, has pointed out to what tones the Greek accents appeared to him to correspond. But our data are so scanty on the subject of classical pronunciation, that nothing certain can be said, when we attempt to detail their individual differences.

59. Examples are here annexed of words, which differing slightly, as in a tone or an aspirate, may be mistaken for each other if mispronounced.

Note. For some words of constant occurrence, the following contractions will in future be used. c. or s.c. Shánghái, colloquial form. m. Northern mandarin pronunciation, r. or s.r. Shánghái reading sound.

Section 4. Alphabetical form of the Shánghái sounds.

i. Initials.

60. In grammatical works on other languages, more or less is said on orthography, or orthography according as the alphabetical symbols are controlled by more or fewer laws. The Chinese sounds are few, and regulated by laws which are easily laid down. A section therefore may properly be devoted to the romanized form of the sounds.

From the time that the Buddhist priests introduced the Sanscrit system, and the initials and finals, the Chinese have had an imperfect method of spelling words. The division of each sound into two parts, represented by two characters, the initial 毋 ’mú, and the final 韻 yün‘, constitutes the method.

The 字彙 zz‘ we‘, a Dictionary of the Ming dynasty, says 韻學自沈 約始, 而釋神琪, 繼以等韻, 列爲三十六毋, 分爲平仄四聲, yün‘ yáh, zz‘ sun‘ yah ’sz, rh suh zun kóng, kí ’í ’tung yün‘, lih wé san seh lóh ’mú’, fun wé ping tsuh sz‘ sung. “The doctrine of arranging sounds by their rhymes began with Shin-yoh, and the Buddhist priests Shin-k’ong continued it, forming the rhymes into classes, and the initials into thirty six divisions, and placing them all under the four tones.

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61. From the sixth century of our era, the system whose origin is thus recorded, has been preserved in the Dictionaries successively made, with apparently few variations. The thirty six initials referred to are contained in the following table:—

Native table of Initials.

k

kíen
k’

k’í
g

giun
ng

ngi
t

twan
t’

t’eú
d

ding’
n

ch

ch
ch’

ch’eh
j

jing
ni

niáng
p

páng
p’

p’áng
b

bing
m

ming
f

f’

f’ú
v

vóng
w

ts

tsing
ts’

ts’ing
dz

dzóng
s

sin
z

zié
tsh

tshaú
t’sh
穿
t’shuen
dj

jwang
sh

shin
zh

zhen
y

ying
h

hiáu
y

yü
h

hiáh
l

lái
rh

jih

62. From the table it will be seen, that the division into an upper and lower series of initial consonants, the one embracing thin and clear sounds, with strong aspirates, the other including the broader consonants with the liquids and nasals, meets us not only in the study of the tones of a dialect as shewn in the former section, but in the accredited Dictionaries of the general language. This may be readily accounted for from the Kiáng provinces having been the chief seat of literature and political power, when the sounds of the language were first represented by double characters. Since the growth of the modern pronunciation there has been no attempt in any imperial work to form a new system of spelling.[1] The difference of the old system and the new will be understood if it be mentioned that 魚 ü, is spelt ngü, and that 外, 月, wái‘, yöh, are also in the column headed NG. More details on this subject will be found in the appendix. In the 五方元音 a small portable Dictionary on 45 the alphabetic plan, and containing about 10,000 characters, the modern mandarin is followed in the initials and finals.

[1] In Káng-hí’s Dictionary many words in the lower first tone, formerly in the g, d, b, columns, have been transferred to the aspirate column, to be in conformity with northern pronunciation. Words in the short tone having k, t, p, as finals in the old system, have also been classed as terminating in vowels, for the same reason. These changes however are only found in Káng-hí’s second table, and the older classification, denoted by a circle round the examples placed where they formerly stood, is retained with the new.

63. In eight of the nine divisions above, the second initial is the strong aspirate either alone or following, the letters k, t, ch, p, f, ts and tsh. Of these the palatal ch, and sibilant tsh, are not needed in Shánghái pronunciation. Ts takes their place. In double initials the aspirate is between t and s, or t and sh.

F‘ is the same as f. In other instances the aspirate is always preserved.

In other cases, all these letters with and without aspirates, are the same with mandarin.

64. The third initial of the same eight divisions is wanting for Shánghái, only in the case of those headed ch and tsh. Their place is supplied by z. 形狀 yuug zong‘, visible form. Sh and zh in the seventh, are replaced by s and z.

65. The h of mandarin is never heard before w or y in the lower tones:—

In other examples among the lower tones, a slight aspirate is retained for the strong hissing sound of mandarin.

This slight aspirate is lost in a word standing last in a combination.

46

The English aspirate is between the two aspirates here distinguished, and is the same as that of Fúh-kien. We have no parallel in our pronunciation, to that hissing guttural sound, which in the mandarin provinces, belongs to all the five tones, and in Kiáng-nán to the upper series. Hence Morrison speaks of it as sh. Nor can the weak aspirate of the Kiáng-nán lower series, disappearing as it does so frequently, be regarded an equivalent to the English h.

66. With regard to the thick mutes and sibilants (g, d, b, v, z,) in the lower tones, it may be remarked generally, that foreigners in learning colloquial phrases, usually acquire the habit of pronouncing these consonants thin, when first in a combination, and broad, when some word precedes. This is so frequently true, that no further proof is needed of the pronunciation being variable.

For t and p, there is no difficulty in spelling as is here done, but k, s, f, are not so easily disposed of. The initial k or g is enunciated thickly before the vowels i and ü, though according to the system of the Dictionaries, the initial is the same in all cases. Some foreign students regard it as an aspirated consonant. Others write it dj or d. This anomaly of pronunciation, so difficult to express, does not occur before w, a and é. Limited thus to í and ü, it is thought preferable not to depart from the analogy, by inventing a new symbol for the few words in use that contain this unmanageable consonant.

67. The lower f and s, are often heard v, z, even without a word preceding. Thus the actual pronunciation cannot be fairly represented by the law that answers for the other letters, and the only resource is to follow the natives in each case. This v, as well as that from w (m.) are pronounced w on the eastern side of the Hwáng-p’ú.

68. The initials z and dz correspond, though somewhat irregularly, to the tabular initials z, zh, and j, dz, dj.

The d is often dropped, both, in reading and in the conversational form.

The d is in some words retained in reading, when dropped in the colloquial form.

[1] 船 The Dictionary pronunciation is 食川切 zhuen.

69. Words beginning with a vowel, belong to the thirty-first or thirty-third initials (y, y,) according as they are high or low in tone. In giving the romanized form, a more extended subdivision of the vowels must of necessity be adopted. In the present work, the initial vowel is italicized, when its word belongs to the lower series.

Those words in the dialect that begin with n, m, v, while in northern mandarin they have only a vowel as their initial, are placed in the Dictionary system under those consonants, and they are all in the lower tones.

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Words in the upper series beginning with a vowel, which in northern mandarin take the sound ng before them, never have it in the Shánghái dialect, nor in the Dictionary system. E.g.[1] 愛 ngái‘, 惡 ngóh,[2] are pronounced é‘ and oh.

In the lower tones the initial ng is always preserved.

[1]m. ngan, s. ön, 恩 ngun, s. un, 哀 ngái, s. é, 暗 ngán‘, s. én‘. The true sound as heard in the provinces where mandarin is spoken, is a guttural to which the English alphabet has no equivalent. NG is employed for want of a better symbol.
[2] In the mandarin Dictionary 五方元音, the initial ng is placed with u and a under w; i is placed with ǔ under y.

70. The remaining initials are ng, n, ni, m, v, l, and j. They belong with few exceptions to the lower tones.

Ng, I. Many words classed in the Dictionaries under this initial are pronounced differently in this dialect. Thus 堯 yau, 言 íen, have no initial consonant, 疑 ní, 爾 ’nü, 義 ní‘, belong to the tooth nasal (n), 午五魚 are read ü, ú, but spoken ng. Ng precedes a, e, o, ö, u, but not i, ü.

II. Other words as 月 niöh, 牛 nieu, 願 niön, belong more properly to the class headed ni, or the Spanish circumflexed n. The Sú-cheú dialect agrees better with the Dictionaries in this class of words, than that of Shánghái.

III. All the words in Morrison with the initial g belong to this class, except such as are in the upper tones. Such words as he writes aou, ae, yae, follow the same rule.

71. N, NI. These though distinguished in some alphabets as in Sanscrit and Spanish, may be for our purpose more usefully regarded as identical, the i being considered to belong to the final. Accordingly such words as 女 ’nü 你 ’né, 鈕 nieu, though placed under the palatal nasal ni in the native system, will be regarded as belonging to the tooth nasal n, and the remainder of the sound reckoned as the final. Even in the tables, these two consonants are in intentional 49 juxtaposition. The consonants t, ch, to which they respectively belong are also naturally allied, as may be illustrated from our dialect, where ch becomes ts.

Many words written by Morrison yǔh, yin, yen, ying, yŏ, yu, yuen, yuĕ, take this initial, when they are in the lower tones. N, when thus prefixed, precedes no vowel but i, ü. The following are examples:—

玉 niók, 硯 níen‘, 獄 niók, 源 niön,
銀 niun, 騐 níen‘, 語 ’nü, 願 niön‘,
諺 níen‘, 迎 niung, 愚 nü, 月 niöh, r. yöh.

72. M. V. The class headed m includes not only the mandarin words in m, but some that in mandarin begin with w. They are therefore placed together in the Dictionary system. Words thus transformed have v in reading as an intermediate sound, and often retain that form in the colloquial. If they are not words in very common use, they do not assume m as their initial. The following are examples:—

Also 問忘網望味物 are spoken mun‘, &c., and read vun‘, etc. In early Chinese these words all began with b.

73. L. J. The former of these, as used in our dialect, agrees with the native system, and with the northern mandarin, and calls for no remark except that a very few words as before noted belong to the upper series. See Art. 56.

Under the initial j, are found all the Shánghái words in ni (c), and z (r), which are j, in Mandarin. E.g. 譆饒熱染日忍軟閏絨認撚 are spoken niáng, &c., and read záng, &c.

Thus,

Words that are semi-colloquial, or only used in combination retain z. E.g. 惹仁仍弱乳 are read and spoken ’zá, zun, etc.

Thus, 自然 zz‘ zén, c. and r. tsz‘ jen, m.

⁂ Words in z from sh, or s in mandarin, never change into ni. Thus, the natural separation between distinct classes of words is maintained, when their reading sounds are identical.

74. This class also includes r.h. The native tables make no difference between j and rh, and in some parts of China 50 the initial j is in jih, sun, and some other words pronounced like r.

When thoroughly colloquialized, however, these words pass into ní, and must be placed under n or ng.

ii. Finals.

75. The Shánghái finals are about 60 in number. According to the native system, the whole of a word except the initial letter and the aspirate if there be one, is included in the final. In the Dictionaries, the finals, which unlike the initials differ but slightly from modern mandarin pronunciation, are less numerous. The 字彙 tsz‘ hwei‘ has 44. The short tones which should be considered independent rhymes are counted with the corresponding long ones, and thus the number is diminished. The first table in K’áng-hí has sixteen, and the second, twelve. Under each are several subdivisions. Another small and very convenient Dictionary, the 五方元音 ’Wú fáng yuen yin, taking the five tone mandarin dialect for its guide both in initials and finals, adopts twenty of the one, and twelve of the other, and arranges them under five tones. In reducing them to this small number, some violence is done to the sounds. All words beginning with a vowel, or ng are arranged under w and y. In the finals, expedients are also employed to diminish the number of headings.

76. In the finals, the departures from the mandarin type are numerous, but they are according to system, and the knowledge of one variation is usually a key to the pronunciation of many tens of other words. The variations are usually the same for one long tone as for all.

In the following table which consists of words without a diphthong, the first column contains the final according to Shánghái pronunciation; the second, all the examples of it having different rhymes in mandarin; the third, the mandarin spelling; and the fourth, the Shánghái reading sound.

51

P. I. S. iv. table of finals.
Finals. Shánghái colloquial. Mandarin. Shánghái reading sound.
á 拉 lá (upper series)
拜 pá‘ pái
家 ká kiá kiá
解 ’ká kiái, kiè kiá
快 k’á k‘wai k‘wé
惹 ’zá
ah 法 fah fáh, fá
瞎 hah hiáh, hiá
隔 kah kuh, kó kuh
ák 百 pák puh, ’pá puh
若 zák jóh, jó‘
目 mák, mok múh, mú‘ mok
石 zák shǐh,[1] sh
an tan‘ tán
簡 ’kan kian kíen
áng 張 tsáng cháng
生 sáng sung sung
táng‘ táng tong
háng, yung hing, háng
au 好 ’hau háú
下 ’hau, hó hiá‘ yá
呌 kau‘ kiáú kiau
é 海 ’hé hái
雷 lé lei, lui
衰 sé shwái
pé‘ pei
eh 雜 dzeh tsáh,[2] tsá
實 zeh shih,[3] sh
沒 meh múh,[4]
說 seh shwoh söh
weh hwóh,[5] hwó
én 半 pén pwán
船 zén ch’uen
善 ’zén shen
eu 溝 keu keú
í 52 理 ’lí
非 fí fei
去 k’í‘ k’ü k’ü
死 ’si sz sz
些 sí sie
ih 立 lih lih, lí‘
切 ts’ih ts’ieh, t’sié
雪 sih siöh, ’sió
恤 sih siuh, sió
ing 循 dzing siün
心 sing sin
信 sing‘ sing
ó 怕 p’ó‘ p’á
遮 tsó ché tsó
赦 só‘ shé
öh töh tóh,[6]
ók tóh túh,[7]
木 móh, mok múh, mú
國 kóh, kweh kwóh,[8] kwó
ok pók, pok póh,[9]
樂 lok lóh, ló‘
角 kok, kók kióh, chió kiák
ön 端 dön (upper series) twán
岸 ngön ngán
óng 松 sóng, súng sóng, súng
ong 喪 song sáng
雙 song shwáng
夢 mong móng, múng móng
紅 ’kong kiáng kiáng
ú 所 ’sú
tú‘ tá
古 ’kú
ü 句 kü‘
歸 kü kwei kwé
û (ü) 主 ’tsû tsü chú
uk 直 dzuk chih,[10] ch
ûe (üe) 雖 sûe (ü) súi
un (ng) 根 kun (g) kun
身 sun (g) shin (un)
尊 tsun (g) tsün
ûn 53 杆 kûn kán
算 sûn swán
óng (ú) 龍 lóng (ú) lóng (ú)
ung 亨 hung hung
門 mung (n) mun
m 無 vú, m
ng hng hung
rh 而 rh rh
sz 思 詩 sz sz, sh and shí
鼠 ’sz shú
水 ’sz shúi sûe
76. The intermediate vowel i forms the following finals:—
s sié s
iah 甲 kah kiáh, kiá kiah
iák 畧 liah lióh, liáú‘
ian 念 nian‘ nien
iau 教 kiau‘ kiáu
iáng 强 ’k’iang k’iáng
且 ’t’siá t’sié t’síe
íen 選 síen siuen
tíen t’ien
全 dzen t’siuen dzíen
ieu kieu k‘ieú
宿 sieu süh
iih 熱 nyih jeh zeh
ióh 曲 k’óh k’iúh, ’k’ü
iöh 月 niöh yueh yöh
n kn k’iuen
ióng kióng k’iong (ú)
官 kióng kúng kóng
靴 hiú hiö
iuk 逆 niuk nih
iun (ng) kiun (ng) k’in
iung (n) 今 kiung (n) kin
京 kiung king
iúng 兄 h’iúng h’iung
iün 訓 h’iün‘ h’iün
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] When there are two modes of spelling in the column of mandarin pronunciation, the second is taken from the work 小氏音鑑 which contains the Peking pronunciation of words in the short tone, spelled according to the syllabic system. Those to which on asterisk is prefixed are all in the lower first tone.

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77. The other intermediate vowels u, occurring only after k, g, forms the following finals:—

P. I. S. iv. table of finals.
Finals. Shánghái colloquial. Mandarin. Shánghái reading sound.
乖 kwá kwái kwé
uah 括 kwah kwáh
nan 關 kwan kwán
n 官 kwén kwán
瓜 kwó kwá
wok 槨 kwok kwóh, ’kwó
wong 光 kwong kwáng
wun (ng) 滾 kwun (ng) kwun

Obs. i. For óng and úng, Morrison writes úng; Prémare óng. It will be seen that in our dialect they are both in use. When a word is pronounced alone, or when last in order, ó is more common, while ú prefers the first place in combination; 松紅 Súng-kong, Súng-kiáng; 吳淞 Ng sóng, Wú-súng; 中國人 tsúng kóh niun, Chinaman; 勿拉當中 veh ’lá tong tsóng, not in the centre.

Obs. ii. Words in é from m. ái have two sounds. Some employ the Scotch ae in sae, nae, etc. nearly like e before r in the English words there, where. Others pronounce the English a in cake, same, i.e. in our orthography é. Ex. 來海 lé, ’hé, are constantly heard with both these sounds.

Obs. iii. Words in én, beyond 黃渡 Wong dú‘, and 朱家閣 Tsû ká koh, 25 and 30 miles to the west of Shánghái, change into ön.

Obs. iv. On án, wán. The second of these mandarin finals passes into én or ön. The former retains a for á. Ex. 滿洲 Mén tseu, Manchu; 五六萬 ’ng lóh man, 50,000 or 60,000.

78. If the old native tables of finals could be reduced to a fixed Roman orthography, our dialect would be found to bear more similarity to that pronunciation as its maternal stem, than to its northern relative the modern mandarin. The final k in the short tone was recognized, and many sub-divisions of a final into two or more branches agree with our usage; i.e. kwán into kwön and kwan. Some southern dialects preserve some parts and some others parts of this traditional pronunciation. The work before referred to, Lé‘ sh‘ yin kíen‘ says, in the 凡例 Fán lieh, Introductory Notes, 南音於剜彎, 官關, 般班, 分之甚細。 北或合面爲一, 55n yun ü wén wan, kwén kwann pan, fun tsz zun‘ sí‘. Poh wóh heh rh wé ih. “In the south (Kiáng-nán. etc.), the pronunciation of the words pén pan, etc. is carefully separated, while in the north, they combine in one (á) sound.”

Another instance there given, of difference between the north and south in the final, is in such words as 銀盈, 勤檠, 神繩, 林靈, 貧平, 金京, m. yin ying, k’in k’ing, shin shing, lin ling, p’in p’ing, kin king. These the author says, are carefully distinguished in the north, while in the south they are identical in sound.

The rule of Shánghái pronunciation is this. Those words that end in ng in mandarin keep it. Those words that end in un change n into ng, while such as terminate in un take n or ng indifferently. Thus the above examples are read niun (g) yung, kiun (g) kiung, zun (g) zung, ling ling, ping ping, kiun (g) kiung.

Both of this writer’s observations are exemplified in the table. It is there shewn how far precisely this coalescing and subdividing of rhymes extends. One rhyme in either of the dialects, may branch off in the other into four or even six independent finals.

79. The most curious fact deducible from the table is, the affinity of certain vowels for the terminating consonant k (g before words in the lower tones) found in the short tone; a peculiarity which disappears a little south-west of Shánghái, and is not noticed at Ningpo.

The principal forms of words in the short tone in mandarin, according to different systems of orthography in common use are as follow:—

Morrison & Medhurst ă ĕ eǐh ih ǐh ǔh ŏ
Prémare ă ĕ ĭ ĕ ǔh ŏ
Williams áh eh ieh ih ueh eh uh óh
This work áh eh ieh ih iöh uh úh óh

Most words in the short tone ending in k, are of the last three of these finals u, ú, ó. Of the others, those in ih if they take k often insert a short u. E.g. 力 is heard lik or liuk. Similarly when words in úh and óh do not take k, they 56 change úh and óh into eh. Thus, 末 móh becomes meh, Many words in conformity with this law, change their places among the finals, and the collocation of a and e, with k is carefully avoided, while u, ú, ó, retain it with equal consistency.[1] It should be observed however, that the á of mandarin becomes a in the short tone, and the longer a is only used as the colloquialized form of u. E.g. 百 c. pák, r. puk. Thus in Shánghái usage, á, u, ó, o take k in the short tone, a, e, ö, admit m terminating consonant, while i remains common.

This law is much simpler than that of the Fúh-kien and other dialects of the south of China. But while in those dialects, there are found as in the dictionaries three terminating consonants, k, t, p, similar affinities to vowels are traceable. In Fúh-kien with the exception of á, which, all three share between them, k usually prefers one set of vowels, and t and p another.

The native rule in the southern dialects, that k, t, p, are merely the form assumed by the final letters ng, n, m, in the short tone, is inapplicable to dialects, so far north as this. In the native system of finals, this limitation is found indeed, but is not rigidly adhered to. Some words in t are placed under ng as well as n. Others in k occur under vowel finals. The cases of conformity however, are so much more numerous than the exceptions, that the rule is indubitable. Since here only k is in use, the modern seat of the old pronunciation of the dictionaries must lie in part farther south. It embraces indeed the seaboard provinces, from Shánghái to Canton with parts of Kiang-si and Hu-nan.

[1] Words in k frequently interchange. Uk and ák do so throughout, while ók, ok are often both in use for the same words.
Ex. 木行 moh hong or móh hong, a timber yard.

80. The letter n is also affected by the preceding vowel. After a, e, ö, û, it is almost unheard when no word follows, and though a well-defined consonant in the next word brings it into notice, it is still only audible as a slight nasal sound. The vowels i, o, refuse to be associated with it, and when u 57 precedes, it only holds its position in common with ng. After ü it is as in mandarin.

81. Out of 63 finals, there are twenty that vary their sound in reading. In all these, there is an approach to the mandarin pronunciation, and they are therefore employed, by those born within the limits of the dialect, when they wish to make themselves intelligible to strangers. In such cases, they are usually under the delusive impression that it is mandarin they speak. Such is the advantage of the alphabetic system, with its all-versatile and exhaustive applicability, that a foreigner can pass from one dialect to another so far as sound is concerned, with much greater quickness than a native. The latter has no ready method of writing new sounds down, nor is he practised in the art of separating them into their alphabetical elements. No thing but a long residence in the region of another pronunciation, and some natural flexibility of organs, can give him a different set of tones, and a new arrangement of vowels and consonants. The sight of a character suggests to him the sound, that he learnt in his childhood, and having always regarded each, sound as a unity not separable into alphabetic parts, any variation is too confusing and difficult of appreciation to be readily adopted.

The total number of sounds in our dialect independent of tones, is about 570. Morrison counts those of mandarin at 411, The difference is due to the broad initials b, g, d, v, z.

82. Irregularities of Pronunciation. Words that do not conform in sound to the rules given in this section are few.

[1] The sound tang is the older. The phonetic 丁 ting points to a final ng as having formerly existed,

To these may be added the tendency of the initial k to be 58 pronounced, when standing before i, like t in the upper series, and like d or dj in the lower.

PART II.
ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

Section 1. Native divisions.

83. Common teachers of the language in distinguishing words, only use two pairs of terms, viz. 實, 虛 zeh, h’ü, and 死, 活 ’sz, weh. The former signifies words that have a meaning (full) and such as have not (empty). All substantives are 實字眼 seh zz‘ ’ngan. Auxiliary words or particles receive the name of 虛字眼 h’ü zz‘ ’ngan. Verbs and adjectives are placed by some writers in the first of these classes, and by others in the second. Remusat, says that verbs are 實字 zeh zz‘; a native author 畢華珍 Pih wó tsun treats, all words except substantives, as in the second class.

84. The other pair of terms views words as nouns, which are spoken of as 死字眼 ’si zz‘ ’ngan, or verbs which are 活字眼 weh zz‘ ’ngan. The usual sense of 活 is living, but by an extension of meaning, it is applied to anything not fixed to its place, or liable to change in its appearance or form. Hence, verbs as dependent on circumstances of time, will, etc. are termed moving or transferable words, while substantive are said to be fixed or dead.

85. The native writer just referred to, in a recent work, 衍緖草堂筆記 ’íen ’zü ’t’sau dong pih kí‘, on the parts of speech and construction of sentences, has extended these divisions, by forming the 虛字 h’ü zz‘, or words not substantives, into four classes:—

  1. Adjectives 呆虛字 ngé h’ü zz‘:—
    Ex. 高 kau, high. 多 tú, many. tá‘, great.
    低 tí, low. 少 ’sau, few. 小 ’siau, small.
  2. Verbs 活虛字 weh h’ü zz‘:—
    Ex. 作 tsok, to do. 傳 dzén, to deliver down.
  3. 口氣語助虛字 ’k’eu k’i‘ ’nü ’dzú h’ü zz‘. Under this head he gives as examples:—

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    íen,? ú,? } Interrogative and other
    finals.
    哉 tsé,? 也 ’yé,.
    此 ’t’sz, this. 所 ’sú, which. } Pronouns and the sign of
    the possessive.
    其 gí, he. 之 tsz, of.
    甚 zun‘, very. 可, ’k’ó, can. } Adverbs & auxiliary
    verbs.
    最 tsûe‘, „ wé, be.
  4. 空活虛字 k’óng weh h’ü zz‘.

Obs. The word weh is apparently employed, because conjunctions like verbs connect what goes before with what follows. Similarly, in English grammar the verb is the copula, while a large class of conjunctions consists of such as are termed copulative. The word 空 is prefixed to distinguish these particles from verbs. The examples he gives are—

雖 sûe, although. 如 zû, like. } Conjunctions.
tan‘, but. 若 zák, as.
而 rh, further. 乃 né, then.
非 fí it is not. ú, what? } Negative and interrogative
adverbs.
不 peh, not. 豈 ’k’í, how?

These examples are from the language of books. The corresponding words in the dialect will be found in their places.

86. The frequent interchange of the parts of speech, and the rhythmical construction of sentences, have almost kept in concealment among the natives, the classification of which words naturally admit. Much attention has been given to the successive forms of the characters; the changes that have occurred in them, and the principles of their original formation have been carefully chronicled; but etymological studies have been comparatively neglected.

The rules of the Wun-cháng, or exercises in fine writing, law indeed been laid down, but they do not constitute the grammar of the language. While grammar is a science still unknown to the Chinese, it is a mark of the intelligence of our author that he has approached so nearly, as the preceding article shews to a western classification, and that he has defined with precision, all the principal parts of speech.

The division into parts of speech, and simple and compound words, gains in distinctness as we leave the books and restrict our illustrations to the language of conversation, and much more when instead of embracing the universal mandarin medium, we aim to exhibit the dialect of a single district.

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For example the words 過 kú‘, 能 nung, 生 sáng, are in the books verbs or nouns according to their position, their tones remaining unchanged. In the Shánghái dialect they are all verbs, viz. to pass, can, to produce, If they stand alone; but the combinations of which they form part are often substantives. Ex. 過失 kú‘ seh, a fault; 能力 nung lih, strength; 生活 sáng wéh work. Ming, 明 which in the books is an adjective or verb, must if used as a verb in the colloquial have 白 páh appended to it, otherwise it is an adjective. Thus instead of terminations invented to carry a root through two or more parts of speech, we have two roots in opposition for the same purpose. In the following pages accordingly, the terms noun; adjective, etc. will be predicated of the combined forms each as a whole, and not of its constituent words except when viewed independently.

Section 2. Relation of the dialect to the written language, and to other dialects.

87. In comparing the dialect with the language of books, it will be best to go at once to the oldest. The earliest portions of the Shú-king, Book of History, date from a period that must have been at least 3000 years ago if not previous to that of Moses. The occurrence of many of the commonest words now found in the colloquial media of China in records so ancient, is a sufficient illustration of the remarkable persistence of the language. It thus appears that many of the nouns and pronouns, adjectives and verbs, that formed the staple of conversation in the days of Yáu and Shun, are found not merely in the pages of an old world literature, but are still “familiar household words,” among the whole Chinese race. The selected examples which follow are all of constant use in the Shánghái dialect.

88. Examples of single words used in combination or singly.

Names of natural objects, animals, &c.

天 t’íen, heaven. 月 niöh, moon. 馬 ’mó, horse.
ti‘, earth. 星 sing, stars. 牛 nieu, ox.
人 niun, man. 山 san, mountain. 羊 yáng, sheep.
水 ’sz, water. 61 海 ’hé, sea.
火 ’hú, fire. 草 ’t’sau, grass.

Divisions of time.

春 t’sun, spring. 日 nyih, day.
夏 ’hau, summer. 月 niöh, month.
秋 t’sieu, autumn. 歲 sûe‘, solar year.
冬 tóng, winter. 夜 yá‘ night.

Meteorological terms.

風 fóng, wind. 雷 lé, thunder. 雨 ’ü, rain.

Numbers.

一 ih, one. 六 lóh, six.
二 ní‘, two. 七 t’sih, seven.
三 san, three. 八 pah, eight.
四 sz‘, four. 九 ’kieu, nine.
五 ’ng, five. 十 zeh, ten.

Cardinal points.

東 tóng, east. 南 nén, south.
西 si, west. 北 póh, north.

Verbs.

ting‘, to fix. 能 nung, can.
歸 kwé, return home. 有 ’yeu, have.

Adjectives.

tá‘, great. 希 hí, few.
遠 ’yön, distant. 直 dzuk, straight.

Nouns.

罪 zûe, sin. 禮 ’lí, ceremony.
門 mun; door. 詩 sz, poetry.

Pronoun.

我 ’ngú, I.

89. Examples of nouns composed of two characters, or as they may be termed, dissyllabic forms.

90. Examples of words used in combinations in the dialect, but not singly.

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91. These examples, which might if it were necessary, be extended to a much greater length, will be sufficient to exhibit how the most ancient forms of speech, the primitive words of the Chinese race, have maintained their position to the present time. In a similar way, the later classics contemporary with Hebrew literature, and the most flourishing part of the Greek, might be shewn to possess in a still greater abundance, the materials from which this and other dialects have grown into their existing form. But there are also many new words; the passage of time must witness changes, even in the language of a people so devoted to antiquity as that of China. It has been shewn that there has been variation in tones, by referring to the pronouncing Dictionaries made long since. The natives recognize great differences In modern and ancient sounds, as seen in the rhymes of the Book of Odes. Words also have changed; many expressions once common have become antiquated, and new ones have appeared. A reference ta colloquial mandarin will illustrate this statement, and bring before us another large portion of the materials of the dialect.

Relation to colloquial Mandarin. 92. The earliest examples of this form of Chinese, are found in works of the Sung dynasty and in the historical novels. Mencius so remarkable among the classic authors, for his picturesque imagery and the animation of his style, sometimes uses combinations, such as 朋友 páng yeu‘, friend; 自己 zz‘ ’kí, self; seldom found in ancient books, and which may be considered as conversational.

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93. The following are examples selected from the San kwoh chi 三國志, and Lieh kwoh chi 烈國志, works now five hundred years old, of new words not found in the classics, and all in common use in our dialect.

樹 zû‘, tree. wé‘, am able to.
脚 kiáh, roof. 吃 k’iuh, eat.
船 zén boat. 呌 kiau‘, call a person.
撇 p’ih, stroke to the left. 攏 ’lóng, bring together.
埃 á, take in order. 惹 ’zá, provoke.
敲 k’au, knock. 揪 t’sieu, restrain by holding.
撑 t’sáng, pole a boat. 瞧 dziau, to look.
抄 t’sau, to copy. 抖 ’teu, shiver.
喝 höh, call to. 拖 t’ú, to pull.
pó, to scratch. 勦 tsiau‘, destroy

94. Of the following new pronouns, and interrogative adverbs first found in the historical novels, there is scarcely any use made in the Shánghái dialect.

甚麽 m. shen‘ ’mó? what? 那裡 m. ’ná ’li? where?
什麽 shih ’mó? what? 這箇 ché‘ kó‘, this.
怎麽 ’tsun ’mó? how? 他 t’á, he.

Obs. The Shánghái pronouns are all different from those, except the mutilated form 那裡 ’a ’lí? where? So for the most part those of Fúh-kien; which again differ entirely from those of the Canton dialect as contained in Bridgman’s Chrestomathy. Some pronouns are widely spread. Thus, ngó 我 I, exists in all these dialects. As a class however, they are among the words most liable to variation in colloquial Chinese.

95. The following examples of double words taken from the same works, will further illustrate the extent to which mandarin phraseology agrees with that of our dialect. They are all such combinations as are not found in the classics, and might be increased indefinitely.

The characters marked (c) are those that were invented, to represent colloquial words written for the first time. The rest are old classical characters, but they are not found in these combinations.

97. On comparing the old historical novels, with mandarin colloquial tales of the present dynasty, such as the well-known 紅樓夢 Dream of the Red Chamber, no closer analogy with our dialect appears. The style indeed is much more diffuse, being a faithful copy of what real conversation is, and so far it is more like provincial dialects. But as to words, the auxiliary particles (in which the chief changes occur), are peculiar to mandarin, and the verbs and nouns are the same as those of earlier works.

Thus, 的 occurs constantly instead of 之 ch, which is the most common sign of the possessive in the Three Kingdoms. As the third personal pronoun, 那 ’ná takes the place of 其 gí The word for said, 曰 yöh, a term not used in conversation, is replaced by 說道 shwóh táú, either together or apart.

98. Having thus briefly considered the historical division that the dialect admits of, into primitive and modern words, something should be added on local terms, constituting the remainder. On examination it will be found that the words, single and compound, not in mandarin, are few. They can scarcely be many more than a hundred. In a list drawn up for the purpose by a native, of about 100, a third part consisted 65 of verbs, another third part of particles, the rest comprised substantives, adjectives, and words imitative of sounds.

Many of these belong also to the dialects of the neighbouring cities. In the histories of Sú-cheú and Súng-kiáng, the short chapter devoted to the subject of colloquialisms, enumerates several that belong equally to Shánghái. They appear to have been copied in great part from one work into another, and the whole number recorded in each does not reach fifty. Those contained in the history of Shánghái, will be found in the following pages under the parts of speech to which they belong. In Medhurst’s Dictionary of the Fúh-kien dialect, there are classified lists of about 250 phrases peculiar to that province. Some of these however are corrupted forms of expressions used in the other parts of China.

99. The neighbouring dialect of Sú-cheú may be expected to have much in common with that of Shánghái, The system of pronunciation is in general the same, the initial consonants forming a hard and soft series, corresponding to the upper and lower tones in the southern provinces. The following are examples of phrases, the same as those of Shánghái.

那哼 ’ná háng? how? 弗是 veh zz‘, it is not
自家 zz‘ ká, self. 多許 tú hau‘, very many.
弟个 veh kú‘, not so. 慢點 man‘ ’tíen, little slower.
做啥 tsú‘ sá‘? what do you? 個頭 kú‘ deu, there.
個歇 kú‘ h’ih, at preset. 個个 kú‘ kú‘, that.

In some words very commonly occurring, that dialect differs from Shánghái and agrees with mandarin.

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This, m. 道个 ché‘ kú‘. s. 第个 tí‘ kú‘.
He, m. 他 t’á. s. 伊 í.
How? m. 怎麽樣 ’tsun ’mó yáng‘?

Section 3. On the Substantive.

100. The native grammarian already introduced to the reader defines substantives, or rather substances, thus 天地名物, 象數事理 T’íen dí‘ ming veh‘ ziáng‘ sú‘ zz‘ ’li, “Heaven, earth, names and things, images, numbers, facts and principles;” 凡有形有質, 有氣有聲 vanyeu yiung ’yeu tseh ’yeu k’i ’yeu sung, “all things that have form, material substances, breath and sound;” 一切有端可指者 ih t’sih ’yeu tön ’k’ó ’tsz ’tsé, “all things having any property that can be pointed out;” 皆謂之實字 kia wé‘ tsz seh zz‘, “are called substantives.”

“The names of substances,” he adds, “may consist of one or several characters, which must be arranged in classes, brought under the dominion of the rhythmus, and stored in the memory for use when required.” Such nouns as express the properties of substances he calls 子字 ’tsz zz‘, “son characters,” while the names of the substances themselves are termed 毋字 ’mú zz‘, “mother characters.” Attributes he further subdivides into “universal,” 公共子字 kóng góng‘ ’tsz zz‘, and “special,” 實在子字 seh zé ’tsz zz‘.

Combined and uncombined substantives. 101. One of the most striking peculiarities of Chinese words, whether nouns, verbs or particles, is the strictness with which the laws of combination and order are observed. Each dialect has many words that can be used with or without an adjunct, and may be regarded as purely monosyllabic; another large class embraces such as are never used by the natives, except in apposition with some other word, and constituting for that dialect, what may be considered dissyllables. Of the former or monosyllabic kind are the following examples (s. c).

飯 van‘, cooked rice. 貓 mau‘, cat. 狗 ’keu, dog.
雲 yün, clouds. 墨 muh, ink. yáh, medicine.
理 ’lí, moral law. 煤 mé, coal. 雪 sih, snow.

102. In construction, these and similar words may be observed 67 to remain in an uncombined state. The first word in each, of the following sentences exemplifies this remark.

These words may all of them be used in combination, according to some of the laws described in the succeeding paragraphs. Thus they appear in dissyllabic forms such as—

米價 ’mí ká‘, price of rice. 大人 tú‘ niun, father.

103. The other class consists of those words that are never used without an adjunct. For example 衣 í dress, not used alone, is found among other combinations in the following.

衣裳 í zong, clothes. 布衣 pú‘ í, cotton clothes.

So also 猪 tsz, 日 zeh, 房 vong, 禮 ’lí, are found in combination only.

104. In construction, the adjuncts unless the rhythmus requires it, cannot be omitted.

Combination. 105. Substantives are formed of two or more substantives combined in various ways. If the collocation consists of species and genus, the former precedes.

柏樹 páh zû‘, cypress. 茶壺 dzó ú, teapot.
松樹 sóng zû‘, pine. 鐵蛋 t’ih dan‘, iron bullet.
酒壺 tsieu ú, wine chalice. 雞蛋 kí dan‘, hen’s egg.

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Obs. In the last five examples, the first two words constitute the species. The word 石 záh requires 頭 as its appendage, if there is no specific term prefixed. When compounds are formed, the auxiliary word is omitted. In the last case 子 tsz, the auxiliary is retained, or dropped at pleasure.

106. When the compound substantive formed by juxtaposition, consists of whole and part, or substance and accident or attribute, the former precedes.

107. When two or more substantives, cognate in meaning, or in some logical relation, are in apposition, their order depends on native usage.

親眷 t’sing kiön‘, relations. 信息 sing‘ sih, letters and news.
街路 ká lu‘ the road. 貨色 hú‘ suh, goods.
榮光 yóng kwong, glory. 財帛 dzé báh, money and silk.

Obs. i. The primary reason of the order in which these words are used, may have been a real or fanciful sequence of ideas, convenience of pronunciation, rhythm or caprice; but whatever it was, it is strictly preserved. Should another order be adopted, the meaning would not be conveyed. To these and other fixed combinations, found in all parts of speech, must in great part be attributed, the facility with which a language of monosyllables and tones such as the Chinese, is employed as a conversational medium.

Obs. ii. Many words found in compounds of this sort are inseparable. Thus 眷 kiön‘ has no other use in the dialect, than to form these combinations. As a verb to compassionate its use is limited to the books.

Obs. iii. Under this head may be included antithetical substantives (Literæ oppositæ, Premare), of which there are several in common use without a particle between them. 姊妹 tsí (elder sister) mé‘ (younger do.) sisters; 禽獸 kiun (birds), seu‘ (beasts), animals; 天地 t’íen dí‘, heaven and earth; 夫婦 fú vú‘, husband and wife; 山水人物 san ’sz niun veh, mountains, water, men and things: 銅錢銀子 tóng díen niung ’tsz, copper and silver money.

Obs. iv. Phrases of this sort are not coined ad libitum. They are old forms, and the modern Chinese do not allow themselves to make new ones. Each dialect has its own traditional arrangement of words, as well as its particular mode of enunciating the tones, and its alphabetical variations. But there is 69 in all the dialects, so large a majority of phrases as well as words, common to the rest of China, even in that of Fúh-kien, that the identity of the language is in no district brought into question by these differences.

108. Some of these combined forms consist of a substantive and an enclitic. Of the auxiliary words thus used 子 ’tsz, 頭 teu, are the most common.

鴿子 keh ’tsz, a pigeon. 席子 sih ’tsz, matting.
刮法子 kwah fah ’tsz, machinery.
罐頭 kwén‘ deu, saucepan. 流頭 lieu deu, pulley.
甎頭 tsén deu, bricks. 話頭 wó‘ deu, words.
骨耳頭 kweh- ’rh deu, an axle.

These enclitics are never used in the classics; they form a leading characteristic of colloquial Chinese. ’Tsz and teu give individuality and definiteness to the term they qualify. Their proper meaning, son, head, is in these cases lost; they help also to fill the rhythm of the sentence, and to distinguish the words to which they are appended from other terms like them in sound. The enclitic 兒 rh, so common in the mandarin provinces, and also in the dialect of Háng-cheú, has its place supplied by 子 ’tsz. Nyih ’tsz 日子 day is distinguished from nyih deu 日頭 the sun by the enclitic.

109. To express a place where persons come and go, the words 頭 deu and 塲 dzáng are appended to substantives.

110. Verbs and adjectives form compound substantives, by taking after them such auxiliaries as 頭 teu, 法 fah and 處 t’sû‘.

111. Many of the auxiliary substantives treated of in the next section, whose office it is to stand between numerals and their nouns, often follow their substantives without a numeral. A compound is thus formed, in which the sense of the classifying particle is often preserved, A piece of is expressed by k’wé. A bar of by tiau.

冰塊 ping k’wé‘, piece of ice. 鋼條 kong diau, steel spring.
船隻 zén tsáh, boats. 人頭 niun deu, a man.
書本 sû ’pun, books. 紙張 ’tsz tsáng, sheet of paper.

112. The words 夫 fú, 手 ’seu, 做 tsoh, 匠 ziáng‘, 司務 sz‘ vú‘, 家 ká, 人 niun, are appended to substantives to denote agents, trades and professions.

Obs. In the longer examples, some verbs will be found which enter into composition, as those in Art. 113.

113. Verbs and adjectives are frequently compounded in the same way as substantives.

114. The word 阿, merely euphonic, is joined to the names of persons, both relative and proper. Thus instead of 哥哥 kó kó, elder brother, we have in Shánghái 阿哥 ah (r. á.) kú also 阿爹 or 爹爹 tiá tiá, father. When applied to the names of children and others in humble life, either word in the proper name may annexed.

115. Some examples of foreign words used in the dialect, and of colloquial substantives, extracted from the history of Shánghái are here appended.

Obs. Characters followed by (c) are such as are borrowed, to represent purely colloquial words.

New and colloquial words are usually written on the phonetic principle, as may be noticed in the first three examples. Natives differ much in their way of writing purely colloquial words, and being never made use of in books, it matters little what character is adopted.

116. The last way of forming compound substantives to be exemplified, is by the particle 個 kú‘, which coming after a verb and noun expresses an agent.

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Obs. The common word 的 tih and in books 者 ’tsé is not used in this dialect its place being supplied by 個 kú‘ as in these examples.

Repetition. 117. Substantives are in some cases repeated. Forms indicative of diminutiveness are such as occur in the following examples.

118. A few repeated forms occur, with am adjective preceding in opposition.

Obs. Such forms of repetition are rare, except when they express plurality (v. Art. 129). In the adjective and verb, they are much more common. See also Part III. Repetition.

119. The formation of compound substantives, by the simple apposition of two or more roots, is also found in other languages. English and German contain many examples. Substantives, adjectives, and verbs all enter into these forms. E.g. hearsay (v. v.), sunset (s. v.), windfall (s. v.), footstool (s. s.), farewell (v. adv.), lebewohl (do. German), adieu (prep. s. Fr. Eng.), addio (do. Ital.), safeguard (a. s.), white-bait (a. s.), Rath-haus (s. s.), council-house (s. s.). Though many of these words are written without a break, the accent on the penultimate indicates, for those that are English, that they are compounds. In languages that have an extensive system of terminations such as Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit, when composition occurs, the constituent roots become one word, and the affix of declension, &c. in the word that precedes is usually omitted. Thus, in αὐτάδελφος and αὐτόχειρ the simple root aut precedes the word to which it is joined, in one case with no adjunct, and in the other with the connecting vowel o. In the Latin word respublica, reipublicæ we have two roots in apposition, without the process of declension being interrupted. Cases of simple juxtaposition such as this, are much rarer in the ancient languages than in the modern, where the root admits of few variations in its form.

120. In the development of a language consisting of monosyllabic roots, where nothing can be added or altered, some 73 equivalent for terminations and compounds must be expected. This want is met in the Indian languages of America, by combining several independent roots into one word. If for these agglutinated syllables, separate characters were reserved, it would be a system resembling the Chinese. We have in the latter (1), simple apposition of roots, as exemplified in articles 105, 106, 107. Second, there is a change of certain substantives into mere particles which are appended, deprived of their primitive meaning, to large classes of words, as seen in articles 108, 109, 110. Forms of this second kind are usually expressive of simple ideas only; the others may be simple or compound. The terminations of tense and case in the classical languages came from the simple apposition of separate words. Those of the first, second, and third persons of a verb are derived for example, from the three corresponding personal pronouns. Obsolete forms preserved in the oldest writers countenance this theory. Whether the primitive speech of mankind was of this sort, may be matter of controversy, but there can be no doubt that the Chinese language has this peculiarity.

121. Variation in tone might be enumerated as a third mode of supplying the want of inflexions. Examples in the spoken language are however extremely few. In 種 tsóng‘, to sow, and 種子 ’tsóng ’tsz, seed, the tone differs. But even here the enclitic 子 is an inseparable appendage to the noun. Some other examples here follow:—

一囘 ih wé‘, one time. 囘來 wé lé, come back.
磨子 mú‘ ’tsz, a mill. 磨麥 mú máh, grind wheat.
牽繩 k’íen‘ zung, towing-rope, 牽船 k’íenn, tow a boat.
鐵釘 t’ih ting, iron nail. 釘牢 ting‘ lau, nail fast.
應該 yung ké, ought. 應許 yung‘ ’hü, a promise.
想帮 siáng pong, to assist. 宰相 tsé‘ siáng‘, chief mandn.

Obs. The superior comma on the right shows where the words whose tone varies should receive the quick rising tone, or Shánghái k’u shing.

Gender. 122. Gender is expressed by auxiliary words set apart for the purpose. It being thus merely an instance of adjectives and substantives in apposition, the arrangement 74 requires the words descriptive of sex (男 nén, 女 ’nü), or gender (雌 t’sz, 雄 yióng) to precede.

[1] In the books yóng, t’sz, are restricted to birds, and 牝 ping‘ and 牡 meu‘ to animals. In the colloquial of this part of China, the pair of words above are used in all cases.

123. Among the words used in the Shánghái dialect to express family relationship are the following:—

爹爹 tiá tiá, father. 姊夫 tsí fú, brother-in-law.
阿媽 ah ’má, mother. 孫女 sun ’nü, grand daughter.
阿奶 ah ’ná, grandmother. 外甥 ngá‘ sáng, sister’s son.
伯伯 páh páh, eldest uncle. 女壻 ’nü sih, son-in-law.
爺叔 yá sóh, younger do. 姑媽 kú mó, husband’s sister.
娘舅 niáng gieu‘, mother’s brother. 姑娘 kú niáng, father’s sister.
丈人 dzáng‘ niun, father-in-law. 阿姨 ah í, wife’s sister.
丈姆 dzáng‘ m, mother-in-law. 阿嫂 ah sau, brother’s wife.
媳婦 sing vú, daughter-in-law. 阿姪 ah dzeh, brother’s son.
阿姊 ah tsí, elder sister. 外公 ngá‘ kóng, mother’s father.
妹妹 mé‘ mé‘,younger do. 外婆 ngá bú, mother’s mother.

Number. 124. The form of the substantives in the singular and plural is the same. The auxiliary adjectives and adverbs used to express plurality are placed some before and some after their words. Tsóng‘, tú hau‘ ’hau ’kí, and precede their noun. Dzén, t’óh, invariably follow their words.

125. 衆 tsóng‘ precedes its noun and expresses universality.

126. 多許 tú hau‘ and ’hau ’ki 好幾 describe a great number or several. Being double inseparable particles, they form a complete member of a sentence alone, and therefore can be separated from their words, and placed afterwards with a copula and a terminating particle.

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127. 多 tú, several, like tsóng‘ cannot form a complete member of a sentence alone, and therefore precedes its word. It is used extensively with, the specific substantive particles already alluded to. The word tu, many, retains its old sound ta for this use.

128. The words 全, 禿 dzén, t’óh foil following their substantives, usually from the first word in the concluding member of the proposition.

Obs. Pronunciation places these auxiliary particles in closer union with the following word, than with their own noun. Yet the rhythmus often attracts the two members into one sentence. E.g.

129. The plural is also formed by repetition.

Case. 130. The genitive or possessive case is expressed by 個 kú‘. It corresponds to 的 tih, m. 个 gé, é, Fúhkien, 個 kó‘, Canton.

Obs. When the possessive particle is omitted, a compound substantive is formed, as hwó ’nü deu, flower buds. Here no transposition is necessary, the 76 predicated part standing last in both cases. English idiom placing the subject after the possessive particle, also requires the definite article to begin the sentence, “the buds of flowers.” When the constituent words are not adapted to form a compound substantive, as in the first of the examples above, the particle is always retained.

131. The objective case has no particle to mark it. It is known by position, coming after the verb. The nominative always precedes the verb.

132. Only the verb 話 wó‘, to say, requires a particle to precede the objective noun. The words 替, 對, 忒, t’í‘, té‘, t’eh, may either of them be employed.

Obs. This verb being intransitive, and standing last, leaves the substantive ungoverned, and renders a preposition necessary. So in English say requires to after it. In Latin, the noun is put in the dative without a preposition, as dico vobis.

133. The sign of the dative in da mihi, and give it to me is omitted. The euphonic particle ’lá 拉 is used to fill up the rhythmus.

Obs. i. In English to is omitted or not at pleasure. Such datives as occur in Gloria Patri, dedicated to the interests of truth, my love to you cannot be expressed.

Obs. ii. In the example peh ’ngú ih kú‘, the dative comes next to the verb, while in the following sentence, the object precedes it. These differences of position are occasioned by the rhythmus.

134. To a place is expressed by 到 tau‘, usually with a verb of motion following the substantive.

135. Motion from or by (ablative) is expressed by 自 zz‘, 從 zóng, 由 yeu or 打, ’táng. The last of these is most frequently employed.

136. The sense of for, instead of is given by several particles, 替, 代, 代替, 忒, 爲, t’í, dé, dé t’í, t’uh and wé‘, are all in use.

137. In and at (locative case) are expressed by 勒拉 leh ’lá and 拉 ’lá before, and 裏 ’lí or 裏向 ’lí h’iáng‘, after the substantives, (m. 在 tsai‘ prefixed, 裏, 内, 中, ’lí, núi‘, chóng suffixes).

138. With, of (instrumental case) are expressed by the verb, tan (also nan west of Shánghái), or nó, to bring, preceding the noun and a verb following it. (m. 將 tsiáng, 把 pa; in books, 以 ’í and by the suffix 個 kú‘, which usually takes a verb between it and the noun.

139. In expressing by (instrumental case), the auxiliary verb peh 撥 precedes the instrumental noun, and the principal verb with or without its regimen follows (m. 彼 pei):—

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140. Along with is expressed by t’eh 忒, 替 t’í and 同 tóng. The governed noun is followed by ih dau 一淘 together. This appendage is sometimes omitted, when 同 is used.

141. As a sign of the vocative, the suffix 呵 á is sometimes used. 老兄阿 lau h’iung á, brother (addressed to strangers as friendly salutation).

142. Case particles in other languages. Prepositions standing before the noun, and terminations making up one word with the root, are used together in the classical languages to express case; and very frequently the suffixes alone. In the modern European languages, suffixes are much less used, prepositions performing the office of case particles. In the Tartar languages, the particles called in other languages prepositions, come after their words, and are therefore called postpositions. In Manchu, the oblique cases, four in number, are formed by suffixes selected from this class of particles. When written they are joined to the noun or not at pleasure, and may all be used independently as particles. Thus it appears that the Chinese in using separate case particles, some before and some after, the nouns to which they belong, do not depart from the practice common to other races.

143. Premare’s method of illustrating one by one, the words most important in a grammatical view, by numerous examples, is here followed in regard to some commonly used nouns.

144. 氣 k’í‘.

1. Breath, vapour.

透氣 t’eu k’í‘, to breathe. 地氣 tí k’í‘, climate.
濕氣 sák k’í‘, moisture. 斷氣 dön‘ k’í‘, to die.

2. Anger.

3. Manner, expression, meaning.

145. 心 sing, heart, mind.

146. 手 ’seu, hand, an artisan.

147. 分 vun‘, duty, divisions.

148. 頭 teu, head.

149. 眼 ngan eye, a point, a small hole.

150. 目 moh, eye.

頭目 teu móh, chief. 賬目 t’sáng‘ móh, accounts.
眼目 ’ngan moh, eyes. 數目 sú‘ moh, numbers.
大關節目 tá‘ kwan tsih móh, important doctrine.

151. 底 ’tí, bottom.

152. The following substantives combine with the cardinal points to form nouns of place. They are arranged in the 81 order of their frequency. 沿, 半爿, 面, 邊, 首, 頭, 方, han‘, pén‘ ban, míen‘, píen, ’seu, teu, fong. One or two examples will suffice to explain this usage.

The combinations with 裏 ’lí, within, include two other words which here appended, 向, 勢, 面, 邊, 頭, h’iáng‘, sz‘, míen‘, píen, teu.

Obs. Other words, such as the demonstrative pronouns, and some of the prepositions form similar combinations, as will be afterwards seen.

Section 4. On numeral particles and auxiliary substantives.

153. Under his head, are included the classifying particles, called by some writers numerals, with weights and measures, and any parts not being themselves full appellative nouns, into which substantives admit of being divided.

Obs. i The distinctive numeral particles applied to different substantives, belonging as they do themselves to that class of words, could not be placed with propriety among or after the adjectives; yet their Syntax is sufficiently unlike that of the substantive to require them to be placed apart.

Obs. ii. A comprehensive classification of substantives has been presented to philologists, by Dr. Legge in his “Letters on the rendering of the name God in Chinese,” Hongkong, 1850. Several useful terms are there introduced, partly from Nordheimer, but a place for the nouns now under discussion is not provided for except under class (4). The classes into which common or nouns not proper are there divided, are—

1. “Appellative or generic nouns, or names of species of individual existence, e.g. man, mountain, tree, house, garment.” Here shape and substance are both included, and the indefinite article can be prefixed in all cases.

2. “Material nouns, e.g. corn, gold, water.” Here matter only is embraced, while the limitation of form must be supplied by other words, as “a bushel of corn,” “a handful of gold,” “a cup of water,” “a sceptre of iron.” Nordheimer, Hebrew Grammar, vol. II. 796, invents no name for the former words in these cases, merely saying that the second limits the first in meaning. He considers them all concrete nouns.

3. “Collective nouns, or nouns which though singular in form, yet express a multitude.”

4. “Abstract nouns or names of qualities or modes of existence, abstracted from the object with which they are in combination.” Numeral particles and nouns of measure and shape must be placed here, although they are thereby associated with a multitude of mental and moral terms, with which they have little in common. Abstract nouns might form two classes distinguished as material and moral.

5. “Relative nouns, e.g. father, king.” Since the second class material nouns furnishes the matter of which the words ‘bushel,’ ‘handful’, ‘cup,’ etc. supply the form, perhaps these auxiliary words should be called formal nouns,82 and form a sixth class.

154. The classes (1), (2), (5) and part of (4), are embraced in the preceding section; The remainder form the subject of the present. With regard to their use, combined with the numeral, they cover the ground of the article a, an in the class, and of the auxiliary words in the second.

Obs. In Hebrew no word like of is necessary, e.g. shébet (constr.) barzel, a sceptre of iron. Lat. virga ferrea.

155. The number and the auxiliary word are both necessary to the idiom, but the latter is sometimes used alone after the substantive, as noticed in Art. 111. Yet in this case, the same construction is admissible. Thus we have,

156. The distinctive numeral particles, or those employed with the appellative or generic nouns, here follow.

Obs. i. The office of these substantive particles is simply indicative. The reason of their application to particular words is custom only, but etymological connection is sometimes traceable as in 封 to close up, 頭 is applied to men only as a suffix.

Obs. ii. All generic and relative nouns are here included. They are distinguished in English from material nouns by taking the plural, and admitting a, an, before them.

Obs. iii. These words differ frequently, in their application to particular nouns, from the usage of other parts of the country. A native of Fúh-kien would laugh to hear 隻 tsáh, instead of 枝 tsz, applied to hands and feet. In mandarin 尾 vi‘, is the distinctive particle for fish instead of 箇 kú‘, which is employed in this dialect.

Obs. iv. Most of these particles are employed in mandarin. They are used sparingly in the historical novels, because the semi-colloquial, semi-literary style of those works only occasionally expands into full conversational idiom. When it does so, they are always found.

157. The next class of the auxiliary substantives are such as are significant, or retain their meaning when translated into English, giving to their substantives, which are either material nouns or are construed as such, limitations of form and quantity.

Obs. Weights and measures, names of vessels, divisions of books, etc., though belonging to the significant auxiliary particles, will be placed separately (see Art. 158–160).

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Obs. i. Words expressing kind of, sort of such as 種樣星 tsóng yang‘ sing, have been placed with those particles that are simply indicative, because they are applied to nouns complete in their form and organization, e.g. 伊種人 í ’tsóng niun, that sort of man; 第星 事體 tí‘ sing zz‘ ’t’i, this sort of thing. Having a significance of their own, they should also be mentioned here.

Obs. ii. Material nouns often in English become generic, assuming the plural termination, and when singular the indefinite article, e.g. earth, stone, etc. In Chinese, if we wish to speak of a stone, the affix 頭 must be used, and 塊 prefixed. Some words need only the auxiliary prefix, e.g. 一塊煤 ih k’wé‘ mé, a piece of coal.

Obs. iii. Some auxiliaries as 塊 are found both in the significant and simply indicative class; a circumstance which suggests that all the particles in the former table had a meaning of their own originally, though now in some instances not to be traced.

Obs. iv. A few verbs are found among these words, viz. 把, 捆, 担, 包, 張, 鋪; they are here to be construed as substantives. In English, verbs construed as nouns are very numerous, e.g. hold, handle, touch, walk, roll.

Obs. v. The examples given in the table, are sufficient to shew that for this class of nouns English usage is similar, except that the particle of must be inserted. It is different with the words of the former table, for which there is no equivalent idiom in English. These two kinds of auxiliaries should therefore be keep distinct.

158. The definite subdivisions of material nouns will now be noticed. It is not only the numeral particles and the other auxiliaries, as registered in the two preceding articles, that intervene between numbers and their substantives. Many nouns are divisible into several parts, which have appropriate names and may be used as the words of the preceding table. The most useful names of divisions are here given, and first those of books and characters.

Obs. These words do not take any numeral particle. Thus in giving directions to a scholar to write the character 受 ’zeu, a teacher would say 一撇, 三黯, 帽下又字 ih p’ih, san tíen, mau‘, ’au ’tí yeu‘, zz‘. The eight strokes given above are all contained in the character 永. Information on this subject is given in Dr. Bridgman’s Chinese Chrestomathy and other works.

159. The most common names of vessels of capacity are the following.

碗 wén, bowl. 盤 pén, tray.
盞 tsan, ib. 桶 ’tóng, bucket.
pun, a plate. hah, casket.
缸 kong, large jar. 箱 siáng, chest.
páng‘, pitcher. 籃 lan, basket.
ping, bottle, jar. 簍 ’lieu, small hamper.

Obs. These words are used as the auxiliary particles of that which is contained in them. But if they are construed as independent substantives they all take 隻 as their distinctive particle. Thus we find, 一隻碗, 一碗茶, ih tsáh wén, a cup; ih wén dzó‘, a cup of tea.

160. Of definite measures, the following are in common use.

Land and Long Measure. Dry Measure.
畝 meu, 240 square pú‘. sáh, 10 teu.
站 dzan‘, 90 ’lí. 斗 ’teu, 10 sung.
里 ’lí, 360 pú‘. 升 sung, a pint.
pú‘, five feet. 合 keh, tenth of a pint.
丈 záng‘, ten feet. 抄 t’sau, 100th of keh.
尺 t’sáh, foot (14 Eng. in. taylor’s ft., 10⅞in. carpenter’s ft.)
寸 t’sun‘, tenth of a foot.
分 fun, tenth of a t’sun‘.
Weights.
担 tan‘, pecul. 角 koh, 10 cents.
斤 kiun, catty. 分 fun, 1 cent.
兩 ’liáng, tael. háu, tenth of fun. 87
錢 dzíen, mace. 釐 lí, tenth of hau.
Measures of time.
代 dé‘, generation. 點 ’tíen, hour (with 鐘).
世 sz‘, ib. 刻 k’uh, ¼ hour.
年 níen, year. 分 fun, minute.
歲 sûe‘, ib. 杪 miau, second.
日 nyih, day. 歇 h’ih, instant.

Obs. 時 zz, hour, and 月 niöh, month, are here omitted, because they usually take 箇 before them. This must be to distinguish them from words similar in sound, or from their own other senses.

161. Collective auxiliary nouns varying through all the forms of plurality, from a pair to a multitude, here follow:—

162. From the list here given, it appears that there are at least 130 of these imperfect substantives, almost all in common use. They admit of a fourfold division.

I. Of the first kind, whose office is simply indicative of appellative nouns, or distinctive to some extent of classes, there are upwards of 30. A few examples are appended.

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Obs. i. At first sight, these words look like a capricious superfluity of articles, arising merely from a fondness for multiplying words. They appear appropriate in a language, where there is so much arbitrary classification, and so little exhibition of the power of generalizing by means of deep and comprehensive principles. Here are thirty words made use of, where one would be sufficient. It should however be remembered, that when used as adverbs there is great clearness given to the conception they express, and that they diminish the confusion that arises from similarities of sound.

Obs. ii. When an adjective is used, it comes between the particle and the noun, as in the last example. This is also true of the other particles that are the subject of this chapter.

II. Of the significant particles, or those that are applied to material nouns, and define quantity and form, apart from number, there are about 40. E.g.

Obs. i. When they become parts of compound appellative nouns, one of the distinctive particles precedes.

Obs. ii. 點, 眼, tíen, ngan, are applied to any material noun in the sense of a little of. Ih 一 precedes them.

III. The subdivisions or definite parts of material nouns, form the most numerous class of the auxiliary substantives. Upwards of 50 are here collected. They take no particle after the number preceding, and must therefore be classed as imperfect substantives. Thus the construction in the following examples is similar.

(III.) 一斤花 ih kiun hwó, pound of cotton.
(II.) 一包花 ih pau hwó, bundle of cotton.
(II.) 一粒米 ih lih ’mí, a grain of rice.
(III.) 一斗米 ih ’teu ’mí, a peck of rice.

IV. Collectives compose the remaining, and smallest class of qualifying particles applied to substantives. The use of words in the four classes of particles may be seen in the following examples.

163. Another small class of auxiliary substantives, consists of those that are used with verbs, expressing like our word times, the number of times the action has been performed. They are 次, 燙, 囘, 轉, 記; their use will be understood by examples.

Section 5. On the Adjective. 呆 虛 字.

164. The native writer before alluded to says, the office of adjectives is “to describe the attributes and appearance of things.” “In apposition with nouns, they express their qualities,” (與實字相加, 以形容實字如何樣.) “Some adjectives consist of two words which are inseparable. Thus, repetition of the initial, the rhyme, and the whole character, frequently occurs.” (有兩字折不開者, 如雙聲, 疊韻, 疊字等類.) “There are not more than a few tens of characters that are adjectives.”

Antithesis. 165. In substantives, the principle of combination came prominently to view, and it will be found to belong though not so extensively, to the other parts of speech. That of antithesis belongs especially to adjectives. Most of the single-worded adjectives in daily use will illustrate this.

Obs. i. Those words only that are marked (c) are not used in literary compositions. There is no class of words more extensively spread through all Chinese, spoken and written, than the majority of these adjectives.

Obs. ii. Antithetical substantives of one character each, are rare in the colloquial. See 107. Obs. iii.

Obs. iii. In Premare’s list of antithetical characters, more than fifty of 117 are adjectives. Many also of those that belong to other parts of speech, have the antithesis less strongly marked.

Obs. iv. Many abstract substantives are formed by the union of these antithetical adjectives, in the order in which they stand above; e.g. how long? ’kí hau‘ dzáng ’dön? to say nothing about speed, veh ’kong k’wá man‘ v. Syntax. Part III. §2.

166. Sometimes in the antithesis, one member is a single, and the other a double form.

kiá, capable. 唔用 m yúng‘, useless.
亂 lön‘, disturbed. 太平 t’a‘ bing, peaceful.

167. Other words having no obvious antithesis form it by assuming the sign of the negative.

Obs. The negative here just corresponds to our English prefix un, e.g. unlike, unwilling.

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Combination. 168. Many adjectives are formed by the apposition in a fixed order, of two adjectives, and in these compounds many book words occur.

淸爽 t’sing ’song, clear. 忠厚 tsóng ’eu, faithful.
懶惰 lan dú‘, lazy. 謙虛 k’íen h’ü, humble.
乾淨 kûn zing‘, clean. 煩難 van nan, difficult.
聰明 t’sóng ming, clever. 須少 sü ’sau, few.
毛草 mau ’t’sau, rough. 許多 ’hü tú, many.
冷靜 ’láng ’zing, solitary. 新鮮 sing síen, new.
粗疎 t’sú sú, coarse. 呆笨 ngé bun‘, stupid
窮苦 kióng ’kú, poor. 兇狠 h’iúng ’hun, fierce.

Obs. The antithesis that occurs in examples of this sort is sufficiently indicated by the sense.

169. In addition to compounds such as those already given, formed by two adjectives, substantives and verbs make part of many.

Obs. There are also triple forms, in which other parts of speech enter, e.g. 壁立直, pih lih dzuh, straight as a wall; 的溜圓 tih lieu‘ yön, very round. In these examples, the adjective which stands last is qualified by the preceding words.

170. Some adjectives of two words are exclusively local in their use, and present no etymology in their characters, being written phonetically. They are always inseparable.

𨅓跎 sá dú, tired. 豪燥 au sau‘, active, sharp. 92
齷齪 ok t’soh, dirty. 㾑𤺥 keh dah, blind to reason.
囫圇 weh lun, entire. 𨰵𨐃 h’iá tsá, skillful.
葛列 köh lih, clean. 玲瓏 ling lóng, intelligent. m.

171. Combinations of three are also numerous, in which the first word contains the principal meaning. The second is repeated, and as will be seen in the examples, sometimes conveys only sound. The phonetic formation of the characters will usually serve to indicate this.

Obs. i. In examples not marked p. the repeated word has an independent sense, in agreement with that of the leading word, and is so used in the books.

Obs. ii. These phonetic appendages, destitute of any significance of their own, are interesting to the comparative etymologist as corresponding to adjectival terminations in other languages.

172. Combined forms of four words, often consisting of adjectives and either substantives or verbs, and still more frequently of double adjectives repeated are, such as follow.

Obs. The monosyllabic adjectives are not repeated. These double forms when repeated, are also correctly translated as adverbs in almost all cases. It 93 will be seen in subsequent sections, that repetition is used most extensively among verbs and adverbs.

173. The place of the adjective is before its noun if they go into combination, but with the substantive verb as copula or an equivalent, it may become a supplementary member of the sentence.

174. Substantives become adjectives to other substantives, if placed before them in combination.

洋刀 yáng tau, foreign knife. 石路 zah lú‘, stone road.
牛奶 nieu ’ná, buffalo milk. 海船 ’hé zén, sea junk.

Obs. Compounds of this kind have come under notice before, Art. 106. Thus it appears that cases occur which prevent the accurate defining of the parts of speech. For the words standing first in these examples, while they may well be claimed as adjectives, according to the grammar of the classical languages, are unquestionably substantives when alone. As roots they are substantives. It is by position that they are changed into adjectives. For corresponding examples in English, see Art. 119.

175. Verbs with the particle 個 or 拉個, become adjectives to the following noun.

Obs. i. In examples like the second of these, the sense is also complete without the noun as ’sí kú‘ tú. We have in English a darkened room, a beloved child. Participles are here construed as adjectives, a usage similar to the Chinese.

Obs. ii. Some verbs enter into combination as adjectives, without the intervention of any particle. 死人 ’sí niun, dead man; 孝子 h’iau‘ ’tsz, filial son; 孝女 h’iau‘ ’nü, filial daughter.

176. A few adjectives are also employed as transitive verbs. The second and fourth of the following sentences are examples. In the 1st and 3rd, the same words are adjectives.

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Comparison of adjectives. 177. The comparative is expressed in several ways, as by—

a. 再 tsé‘, again, which precedes the adjective it qualifies.

b. 點 ’tíen, a little, follows the word that it qualifies.

c. 一眼 ih ’ngan, a little, is similar in use to the last.

d. 還 wan still, further; this word combined with 要 yau‘, to want, makes the adjective that follows comparative.

e. 比 ’pí, compare; this word makes the adjective that follows comparative. When 比 is in the negative form, the adjective may be omitted.

f. 更 kung‘, better. Sometimes 加 ká, to add, follows it.

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g. 越 yöh repeated. The use of this particle repeated is to place the two members of a sentence in strong antithesis; sometimes 發 fah, to express follows it.

h. 又 í‘, again, is a very common form. 比 ’pí, often commences the sentence.

i. 又加 í‘ ká, still more is often preceded by 比 ’pí.

k. 加, 添, 放大 ká or tíen add or fong‘ dú‘, increase.

l. The comparison is intensified by adding 得多 tuh tú after the adjective.

m. Beside the formation of the comparative by particles, it is expressed by the positive standing first, when the difference of the compared objects is mentioned.

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Obs. i. The verb 比 is however in examples of this last kind, understood as going before, and is often expressed, as in 第隻船此伊隻闊 二尺 ti‘ tsáh zén ’pí í tsáh k’weh ní‘ ts’ah, this boat is two feet wider than that. 我娘個病比前日子好得多者 ’ngú niáng kú‘ bing‘ ’pí zien nyih ’tsz ’hau tuh tú ’tsé, my mother is much better than the day before yesterday.

Obs. ii. Three kinds of auxiliary words appear in the examples given.

  1. Substantive particles which follow the adjective they qualify, and imply a slight variation only. This variation may be increase or diminution, according to the sense of the adjective compared.
  2. Verbs. Of these, the verb 比 compare is in constant use. It is found with other particles, or without any particle, and retains its syntax as a verb, unaffected by its use as an auxiliary in the comparison of adjectives. The other verbs employed express addition. Their opposites are used in a similar manner; e.g. 減少 ’kan ’sau, 減脫 ’kan t’eh, subtract.
  3. Conjunctions and adverbs form the remainder of the particles employed in comparison. They imply a difference without specifying whether it be greater or less, so that they correspond more nearly to the English suffix er than to the particle more. The repeated form 越, 越 just answers to the particle the, in “the sooner the better.” Such English forms as this are usually regarded as elliptical, and in explaining them, words supposed to be omitted are supplied. In the corresponding Chinese phrases, there is no ground for the hypothesis of an ellipsis.

178. The subjoined auxiliary particles supply the place of a superlative. The first three are placed before the adjective they qualify. The rest follow their word.

a. 頂 ’ting, highest, top.

b. 最 tsûe‘, exceedingly, the most.

c. 極, kiuh, extremely; this particle is used before or after the adjective which it qualifies.

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d. 野 ’yá, wild, great; this word requires one of the auxiliary verbs 來 or 得 verbs before it.

e. 死 ’sí, to die; this word takes the auxiliary verb 來 between it and its adjective.

f. 嘸做 m tsú‘, there is nothing that can be done; this form of expression also requires 來 lé.

g. 煞 sah, very. lit. a twinkling. (Premare has this particle, though it is certainly rare in mandarin. Many prefer 殺 [1] sah, kill).

h. 頭一 teu ih, the first in importance.

i. 了勿得 ’liau veh tuh, remarkably, exceedingly.

j. 了反勿得 ’liau fan veh tuh, ib.

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k. 話勿得 wó‘ veh tuh, or 話勿來 wó‘ veh lé, very, unspeakable. 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, endlessly.

l. 得利害 tuh lí‘ é‘, severe, dangerous.

Obs. i. Among the words admitted here are many forms of expression equivalent to our qualifying adverbs very, extremely, etc. In actual usage no distinct line is kept between the adjectival and adverbial sense; e.g. 最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, may mean best, or very good. It seemed therefore preferable to give in one view, the more common forms for framing an absolute or modified superlative. Most of these particles are also used to qualify verbs, as will be shown. They are therefore true adverbs.

Obs. ii. Here may be distinguished four modes of forming the superlative. 1. By particles appropriated to this use 是, 頂, 極, tsûe‘, ’ting, kiuh. The two former stand before the adjective, the third is found both before and after its word. 2. The ordinal 頭一 teu ih, in mandarin 第一 tí ih, the first, also places the adjective it precedes in the superlative. 3. Auxiliary verbal particles 得, 來, tuh, lé, with the appendages 野, 極, 利害, ’yá, kiuh and lí‘ é, to the former, and 野, 死, 唔, 做, ’yá, ’sí, and m tsú‘, to the latter, form a third class. 4. The forms 了勿得, ’liau veh tuh or ’liau fan veh tuh, wonderful, very, 話勿得 wó‘ veh tuh (lé), unspeakable, and 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, endlessly, when appended to an adjective with 來 intervening, also convey a superlative sense.

Obs. iii. The verb 完 wén, finish is also applied to adjectives with the same force as the preceding intensitive particles. 畫來像完者 wó‘ lé ziáng‘ wén ’tsé, painted extremely like; 容貌黃完 yóng mau‘ wong wén, countenance very sallow.

Obs. iv. Extreme excellence is also predicated of an adjective by the phrases 十分 seh fun, ten parts and 十二分 seh ni‘ fun, twelve parts; 物事十分好 meh zz‘ zeh fun ’hau, the thing is thoroughly good.

[1] That 殺 sah is the word seems probable because ’si, die, a word like it in meaning is much used in a similar manner.

179. Ordinal numbers are often expressed by the cardinal numbers, when on rhythmical grounds, there is no empty place in the sentence for a particle.

Obs. In regard to the cardinal numbers (for which see page 61), a few examples only need to be added 五十三 ’ng zeh san, fifty three; 九 十二 ’kieu zeh ní‘, ninety two. From a hundred to a hundred and ten, 零 ling is inserted, 一百零四 ih páh ling sz‘, a hundred and four. Instead of saying 一百三十 ih páh san seh, it is more frequent to omit 十 seh. Thus, ih páh san, a hundred and thirty, and so for other numbers. The omission of 99 一 ih, one, sometimes occurs 百八 pák pah, a hundred and eighty; one thousand four hundred is 千四 t’sien sz‘; fourteen thousand is 萬四 man‘ sz‘.

180. Days of the month take 初 t’sú before them as a numeral particle, but it is omitted when the number consists of two characters. Ordinal numbers are regularly formed by prefixing 第 tí‘ to the cardinal numbers.

Obs. First is translated 頭一 teu ih.

181. The numeral of multiplication is expressed by means of 倍 pé‘, times; 要加倍 yau‘ ká bé‘, make it twice as large; 加長四倍 ká dzáng sz‘ bé‘, make it four times as long.

182. Distributive numbers are formed by the addition of 個 kú‘, or any other auxiliary substantive particles.

183. Indefinite numbers are expressed 百 páh, 100; 千 t’síen, 1,000; 萬 man‘, 10,000, with or without 論 lun.

184. Numbers enter into many common phrases.

Obs. Though not commonly occurring in English and other languages, examples similar to these are not wanting; e.g. at sixes and sevens.

185. Examples of some adjectives, extensive in their use and varied in their meaning, are here appended.

186. 全 dzien, complete, all.

187. 大 tá‘, great, very.

188. 好 ’hau, good, well, that I may, it may.

189. 靈 ling, efficacious, intelligent.

190. 快 k’wá‘, fast, (adv.) near, soon, lively.

Section 6. On the Pronoun.

191. The pronouns are regarded by the Chinese as part of the auxiliary particles that with nouns and verbs make up sentences, and they have not proceeded to separate them from the rest of that numerous family by a peculiar denomination.

They are chiefly single words, but frequently admit of the dissyllabic form. Other pronouns, or particles having no meaning of their own (e.g. 是, 個), are prefixed or affixed to give them this form. The details will be found below.

Among the many simple and compound forms used as pronouns, the following may be distinguished as properly and originally such for this dialect.

  1. Personal, 我, 儂, 其, 伊, 㑚, 你, ’ngú, nóng‘, gí, í, ná‘, ’ní, I, thou, he, you.
  2. Reflexive, 自 zz‘, in combination.
  3. Demonstrative, 第, 伊, 個, tí‘, í, kú‘, this, that; also 彼此 pé ’t’sz, occasionally used.
  4. Interrogative, 啥, 幾 sá‘, ’kí, what? how many? inseparable, and 何 hú, what? 那 ’ná (pron. ’á), which? inseparable.
  5. Relative. There is no separable relative pronoun, 102 its place being supplied by 個 kú‘, 所 ’sú is inseparable, and very limited in its use.
  6. Possessives. None. Their place is supplied by 個 kú‘, following the personal pronoun.
  7. Distributives. 各, 每, 逐, koh, ’mé, dzóh, each, every.
  8. Reciprocal. None. The borrowed form 大家 is the substitute.
  9. Indefinite. 某, 啥, 幾, 多, ’meu, sá‘, ’kí, tá, some, several.
  10. Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 禿, 全, 別, t’oh, dzén, bih, all, other, separable and 凡 van, inseparable.

Personal pronouns. 192. The first personal pronoun in the singular is ’ngú, 我 I; the second, 儂 nóng‘ or 那 ná‘, thou; the third, 伊 í or 其 kí, he.

In the plural 你 ’ní or 我你 ’ngú ’ní, express we; 那 ná or 儂那 nóng‘ ná‘, you; and 伊 í, they.

When the pronoun consists of one word only, the vacant place is often filled up by 是 ’zz.

Obs. i. The personal pronoun is often omitted, as 拾蓋看起來 seh ké k’ön‘ ’k’í lé, thus you see; 勿來末總勿好 veh lé meh tsóng veh hau, if you do not come it will be unfortunate.

Obs. ii. The impersonal pronoun in English it, is not expressed, as 落雨者 loh ’ú ’tsé, it is raining.

Obs. iii. In mandarin 我, 你, 他, ’ngó, ’ní, t’á, I, thou, he, all form their plural by taking 們 mun, as a suffix.

Obs. iv. Sometimes 我 ’ngú, may stand for the third person he, This occurs, when two persons in relation to each other are the subject of conversation. The nominative is then considered as I, and the third person, he. Thus, 兄弟曉得呵哥勿喜歡我, h’iúng dí‘ ’hiau tuh á kú veh ’h’í hwén ’ngú, the younger brother knows that the elder is displeased with him. This is not the case when no confusion of persons is likely to happen; e.g. 眼睛𥆝之伊個男人 ’ngan tsing sú tsz í kú‘ nén niun, she looked on her husband.

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193. The idea of self is expressed by 自家 zz‘ ká, for all persons, generally preceded by the appropriate pronoun.

Obs. i. In mandarin 自己 tsz‘ ’ki; Fúh-kien, 家己 ká ’kí.

Obs. ii. The pronoun 自 zz‘, self, though not used out of combination, occurs in several fixed phrases. 自殺自 zz‘ sah zz‘, to kill one’s-self; 自害自 zz‘ hé‘ zz‘, to injure one’s-self, These concise forms are more agreeable and impressive to the native ear, than the equivalent long forms 自家殺脫自家 zz‘ ká sah t’eh zz‘ ká; 自家害脫自家 zz‘ ká hé‘ t’eh zz‘ ká.

Demonstratives, 194. The demonstrative pronouns are 第個 tí‘ kú‘, this, and 個個 kú‘ kú‘ or 伊個 í kú‘, that.

Obs. i. When these words combine with any of the auxiliary substantives to form demonstrative adverbs, the particle 個 kú‘ is omitted.

Obs. ii. Some of the mandarin demonstratives 那此彼 ’ná, t’sz, pé, that, this, that, though not belonging to our dialect in their monosyllabic form are found in some combinations. 那裏 ’á ’lí, where? 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, here; 彼此 pé ’t’sz, that and this. Facts of this sort illustrate the necessity for distinguishing between words of one or more syllables, and between roots in apposition, as separable and inseparable.

Interrogatives. 195. The interrogative forms are 啥 sá‘, what? 那裏 ’á ’lí, where? and which? and 幾 ’kí, what? which? also ’kí hó‘ (hau‘), how many.

Obs. i. In the compound forms here exhibited, 裏 may be taken to indicate place; 許 hó‘ is a meaningless particle used to complete the rhythmus.

Obs. ii. The interrogative of the books 何 hú, what? is found in combinations, such as 沒奈何 meh né‘ hú, there is nothing I can do. But it is not used alone.

Relative pronouns. 196. The regular relative pronoun 所 ’só, is only used in combination with 以 ’í in the sense therefore, and with ’dzé, 所在 as a noun substantive, house.

The place of the relative particle 所, used in books and in some dialects, is supplied by the particles 拉個 ’lá kú‘, or 個 alone, coming after the verb.

Possessive pronouns. 197. The possessive pronouns are expressed by the personal pronouns, with the auxiliary particle 個 kú‘.

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Obs. i. In mandarin, 的 tih. The southern Fúh-kien dialect, besides having two distinct plural forms for the personal pronouns 恁 ’lin, you, 咱 ’lán, we has also separate possessive forms for all the three persons 恁 ’lin, your; 阮 ’gwan, mine, 咱 ’lán, ours; 因 in, their, his. The intervening particle 個 is thus rendered unnecessary for that dialect. It is however often inserted. When these forms ’gwán, ’lin, in, are compared with the personal pronouns 我 你 伊 ’gwá, ’li or ’leu, í, the termination n looks extremely like an appendage to the root in each case.

Obs. ii. After the personal pronouns, when a preposition of motion precedes, a substantive of place is required; e.g. 到我喊頭來 tau‘ ’ngú han‘ deu lé, come to me. This is generally true in all instances, where place is left to be understood in English. 㑚塲好個狗 ná‘ dzáng hau‘ kú‘ ’keu, one of your dogs. It will be seen that the pronouns in these examples are possessive, though in the former, the corresponding English word is a personal pronoun.

Distributive pronouns. 198. The words corresponding to our distributive pronouns, each, every, etc. are the following 每逐各 ’mé, dzóh, k’oh.

每 ’mé, each.

逐 dzóh, each in succession.

各 koh, each, every.

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Obs. i. Like the Greek pas, all or each, 各 koh is also an adjective all; e.g. 各處 koh t’sû‘, all places.

Obs. ii. 每 mé, means always, in such phrases as 每要望望儂 ’mé yau‘ mong‘ mong‘ nóng‘, I wish constantly to come and see you; 每每 ’mé ’mé, always.

Reciprocal pronouns. 199. Phrases such as one another are expressed by 大家 tá‘ ká and 家家 ká ká, mutually; or by 相 siáng, together, in combination.

Indefinite pronouns. 200. The word some in some one, something, is expressed either by 某 ’meu, or by the verb 有 ’yeu, have. Anything is expressed by sá‘, usually with 有 ’yeu preceding; in the negative, 唔 m takes the place of ’yeu.

201. Several is expressed by ’kí kú‘, 好幾個 hau‘ ’kí kú‘, 大 tá, and the borrowed form 多許 tú hau‘; 幾許 ’kí hó‘[1] is also used.

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Obs. The Greek tis is either interrogative who? (Lat. quis?) or indifinite some one, (Lat. aliquis.) In the same way, 幾 ’kí is sometimes how many? and at other times several. In the latter sense however, 好 is usually prefixed. So also sá‘ means either what? or any thing.

[1] Compare use of 幾許 in the following verses 花枝出建章 “Flowers grow in the Kien-chang palace” 風管發昭陽 “The sound of pipes issues from the palace of Chau-yang,” 借問承恩者 “I beg to ask in regard to those who receive favour” 雙蛾幾許長 “How long are their eyebrows?” These words are put in the mouth of a secondary wife of the emperor Han wú-ti when jealous of imperial favour extended to some inferior court women. The last line means “are their eyebrows so much longer than mine?”.

Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 202. The pronouns used as signs of the plural, as already illustrated in the section on substantives are 禿 全 t’óh, dzén, all or both, and 總 ’tsóng, all. None and neither are also expressed by t’óh, and dzén with a negative.

Any one you please, whoever, whatever, are expressed by several borrowed phrases.

a. 大凡 tá‘ van, generally speaking, whoever.

Obs. 凡 van and sá‘ are the only true pronouns among these forms.

b. 勿拘 veh kü, does not matter what.

c. 隨便 dzûe bíen, as you please, whatever.

d. 勿論 veh lun‘, whatever.

e. sá‘ whatever.

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Obs. i. Buttman, Greek Grammar, section 78, says “Correlatives are words in connection with each other, of which one contains a certain question, and the corresponding one expresses the simplest relation which answers that question.” Thus, the question 啥人 sá‘ niun, who? may be answered by 第個人 tí‘ kú‘ niun, this man; 隨便啥人, dzûe bíen‘ sa‘ niun, any one whatever; 唔啥人 m sá‘ niun, no one; 多 許人 tú hau‘ niun, many men. So also, 那裏隻船 ’á lí tsáh zén, which boat? may be answered by 第隻 tí‘ tsáh, this one; 勿論那裏隻 veh lun‘ ’á lí tsáh, any one whatever; 禿勿是 t’óh veh ’zz, it is neither; 不過第搭幾隻船裏 peh kú‘ tí‘ dah ’kí tsáh zén ’lí, it must be one of those that are here; 是別隻船 ’zz bih tsáh zén, it it another; 忒前頭一樣個船 t’eh zíen deu ih yáng‘ kú‘ zén, the same boat as before. Several of these questions are answered by particles already presented under other denominations. The remainder not finding a place readily under any one class, are collected under the name of correlatives.

Obs. ii. The corresponding forms in Latin. Omnis, neuter, nullus, alter, alius, are classed with adjectives; Zempt calls them pronominalia. Buttman says, that the line between the corresponding words in Greek, as adjectives and as pronouns, cannot be clearly drawn. Marshman says, the Sanscrit grammarians call all these words pronouns. If they can stand without a substantive, they should be called pronouns, otherwise they are adjectives.

Obs. iii. 總 ’tsóng, all, is found only in the compounded forms, 共總 kóng‘ ’tsóng, 攏總 ’lóng ’tsóng in all; 攏總个百性 ’lóng ’tsóng kú‘ pák sing‘, all the people. The substantive must accompany 衆 ’tsóng‘, as in 衆弟兄 tsóng‘ ’ti h’iúng, all the brothers, and therefore, it must be considered an adjective. 衆 is not found compounded.

Obs. iv. All is also expressed by repetition of the substantive, 處處有個 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’yeu ku‘, every-where they are to be had. v. Art, 129. Another mode is by phrases, such as 一共 ih góng‘, 一切 ih t’sih, the whole.

Obs. v. Another translation of all is by 大凡 ta‘ van. Van is used in the sense of all in books, but in the dialect of Shánghái is only met with in this form.

203. Other different, are expressed by pih 別 or by 勿同 veh dóng, or by 兩樣 ’liáng yáng‘, not the same, or by the particle 又 proceeding the substantive verb or by 另 ling‘. The same is ih yáng‘ 一樣, or 相同 siáng dóng.

Words used as pronouns. 204. The use of some other words in combinations, where they occur instead of the pronouns will now be illustrated.

a. 本 ’pun; belonging to this place, as demonstrative pronoun.

b. 今 kiun, now, the present. As demonstrative pronoun, this in reference to time.

c. 親 t’sing, one’s own, as reflexive pronoun self; 親身 t’sing sun, himself; 親口 t’sing ’k’eu, his own mouth.

d. 多少 tú ’sau, how many? as an interrogative pronoun.

205. The adjectives that follow, are used to avoid the personal pronouns. Those that describe the speaker are depreciatory in their meaning, while if others are addressed, the adjectives employed are respectful.

尊 tsun, honoured, 貴 kwé‘, ib. 高 kau, high, combine with 姓 sing, family name, 國 kóh, kingdom, etc.

Obs. i. 府 ’fú, also forms part of the combination 府上 ’fú long‘, residence; e.g. 府上那裏 ’fú long‘ ’a ’lí, where do you reside?

Obs. ii. 貴國 kwé‘ kóh ask of what honoured country are you? 貴地 kwé‘ dí‘, what is your place of residence? 高徒 kau dú is translated your scholar; 110 尊駕 tsun ká‘ and 相公 siáng‘ kóng, are used in place of you, among those who are not in an inferior social position.

206. 令 ling, honoured, good, applied to persons, enters into many combinations, where it represents the possessive your.

令尊 ling tsun, your father. 令堂 ling dong, your mother.
令兄 ling h’iung, yr. eld. bro. 令姪 ling dzeh, your nephew.
令弟 ling dí‘ yr. younger bro. 令郎 ling long, your son.
令夫人 ling fú zun, your wife.
令高徒 ling kau dú, your scholars.

207. 老 ’lau and 大 tá‘ are found in similar combinations.

Obs. i.老 ’lau is also prefixed to 先生 síen sáng and 夫子 fú ’tsz, addressed to teachers, and to 相公 síang‘ kong, addressed by servants to masters. The form of address to priests, is 老師太 ’lau sz t’á‘, and to instructors 老師 ’lau sz.

Obs. ii. Some other terms are employed in a similar way, instead of the pronouns of the second person; 台 t’é, honoured with 甫 ’fú or 篆 dzén‘, what it your honoured name? In the plural are found 衆位 tsóng‘ wé‘ or 列位 lih wé‘, all you gentlemen!

208. Self depreciatory phrases employed instead of pronouns of the first person are equally numerous. 寒 hön, cold; 敝 pí, spoilt, inferior; 賤 dzíen, poor, cheap, form such groups, as—

Obs. One’s wife is also denominated 拙荆 tseh kiung, stupid thorn.

209. The antithesis of 令 ling, is usually 舍 só‘, a cottage. Among the groups into which it enters, are—

舍弟 só‘ dí‘, my brother. 舍姪 só‘ dzeh, my nephew.
舍下 só‘ ’au, my house. 舍親 só‘ t’sing, my relations.

210. Many groups take 小 ’siau, small, 家 ká, family, 111 both being regarded as sufficiently depreciatory to represent the pronoun my.

小兒 ’siau rh, my boy or my son. 小犬 ’siau k’iön, small dog.
小徒 ’siau dú, your mother. 小孫 ’siau sun, grandchild.
小弟 ’siau dí‘, I. 小女 ’siau ’nü, my daughter.
家兄 ká h’iúng, my brother. 家母 ká ’mú, my mother.
家父 ká ’vú, my father. 家叔 ká sóh, my uncle.

Obs. i. These words form a principal part of the complimentary style of speech, or 客氣個說話 k’áh k’í‘ kú‘ seh wó‘. In the every day colloquial of the lower class, i.e. the majority of the people, they are little used. Thou and I, thine and mine are prefixed.

Obs. ii. While these words are given as substitutes for the pronouns, it should be remembered that the tendencies of the language are against the introduction of the pronouns, whether there be a substitute or not. Thus instead of asking, “Is your eye better?” The Chinese say 眼睛好點否 ’ngan tsing ’hau ’tíen ’vá, eye better, eh? So, for “what is your name?” 姓啥 sing‘ sá‘, name, what? While the pronoun is thus entirely omitted, room is left for the speaker to introduce whatever terms of adulation or humility he may think fit. Those of the former kind are for convenience taken to mean you and your, while their opposites are I and mine.

Obs. iii. Many other phrases of the same kind are used in letters, but as they do not occur in conversation they are here omitted. Many of them are collected in Gutzlaff’s “Notices of Chinese Grammar.”

Section 7. On the verb, 活虛字.

211. Pih Hwa-tsun says, “One use of verbs is to connect the parts of proposition” 活虛字之用, 一以聯綴上下, “Thus if it be said, books instruct mankind,” 如云文傳世 (lit. writings delivered down to mankind); “the word books is the subject, mankind the predicate, and instruct the copula.” 文爲主字, 世爲賓字, 而以傳字, 聯綴上下也. “Another use is to express actions.” 一以寫出人事. “Thus if it be said, write a book, or correct an essay,” 如云作文評文之類. “write and correct are both actions;” 作字,評字,皆人事也. “for both these uses, verbs are indispensable.” “Verbs are very numerous; of those in constant use, there are about two thousand.” “There are also verbs of two inseparable characters; e.g. 婆娑 pú sú, move confusedly, and 盤桓 pén wén, to linger.”

Where our author speaks of 2,000 verbs, he means from among the single characters commonly used in writing. Many 112 of these are, in colloquial dialects, expressed only in a dissyllabic form; thus, 慕 mú‘, to desire, is only used in common conversation in such compounded forms, as 愛慕 é‘ mú‘, to love. The number of inseparable compounds is thus rendered greater in the colloquial than in the written style. With regard to monosyllabic verbs, there are many in the books which are not in the colloquial, and vice versâ. For examples of verbs found in written colloquial mandarin, v. page 63.

Verbs will be treated (1.) according to their modes of grouping; (2.) according to their most general nature, as transitive, intransitive, or substantive (voice); (3.) according to the particular modes in which their sense may be conveyed (moods); (4.) according to time (tenses).

(1.) Grouping of verbs.

Simple and compound verbs. 212. Examples of verbs of one word have been already given. A few more will be sufficient here.

放 fong‘, let go. 鑽 tsûn, to bore.
切 t’sih, cut in pieces. 修 sieu, to prune.
刋 t’síen, cut away. pau‘, to plane.
剸 tsan, chop small. 搭 tah, pitch tents.
砟 tsoh, to reap. 拆 t’sáh, pull down.
挖 wah, scoop out. 撞 dzong‘, meet.

213. Many combinations of two words consist of verbs similar in meaning, but with no reason except custom for the order in which they are employed.

埋葬 má tsong‘, to bury. 哀憐 é líen, to pity.
遮瞞 tsó mén, conceal. 禱告 ’tau kau‘, to pray.
咒罵 tseu‘ mó‘, revile. 保庇 ’pau pí‘, protect.
調換 tiau wén, exchange. 指點 ’tsz tíen, point to.
加添 ká t’íen, add. 煩勞 van lau, importune.
話壞 wó‘ wá‘, calumniate. 稱讚 t’sung tsan‘, to praise.

Obs. i. The tautology existing in examples of this sort is no objection whatever to their use. Thus, 埋 má and 葬 tsong‘, may be used separately or together, as the speaker pleases. There is an advantage to the foreigner in using the compounded forms, because a mispronunciation of the tone of a single word is nearly compensated by the repetition of the idea. So also for natives speaking different dialects.

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Obs. ii. The principle of antithesis may be noticed in some of these dissyllabic combinations; e.g. 往來 ’wong lé, go and come; 買賣 ’má má‘, buy and sell.

214. In many instances the first verb governs the second, as a verb does a substantive.

Obs. In these examples, were the language one that admitted grammatical forms, the second verb in each case would become either a substantive, or an infinitive, (i.e. they would be always substantives, infinitives as destitute of time, person and number, being not true verbs). In reality 笑, 打 siau‘, ’táng, etc. are according to the principles of classical grammar, neither verbs nor substantives, not being able to take the necessary changes of form. They are bare roots, and their grammatical sense is determined by position. Verb however, is the most convenient denomination for them, because when taken alone, they are necessarily translated as verbs.

215. In some of these dissyllabic forms, the first verb qualifies the second; as in other languages, participles and adverbs qualify verbs.

Obs. i. The verb of more general meaning 去 k’í‘, go, is limited by that which precedes, 歸 kü, to the sense of returning home. If the idiom be compared with the English phrase go back, 歸 kü is the adverb placed before instead of after its verb. In 轉來 ’tsén lé, come back; the verb ’tsén is also best translated in English, as an adverb back.

Obs. ii. Substantives sometimes by ellipsis stand for verbs, as qualifying the following verb. 馬來呢轎子來 ’mó (horse) lé ní, giau‘ ’tsz (sedan) lé, did you ride or come in a chair?

216. The order of the words in many of these phrases, may also properly be referred to priority and sequence in time. That is, two actions are successively expressed.

Obs. The English verb open, which is an adjective, verb, or adverb, like the Chinese, has evidently nothing to indicate to which part of speech it belongs, but position. It is on the principle of position, that in such phrases as an open door, knock open a door, and to open a door, the word is referred to its proper place in the parts of speech. There is this difference; (1) that in k’au k’é 敲開, the latter word is still a verb, while in the corresponding English example, it becomes a true adverb; (2) the Chinese word cannot be used as an adjective. The qualifying notion contained in the adjective, is expressed as a separate proposition; e.g. for an open door, 門開拉 mun k’é ’lá, the door is open.

217. In verbs of two syllables, many auxiliary words occur, which have nearly or quite lost their primary meaning as independent verbs. In the following examples, it will be observed, that these enclitics or proclitics, as they may be termed, often add nothing to the meaning of the principal verb. They are 得 tuh, 脫 t’eh, 打 ’táng, 見 kíen‘, 着 záh, 住 dzû‘.

a. 得 tuh, get, may.

聽得 t’ing tuh, hear. 曉得 ’hiau tuh, know.
記得 kí‘ tuh, remember. 認得 niung‘ tuh, be acquainted.

Obs. This term, though here it has no meaning, will be seen to be a very important word among the mood particles, as giving a permissive sense to the principal verb. Such is its most common signification is such phrases as 做得 tsú‘ tuh, it may be done.

b. 脫 t’eh, let go, escape, remove out of the way.

去脫 k’í‘ t’eh, remove. 除脫 dzû t’eh, to remove.
滅脫 mih t’eh, destroy. 放脫 fong‘ t’eh, let go.
漏脫 leu t’eh, to leak. 走脫 ’tseu t’eh, escape.
踢脫 t’ih (or tiuh) t’eh, kick away. 卸脫 siá t’eh, flow away.
斷脫 dön‘ t’eh, sweep away. 奪脫 töh t’eh, rob of.

Obs. This word may be regarded as forming a derivative verb. Its primary meaning is seen in 脱衣裳 t’öh í zong, take off one’s clothes, where the book sound t’öh is employed.

c. 打 ’táng, to beat, apply one’s-self to.

打掃 ’táng ’sau, to sweep. 打聽 ’táng t’ing, to inquire.
打發 ’táng fah, to send. 打扇 ’táng sén‘, to fan.
打算 ’táng sön‘, consider. 打結 ’táng kih, tie a knot.

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Obs. The primary meaning of 打 ’táng, is seen in such phrases as 打樁 ’táng tsong, drive piles; 打火 ’táng ’hú, strike a light.

d. 見 kíen‘, indicates a single act of perception.

e. 着 dzáh. This word expresses that the object implied in the verb is effected.

Obs. i. In these examples, this meaning of the auxiliary is preserved, and must be regarded as additional to the sense of the principal verb, except in the first two instances.

Obs. ii. In 想着 ’siáng záh, think of, the word 着 záh limits 想 think to the sense of think of some particular thing. In 覺着 koh záh, become aware of, the verb 覺 koh, cannot in our dialect be used separately. It is however found in 勿知勿覺 veh tsz veh koh, not be aware of.

f. 殺 sah, to kill.

g. 住 dzû‘, resist, take firm hold. This word always preserves its meaning, but it occurs so frequently in union with verbs of resistance and interruption, that it deserves a place with the preceding enclitics.

h. 到 tau‘, arrived.

218. In many cases a substantive follows the verb, when it is unnecessary in English.

走路 ’tseu lú‘, to walk. 織布 tsuh pú‘, to weave.
射箭 zok tsien‘, to shoot. 紡紗 ’fong só, to spin.
搖船 yau zén, to scull. 活命 weh ming‘, to live.

Obs. i. So also 話說話 wó‘ seh wó‘, to speak. The words seh wó‘, words, are as to sense superfluous. Yet many of these examples may be closely translated; e.g. 領路 ’ling lú‘, lead the way; 燒飯 sau van‘, to boil rice, to cook.

Obs. ii. When the substantive comes under the government of another verb its usual companion is frequently appended; e.g. 尋飯吃 dzing van‘ k’iuh, seek for food, where 吃 is superfluous.

Obs. iii. When the sense does not require a substantive, the reason of its introduction must be sought in the rhythmical construction of sentences, peculiar and essential to the Chinese language.

219. Compound verbs are formed by the apposition of a transitive verb and adjective.

Obs. i. The word 好 ’hau, good, is found appended to many verbs, giving to them the sense of completeness, 做好 tsú‘ ’hau, complete the making of.

Obs. ii. These examples shew how in Chinese, compensation is made for that class of words called derivatives in languages possessing a system of terminations. Instead of a formation like prolongare, to lengthen, from longus or long in Latin, or lengthen from length in English, we have a separate word prefixed to the adjective dzáng, long. Many English phrases are compounded in the same manner; e.g. rub smooth, rub dry, which are equivalent in sense and grammatical construction to the Chinese forms, 磨光 mú kwong, 揩乾 k’á kûn.

Obs. iii. 差 t’só, wrong, is found after many other verbs; e.g. 懂 ’tóng, understand; 聽 t’ing, to hear; 待 té‘ treat any one. In every case, it is predicated of the action, that it is wrong.

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220. In some dissyllabic verbs used transitively, one of the constituent words is a substantive.

Obs. These may be seen to be transitive, in such sentences as 勿好弄 神朋友 veh ’hau lóng‘ zun báng ’yeu, you should not deceive friends; 就來囘頭我 dzieu lé wé deu ’ngú, come at once and tell me.

221. Some colloquial verbs, with examples of the manner in which they combine with other words, are here inserted.

Obs. At Súng-kiáng ’pun, is used for peh, in the sense of give. 跑 has two pronunciations, ’pau run, and pau‘ walk.

222. Some adverbs enter into combination with verbs.

Groups of three. 223. Propositions and words equivalent to them combine with 來 lé, come, and 去 k’i‘, go, to express the direction of the action of verbs.

Obs. i. Thus we have an idiom similar to the English, except that the verbs of motion are added. The common prepositions annexed to verbs (and therefore sometimes called adverbs), follow the verbs in both instances. Of the Chinese five are verbs, which are all used as prepositions, 出 t’seh, to go out, outward; 進 tsing‘, to go in, inward; 起 ’k’í, to raise up, upward; 過 kú‘, to pass, through, across; 轉 ’tsén, to return, back; 開 k’é, to open, away. Of the prepositions 上 ’zong, forward, 下 ’au backward, downward, 前 zíen, before, the two former are also frequently employed as verbs in the dialect as well as in books; e.g. 上蘇州 ’zong Sú-tseu, go to Sú-cheú; 下船 ’au zén, to enter a boat.

Obs. ii. In the classical languages, the prepositions were put before the verbs instead of after them, as in the derived words ascend, descend; and another numerous class of terms belonging to our western tongues, is thus seen to have its equivalent compound form in the Chinese language.

224. The beginning and completion of an action are expressed by appending, 起來 ’k’í lé, begin and 成功 zung kóng, complete to the verb 起 ’k’í is also used alone, and the words 完, 停, wén, ding, finish, and 好 ’hau, well, stand for completion.

Obs. i. In examples with 起, ’k’í, we have an equivalent to that class of Lat. derivative verbs called Inchoative or Inceptive; e.g. calesco, I grow warm, from calco.

Obs. ii. 起 ’k’í is sometimes omitted e.g. 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, do a thing badly. But then the sense of beginning is lost also.

Obs. iii. This form is also assumed by adjectives, as 熱起來 nyih ’k’í 119 lé, becomes hot; 熱來話勿得 nyih lé wó veh tuh, it is excessively hot. In the dialects west of Shánghái 熱得來 nyih tuh lé, is used for it is hot.

Obs. iv. The substantive governed is place between 起 ’k’í and 來 lé; e.g. 動起手來 ’tóng ’k’í ’seu lé, to move ones hand. The same thing occurs with some of the other groups. 挬輔身體來 peh ’tsén sun ’t’í lé, turn one’s body round: 担出洋錢來 tan t’seh yáng díen lé, bring out dollars.

225. Collective and separating verbs are formed by 攏 ’lóng, collect, and 開 k’é, open.

226. Reflexive action is expressed by placing 自 zz‘ before and after the verb.

Obs. In examples of this sort, the constituent words are pronounced closely together and might be written with hyphens. They correspond in their sense, to the Hithpahel conjugation of Hebrew verbs, and the middle voice of Greek and Sanscrit. In a monosyllabic agglutinating language, no nearer approach, could well be made to an equivalent of those forms, than is exhibited in such groups as these.

Groups. Affirmative and negative. 227. The groups formed by help of the affirmative and negative particles are very numerous, so much so, that they constitute of themselves a feature of the language. The Chinese colloquial idiom is very much indebted to them, for the force and precision which it is acknowledged to possess.

In these groups 得 tuh and 勿 veh (不 púh m.), take the centre, and certain auxiliary words, with some adjectives and verbs stand last. The sense of the principal verb is thus limited and modified in various ways. 得 tuh and 勿 veh being opposite in sense, the modifications they produce in the sense of the verb must be opposed also. They may be reduced to the following pairs of terms.

1st. It is predicted of the agent, that he is able or knows 120 how to effect the action of the verb and the contrary; e.g. 做得來 tsú‘ tuh lé, able to do or make; 做勿来 tsú‘ veh lé, unable to do or make.

2nd. It is predicated of the agent, that circumstances allow him to effect the action and the contrary. Thus, 當得起 tong tuh ’k’í, in circumstances to bear; 讀勿起 tóh veh ’k’í, cannot afford to learn to read; 拖勿起 t’ú veh ’k’í, not strength to drag.

3rd. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or does succeed, and the opposite; e.g. 尋得着 zing tuh záh, can find (尋 zing seek); 打勿着 ’táng veh záh, it did not, or cannot hit.

4th. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or cannot be performed in a particular direction; e.g. 走勿進 ’tseu veh tsing‘, cannot go inside.

5th. Of verbs of motion, resistance and destruction, it is predicated, with the help of auxiliary verbs cognate in meaning, that the act they represent, can or cannot take place. 走得動 ’tseu tuh ’dóng can walk; 阻勿住 ’tsú veh dzû‘, unable to resist; 解勿脫 ’ká veh t’eh, cannot get rid of.

6th. It is predicated of a verb followed by an adjective, that the act is or can be performed, to the extent indicated the adjective or the contrary; e.g. 醫得好 í (cure) tuh ’hau (good) can be cured; 填勿滿 tíen veh ’mén cannot be filled by layers.

228. Of the auxiliary words, used in affirmative and negative groups, verbs are the most numerous.

a. 來 lé, come, 出 t’seh, go out, express able to.

Obs. A group of four is sometimes made by introducing an adverb. 聽大勿出 t’ing dá‘ veh t’seh, I do not hear very well.

b. 起 ’k’í, rise, expresses in circumstances to.

c. 着, 出, 見, záh, t’seh, kíen‘, express success in any single action; verbs of striking and seeking take záh; while verbs of thinking and perception take t’seh and kíen‘.

d. 進, 出, 落, 過, 轉, 開, express direction as in the examples.

e. 脱, 動, 住, t’eh, ’tóng, dzû‘, express destruction, motion, and resistance. e.g.

f. 得 tuh, expresses permission and prohibition.

g. 停, 完, express the cessation of an act.

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h. 成功, 盡, 到, express perfection of an act.

i. 及 kih or kí, expresses there is time for.

j. 落 loh, expresses room for.

k. 過 kú‘, indicates that the verb it qualifies will give superiority.

l. 理 ’lí, to control, ’long, bring together, 殺 sah, kill and 應 yung‘, answer, add their own sense to the verb.

Obs. i. In some instances, the sense of the auxiliaries varies from that assigned to them here; e.g. 看勿起 kön‘ veh ’k’i, to despise; 買勿動 ’má veh ’dóng, not succeed in buying; 相信勿過 siáng sing‘ veh kú‘, incredible; 意勿過 í‘ veh kú‘, cannot but pity; 罷勿得 pá‘ veh tuh, indispensable.

Obs. ii. 有 ’yeu, have and 嘸 m, not to have, form with tuh a few groups; e.g. 有得吃 ’yeu tuh k’iuh, have something to eat; 嘸得着 m tuh tsáh, have nothing to wear.

Obs. iii. Examples are rare in the case of 見, 脱, 動, 應 and 理, The rest are all extensively used.

229. Prepositions similarly employed in these negative 123 and affirmative groups are rare. Those that are used may also be construed as verbs.

a. 前 zíen before.

b. 上 ’zong, forward.

c. 下 ’au, down.

230. Several adjectives are found in these combinations; e.g. 全, 直, 多, 好, 滿, 完, 全, 通, 明 白, etc.

Obs. In the third and fourth examples, and others like them such as 跑得快 pau‘ tuk k’wá‘, the proposition is not one of possibility, he can walk fast, but of fact, he walks fast.

Repetition and Antithesis. 231. These occur extensively among the verbs. The meaning of the word repeated remains unaffected.

а. Many single intransitive verbs, or verbs used intransitively are repeated.

坐坐 ’zú zú‘, sit down. 看看 k’ön‘ k’ön‘, look.

b. Transitive verbs are repeated before the word they govern.

c. k’ön‘, see, occurs after a repeated verb, in a metaphorical sense.

Obs. K’ön‘ also follows other groups, as 念起來看 nian‘ ’k’í lé k’ön‘, read and let me hear.

d. The components of dissyllabic verbs are often repeated.

e. Some dissyllabic verbs repeat themselves, not their component parts.

f. When a dissyllabic from consists of a verb and its subject, a group of four is formed by repeating the former, and supplying the place of the latter by a synonymous or contrasted word.

g. Sometimes both the verb and its object are varied by synonymous or contrasted words.

h. Some verbs are repeated with a pair of antithetical verbs in alteration.

232. The verb is repeated with the intervention of 個 kú‘, or of 一 ih to represent a little of the act in question.

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Obs. Sometimes auxiliary substantives supply the place of the repeated verb; e.g. 加一倍 ká ih bé‘, make it as large again. Other auxiliaries are 次, 燙, 囘, t’sz‘, t’ong‘, we‘, applied to any verb in the sense of times. For going round in a circle 轉 ’tsén with the numeral expresses the number of times. For beating 記 kí‘ expresses the number of blows. See Art. 163.

(2.) Different kinds of verbs.

Substantive verb. 233. The verb to be used as a copula is often omitted.

234. The words 是[1] ’zz and 做 tsú‘ are employed as substantive verbs, and 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí when existence in place is spoken of. They are put in the negative by prefixing 勿 yeh.

Obs. i. The verb 呌 kiau‘, to call is sometimes so used that is may be translated as a substantive verb; e.g. í yáng‘ ’tau ’lí veh kiau‘ ’hau, 伊樣道理勿呌好 that mode of action is not good, or is not what may be called good.

Obs. ii. The words 當, 爲, and 作 are used in fixed phrases, from which they cannot be disengaged. 自家作主 zz‘ ká tsok ’tsû, be your own master; 改惡爲善 ’ké oh wé ’zén, repent and be virtuous; 强盜作反 kiáng dau‘ tsok ’fan, the robbers are rebelling; 當兵 tong ping, to be a soldier.

Obs. iii. 做 is also used as a transitive verb make or do, which is its primary meaning.

Obs. iv. 有 to have when no object follows affirms existence and is to be translated by the impersonal substantive verb in English; e.g. 魚有否 ngyeu ’vá, are there any fish? 豈有此理 ’k’í ’yeu ’t’sz ’lí, how can this be? (It snows now, is 落雪者 lok sih ’tsé.) Its negative is 嘸 m or 嘸沒 m meh.

[1] The substantive verb either simply affirms 是 ’zz or it affirms action 做 tsú‘ or it affirms existence in place 在 ’zé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, or it affirms existence 有 ’yeu.

235. Transitive verbs take the object after them, while the nominative precedes.

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236. When there are two objects as in verbs of giving, the nearer comes next to the verb, and the more remote stands last, usually with 拉 ’lá.

Obs. This is the same as Remusat’s rule, “Dans les verbes à double rapport’ le complément direct se place après le verbe, et est suivi du complément indirect” 天子能薦人於天 t’íen ’tsz nung tsíen‘ zun ü t’íen, the emperor can propose a person to Heaven; the order is not however confined to this one form; e.g. 送拉儂個物事 sóng‘ ’lá nóng‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, I bring you a present, is the same as, sóng‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng‘; 送儂兩個物事 sóng‘ nóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ I bring you a few things, is just as proper as sóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng.

237. The object is made to precede the transitive verb, by the use of the auxiliary 担 tan, which is also the sign of the instrument.

238. Intransitive verbs when not followed by a preposition or another verb, prefer the last place.

Obs. When a preposition is employed to connect an intransitive verb with a substantive, the verb may precede or follow; e.g. 到此地來 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé, come here is equivalent to lé tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘. So also 坐拉第搭, ’zú ’lá tí‘ tah, sit here, is the same as ’lá tí‘ tah ’zú.

239. The passive is formed by prefixing the auxiliary verb 撥 peh, give, with the substantive that represents the agent, to the transitive verb.

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Obs. i. This auxiliary particle 撥 peh, give, has in all four uses:— Active, 撥三兩個銅錢拉伊 peh san ’liang kú‘ tóng dien ’lá í, give him two or three cash. Passive, 撥拉父母責備 peh ’lá ’vú ’mú tsah bé‘, he was rebuked by his parents. 我個帽子撥拉人偷之去者 ’ngú kú‘ mau‘ ’tsz peh ’lá niun t’eu tsz k’í‘ ’tsé, my hat has been stolen by some one. Causative, 撥拉伊死 peh ’lá í ’sí, cause him to die; 伊撥拉我喫虧者 í peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh k’ü (k’wé) ’tsé, he has caused me to suffer. (m. 使 shï‘ 呌 kiau‘, chiau‘.) Permissive, 啥人肯撥拉別人欺負呢 sá‘ niun ’k’ung peh ’lá bih niun c‘hi vú‘ ni? who is willing to allow others to insult him? 勿要撥拉別人哄騙儂 veh yau‘ peh ’lá bih niun hóng‘ p‘ien‘ nóng‘, do not allow others to deceive you.

Obs. ii. In mandarin it is not the common word to give, that is chosen for the passive auxiliary, but a word set apart for this purpose 被 pei‘.

Obs. iii. ’Zeu 受 to receive, is often used as a passive, e.g. 勿肯受 別人罵 veh ’k’ung ’zeu bih niun mó‘, unwilling to be spoken ill of by others. K’iuh 吃 is found in combination as in the next examples. When separated from the groups where it is the sign of the passive, it recovers its transitive sense to eat.

240. Verbs are made causative By prefixing kau‘, to call, or peh, to give.

Obs. i The English auxiliary verb must is expressed by ’tsóng, as in 總要牢實’tsóng yau‘ lau zeh, you must be upright.

Obs. ii. The derivative verbs which have been already illustrated are the following:— Inchoative, 提起筆來 ti ’k’í pih lé, take up the pen; Reflexive, 自怨自 zz‘ yön‘ zz‘, be one’s own enemy; Collective, 合攏來 heh ’lóng lé, combine together; Separative, 折開 來 t’sák k’é lé, pull open; Completing, 造完 ’zau wén, finish building; Resisting, 擋住 tong dzû‘, stand against; Destroying, 丢脫 tieu t’eh, throw away. There are also forms for the various directions indicated by prepositions, v. Art. 223.

(3.) Modes of verbs.

241. In very many cases the mood is determined entirely from the sense, and has no particular sign.

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Obs. Here the four principal moods of Latin grammar are exemplified without any distinctive sign.

242. The particle 者 ’tsé and 末 meh, at the end of the clause often mark indicative and conditional prepositions respectively.

Obs. i. The conditional clause always precedes.

Obs. ii. These particles may in many cases be omitted without affecting the sense. 勿落雨百姓要苦惱 veh loh ’u pák sing‘ yau‘ ’k’ú ’nau, if it does not rain, the people must suffer.

Obs. iii. In any two connected clauses, whether the former be conditional or not, these particles are frequently used; e.g. k’ön‘ kíen‘ tsz ’t’au van‘ kú‘ meh, dzieu‘ ’táng ’k’í lé ’tsé. 看見之討飯 個末就打起來者 when he saw the beggars, he began beating them. Both these clauses are in the past time.

Obs. iv. An indicative clause standing alone often takes 者 ’tsé. Thus 來者 lé ’tsé, I am come, or I come; 去者 k’i‘ ’tsé, I go.

243. Another particle found in conditional sentences, is 之 tsz, appended to the verb. This marks the past participle of the verb.

244. A potential mood is formed by many of the groups already illustrated. Both kinds of ability, absolute or natural, and limited or moral, are found in them. For examples of the former kind:—

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Obs. 會 wé‘, prefixed to verbs makes them potential 念勿來 nian‘ veh lé, I cannot read, is equivalent to veh wé‘ nian‘.

245. The limited potential mood is formed by 起’k’í, e.g.

246. A permissive and prohibitive mood is formed by,—

a. 得 tuh.

b. 好 ’hau, and 可以 ’k’ó ’í, also give a permissive sense.

247. An optative mode of the verb is formed by pó veh tuh, and hng‘ veh tuh. (恨 hng‘, west of Shánghái hung‘).

248. The imperative (1) in its negative form takes 要 yau‘, want, with the common negative particle 勿 veh.

(2.) The affirmative form of the imperative is expressed by the verb alone, or by 末者 meh ’tsé, or 罷 pá‘ appended sometimes to a few verbs.

走末者 ’tseu meh ’tsé, go. 去罷 k’í bá‘, go.

Obs. All the verbs single and grouped, except those with the affirmative and negative, may be used as imperatives without a particle. 走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, means either I am passing you or pass over to me.

249. the Infinitive it may be remarked, (1.) that it stands first in many negative groups not potential. v. Art. 228. g.

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(2) That when a verb is made the subject of a proposition, while the predicate follows with a copula, the verb is translated in the infinitive, e.g.

250. When a verb takes a case particle, it is construed as a present participle or gerund.

Obs. The supine in order to has no sign, 買點啥去者, ’má ’tíen sá‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, he is gone (in order) to buy something; 我來望望㑚 ’ngú lé mong‘ mong‘ ná‘, I come to see you. v. 252. f.

251. The forms of interrogation are of two kinds.

1. By the interrogative particles man‘ and ’vá.

2. By putting the question in the form of an affirmative and negative, side by side. The particle ní is often placed between.

Obs. After ní, the second clause is sometimes supplied by sa‘; e.g.

(4) Particles of time, forming tenses of verbs.

252. For the expression of present time, no auxiliary word is necessary.

Obs. Instead of considering the rest of the tenses in their order, it will be better to take the particles in succession, and show what tenses they may be used for.

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a. 歇 h’ih, a moment; this particle gives a past sense to the phrases in which it occurs, and is perhaps most accurately designated an aorist.

b. 者 ’tsé, 哩 ’lí; these particles express that the action is completed, or determined on. m. 了 ’liaú. Their English grammatical equivalent is usually the passive participle joined with the auxiliary verb to be.

c. 過 kú‘, past; this particle has the sense of the preterite tense.

Obs. 有 ’yeu and 可 ’k’ó, employed in some dialects as signs of the past, are never so used in this.

d. 歇者 h’ih ’tsé or h’ih ’lá ’tsé, express perfect time.

e. 過歇 kú‘ h’ih, form a perfect farther in the past than the above.

f. 要 yau‘ expresses future time; sometimes tsiáng precedes. 要 may often be translated in order to (supine)

g. 將 tsiáng, is frequently used for the future.

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Obs. These particles give the affirmative future. The form for the negative is different as is shown below.

h. 之 tsz; this particle appended to a verb, gives it the time of a past participle. English auxiliary participle having.

Obs. As a relative tense particle, this word may be used in past or future time. In the former case, it is the sign of the narrative participle; e.g. 看見之山高咾走上去者 k’ön‘ kíen‘ tsz san kau lau, ’tseu ’zong k’í‘ ’tsé, seeing the hill was high, he went up. In the latter case it forms a future perfect, such as is introduced in English with “when,” 寫好之撥拉我看 ’sia ’hau tsz peh ’lá ’ngú k’ön‘, when you have written it, let me see it. The conditional particle 末 meh, is frequently introduced at the end of the first clause.

i. 曾 zung; as 之 tsz expresses the past in affirmative sentences, so zung in those that are negative.

Obs. In a negative reply to a question, this particle is introduced, when in English the present tense is employed; 勿曾去 veh zung k’í‘, he is not gone.

253. Adverbs of time often render these particles unnecessary.

254. The particles for future time are not used in the negative form.

Obs. i. If yau‘ 要 is employed in a negative sentence whose time is future, it is in the sense of wish or must; e.g. 我勿要去 ’ngú veh yau‘ k’í‘, I do not wish to go. 將 tsiáng, when it occurs, must stand first, so that when 勿 veh introduces the sentence, it cannot form a part of it.

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Obs. ii. 勿見得 veh kíen‘ tuh, it is not likely, is very commonly employed as a negative future; e.g. 勿見得落雨 veh kíen‘ tuh loh ’u, it is not likely to rain, or it will not rain.

255. Examples of some verbs that require illustration are here appended.

а. 當 tong in combination ought, receive: tong‘ regard as, to pawn. N. B. The tone differs in the last two senses.

b. 打 ’táng, beat, set in operation.

c. 待 té‘, to treat, wait.

d. 銷 siau, consume, melt.

e. 對 té‘ (d) correspond, opposite.

f. 弄 lóng‘, meddle with, play with.

g. 費 fí‘, to expend.

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h. 是 ’zz, it is, it is right, right.

i. 話 wó‘, say (m. ’kiáng, or shwóh), in combination, words.

k. 可 ’k’ó, can, may.

Obs. These forms with ’k’ó, might also, if construed as dissyllables, be placed among the adjectives, as derivatives from verbs.

l. 倒 ’tau, to overturn.

m. 生 sáng, produce, be by nature, be born.

Section 8. Prepositions and Postpositions.

256. The words that express the relations (cases) of nouns to one another are placed, some of them before and some after the governed substantive. The case particles that are used for the dative and ablative are prepositions, as also those that express motion towards and substitution.

打 ’tang, from, by. 對 té‘, to, towards.
從 zóng, from. 到 tau‘, to arrive at.
拉 ’lá (m. 於), to. 替 t’i‘, to, with, instead of.
搭 tah, with. 忒 t’eh, to, for, with.
tóng, with. te‘, instead of.
聯 líen, ib. yeu, by.

Obs. i. 勒拉 leh lá, a locative particle also precedes its noun. 在 zé‘, 135 its m. equivalent is in our dialect only used in fixed collocations, as 實在 zeh zé‘, certain.

Obs. ii. 自 zz‘ is an inseparable preposition used in combination with zóng, from. 當 a locative preposition, preceding its noun, is also only found in fixed groups; e.g. 當初 tong t’sú, formerly.

Obs. iii. Several of these words are also used as verbs with a cognate sense, viz. 徒, 到, 對, 而, to follow, to arrive at, to correspond, to take origin from.

Obs. iv. 爲 wé‘, on account of, is found with the particles 之 tsz, or 着 záh; 搭 tah also very frequently takes 之 tsz.

Obs. v. 連 líen, together with, is also used as a verb to connect. It frequently takes 搭 tah, after it; e.g. 連搭一家屋裏人 líen tah ih ká óh ’lí niun, together with all his family.

257. The particles that are used for the locative case are postpositions.

裏 ’lí, inside. 前 zíen, before.
外 ngá‘, outside. 後 ’heu, behind.
上 long‘, above, r. ’zong. 下 ’hau, below.

Obs. i. 裏 ’lí, forms the compound 裏向 ’lí h’iáng, m. 中 chóng; 以 ’í, combines with 外 ngá‘, 前 zíen and 後 ’heu, in the sense of beside, before and after, or since; e.g. 今朝以後 kiun tsau ’í ’heu‘, after to-day. Numerous compounds of these words, which will be found among the adverbs, are also often used as prepositions. See Section 9.

Obs. ii. The mandarin 中 chóng, inside, is found in some compounds; e.g. 空中 k’óng tsóng, in the air.

258. Forms borrowed from other parts of speech, compensate for the absence of several prepositions.

1. Of, the particle of the genitive case is compensated for either by juxtaposition, or by the particle 個 kú‘.

2. With, (instrumental) by, are expressed by 担 tan, and peh ’la or peh.

3. Except is expressed by the verb 除脫 dzû t’eh, usually with 以外 ’í ngá‘, or 外頭 ngá‘ deu, ending the clause.

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4. Beside is expressed by, 勿算 veh sön‘, at the end of the clause.

5. Beyond takes 過去 kú‘ k’í‘, or 外頭 ngá deu.

6. Through or pass by is expressed by kiung kú‘ or kú‘ alone.

7. Towards is expressed by the verbs 朝, 望, 對 zau, mong‘, té‘.

Obs. Some of these prepositions in English, are easily reduced to verbs and substantives. The author of the Diversion of purley would readily find an etymology for them all. In common English grammars, such words as regarding and respecting, are set down among the prepositions, without a word to tell the juvenile student, how it is that prepositions come to be formed by the termination ing.

Section 9. On Adverbs.

Quality. 259. Adverbs of manner are formed by affixing zén, hú, nung and ’lí, to repeated adjectives.

Obs. i. Zén and hú, are found in book phrases transferred to the dialect. Expressions formed with nung and ’lí, are pure colloquial, and are very numerous.

Obs. ii. Kiau‘ is used in one instance 慢慢敎 man‘ man‘ kiau‘, slowly.

Obs. iii. Long adjective groups are more frequently used as adverbs than as adjectives. They do not take the formative particles zén, nung etc. 走路一門心思 ’tseu lú‘ ih mun sing sz, he walks eagerly.

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260. The numerals 一 ih, 兩 ’liáng, combine with certain words, principally adjectives, to form adverbs.

一直 ih dzuh, straight. 一連 ih líen, joined together.
一氣 ih k’í‘, together. 兩氣 ’liáng k’í‘, separate.
一樣 ih yáng‘, the same. 兩樣 ’liáng yáng‘, different.
一向 ih h’iáng‘, hitherto. 一齊 ih dzí, together.
一切 ih t’sih, the whole. 一淘 ih dau, ib.
一般 ih pén, the same.

Obs. These may be shown by examples to be adverbs. 放拉兩起個 fong‘ ’lá ’liáng k’í‘ kú‘, place them apart; 當伊父母一般 tong‘ í ’vú ’mú ih pén, treats him in the same way that he does his parents.

261. Repeated adjectives standing before verbs, are used as adverbs.

Obs. Sometimes the adjective is not repeated, as in 慢去 man‘ k’í‘, be slow to go, good bye, In 走好 ’tseu ’hau, walk carefully, the adverb follows the verb as in English.

262. Repeated forms imitative of natural sounds are in frequent use.

Obs. Words of this sort occur so frequently in conversation, that at the risk of their being thought too amusing for a serious book they are here noticed. The second and third tones scarcely occur in these onomatopœia. The forms used in other dialects differ from these.

263. Adverbs of manner applied to qualify actions, and not reducible to the heads already given are such as,—

264. There is a large number of primitive adverbs, applied to qualify adjectives.

а. 更 kung‘, 還 wan, 又 i‘, 再 tse‘, signify more. They precede their word, and form the comparative degree, v. Art. 177.

b. 頂 ’ting, 最 tsûe‘, 極 kiuh, 蠻 man, 怪 kwá‘, 好 ’hau, 狠 ’hun, very. These words precede their word and form the superlative. v. Art. 178.

c. 些 ’sí, 煞 sah, 極 kiuh, 野 ’yá, come after their word and form a superlative.

d. 忒 t’uh, gives to adjectives the sense of too; e.g. 忒大 t’uh dú‘, too large.

Obs. i. These words which in English qualify only adjectives, sometimes qualify verbs whether construed as participles or not. 頂愛拉 個 ’ting é‘ ’lá kú‘, the most beloved; 蠻會做 man wé‘ tsú‘, extremely well able to do it; 話煞 wó‘ sah, say decisively; 極有文 理 kiuh ’yeu vun ’lí, has very (great) literary beauty; or it has extreme beauty.

Obs. ii. The mandarin intensitive particle 好 ’hau is found only in the phrase 好幾 ’hau ’kí, very many.

Obs. iii. It has been seen in illustrating the comparison of adjectives, that some verbs, single and grouped with the auxiliaries tuh and lé, (得, 來,) are applied to adjectives. In addition to the examples there given, may be noticed 熱勿過 nyih veh kú‘, unbearably hot.

Correlative Adverbs. 265. The questions how? how much? how many? why? when? and where? are formed by interrogative pronouns with the most general words for manner, place and time, and a mere particle for the rest.

那能 ná‘ nung, how? 幾時 ’kí zz, when?
幾許 ’kí hó‘, how much? 那裏 ’á ’lí, where?
 „ how many? 啥所 sá‘ sü, „
啥咾 sá‘ lau, why? Also 為啥 wé‘ sá‘, 有啥 ’yeu sá‘.

Obs. i. How may parts in ten? is 十分裏幾分 seh vun‘ ’lí ’kí vun‘. 139 The answer might be 十分裏有三分 seh vun‘ ’lí ’yeu san vun‘, three tenths. Questions and replies may be framed in the same way with any numerals.

Obs. ii. For other examples, see section on pronouns, to which etymologically these words belong.

Obs. iii. How much more used as a logical particle, is expressed by 何况於 hú hwong‘ ü.

266. The adverbs corresponding to these, thus, however, whenever, wherever are expressed in various ways.

Obs. i. Other examples may be seen in the section on pronouns. The answers to when? where? how many? will be found among the adverbs of time, place and number. Why? is answered by any direct statement, with or without the conjunction 因爲 yung wé‘.

Obs. ii. Dzûe bíen‘, veh lun‘, veh kü, are properly verb combinations. They mean following your convenience, without regarding, not constraining.

Quantity. 267. The forms for about, enough, much, little, together, etc. are such as follow:—

a. About, is expressed by pó, kwong ’kiung, after their word, and yáh, teu, before.

Obs. A very common form is 差勿多 t’só veh tú, not far wrong, which is used in the same sense as the above words.

b. Enough and not enough are expressed by keu‘, veh tsóh, veh kûn zz‘, k’iöh ’sau and some verbs with the negative.

Obs. These words might be divided between adjectives and verbs, and no place reserved for them here, were it not that their equivalents in English and other languages are adverbs.

c. Much, more, many are all expressed by the adjective 多 tú. If tú precedes it is more (adv.): if it follows its word, it is much or many (adj.) Other words for more are 還 wan, 越 yöh, and the verbs ká, t’íen, ’tíen, etc.

Obs. For examples of such forms as 好幾 ’hau ’kí, 多許 tú hau‘, many. See section on pronouns. The only words here adduced that can claim to be adverbs are 越 still more, 也 too, and wan 還. Too is an adverb in English, but its equivalent 也 becomes by its position a conjunction, and wan when it is not an adverb of time still, may often fairly be considered a conjunction.

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d. Less, few are represented by 少 ’sau, standing before its word, and by such borrowed phrases as veh siau, not necessary, less: ’yeu hien‘ k’ú‘, few, not much.

e. A little, any, are used sometimes adverbially in English. Their representatives in our dialect are liák sü, ’sau wé, sü ’sau with the auxiliary substantive forms ih ’ngan, ’tíen, etc.

Obs. ’Tíen, ih ’ngan, when they follow an adjective, while placing it in the comparative degree, preserve their own sense a little; e.g. 好一眼多謝 ’hau ih ’ngan tú zia‘, a little better thank you; 快點走 k’wá‘ ’tíen ’tseu, walk a little faster.

f. Not very, very much, too much are expressed by the derivative adverb, veh da‘ ’lí, and the forms seh fun, seh ní‘ fun, kú‘ vun‘, t’uh kú‘ vun‘.

g. Not at all, not in the least, are translated in several ways.

h. To altogether correspond ’lóng ’tsóng, kóng ’tsóng, tseu sun, ’lóng ’t’óng.

i. Mostly, chiefly, are expressed by pronominal forms, which have been already partially illustrated.

j. Half is sometimes used in English as an adverb; so also it is in Chinese, as in the following phrases.

Obs. The other proportional parts, such as 四分裏一分 si‘ vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, a quarter; 十分裏一分 seh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, one tenth, are much too long to enter into such groups.

k. only, alone are represented by tseh, tók, tan, tan‘ and forms into which they enter.

Obs. i. Tan, is also an adjective, as in the question, 花單個呢雙個 hwó tan kú‘ ní song kú‘, is the flower single or double? Tóh and tan‘ are both conjunctions, when joined to ’zz, as 但是, 獨是 tan‘ ’zz, tóh ’zz, but.

Obs. ii. The numeral adverbs once, twice, etc. translated by 一次 ih t’sz‘, etc. may be seen in section 4. on auxiliary substantives, Art. 163.

Negative and Affirmative. 268. One of the most common negative particles is 嘸 m, to which 沒 meh, the same in meaning is frequently appended. 嘸 m is properly a verb not to have.

269. The literary word that corresponds to this particle is 無 vú, which is also in common use in colloquial phrases derived from the books or formed on book models.

270 The negative particle in most general use is 勿 veh. It is not prohibitive as in the books, but simply denies like 不 peh in mandarin.

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271. The particles 惟 ví, 不 peh and 非 fí, are used in a few combinations.

272. The simplest affirmative is 是 ’zz; certain auxiliary particles are often appended or prefixed.

273. When some quality is affirmed, an adjective of opposite meaning, with the negative particle prefixed, is often employed.

274. The emphasis of positive certainty is conveyed by phrases such as tsun tsung‘, seh zé‘, etc., and the double negation 無非 prefixed to the proposition affirmed.

Obs. The interrogative final , is often used to express the same sense with these words, 小囝蠻麽 ’siau nön man mó, the boys are wild indeed.

275. Some phrases imply a moral certainty or necessity (must), and with the negative, the absence of that necessity (need not).

276. There are several phrases to express that the thing affirmed is naturally so, and that nothing else ought to be expected.

277. Different words are usually appropriated to the affirmative and negative forms of assertions. Thus (1) absolute certainty in the negative is expressed by,—

(2). The denial of necessity (need not) is conveyed in such expressions as the following.

Obs. The Imperative also, as in 勿要去 veh yau‘ k’í‘, do not go; 去 末者 k’í‘ meh ’tsé, go has distinct auxiliary words for the affirmative and negative forms.

278. There are some adverbs appropriated to express affirmative and negative propositions in the interrogative form.

Obs. i. The final interrogative 麽 mau, or 呢 ní, is appended frequently to any sentences of this sort.

Obs. ii. Affirmative questions implying a strong denial are also occasionally asked by these particles; e.g. 豈有此理 k’í ’yeu ’t’sz ’lí, how can this be? 難道我哄騙儂否 nan dau‘ ’ngú hóng‘ p’ien‘ nóng‘ ’vá, could I deceive you?

Adverbs of place. 279. Demonstrative adverbs are derived from pronouns, as adverbs of manner from adjectives. Thus here and there, are translated by compounds formed from the three pronouns tí‘, kú‘, í.

Obs. From 此 ’t’sz is formed 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, here; 堂 tong, also forms tí‘ dong, here, etc.

280. On this, and on that side are formed in a similar manner with the auxiliaries míen‘, face, and píen, side.

281. The postpositions or case particles corresponding to our locative prepositions enter into similar forms.

Obs. i. 下 ’au forms the same compounds as 上 ’zong, with one other 147 下底 ’au ’tí, all of them with the sense below. 外 ngá‘, forms the same compounds as 裏 ’lí (excepting that with 向 h’iáng‘), in the sense of outside.

Obs. ii. For similar groups of nouns, with the points of the compass, see Art. 152.

282. The adjectives ’tsú yeu‘, right and left, form some groups.

283. The adverbs of place and direction that remain are few.

284. Wáng and ’zû form with verbs many groups of four characters, in which the action is said to be done in various ways, literally across and perpendicularly.

Obs. In weaving, the cross thread is 芉紗 ü‘ só, the other 經紗 kiung só; here ü‘ is used for wei 緯.

285. The adverbs in and out, up and down, here and there, etc. are translated in Chinese by repeated verbs.

Adverbs of time. 286. The following are the primitive adverbs of time employed in the dialect.

Obs. i. Of these words, only 難, 將, 再, 又, 還, 就, nan, tsiáng, tsé‘, í‘, wan, dzieu‘, are separable from the groups in which they are found. 未 as in 未哩 mí‘ ’lí, not yet, is a negative adverb of time.

Obs. ii. All these adverbs are book words, except pau‘, nan, and k’an.

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287. The demonstrative pronouns 第, 伊, 故, tí‘, í, kú‘, and some other words combine with the substantives 歇, 刻, 時, h’ih, k’uh, zz, a short time, to form adverbs of time.

歇 h’ih, also helps to form 大歇 tá h’ih, 爽歇 zong h’ih, after a little time; 少歇 ’sau h’ih, ib.

288. Several adjectives and prepositions are borrowed to form compound adverbs of time.

a. 明 ming, bright. 明朝 ming tsau, to-morrow; 明日 ming nyih, ib.; 明天 ming t’íen, ib.; 明年 ming níen, next year.

b. 早 ’tsau, early; 早早 ’tsau ’tsau, early; 老早 ’lau ’tsau, early.

c. 古 ’kú ancient. 古時間 ’kú zz kan, in ancient times; 古時節 ’kú zz tsih, ib.; 古來 ’kú lé, from ancient times.

d. 新 sing, new. 新年 sing níen, new year; 從新 dzóng sing, afresh.

e. 近 ’kiun, near. 近年 ’kiun níen, of late years; 近時 ’kiun zz, lately; 近來 ’kiun lé, ib. 近今 ’kiun kiun, ib. 近世 ’kiun sz‘, in modern times.

f. 舊 ’kieu, old. 舊年 ’kieu níen, last year; 仍舊 zung ’gieu, as before; 照舊 tsau‘ ’gieu, ib. 依舊 í‘ ’gieu, ib.

g. 常 dzáng, constant. 常庄 dzáng tsong, 打常 ’táng dzáng, 常常 dzáng dzáng 不常 peh dzáng, always; 常時 dzáng zz, sometimes; 日常 nyih dzáng, daily.

h. 前 zíen, former. 前日子 zíen nyih ’tsz, day before yesterday; 目前 móh zíen, now. 前年 zíen níen, year before last. 從前 dzóng zíen, formerly. 以前 ’í zíen, before; 前代 zíen dé‘, the former dynasty. 前朝 zíen zau, ib.; 前世 zíen sz‘, in a former life.

i. 後 ’heu, after. 後來 ’heu lé, 以後 ’í heu‘, after; 150 後月 ’heu niöh, next month; 後年 ’heu níen, year after next; 後日 ’heu nyih, day after to-morrow.

j. 下 ’hau, 目下 móh ’hau, at present.

k. 多 tú, 日多 nyih tú, daily.

Obs. Zien deu, ’heu deu, before, after, and the cognate adverbs of place are used also for time.

289. Sometimes verbs take the place of what in English are adverbs. They are 來, 過, 歇, 隔 lé, kú‘, h’ih, káh.

290. There are some provincial adverbs of time, whose etymology is uncertain, or at least not referable to words of time.

291. The adjective pronouns combine with substantives of time to form common phrases, which are often used as adverbs.

292. Substantives of time, when repeated, are adverbs.

Obs. Succession in time is frequently represented in English by repetition of a noun with an adverb inserted. Thus, day by day corresponds to 日日 nyih nyih. Such phrases as year after year, one after another are other examples, and have their Chinese equivalents in the next article.

Order and Succession. 293. Succession of periods of time is represented by repetition, and the intervention of the verb 過 kú‘, pass (English adverb after).

294. The particles and, after, by, in one by one, two and two, in rows, etc. are not represented, succession being expressed by mere repetition of the numeral and its particle.

Obs. For the repetition of verbs, in phrases such as 站一站 dzan‘ ih dzan‘, stand waiting a little; 研一研 níen ih níen, rub a little ink; 冷個冷 ’láng kú‘ ’láng, cool it a little; 調個調 diau kú‘ diau, stir it a little; 淘個淘 dau kú‘ dau, wash it (of rice); 净個净 zing‘ kú‘ zing‘, wash it (of clothes); 我要辨個辨清爽 ’ngú yau‘ bíen‘ kú‘ bíen‘ t’sing ’song, I wish to distinguish clearly; see also Art. 232.

295. Gradual increase by little and little, is expressed by repeating the auxiliary phrases ih ’ngan, ih ’tíen, with the adjective in the centre. When the gradual change is in time, words of time form similar phrases.

296. Many adverbial phrases are formed by verbs and other words. Thus, the adverb when is often supplied by a noun of time following the verb with the connecting particle 個 kú‘.

297. Never, is expressed by 一向 ih h’iáng‘, with a negative phrase 152 following it.

298. The questions why? and how? are often asked by verbs with the pronoun what? thus rendering an adverb unnecessary.

Adverbs of Similarity and Reciprocity. 299. The adverb 恰 hah, and adjective 像 siáng‘, like, assist in forming several compound phrases in the sense like.

Obs. 能 nung, is usually appended to the noun that follows these words, in the sense of like; 一樣 ih yáng‘, 一般 ih pén, are also employed in the sense in the same manner.

300.The adverbs of reciprocity are 大介 tá‘ ká‘, 介家 ká‘ ká, 介多 ká‘ tú, mutually, one to another, and 相 in combination with verbs and adjectives; e.g. siáng ziáng‘, 相像 like one another.

Obs. Together with, is expressed by means of certain adverbs 一淘, ih dau, 一氣 ih k’í‘, following the preposition and its noun. 忒我一氣進 城 t’eh ’ngú ih k’i‘ tsing‘ zung, go with me into the city. v. Art. 140.

301. The primitive adverbs are not repeated, except in one or two instances. It is different with those that are derived. Some examples in addition to these already given are here appended.

Obs. It has been shown that adjectives, and also substantives of time, become adverbs by repetition.

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302. Some verbs combine intimately with adverbs, so as to form compound adverbs.

303. It will be seen in the next section, that some words marked as adverbs are also conjunctions. The converse is also true. For some words, such as 越, 且, 如 yöh, ’t’síe, zû regarded in this work as primitive conjunctions, form adverbial phrases.

304. The foregoing analysis shows that adverbs qualifying verbs, and expressive of place and quantity are for the most part derived. On the other hand, those adverbs that qualify adjectives, and express time are usually primitive. In our own language, the adverbs that qualify affirmations, e.g. assuredly, certainly, etc. are derived, while here they are primitive. The old division of this part of speech by western grammarians into two parts, viz. primitive and derivative, thus appears to be properly applicable to a language, that has been often supposed to present no resemblance in etymological development to the speech of the rest of mankind. The Romans made their adverbs of place out of demonstrative pronouns, and prepositions, in a manner very similar to the Chinese, (e.g. hic here, supra above, etc.) Adjectives with particular terminations supplied them with adverbs of manner, (cito, bene, omnino.) Nunc, jam, are examples of primitive adverbs of time, while the root stá stand, in statim, exactly corresponds to 立 lih, stand, in 立刻 lih k’uh, immediately. It may be added that zén, hú, etc. in Art. 259 form appendages to the root, of the same value as the terminations -ly, -like, to which we are accustomed. What is new, is the extensive use of repetitions, the great number of fixed phrases, and the peculiarities in the laws of grouping.

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Section 10. Conjunctions.

305. The primitive conjunctions may be thus classed:—

Obs. The compounds formed by these words, and words and phrases used as conjunctions derived from other parts of speech, will most of them be found in the following articles.

Connectives. 306. The particle that connects words like the English and, is 咾 lau.

Obs. The preposition tah, t’eh, with, often serve the same purpose, e.g. 儂忒我 nóng‘ t’eh ’ngú, you and I; 日頭搭之月 nyih deu tah tsz niöh, the sun and moon.

307. Clauses are connected by 也 ’á and 還 wan. They are also frequently used merely as introductory particles.

Obs. i. If the ’á or wan is emphasized it means also. If pronounced without emphasis, it is simply introductory.

Obs. ii. The adverbs dzieu‘, niön, are used as introductory particles to affirmative prepositions: 就是我 dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, 原是我 niön ’zz ’ngú, it is I.

308. Another circumstance to be considered, in addition to what has preceded, is introduced 而且 rh ’t’siá, and further 尙且 zong‘ ’t’siá, and what is still more.

309. A new subject of remark is introduced by 再者 tsé‘ ’tsé, again, to proceed; 還有 wanyeu, there is another thing; 那裏曉得 ’á ’lí ’h’iau tuh, meantime; who could have thought it? strange to say!

Adversatives. 310. But is represented by 但 tan‘ 但是 tan‘ ’zz, 獨是 tóh (g) ’zz; however is 到底 tau‘ ’tí, or 究竟 kieu‘ kiung‘.

Obs. Of these words, tau‘ ’tí is the most common. It sometimes preserves its etymological meaning in the end, as in the example given.

311. Lest is expressed 常怕 dzáng p’ó‘. The compounded phrase 只怕 tseh p’ó‘, I am only afraid that, has come to mean I suppose that.

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Obs. 恐怕, ’k’úng p’ó‘ is I fear that; 只怕 tseh p’ó‘ has sometimes a similar meaning. 燈旺來些只怕燙壞之手 tung yong‘ lé ’sí tseh p’ó‘ t’ong‘ wá‘ tsz ’seu, the lamp is very hot (bright) I fear it will burn your hand.

312. The conjunctional phrases and yet, on the other hand, are expressed by 倒 ’tau and 偏 píen, perversely.

313. Such conjunctional phrases as it would be better to, are represented by 勿如 veh zû, not so good as, or 𡨴可 niung ’k’ó, I would rather, 勿比 veh ’pí, it cannot be compared with.

Illative or Transitional Conjunctions. 314. Therefore is represented by 所以 ’sú ’í, 故此 kú‘ ’t’sz, 故所以 kú‘ ’sú ’í, 𡀽咾 keh lau.

315. Then is expressed by 𡀽末 ké‘ (keh) meh, when it denotes a logical consequence, and by 難末 nan meh, when the transition is one of time.

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Obs. Nan meh, has also been placed among the adverbs as a particle of time. Its book equivalent 於是 ü ’zz, consequently.

Causal Conjunctions. 316. 因爲 yung wé‘, 爲 wé‘ and 爲之 wé‘ tsz correspond to our word because.

Conditional particles. 317. 末 meh, if, is placed at the end of the clause.

318. 若使 zák sz‘, 若是 zog ’sz, 若然 zog zén, 倘或 ’t’ong wóh, 倘使 ’t’ong sz‘, 倘然 ’t’ong zén, are used in the sense of if: 旣然 kí‘ zén is if it was already so.

Obs. The verbs 使, 是, and adverb 然 lose their primary sense, and form in colloquial usage merely a terminating syllable to the conjunction with which they combine.

319. Even if is expressed by 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, 也怕 ’á p’ó‘ 那裏怕 ’á ’lí p’ó‘.

320. If, with the negative is represented 勿然 veh zén, or 再勿然 tsé‘ veh zén, should it not be so.

Obs. This amounts to an entire omission of the if, for 然 zén is an adverb so. In fact, the if is often not used in affirmative sentences as well as negative.

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321. The conjunctional phrases suppose that, for instance, for example, are expressed by 比方 ’pí fong, 譬如 p’í zû, 猶如 yeu zû, etc.

Obs. The adverbs of likeness (see Art. 299) are also similarly employed. 好像日頭忒旺, 眼睛勿好對之伊咾看 ’hau ziáng‘ nyih deu t’uh yong‘, ’ngan tsing veh ’hau té‘ tsz í lau k’ön, just as the sun is too bright for our eyes to gaze on him.

Antithetical Conjunctions. 322. Clauses with the particles although, yet, are formed by 雖然 sûe zén and 然而 zén rh, etc.

Obs. Although is very frequently omitted, as in the second example.

323. Either,—or are expressed by 或者 wóh ’tsé, 或者 wóh ’tsé, or by 勿是, 就是 veh ’zz — dzieu‘ ’zz.

324. Neither,—nor are represented both by 也—也 ’á—’á, and by 又—又 í‘—í‘, with a negative.

325. When the first clause is interrogative, and the second commences with or, the equivalent form is ní, the interrogative particle at the end of the first clause, and 還是 wan ’zz beginning the second. Sometimes 也 ’á alone is used.

326. Because,—therefore are expressed by 因爲 yung wé‘, or 爲之 wé‘ tsz, in the first clause, and any of the illative particles in the second.

327. Why—? because—are expressed by any of the adverb forms for why? and the casual conjunctions in the answering clause.

328. On the one hand, on the other hand, are expressed by ih míen‘ or ih deu repeated.

329. Not only—but even,— are expressed by 勿獨之 veh dók tsz, 惟獨 ví tók, not only, or 勿但不過 veh dan‘ peh 160 kú‘ in the first clause, 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, or 連 líen or 連搭 líen tah, in the second.

330. The—the— are expressed by 越 yöh repeated, 越早越好 yöh ’tsau yöh ’hau, the earlier the better.

Obs. Similar phrases are formed with 越發 yöh fah, the more, in each clause, also with 越加 yöh ká.

331. When the supplementary clause is, how much more, 何况于 hú hwong‘ ü, 况乎 hwong‘ ú, 而况 rh hwong‘ or 况且 hwong‘ ’t’siá, are employed.

Section 11. Expletives and Interjections.

332. There are some words which though they have important grammatical uses cannot be conveniently set down among the preceding parts of speech and they are therefore placed here. Such are 個, 之, 者, 哩, kú‘, tsz, ’tsé, ’lí.

a. 個 kú‘, besides its use as a numeral particle (Art. 156), as the sign of the possessive (130) and in relative pronoun sentences, also takes its place as a final after a verb, or adjective in any indicative proposition.

b. 之 tsz is the sign of the past or past participle, but as will be seen in the first three examples, it is often indicative.

c. 者 ’tsé is the sign of an action completed, or in course of being done, whether expressed by a verb or adjective; also of the imperative.

d. 哩 ’lí and 拉 ’lá, are used like ’tsé and kú‘, as finals to any indicative proposition. 拉 ’lá is also a preposition (Art. 256).

e. 咾 lau, the particle that connects a string of substantives, occurs at the end of sentences that require something to complete their sense.

Obs. 𫡄 ná is a final expletive used with 者 ’tsé.

讀者𫡄 tók ’tsé ná, I am reading.

333. The final interrogatives are 呢, 否, 蠻, 麽, ní, ’vá, man‘, mó. Characters are borrowed for ’vá and man‘.

a. 呢 ní is used either at the end of the first clause in an interrogative antithesis, or at the end of a single clause. It is sometimes pronounced ’nian.

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b. 否 ’vá and 蠻 man‘ are appropriated to direct interrogations, where not antithetical. They are colloquialisms.

c. 麽 mó (mau), besides expressing direct and indirect interrogation, also implies a strong affirmative. (Art. 278).

334. The initial interrogatives 豈 ’k’í, how? 幾 ’kí, how many? with 那 ’ná, forming ’á ’lí, 那裏 where? which? and 那能 ’ná nung, how? have already been illustrated among the pronouns and adverbs.

335. The interjections properly so called are such as—

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PART III.
ON SYNTAX.

Section 1. On Government.

336. The rules for the relative position of the parts of speech are few and simple. They will be first considered without reference to grouping, repetition, etc.; the syntax of words used under those forms will be presented in subsequent sections.

A substantive that governs another as an attributive genitive always precedes it, and the particle 個 kú‘ is inserted.

Obs. i. Thus substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part.

Obs. ii In English this order is reversed, when the particle of is employed; e.g. affairs of the nation is in our dialect, 國家個事體 kók kiá kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í. When a possessive case is formed with ’s, the order agrees with that of the Chinese; e.g. the emperor’s palace, 皇帝個宮殿 wong tí‘ kú‘ kóng díen‘.

Obs. iii. 個 kú‘ is omitted in some instances where it would incommode the rhythmus; e.g. 外國人總要來帮助此地咸豐皇帝 ngá‘ koh niun ’tsóng yau‘ lé póng ’zú ’t’sz dí‘ Yan fóng wong tí‘, foreigners must come and assist Hien Fung, the emperor of this country; 一向嘸沒興旺辰光 ih h’iang‘ m meh h’iung wong‘ zun kwong, it has never had a time of prosperity.

337. Adjectives precede their substantives with or without 個 kú‘.

Obs. Numbers take the auxiliary word (Part II. section 4.) appropriated to the substantive they precede, between them and the substantive. An adjective if needed, is inserted after the auxiliary, e.g. 一座大房子 ih zû‘ dú‘ vong ’tsz, a large house; 匹匹白馬 sz‘ p’ih báh ’mó, four white horses.

338. Transitive verbs precede their objects.

Obs. i. If there is a dative and accusative, the latter comes next to the verb. For examples, see Art. 236 and 133.

Obs. ii. Impersonal verbs take a substantive after them as transitive verbs; e.g. 難開花者 nan k’é hwó ’tsé, now the flowers open (lit. open the flowers); 落雨 loh ’ü, it rains (lit. falls rain).

339. Adverbs are placed for the most part before the adjectives and verbs that they qualify.

Obs. The adverbs that follow their adjectives, such as 近煞 ’kiun sah, very near, 好極 ’hau giuh, very good, will be found in their places, where the comparison of adjectives and adverbs of quality are treated of.

340. Of the prepositions, some forming the locative case follow their words; the rest inclusive of 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí, all meaning being at or in, precede their substantives. 勿在鄕下 veh ’dzé h’iáng ’au, not down in the country.

Obs. Prepositions of motion and direction preceding the personal pronouns require a substantive of place to follow. 到我堂來 tau‘ ’ngú dong lé, come to me; 拉㑚堂勿有 ’lá ná‘ dong veh ’yeu, where you come from, there are none. See also Art. 197.

Section 2. Interchange of the Parts of Speech.

341. Under this heading, will be exhibited examples of the manner in which words by a change in position, must be 165 construed as included in parts of speech, different from those to which when alone, they obviously belong. First, there are three principal changes of position, by which adjectives become substantives.

а. Adjectives when they follow a substantive with 個 kú‘ are to be construed as substantives.

Obs. i. Compare In English “the theory of the beautiful,” etc.

Obs. ii. Sometimes 處 t’sû‘ is added to the adjective, as also 頭 deu and fah 發, compound substantives are thus formed; cf. Art. 110. The same words also form substantives from verbs.

b. Adjectives are frequently the objects of transitive verbs, and in consequence are necessarily translated in such cases as substantives.

Obs. These examples differ from compounds, such as 加大 ká dú‘, make larger; 開闊 k’é k’weh, to extend in width (see Art. 219), which in their combined form, constitute transitive verbs with a regimen. These on the other hand contain the verb and its object within them.

Obs. Adjectives with the interrogatives how much? how many? preceding them, the verb being understood, are in common use; e.g. 幾許深淺 166 ’kí hó‘ sun ’t’síen, how much depth is there? or how deep is it? 多少深 tú ’sau sun ib.; 勿知多少高低 veh tsz tú ’sau kau tí, I do not know how high it is.

c. When one adjective is qualified by another, it becomes a substantive; with this, English usage agrees, as in the following names of colours.

濃黑 nióng huh, deep black. 淡紅 ’tan hóng, light red.
老黃 ’láu wong, faded yellow. 嫩黃 nung‘ wong, fresh yellow.
重藍 ’dzóng lan, deep blue. 淺藍 ’t’síen lan, light blue.

Verb as Substantive. 342. Construing verbs as substantives is common to many languages. The infinitive and gerund forms are used for this purpose, as also the present participle. In Chinese these are all identical, being the root itself.

a. The verb as subject of a proposition with a predicate following (inf. and pres, part.).

b. The verb as subject, with a noun as attribute (in Latin grammar, the genitive of the gerund).

c. The verb preceded by or followed by case particles.

d. The verb as regimen of another verb.

e. The verb as the instrument of effecting an action.

Obs. Some verbs are found among substantives and adjectives too. 孝 h’iau‘ is a substantive in 百善孝爲先 puh ’zén h’iau‘ wé‘ síen, of all the virtues, filial piety is the chief; an adjective in 孝子 h’iau‘ ’tsz, a filial son, and a verb in 孝順父母 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú ’mú, to reverence parents. In the books such variations of grammatical character in the same words are very numerous. In the verse 庶民子來 sû ming ’tsz lé, all the people came as if they were his sons, 子 ’tsz is used adverbially.

Verb as Adjective. 343. The passive gerund of Latin is related to adjectives as the active gerund is to substantives. 168 The corresponding forms in our dialect are compounds which may be translated either as adjectives or passive gerunds.

Obs. The examples given In Art. 246, as in the permissive mood, might also be explained as verbs construed as adjectives.

344. Many of the longer verb groups are translated most conveniently as verbal adjectives.

Obs. i. For a classification of these phrases v. Art. 227.

Obs. ii. Adjectives coming after verbs, with 得 tuh and 來 lé are best translated as adverbs; 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, it is done badly; 寫來通極 ’siá lé t’ong giuh, it is written exactly to the purpose; 燕子飛起來頂快 ’íen ’tsz fí ’k’í lé ’ting k’wá‘, the swallow flies very swiftly; 幅子戴得齊整 mau‘ ’tsz tá‘ tuh zí tsung‘, he wears his hat properly.

345. Many verbs are used as prepositions. They are 從 zóng, 由 yeu, 到 tau‘, 連 líen, 朝 zau, 望 mong‘, 對 té‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’hau. Examples of both uses are given.

Adverb as Substantive. 346. Adverbs of time and place precede substantives with 個 kú‘, just as one substantive precedes another.

Obs.先 síen, is an adverb in síen yau‘ ’tsung ’tung ’hau, 先要整頓 好, 169 you must first make preparations, and an adjective in 出世最先 t’seh sz‘ tsûe‘ síen, he was born very early.

347. When the adverbs take case particles, they must be regarded as substantives.

Adverb as Adjective. 348. The derivative adverbs like the pure adjectives, form the predicate of a proposition.

Or they qualify substantives.

Adjective as Adverb. 349. Some adjectives precede verbs, and must in such cases be regarded as adverbs.

Obs. 前 zíen is an adjective in 前門 zíen mun, the front door; a post-position in 門前 mun zíen, before the door: and an adverb in 前兩日 zíen ’liáng nyih, a few days ago: 大 is usually an adjective, but in 大兩樣個 tú‘ ’liáng yáng‘ kú‘, very different and in 勿大哩 興 veh dá‘ ’lí h’iung‘, not very crowded, it is an adverb.

Postposition as Adjective. 350. When the locative case particles 外 ngá‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’hau, 前 zíen, 後 ’heu, precede their words, they are adjectives. When they follow them, they are postpositions.

Obs. The words for north, south, east and west, are employed in the same manner, and may be regarded as postpositions. 北斗星 póh ’teu sing, north star; 江北 kong póh, north of the river; 浦東 p’u‘ tóng, 170 east of the Hwáng-p’ú river. In the last two examples, 北 and 東 may be considered locative case particles.

Substantive as Adjective. 351. When one substantive qualifies another, it may be regarded as an adjective.

Section 3. Government of words in groups or combinations.

Inseparable groups. 352. In the closest kind of combinations, when words of different parts of speech form a dissyllabic word, one of them loses its proper grammatical validity by becoming a syllabic appendage to the other.

a. Thus, 交 kiau, to join, in the noun 交界 kiau ká‘, a boundary, has not the property of governing a substantive, that belongs to it in 相交朋友總要實際 siáng kiau báng ’yeu ’tsong yau‘ zeh tsí‘, in treating friends you must be true. So also other verbs, as—

b. In the same manner 功 kóng, work, 形 yung, form, and 氣 k’í‘, anger, in the following examples are not nouns, since they are neither in the nominative or accusative, or any other case. They simply add their primitive sense to the verbs they assist to form.

c. Similarly, adjectives in composition, while retaining their etymological sense, lose their individuality, and cease to qualify substantives, or to form a predicate to a subject.

Obs. In the first example 大 great is prefixed to the word for wife, independently of any second wife, and is usually equivalent to niáng ’tsz. In the third 牢 firm is joined with 定 ting‘, and the two words together govern the following substantive.

353. So in larger groups, when words of different parts of speech combine, the predominant character of the group is communicated to words, which alone have quite another kind of force; e.g. if 針 tsun, needle; 線 síen‘, thread; 情 zing, feeling, represent actions not things in the sentences—

354. When words combine to form a new compound term, different in sense from both of them, their grammatical validity is lost, and the new phrase is recognized in its entirety as a noun, verb, etc. according to its meaning. Thus, 引 ’yung, to lead, and 線 síen‘, thread, form the compound 引線 ’yung síen‘, a needle; 方 fong, square, and 便 píenconvenient, form 方便 fong bíen‘, alms; 裁 dzé, to cut with scissors and 縫 vóng‘, a seam, form 裁縫 dzé vóng, tailor; 招 tsau, to call, and 軍 kiün, an army, form 招軍 tsau kiün, a trumpet.

355. Coordinate words having the same grammatical power, arranged in groups of from two to five or even more characters, form a numerous class. In regard to the laws of position, the whole group is treated as a single noun or verb, or adjective as the case may be. In the examples, a hyphen connects the coordinate words.

356. Another numerous class of compounds consist of 173 words, which, while helping to form a larger group, retain a grammatical relation to each other.

Obs. i. 出 governs 典 ancient books, and the two words together form a substantive in the objective case, after the verb m meh. The whole is equivalent 勿上書本 veh ’zong sû ’pun, it is not used in books.

Obs. ii. In phrases of this sort, we have government within government. A transitive verb with its regimen, may form part of a group, which is an elongated adjective, qualifying the following noun. Compare in English, such phrases as “a luxurious, do-nothing life.”

Obs. iii. Verbs with their regimen are freely used as adjectives, and connected by means of 箇, with the following noun; e.g. 養蠶咾種茶葉個百 姓, 今年苦惱者 yáng‘ zén lau tsóng‘ dzó yih kú‘ pká síng‘, kiun níen ’k’ú ’nau ’tsé, the silk-worm breeders and tea cultivators will this year suffer greatly. So also other combinations, 拉廣東做個 物事, 全是巧個 ’lá ’kwong tóng tsú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, dzén ’zz ’k’iau kú‘, things made at Canton are all ingeniously worked.

357. In many cases, while there is a common grammatical character belonging to the whole group, only part of the constituent words give the sense. Thus in 苦楚 ’k’ú ’t’sú, miserable; 福氣 fók k’í‘, happiness; 恩典 un ’tíenfavour; the second word in each has no influence on the sense. So also 相 in 相信 siáng sing‘, to believe in, does not in colloquial usage retain the sense of reciprocity. To give that idea, an adverb such as 大家 tá‘ ká, must be prefixed.

358. Some terms originally consist of two syllables, which 174 are written separately, only because the Chinese mode of writing requires each character to be the sign of a monosyllable.

Obs. Such words as these are construed as verbs, just as if they were monosyllabic words.

[1] Or 張羅 tsáng lú, to nurse (also c.)

Separable groups. 359. Those combinations that admit of the insertion of other words, so as to lengthen the group will now be illustrated.

a. Those that consist of two coordinate words, admit of a qualifying or governing term being applied to each word.

b. The groups formed by the numeral particles admit the insertion of adjectives and adjective phrases, between those particles and their substantives. Material nouns sometimes take their auxiliary after them.

c. When a group consists of a transitive verb and its regimen (which sometimes answer to a single verb in English), auxiliary words come between the verb, and its object.

Obs. When a verb and adjective are combined, the tense particle follows the adjective; e.g. 繩放鬆之末好 zung fong‘ sóng tsz meh ’hau, it would be better to slacken the rope.

d. In the verb groups of direction and motion, the substantive governed is sometimes inserted after the principal verb, sometimes between the second and third auxiliaries when there are two, and sometimes it is placed at the end.

Obs. Rarely the nominative is placed after the verb it governs, 走人下來 ’tseu niun ’au lé, men are coming down; 吹風進去 t’sz fóng tsing‘ k’i‘, wind blows in.

e. Negative verb groups sometimes admit of an adverb qualifying the principal verb, and coming immediately after it.

f. Verb groups with the affirmative and negative particles, also admit the objective case after the principal verb.

Obs. In many cases, the object comes after the whole group; e.g. 當勿 住大兵 tong veh dzû‘ dá‘ ping, he cannot resist the great army; 做勿動 生活 tsú‘ veh ’dóng sáng weh, I cannot do any work.

g. Repeated verbs with the tentative 看 k’ön‘, take their accusative case before 看 k’ön‘.

Section 4. On Repetition.

360. The repetition of words frequently affects the grammatical sense of the words repeated. At other times it is mere tautology adopted for rhythmical reasons, or for the purpose of emphasis as in English. Cases in which the repeating of a word has a grammatical value, will be first considered.

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Appellative and relative substantives, when repeated, are translated by all or every.

361. The numeral particles are all repeated, thereby giving the sense of all and every to their substantives. Subdivisions of time, and space, measures of material nouns, etc. are also repeated in the same sense.

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Obs. i. The difference between full appellative or other nouns, and the auxiliary nouns that define time, space, quantity, and form, is here again prominently brought to view. Duplication serves to show where the two classes of terms border on each other. Thus, 街 ká, a street is not repeated; the form being, such as 街路條條沒滿之一寸高血 ká lú‘ diau diau meh ’mén tsz ih t’sun‘ kau h’iöh, the streets were all covered with blood an inch high. 衖 long‘, a lane, on the other hand is treated as a subdivision in space, and takes no numeral particle; e.g. 衖衖有十外家人家 lóng‘ lóng‘ yeu seh ngá ká niun ká, in every lane there are ten families or more.

Obs. ii. It has been shown in the section on adverbs, that substantives of time when doubled are used in the sense always. This is an instance in agreement with the broader principle, that all names of subdivisions and auxiliary numeral particles are repeated, and that the repetition implies universality.

362. Adjectives are sometimes repeated before a substantive, but much more frequently when placed as predicate after it. No addition is thereby made to the sense.

363. When doubled, adjectives follow verbs they are translated as adverbs.

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Obs. It has been shown that repeated adjectives placed before verbs qualify them like adverbs. We have also 攏攏總總有一百 ’lóng ’lóng tsóng‘ tsóng‘ ’yeu ih páh, altogether there are a hundred. The primitive adverbs are not repeated.

364. Several relative substantives are repeated without any alteration in the sense.

365. When verbs are repeated, it is for rhythmical reasons, and for the sake of alliteration. In addition to the examples given in Art. 231, the following will serve to exhibit the use of these seeming tautologies.

a. Single verbs are repeated with or without a regimen.

b. In a verb group of two, the second word is often repeated.

c. Many groups of four contain a single repeated verb.

d. Many verb groups of two are extended by the repetition of each word.

e. Frequently in repeated groups of four, the constituent words alternate.

f. The verb is repeated alternately with two accusatives.

366. With regard to their syntax, groups consisting of 181 repetitions frequently form separate clauses of a sentence, but not exclusively so. They also like other groups, obey the laws of position of section 1 in relation to neighbouring words, and in their internal structure, and are construed as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs according to their particular character and use as a whole.

a. As adjective, whether forming a predicate or in apposition.

b. As verb.

c. As verb.

Obs. Groups of four, whether formed by repeated words or not, very commonly fall into separate clauses; e.g. 文理嘸啥好草草不工 vun ’lí m sá‘ ’hau, ’t’sau ’t’sau peh kóng, it is not at all well written, but coarse and unpolished.

Section 5. Order in groups.

367. There are various principles of arrangement in the words of a group. A group of four (1) may contain in itself an entire sentence; e.g. 懂呢勿懂 ’tóng ní veh ’tóng, do you understand? (2) or it may consist of verbs and their regimen, nouns and their adjectives, or other combinations of the parts of speech; e.g. 伸冤理枉 sun yön ’lí ’wong, 182 to redress injuries. (3) Repetition direct and alternate, forms many short phrases into longer groups, (4.) The principle of arrangement in many groups is, the order of nature, species being placed before genus, and the whole before its parts. (5.) The constituent words may be coordinate in meaning, and alike in grammatical character.

In addition to these varieties of structure, there are also mixed groups in which repetition for instance forms one part, and words combined grammatically, another; e.g. 念念不忘 nian‘ nian‘ peh vong, think of constantly.

368. Complete sentences are here placed with the other groups, because they fall into regular forms, and obey the laws of rhythm in a manner similar the fixed phrases of two, three, four or more words here referred to. Hence the predominance of short pithy sentences in common conversation.

Obs. The order of the words in these phrases is regulated by the rules of Part III, section 1, and the sections on propositions.

369. Many groups have an internal syntactical arrangement, and they are so numerous, that although some examples have already been given, more will here appended. They may be divided into (a), those in which there is a repetition of the idea, and (b) where there is none.

370. Passing over repetition groups, as already sufficiently illustrated, some examples will be given of those in which several words coordinate in sense are placed in proximity. In many instances such words as express relative superiority stand first.

Obs. On presenting these examples to a Fuh-kien literary man, it was found that half of the groups were in use in his dialect; of the remainder, more than half were partially the same with collocations familiar to him, while the rest were entirely different.

371. Species invariably precedes genus, and matter form, in groups formed of words thus related.

Obs. i. Substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part. This is sometimes the same with the proposition immediately above, genus being only such part of species as happens to belong commonly to several objects. We may fix our attention on either word in the compound indifferently, considering it as the essence, while the other is the accident. Thus, 屋基 óh kí, foundation of a house; 屋頂 hó ’ting, house roof, are parts of the appellative substantive house. So, if speaking of the articles into which bamboo is manufactured, the second word in 竹牌 tsóh bá, piece of flattened bamboo; 竹簾 tsóh líen, bamboo window-blinds; 竹紙 tsóh ’tsz, bamboo paper, is in each case that which expresses form, while the first describes the material.

The latter may be viewed as accidental to the former, or if preferred, the second word may called genus, while the first is considered as limiting it to a particular species.

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Obs. ii. In conformity with the principle, that the word in which the substance of the noun inheres should stand first, the auxiliary appendages 頭 deu, 子 ’tsz, 處 t’sû‘, 法 fah follow their words; e.g. 飯嘸尋處 vanm zing t’sû‘, there is no way of getting a living; 寫法總有個 ’siá fah ’tsóng ’yeu kú‘, there must be some mode of writing it.

Obs. iii. The auxiliary substantives and numeral particles appropriated to particular nouns, when they follow their words without a numeral, exemplify the same law; e.g. 白話裏向勿要加出多許書句 páh wó‘ ’lí h’iáng‘ veh yau‘ ká t’seh tú hau‘ sû kü‘, do not mingle so many book sentences in what you say.

Obs. iv. In double substantives formed partly with a verb, the verb as giving the species stands first; e.g. 算盤 sön‘ bén, counting board; 印板 yun‘ ’pan, printing blocks; 話柄 wó ping‘, a bon mot (See Art. 113.).

Obs. v. Many inseparable dissyllabic substantives, in which the distinction of matter and form is not obvious in their daily use, if viewed etymologically may be noticed to have the same order; e.g. 文章 vun tsáng, literary compositions; 地方 tí‘ fong, a place. The word giving the matter stands in each case first.

372. If the action be gradual in a compound verb, the word first in time is first in order. The word that concludes the action comes last.

Obs. i. Most of the auxiliary particles occurring in compound verbs follow the principal word; v. Art. 217, 222, but 打 ’táng, and such adverbs as help to form compound verbs precede the principal words; e.g. 打緝打緝看 ’táng t’sih ’táng t’sih k’ön‘, make inquiries.

Obs. ii. The auxiliary verbs of power, forming a potential mode, precede their verbs. 勿會白話 veh wé‘ báh wó‘, he cannot talk; 勿能去 veh nung k’í‘, he cannot go. In English, there are also auxiliaries of this kind preceding other verbs in apposition, without the sign of the infinitive intervening; e.g. may, can.

Variation in Order. 373. The components of some groups admit of more than one mode of arrangement. The following may be used in a direct or inverted order.

Obs. The number of groups variable in order, is comparatively extremely small. The number of cases in English, where one particular order of coordinate words is maintained, is by no means small; e.g. long and happy reign; far and near; kings and queens.

374. The following principles of arrangement may be distinguished in the apposition of verbs.

a. The auxiliaries of the future tense, and the imperative and potential moods precede their verb. 要 yau‘, 會 wé‘, 能 nung.

b. When the object of a verb is an action, it is expressed by a verb in Chinese, instead of a verbal derivative, or infinitive, or gerund form, such as would be used in languages having grammatical forms.

c. The auxiliary verbs expressive of direction and motion, beginning and completion, etc. follow the principal verb.

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d. Priority in time often determines the order of verbs.

e. Coordinate verbs.

Section 6. Simple Propositions.

375. The simplest sentence is that in which there is a single word, forming the subject (主 ’tsû), and another the predicate (賓 ping). The subject always precedes.

Obs. i. Occasionally the predicate precedes, 出會 t’seh wé‘, the procession is out; 落水 lok ’sz, the tide is falling. These forms may also be explained as impersonal verbs with an accusative.

Obs. ii. An adjective forms of itself a complete predicate, and usually has no copula to connect it with the preceding nominative. 桃子熟者 tau ’tsz zók ’tsé, the peaches are ripe.

376. The simple proposition in its full form has also a copula.

Obs. When the predicate is a verb, the copula may be always considered as included in it. It is when the predicate is an adjective that a vacuum becomes obvious to a foreign ear.

377. The subject may consist of a substantive, or a substantive group, a pronoun, a verb or a verb group, or adverbs of place and time, construed as nouns.

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Obs. i. Sometimes the subject is understood; e.g. 總要立定主意 ’tsóng yau‘ lih ding‘ ’tsû í‘, (you) must be resolute.

Obs. ii. Adjectives also sometimes form a predicate. 好有好報, ’hau ’yeu ’hau pau‘, goodness has a good reward; 善咾惡總要辨出來 ’zén lau oh ’tsóng yau‘ bíen‘ t’seh lé, virtue and vice must be distinguished.

Obs. iii. Any word that qualifies a noun may be removed from its place in apposition, and become a predicate. Thus, 第座房子是拉個 tí‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz ’zz ’lá kú‘, this house is the right one, may become, 是第座房子 ’zz dí‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz, it is this one; 兩條橋有, ’liáng diau giau ’yeu, there are two bridges, or 橋有兩條 kiau ’yeu ’liáng diau, of bridge there are two.

378. When the copula is used, it takes the forms of 是 ’zz, 得 tuh, 來得 lé tuh, and 來 lé before adjective predicates, while 做 tsu‘, and in some groups 爲 wé‘ and 作 tsoh precede substantives.

Obs. Educated men appear to avoid the use of 來 lé, as a substitute for 得, but it is extremely common among the lower classes.

379. In the predicate are found, a substantive, adjective, verb, or adverb, or a group of either.

Obs. The final expletives are usually appended to the predicate. 說話 好個 seh wó‘ ’hau kú‘, your words are good.

380. In very many sentences, the predicate is a transitive verb with an object, which in its simplest form is a substantive, monosyllabic or consisting of a group.

381. Great variety is introduced into sentences, without the addition of separate clauses, by applying qualifying words and groups to the parts just enumerated. Extension by the apposition of words, alike or contrasted in meaning, and in the same parts of speech, is also very common. The subject is extended:—

a. By prefixing an adjective.

b. By apposition of substantives with or without kú‘, whether in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute.

c. By a transitive infinitive with its objective case.

d. By the addition of nouns or verbs governed by case particles.

Obs. The so-called genitive with 個 kú‘, included under (b) as an instance of apposition. It is the attributive genitive, or possessive case of western grammars. The genitive sense is given by the relative position of the words, and not by the connecting particle kú‘ often omitted.

e. By prefixing numbers and numeral particles to substantives.

f. By prefixing demonstrative, possessive and other adjective pronouns to substantives.

g. By prefixing adverbs of place or time with the sign of the possessive, or with no intervening particle. It might also be said, that these adverbs are here all treated as substantives.

382. Several of these adjuncts may concur in forming a subject.

383. The predicate is extended in a similar manner. It may assume the following forms.

а. Substantive with its adjective.

b. Substantives in apposition, in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute, with or without 個 kú‘.

c. Verbs in apposition. Any verbs in English connected by and, to and of are translated by two corresponding verbs in apposition.

d. Verb with an object.

e. Verbs, nouns or adverbs of place and time in construction with 拉 or 在.

f. Adjective pronouns, and numbers with the particles appropriated to the substantives contained in the subject.

g. The verb is qualified by the various kinds of adverbs, either preceding it in apposition, or following it with 得 tuh, or 來 lé, as subordinate copula.

h. The cause, manner, instrument, place or time of the action are expressed by nouns preceding the verb.

Obs. The number of prepositions omitted in examples similar to these is very great. Few of them are so essential that they may not be rejected. The remarkable conciseness of written and spoken Chinese is due very much to the omission of prepositions in the manner here illustrated. For that conciseness, there is however in many cases full compensation, in the wordiness or richness, whichever term be preferred, of the groups.

j. The same circumstances of cause manner, etc. are also expressed with case particles attached to the noun.

k. Adjective with a qualifying adverb.

384. The predicate is further enlarged by a combination of the above forms of arrangement, by simple apposition as coordinates, or according to the laws of position already detailed.

385. The copula by a little extension of the meaning of the terms, may be considered as embracing the emphatic adverbs, and the verb forms for affirmation and negation. In conformity with this, the substantive verb 是 is constantly used in the sense of yes, and with the negative particle (勿是), no. The adverbs of emphasis precede the copula.

Obs. The verb to have 有 ’yeu (with its opposite 嘸沒 m meh) describes existence, as in French the verb avoir. The adverbs of emphasis precede it, as they do the other substantive verb; e.g. 一點嘸沒啥 ih ’tíen m meh sá, or m sá‘, there is nothing the matter; 第個道理實在有 tí‘ kú‘ ’tau ’lí zeh zé‘ ’yeu, there certainly is this doctrine.

386. When there is a negative particle, the adverb of emphasis precedes it.

Obs. When the necessity is denied, the negative precedes the adverb expressity; e.g. 勿必要去 veh pih yau‘ k’i‘, you are not obliged to go.

387. There are several verbs, not having a full transitive power, that are often to be taken as little more than an extension of the copula. They are such as, 呌 kiau‘, 做 tsú‘, 爲 wé, 作 tsoh.

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Obs. The equivalents of these words, in languages having forms of declension, usually take the nominative case after them.

388. The correlative pronouns and sometimes adjectives, are placed like the emphatic adverbs before the copula, the substantives they represent being the subject.

389. The most remarkable use of the copula is in the potential verb groups, where 得 tuh and 勿 veh stand between two verbs; e.g. 打勿贏 ’táng veh yung, fighting he does not conquer; 話得出 wó‘ tuh t’seh, speaking can express it; 走得轉 ’tseu tuk ’tsén, walking you can turn back.

Obs. i. In colloquial use, these words mean he cannot conquer, it can be described in words, he can turn back. If viewed alone as separate sentences, the first verb is the subject, and the second the predicate. So when the last word in these groups is an adjective, it may be regarded as predicate to the verb which stands first. This is particularly obvious where the potential force of 得 tuh and 勿 veh are wanting, 推板勿多 t’é pan veh tú, there is no great difference; 寫得 快 ’siá tuh k’wá‘, he writes fast. Where the potential force exists in these phrases; e.g. 吹勿响 t’sz veh ’h’iáng, it cannot be sounded (of a flute); 豎勿直 ’zû veh dzuh, it cannot be set upright; 改勿正 ’ke veh tsung‘, it cannot be corrected; though the relation of subject and predicate is less manifest, it is perhaps the best explanation.

Obs. ii. When adjectives occupy both the first and last places, there is no potential force, and the second adjective becomes comparative 高得多 kau tuh tú, it is much higher.

Obs. iii. Wherever the potential force is wanting, 來 lé is used convertibly 196 with 得 tuh; i.e. 寫來快 ’siá lé k’wá‘, he writes fast. Of the two 得 is most used by the educated.

390. The subject and predicate are still further lengthened by expletives. 末 meh belongs to the former, and 個, 拉, 哩, 者 kú‘, ’lá, ’lí, ’tsé to the latter.

Obs. Educated natives used these words much less frequently than the common people, except when they modify the verb in time, or as in the case of 末, give a conditional sense. The predicate if an adjective has time given to it by these particles, just as if it were a verb.

Section 7. Subordinate Sentences.

391. Sentences illustrative of verbs of knowing, saying and wishing, etc. taking the initiatory particle that in English, usually follow the proposition or verb they explain.

Obs. i. The clause introduced with that is often placed first. 官府嘸没銀子是人人曉得個 kwén ’fú m meh niung ’tsz ’zz niun niun ’h’iau tuh kú‘, that the mandarins have no money is known by every one; 要進城話拉 yau‘ tsing‘ zung wó‘ ’lá, he said that he wished to go into the city. The educated usually place the verb 話 wó‘ first.

Obs. ii. In Latin the construction of the explanatory clause, is that of the accusative and infinitive.

392. Clauses expressing the object of an act, usually follow the sentence that contain the act.

Obs. In English, the subordinate clause is introduced often by the final that, as the previous examples are by the explanatory that.

393. The final that or to is often expressed by the auxiliary verbs 要 yau‘, and 呌 kau‘.

Obs. In examples such as those of the present, and the previous article, the clauses may be inverted. 要捉魚咾出去登拉更舍裏 yau‘ tsoh ng lau t’seh k’í‘ tung ’lá káng só‘ lí, in order to catch fish, he goes out to stay in the watch-hut. 咾 lau must be appended to the clause expressing the object of the action.

394. The final that being often omitted, or expressed by verbs, the way is open to form one sentence out of the two component clauses, so as to improve the general rhythmical effect. This is done in such common sentences as the following.

Obs. These examples differ from those of those of the next article, only in being obviously pronounced as one sentence.

395. The clause expressing the object of the verb is often a single verb repeated or not. (In Latin, often the supine).

396. The clause containing the action frequently consists of a substantive, or substantive group, with any of the auxiliary 198 verbs of causing, or instrumentality, and the verb of motion 來, or 去 concluding the clause.

Obs. The object of any transitive verb may be made to precede its verb by prefixing some one of these auxiliary verbs and appending 來 lé 去 k’í‘.

397. Substantive groups of many words are inserted between the instrumental verb, and the verb of motion.

398. A relative clause precedes its word as an adjective, and is connected with it by the particle 個 kú‘.

Obs. The relative or adjective clause standing thus in apposition with a 199 noun, may be considered as forming with it the subject of the sentence, i.e. the logical subject as distinguished from the grammatical, which consists of the substantive only.

399. Circumstances of cause, manner, instrumentality, etc. precede in the same way, the words to which they belong.

Obs. Many such sentences admit of the clauses being inverted. Thus, 天定拉個數目人勿曉得 may also be read, niun veh ’h’iau tuh t’íen ding‘ ’lá kú‘ sú‘ máh, man does not know the times decreed by heaven.

400. There are some auxiliary verbs, and preposition forms employed to introduce the subject, which then appears in the form of a subordinate sentence.

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Obs. These words are not indispensable to the introduction of a subject as a subordinate clause; e.g. 大是大個 tú‘ ’zz dú‘ kú‘, as to size it is large.

401. Similar to these is the construction of the verb forms prefixed to interrogative pronouns which thereby become relatives.

402. Subordinate clauses expressive of time and place, are placed before the principal clauses.

403. The subject consisting of a verb and substantive, often takes the form of a subordinate introductory clause.

404. Many subordinate circumstantial clauses are introduced by verbs and precede the principal proposition.

Obs. i. Sometimes the verb of the subordinate clause is when preceded by the negative particle, put at the end; e.g. 兵丁勿算武官死有五十干 ping ting veh sön‘, ’vú kwén ’sí ’yeu ng seh kûn, without counting the common soldiers, fifty military mandarins died.

Obs. ii. Circumstantial subordinate propositions often come between the subject and predicate, 貪官已經受之姓張箇銀子就拿姓李箇放拉監牢裏 t’én kwén ’í kiung ’zeu tsz sing‘ Tsáng kú‘ niung ’tsz dzieu‘ nó sing‘ ’Lí kú‘ fong‘ ’lá kan lau ’lí, the avaricious mandarin having received money from Mr. Cháng, will take Mr. Li and put him in prison; 好人做之將官總勿瞎殺一個人 ’hau niun tsú‘ tsz tsiáng‘ kwén ’tsóng veh hah sah ih kú‘ niun, the good man on becoming a general, will not kill a single man without reason.

405. Many subordinate clauses are causal, and are connected with the principal sentence by the particle 咾 lau, or they are inserted in the principal clause with 因爲 yung wé‘ to introduce them.

Obs. Conjunctions may be prefixed to the introductory clause. 因爲三 代前頭題過第個名字勿可再題 yung wé‘ san dé‘ zíen deu tí kú‘ tí‘ kú‘ ming zz‘ veh ’k’ó tsé‘ dí, because three generations ago this name was used, it could not be employed again.

406. Conditional introductory clauses are formed by means of particles, or they are understood to be conditional from their position, or from the nature of the sentence.

a. Examples of conditional clauses without particles.

b. Examples with 末 meh, at the end of the conditional clause.

c. Examples of the conditional clause as a case supposed, introduced by conditional conjunctions.

d. Examples of the conditional clause as a fact introduced by 旣然 kí‘ zén, or 末 meh.

e. Examples of conditional clauses introduced into the midst of the principal clause.

Obs. Several illustrations have occurred in the preceding pages of the fact that the laws of position often render particles superfluous. Thus, in adverbial phrases of succession, and, by, etc. are omitted in 一個一個 ih kú‘ ih kú‘ one by one; 一日大一日 ih nyih dú‘ ih nyih, greater and greater every day. So, prepositions are usually omitted in subordinate clauses of cause, manner, agent, etc. because they precede their subject and are readily understood. The omission of the conjunction, for the same reason does not affect conditional clauses (a).

407. If the verb and adjective groups with 得, 勿, 來 are rightly considered as originally forming independent propositions, including in themselves a subject and its predicate, they must be regarded in many instances as subordinate clauses.

a. One of these groups may form an adjective clause, or a predicate to a subject.

b. A group may form the explanatory clause to the verb of a preceding sentence.

408. There are some fragmentary clauses placed at the end of a proposition that need especial notice.

a. 罷 pá‘ to end, or then there is no more to be said.

b. Several adverbial clauses used with adverbs of similarity.

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c. Some words with the negative.

d. After substantives needing to be spoken of in the dual number 兩個 ’liáng kú‘, or 兩個字 liáng kú‘ zz‘ are appended; the former is applied to living agents, and the latter to characters as representatives of abstract nouns.

e. Prepositions of motion take after the nouns they govern, the fragments 兩 ’liáng, 一淘 ih dau, separately or together.

Obs. These are perhaps fragments of propositions, of which only the predicate remains.

Section 8. Coordinate Sentences.

409. In further illustration of the connection of groups and propositions, it may be observed, that coordinate sentences often occur in juxtaposition without any particle.

a. There may be several subjects to one predicate.

b. There may be several predicates to one subject, or several explanatory clauses to one proposition.

410. The connective 咾 lau is very frequently introduced between groups; and the constituents of any group of coordinate words may be broken up into separate subjects, or predicates or objects by the insertion of this particle.

Obs. It has been shewn in section 7, that 咾 lau also frequently terminates causal subordinate sentences.

411. When there are two coordinate ideas to be expressed connectedly, as with bothand—而且, 也 and 又 are employed.

Obs. i. Even as an initiatory particle is expressed by 就是. 就是生意淸也勿要甩脱工夫 dzieu‘ ’zz sáng í‘ tsing ’á veh yau‘ hwah t’eh kúng fú, even if trade is slack, you must not waste time.

Obs. ii. 也 is also used when no sentence precedes, as in 外國米也有否 ngá‘ kóh ’mí ’áyeu ’vá, is there rice in foreign countries?

Obs. iii. When the clauses are negative, the negative particle is inserted after the conjunction, 也勿會開口也勿會動身 ’á veh wé‘ k’é ’k’eu, ’á veh wé‘ ’dóng sun, he can neither speak nor move.

412. When two objects are compared, they stand as coordinate clauses with the verb 比 ’pí between them, and the attribute of comparison at the end.

Obs. i. 又 í‘ is sometimes prefixed to the attribute; e.g. 伊比我又好 í ’pi ngú‘ í‘ hau, he is still better than I.

Obs. ii. 又 í‘ with the negative is thus seen to have the force of a separative particle, while in the examples of the preceding article it is clearly connective (both—and—) in one case, and separative in the other (neither— nor—).

413. Propositions introduced by the adversative particles only, but, yet, etc. (v. Art. 310), form another class of coordinate sentences.

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414. Illative and causal sentences form another class of coordinate sentences.

415. In causal sentences, the causal conjunctions are used, or the word for “cause” at the end of the sentence; sometimes both are employed.

Obs. The answer to a question requiring “because,” is very often ended with 咾 lau, which then takes that sense. But this is an irregular colloquialism, since lau as connective conjunction ought to be followed by another clause. 船吹壞脫哉風大咾 zén t’sz wá‘ t’eh ’tsé fóng dú‘ lau, the boat was broken to pieces, the wind being high.

416. Conjunctions forming pairs of sentences, have already been partially illustrated in Arts, 322–330. It may in addition 209 be observed, that short phrases sometimes take the place of conjunctions.

a. Thus for, not only—even—, we have 勿要話 veh yau‘ wó‘ and 就是 dzieu‘ zz in the supplemental sentence.

b. English initiatory phrases, such as I suppose that, probably, are represented by 只怕, 恐怕 tseh p’ó‘, ’k’ung p’ó‘, or by 我想 ’ngú ’siáng, it appears to me that.

Obs. i. On the one side—on the other side—are represented by the common substantive for side with—ih one in both clauses. The preposition and article are rejected as unnecessary, cf. Art. 328.

Obs. ii. Although is sometimes expressed by a verb, in the sense let it be that, 憑儂地獄拉前面, 伊也勿肯囘心改念 bing nóng‘ tí‘ niók ’lá zien míen‘, í ’á veh ’k’ung wé sing ’ké nían‘, granting you that hell were in sights, he would still be unwilling to repent. 隨儂 sûe nóng‘, 但憑儂 ’tan bing nóng‘, are also used in the same sense.

417. Comparisons are introduced by several compounds of 如 zû, and some fragmentary sentences, as 比方, ’pí fong, for example.

Section 9. On Antithesis.

418. Of antithesis there are three kinds; (a) that of words in the formation of groups; (b) that which gives an interrogative force by the juxtaposition of positive and negative clauses, (c) That of sentences contrasted in sound or sense.

Obs. The first of these should be placed with the sections on groups, but the other kinds (b) and (c) are naturally discussed after propositions, and therefore they are all placed together here.

419. Substantives that are opposite in sense, when they combine into groups are treated just as other coordinate words.

420. Adjectives and verbs when they form antithetic groups often lose their proper character as attributives, and become substantives.

421. Antithesis in the formation of interrogatives has an important grammatical use. Thus, a verb with or without its object expressed successively in the affirmative and negative form, asks a question.

Obs. The subject is prefixed and is not repeated; e.g. 遭蹋字紙㑚 想罪過勿罪過 tsau t’ah zz‘ ’tsz ná‘ ’siáng zé‘ kú‘ veh zé‘ kú‘, do you think the misuse of written-paper is a sin or not?

422. Among instances of the antithesis of propositions, many consist simply of a tautology of ideas by introducing opposite qualities or actions with the negative particle.

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Obs. This figure of speech would in many of its examples be intolerable in English, but the brevity and rhythmical structure of Chinese sentences make it agreeable. It gives an air of simplicity to conversation, and allows the speaker time to prepare his next idea, without forcing his thinking faculties to a too rapid productiveness. The same advantage is obtained by the use of a long group, where in English, one or two of its constituent words would be sufficient.

423. Of antithetical propositions some of the most ornamental are those that consist of the words of a common group lengthened into clauses.

Obs. This is a principal means of decorating the 文章 vun tsáng, the literary compositions on which the educated class expend so much time and effort. With the classics before them, and ten or twenty thousand words at command, there is a wide field for variety. In addition to the care required in the general structure of the essay, that all its parts may be conformed to rule, the separate sentences must be framed in obedience to the laws of grouping 212 and antithesis, so that there may be no infringement of the order of the words, as they stand in the ancient books.

424. Another class of antithetical propositions consists of such as correspond word for word with each other in structure and relative meaning. Many proverbs are of this kind.

Obs. Prémare has a large collection of such proverbs, to which the reader is referred.

Section 10. On Rhythmus.

425. Chinese sentences spoken or written are symmetrically arranged. The same rhythmus that pleases and aids the reader, in such works as the Historical Novels exists in a less elaborated form in the colloquial medium of daily life. In the style of a fluent Chinese speaker, clauses of four words each, will be found to occur more frequently than of any other length. This measure may be called for the Shánghái dialect the Double Iambus, the accent being on the last syllable of a group of two words; e.g. 財主人家有喪事要請和尚道士做做攻德 ze-tsú-niun-ká ’yeu song zz‘ yau‘ ’t’sing hú-zong‘-’tau-’zz tsú‘-tsú‘ kúng-tuh, rich men at a funeral will invite Buddhist and Taúist priests, to perform a religious service. Here there are 3 groups of four.

Obs. i. Chinese colloquial syntax might be divided into two heads, treating of grammatical (or syntactical), and prosodial (or rhythmical) relations respectively. Under the former might be placed, government, propositions, and a part of the system of groups. Under the latter would be properly found repetition, antithesis, and the remainder of the system of grouping. The latter might be called prosody, but that word is more properly applied to the laws of poetry. In the present work it has been thought more convenient to mix these divisions under a common heading.

Obs. ii. Words in the fourth tone are just as important in the groups as other words, unless they happen to be enclitics; e.g. 大關節目 tá‘ kwan tsih móh, the general object. The last two words have no less emphasis of voice than the former, and 目 móh is distinctly accented.

Obs. iii. In dialects where the accent is on the penultimate syllable, the four-word measure might be called a Double Trochee. These classical names of feet are not strictly applicable, descriptive as they are of the long and short syllables of poetry. They are here used for want of better terms, just as is done 213 by writers on English versification, to express the pronunciation of words as accented or not accented. At Súng-kiáng the fú city to which Shánghái belongs, the accent changes to the penultimate.

Obs. iv. In 讀起來看 read, and tók ’k’í lé k’ön‘, read it and try, the accent is on the first and last words of both these sentences, the middle words being enclitic.

426. The three-word foot may be called, if it consists of two unaccented, and one accented syllable, an anapaest; e.g. 壁立直 pih lih dzuh, exactly straight; 敲敲鼓 k’au k’au ’kú, to beat a drum; 梁惠王 liáng wé‘ wong, a king in Mencius. If the accent is on the first word of three, the foot might be called a dactyl; e.g. 做末者 tsú‘ meh ’tsé, do it. Instances of such dactyls are rare and are chiefly confined to sentences containing enclitics, which reject the accent. In some cases, the accent is on the middle word as in 放颻子 fong‘ yau‘ ’tsz, to fly a kite; 子 ’tsz as an enclitic throws back the accent on the preceding word.

427. The number two occurs in innumerable combination, which may be called iambs; i.e. 上山 ’zong san, ascend a hill.

428. Common recognized groups numbering more than four coordinate words are not very numerous. They may be readily resolved into smaller feet of two, three, or four words, by attending to the cæsura, which will be always found in them; e.g. 喜怒哀懼愛惡欲 ’h’í nú‘ é gü‘ é‘ ú‘ yóh, joy, anger, grief, fear, love, hatred, desire. That mark of division occurs after the fourth word for groups of seven, and after the second for groups of five; others may be divided into groups of two or three words each.

Obs. i. The cæsura of seven word and five word versification in good poetry, and in street ballads, is generally after the fourth and second words, but variations occur according to the taste of the writer, and the exigencies of composition.

Obs. ii. By marking the cæsura, groups of four words may be divided into smaller divisions of two, and those of three words into parts of one and two words. Thus the secondary accent heard in the first part of the group, and referred to in the sections on tones may be accounted for, as properly belonging to the smaller groups, or single word, to which it is affixed.

Obs. iii. The accent here spoken of is, that which is understood by the word in English and French, viz. that emphasis which is predominantly on the 214 penultimate or antepenultimate in the former, and on the last syllable in the latter language. It is one simply of position, and is so far independent of tones on the one hand, and of the quantity of vowels as long or short, on the other. English versification is entirely regulated by the accent of position, and not by the consideration of vowels and syllables being long and short. Thus in the line “our voices keep tune, and our oars keep time,” the quantity of “keep,” and “our” is long, yet they stand as short syllables. Chinese poetry is like that of England in possessing rhymes, and instead of a rhythmus of long and short vowel quantities, such as formed the framework of Greek and Latin versification, it has one of even and uneven tones.

Obs. iv. In some groups of four, the accent is on the first and fourth words; e.g. 鄕下百姓 h’iáng ’au pák sing‘, country people. But it is most frequently on the 2nd and 4th, e.g. 富貴貧賤 fú‘ kwé‘ bing dzíen‘, rich and poor; 去邪歸正 k’í‘ ziá kwé tsung‘, to abandon vice and reform. When it passes to the first or third, it is because the word on which it should be is an enclitic or has a weak tone. Cf. Part 1. section 3. for remarks on the accent of three-word groups.

429. From this analysis it may be concluded, that much of Chinese prose falls spontaneously into groups of two, three and four words, with an accent of position to mark them; enclitics do not usually take the accent and are very often not to be counted as independent members of the groups to which they are attached.

Obs. i. It has been already shown that the tones of a dialect are affected by the rhythmus. This happens for example, in the Amoy dialect particularly in the penultimate, where the second and seventh tones change into the high quick rising, and high quick falling respectively. In Chinese prose compositions, it is usual to end sentences with a word in the first tone, and one of the three other tones alternately. In their versification, words that rhyme have their alphabetical sound, and their tones in harmony. For an account of the use of tones in poetry, see Remusat’s grammar.

Obs. ii. The tendency of words as thus illustrated, to agglutinate into groups numerically conditioned, is made the basis of all new sentences, and insensibly regulates the composition of the native speaker. He would be quite as likely to transgress the laws of intergovernment among the parts of speech, as to overlook the rhythmus of his words.


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APPENDIX I.

ON THE HIGHER COLLOQUIAL, CALLED VUN ’LI ’T’U BAH,
文理土白.

Occasionally in the preceding pages, examples have been introduced, from the style of conversation prevailing among literary men. A common knowledge of the books, and the existence of a universal mandarin colloquial, have given rise to an enlarged vocabulary of phrases bearing this name. The consideration of their etymological and syntactical peculiarities belong to the grammar of the books and of mandarin, the two sources from whence they are derived.

An example or two will be given. Among the verbs, the auxiliary of destruction 脱 t’eh, is replaced by 掉 tiau‘. 殺掉 sah diau‘, to kill; 滅掉 mih diau‘ destroy. Many new groups are also employed, whose meaning would not be understood by the common people. 燈燭煇煌 tung tsóh hwé wong, the brightness of the candle in its lanthorn; 衣冠楚楚 í kwé ’t’sú ’t’sú, his dress and hat look neat.

In carrying on conversation with the educated, it is necessary to know these phrases when they occur, and it is a great advantage to be able to use them, but in an elementary work like the present, it is enough to say that the path to that knowledge lies in the study of the books, and of the general language. This part of the colloquial medium is common ground to all dialects, where no distinction remains, but that of pronunciation. In many cases, however, phrases not used in the every-day dialect of this district, and which therefore, are considered 文理 vun ’lí, are found in the colloquial of other parts of China, much farther removed from mandarin.


216

APPENDIX II.

ON THE NATIVE TABLES OF INITIALS AND FINALS.

Marshman long ago made a study of these tables, for which he was peculiarly fitted from his knowledge of Sanscrit. On comparing the alphabetic system of that language with the Chinese tables, now to be considered, he at once pronounced them identical in principle. This conclusion is fully confirmed by what Chinese authors say. The explanation in K’áng-hí’s Dictionary of “the method of separating a word into its component sounds,” (切字樣法) says, “now tabulated rhymes are in the Sanscrit called 夫等韻者梵語悉曇. “Here we speak of mother characters, the sounds from which all words originate,” 此云字母 乃是一切文字之母. “That which in Sanscrit is called p’í-k’á-lah is here called the division of sounds, which constitutes the foundation of the science of words,” 梵語毘佉囉此云切韻一切文字之根本 Remusat long since pointed out that the language meant by the word 梵 Fan, is Sanscrit. He says in his Life of the Grand Lama, Pa-sz-pa, translated from the Chinese History of the Mongols in Remusat’s Melanges Asiatiques, Vol. II. 145, “Ce sont les religieux Indiens qui l’ont (the 36 initials) fait connaítre á notre empire.” “Nos prêtres chinais ont retenu cet usage qu’ils avaient pris des Indiens.”[1]

The accompanying table is taken from Bopp’s Sanscrit grammar, the characters of the Chinese tables being placed instead of the Sanscrit characters.

Gutturals, 見 ká, 溪 khá, 郡 gá, ghá, 疑 ngá.
Palatals, 知 chá, 徹 ch’á, 澄 djá, d’zá, 娘 niá.
Linguals, 端 ta, 透 t’á, 定 dá, dh’á, 泥 ná.
Dental,   tá,   thá,   dá, dhá,   ná.
Labials, 幫 pá, 滂 phá, 並 bá, bhá, 明 má.
Semivocals, 影 já (y) 日 rá, 來 lá,   wá (v.)
Sibilants,   sá(s’), 審 shá(s’), 心 sá(s), 曉 há.

Marshman possessed a genuine philological spirit, which 217 often appears in the midst of the somewhat extravagant theories in which he frequently indulged. He saw in the present instance, that in the Chinese spoken language, the consonants g, d, b, etc. should each commence a series of words, and this led him to the remark “that a further investigation of the Chinese pronunciation, would probably discover some vestige of this existing at the present day.” Diss, p. 37.

The passage cited in page 43, also ascribes the arrangement of these tables to a Buddhist priest; he improved upon the system of finals invented By Shin-yoh, who wrote one of the twenty one histories, viz. that of the northern Sóng dynasty.

It will now be shown that in a great part of central China such a system prevails. Before attempting to sketch the boundaries of that tract of country, a brief statement will be given of what conditions must be fulfilled, in order to identify an existing pronunciation with these relics of the Buddhist industry of former days.

By referring to the table in page 44, it will be seen that there are in all 36 initials including, beside those whose Sanscrit equivalents are now given, f, f’, v, w, z, zh, a lower h and y, and the compounds of t and d, with s, z, sh and zh.

The required dialect should have therefore an extensive system of initials, and as the modern tonic Dictionaries of Canton and Cháng-cheú, very accurately represent the dialects of those places, it may be assumed of the Dictionary tables, that they are no less careful in exhibiting the pronunciation of their time.

Among the finals, ng, n and m, terminate words in the three long tones, and the corresponding mutes k, t, p, are recognized as the terminations of words in the short tone, few of them having a vowel ending.

This is very clearly perceptible in the tables of the 字彙 a Dictionary, which was published many years before that of K’áng-hí, and in those of the Dictionary called 洪武正韻 hóng ’wú chung‘ yün‘. In the latter for example words in the short tone ending in k, are classed under 屋, 藥, 陌. Those 218 in t are found under 質, 曷, 轄, 屑. Those in p are under 緝 合 葉 pron. tsip, etc.

The same careful separation of the finals ng, n and m is also found in these Dictionaries. The modern mandarin sound kíen, is found subdivided into the four words kíen, kiem, kan, kam; e.g. the 字彙 classes words in íen under the headings, 堅, 廉, 艱, 監. Mandarin words in óng are found under two heads, 公 kóng and 弓 kióng respectively. While the first medial i is thus affected, the other medial u is found as it is in modern mandarin spelling, except that 戈 is spelt kwo, and heads a class distinct from another which is ranged under 歌.[2]

The number of classes into which the finals are divided varies in different Dictionaries. That of the 字彙, perhaps the must convenient arrangement, consists of 44, This includes the 入聲 finals k, t, p, as the same in sound with ng, n, m. The difference between these two sets of letters, is supposed to be due only to rapid pronunciation occasioned by the tone. In that work, the finals are as follow:—

  1. Kóng 公, kí 基, kung 庚, kin 巾, kiün 鈞, kwáng 光, kwei 規, kwái 乖, kwá 瓜, kié 迦, kó 歌, kán 干, kwán 關 kiem 監, keú 鉤.
  2. Káng 岡, kü 居, kun 根, kim 金, king 扃, kwung 觥, kú 姑, kái 該, kiá 嘉, k’iö 㵃, kwön 官, kíen 堅, kán 艱, kaú 高, kieú 鳩.
  3. Kiaú 驅, kióng 弓, king 京, tshim 簪, kwun 裩, kiáng 江, tsz 貲, kiái 皆, ná 拿, kwó 戈, kiuen 絹, kiem 兼, kam 甘, kiaú 交.

The remaining principal element of these tables is their arrangement according to tones; which are neither five, seven, nor eight, but always four. Thus, 東, 通, 同 are all in the first tone 平聲, under the initials t, t’, d. So also 兵評平明 are all in the first tone 平聲, under the initials p, p’, b, m.

219

Among the words registered in the second tone, are many that are in modern Chinese in the third tone. Such are—

後上動奉坐部禍倖跪近是市緖善弟道父婦犯罪造重在緩罷下丈蕩牝舅社單被倍似曙柱拒忿殍抱竪

下 being in the second tone, we see the probable reason why it was not chosen for the name of the third tone. The character 去 was preferred, because it exemplified the tone of which it was the name.

The tables thus described are employed, to spell words throughout the Chinese dictionaries from K’áng-hí and the 正字通, upwards to the T’áng dynasty and even earlier. There is but one system and one set of tones, the tone is included in the final, or second word in the 反切, Fan t’sih while the first gives the initial, and both are in constant accordance with the tables. The characters 犯 and 下 for example are always given in the 上聲 second tone, but the latter is as a verb also given in the 去聲 third tone. Different dictionaries choose different words to spell with, but the system is one; e.g. 動 is spelt with 徒 dú and 樬 ’tsóng, making ’dóng. It is added 𠀤同上聲, it is the same as dóng read in the second tone.

In considering to which system of pronunciation now existing these characteristics best apply, there occur several objections to the modern mandarin.

The mandarin of Nán-king and Yáng-cheú in Kiáng-nan, of Ngán-k’ing in Ngán-hwei, and of Ch’áng-shá in Hú-nan has five tones, viz. 上平, 下平, 上聲, 去聲, 入聲. In the northern parts of Kiáng-nan another system begins. Words in the 入聲 júh shing become distributed among the other four tones, and this peculiarity extends over the northern provinces including the metropolitan city. The 上平 and 下平 differ as much from each other, as they both do from the other tones, so that the nomenclature of tones, when first invented, could not have referred to the Nanking or Peking mandarin, as they are at present. Evidently the literati speaking those dialects have taken their names of 220 tones from the dictionary system, and not vice versâ. Nor have these two modes of pronunciation since the Yuen dynasty any such finals as m among the long tones, or k, t, p in the júh shing. Not to insist on the differences in the medial vowel i, the want of the initials g, d, b, is another reason for our seeking elsewhere for the prototype of the dictionary system. The western provinces of China are the same in principle as to their pronunciation. Like the mandarin of northern China, they always admit the aspirate after k, t, p, in the 下平, and reject it, except in irregular instances, in all words that are in the southern and eastern provinces in the 下上, 下去, and 下入.

Further, the irregularities of the initial consonants found in the mandarin provinces, are not taken into account in the native tables. Such are the changes of ki into chi at Peking; l into n, and n into l in many dialects; the coalescing of ki and tsi in others. The 下平 aspirates, and some other changes are included in the second table formed to accompany K’áng-hí’s dictionary; yet that table is but a modern and incomplete revision of the older system.

If any one desires native tables of the mandarin pronunciation, he must look for them in the 五方元音 and such works, which give them with great accuracy; though of course their authority is not equal to that of the celebrated dictionaries already cited.

For investigating the sounds of Canton and Fúh-kien, every facility is afforded by the careful dictionaries of those systems of pronunciation that have been prepared by native authors. The Cháng-cheú dialect with its fifteen initials, and its want of a lower 上聲 is definitely marked. Although like the Canton pronunciation it contains the finals m, p, t, k, admits a medial i in words such as 弓, and rejects it in 艱, thus agreeing with the tables in some of their peculiarities, it can only be regarded so far as the tables are concerned, as an isolated, out-lying member of the general system of dialects. The finals, m, t, p, k, disappear on the Fúh-kíen coast at Hing-hwá.

221

The Canton dialect possesses very regular tones, none of them being inverted in pitch as in Fúh-kíen and Kiáng-sí, and it has among them the lower 上聲, or as it is usually called, the sixth tone. In this tone are found perhaps half of the words, having the dictionary initials, g, d, b, zh, z, some of which are given in page 218. But they are pronounced k, t, p, etc. E.g. 似, 倍, 柱, 重, 婦, 牝. These words with many others are in the Canton 分韻. marked lower 上聲. In mandarin they are 去聲.

Nowhere do we find such an accurate general correspondence with the tables, as in the pronunciation of the central parts of China. The tones are such, that the dictionary system is seen at once on examination to apply to them with accuracy. The alphabetical peculiarities of the native tables are found with one or two doubtful exceptions, to be embraced in a tract of country, which will now be roughly indicated.

In the north, the thick series of consonants, g, z, etc. marking the lower series, i.e. in southern China words in tones 5–8, makes its appearance in 南通州 Nán T’óng-cheú, a prefecture lying along the northern bank of the Yáng-tsz-kiáng, where it enters the ocean. The transition from d, etc. where the region of the northern mandarin is approached, is marked by the introduction of the aspirate.

Thus, 地 dí‘ becomes t’í‘, before it becomes tí‘. The two pronunciations are mixed in Chun-kiáng fú 鎭江, There the mandarin system of five tones crosses the river to the south and extends to Nanking. All round Háng-cheú bay, the two correlate series of consonants, and the four-tone system mark the colloquial dialect. Chu-san and Ningpo, Shaú-hing and Hang-cheú, on the south, are at one with Sú-cheú, Ch’áng-cheú and Súng-kiáng, on the north. Perhaps the whole of Cheh-kiáng province has substantially the same spoken medium. Passing the point where the three provinces Cheh-kiáng, Fúh-kíen and Kiáng-sí meet, the thick consonants are still found partially prevailing in the two prefectures of the latter province Kwáng-sin and Kíen-cháng, lying to the west of the Wú-í hills. But at 撫州 Fú-cheú, a little farther westward 222 they have entirely disappeared, and are replaced by aspirates. Instead of dí‘ earth, they there say t’í, for bing sickness, p’ing, and so through all words beginning with k, t, p, in the lower series. The same peculiarity marks the Hakka dialect and that of Kiá-ying cheú 嘉應侧, in the eastern part of Canton province. Nothing can be said in the present notice of the southern parts of Kiáng-sí, but Nán-ch’áng the provincial capital has the aspirates only in the fifth tone where they should properly be, and in the other lower tones has k, t, etc. distinguished from words in the upper series, simply by difference in tone. Immediately north of this city, on both sides of the Pó-yáng lake, the broad consonants occur again. It might be expected that through Ngan-hwei, a connecting chain of dialects should link the broad pronunciation of this region, including the Potteries 景德鎮, and 南康府 on the other side of the lake, with the similar system extending over Cheh-kiáng, and a great part of Kiáng-sú. This line exists and extends through Ning-kwóh fú, but it is so narrow that it does not reach the great river on the north, nor the city of Hwei-cheú on the south. The last mentioned place has two dialects within its walls, in one of which two sets of tones exist, the tones of conversation being quite distinct from those of reading. This is independent of the alphabetical differences of the reading and the spoken sounds, which also here appear to reach their maximum. Near this city, the pronunciation varies so fast that three dialects are found in one híen. The belt of country across Ngan-hwei, where the lower series of consonants is in use, is bordered on the north by dialects containing the aspirates, that so frequently form the medium of transition to the thin consonants and fewer tones of mandarin.

Beyond the Pô-yáng lake westward, are also found the g, d, lb, initials on the banks of the 洞庭湖 Tóng t’ing hú, in Hú-nán. Boatmen from the district of 安化, on the south of that celebrated lake, may be readily conversed with by using the thick consonants in all words in the lower series of tones. Round these two lakes, the favourite resort of the 223 Chinese muse, and from the natural beauty of which Lí Tái-puh drew the inspiration of his poetry, the same system of pronunciation with that of Háng-cheú and Sú-cheú, the most polished cities in China, is found to exist. This consideration with the extent of the territory thus delineated, may help to remove any strangeness in the assertion, that the native tables of sounds made in the Liáng dynasty, and copied into K’áng-Hí’s dictionary are not at all founded on the modern mandarin pronunciation, but on what is now a provincial system.

In the territory thus delineated, there is not the same uniformity in final that exists in initials. Of the three terminating consonants is the 入聲 k only is developed at Shánghái, and even this is wanting in all the large cities near, including those in the northern part of Cheh-kiáng. N is not as a final in the long tones, clearly separated from ng, and there is no representation of m.

On the other hand t and p, with their correlates n and m are found at Fú-cheú fú, 撫州府 in Kiáng-sí but k does not appear. At 南康府 Nán-káng fú, at the western extremity of the same province, p and m are distinctly represented, but there is no k or t, and ng is confounded with n. Kien and kan are distinguished at Shánghái, and in these more southerly cities. Kóng 公 is separated from 弓 kióng at Fú-cheú fú.

In dialects farther south, while the initials differ from those of the dictionaries, the consonantal terminations of the short tone are all clearly marked, and are in harmony with the ancient system. Thus we are led to the conclusion, that in regard to initials, the Kiáng-nan and Cheh-kiáng pronunciation agrees best with the written pronunciations as given in the native tables. But in reference to finals, Kiáng-sí and the southern provinces best represent them. Kiáng-sí appears to be the province that contains within its limits, the greatest number of the peculiarities in question.

In K’áng-hí’s second table, the distinction between the finals, m and n is neglected; e.g. 三 is spelt not sam but san. 224 Further all words in the short tone are spelt with vowel finals; k, t, p, not being recognized, except as secondary forms retained out of respect to the old system. They are cut in small circles. No change is made in the tones or initials, except that words in 下平 are many of them placed in the aspirate column.

The spelling of many words in w with an initial v, and of others in y with ng or n, will be found explained in Part I. section IV. With respect to the two columns headed ch and tsh, which are the same to our ears, it may be observed, that at Sú-cheú words under the former heading are pronounced ch, and under the latter ts, indicating a natural separation between the two columns.

The resumé of this appendix, and of what was said on the Dictionary tables in the sections on the sounds at the commencement of the present work may be stated thus:—

1. The peculiarities of the tabulated initials, finals and tones are all explained, by bringing the different dialects of the three Kiáng provinces together; the aspirated f column being the only prominent anomaly that has not been illustrated.

2. The peculiarities of mandarin pronunciation, such as the interchange of some initial consonants, the prefixing of ng to many words in the upper tones (v. page 51), the coalescing of the upper and lower tones in all cases except that of the p’ing shung, the uniform occurrence of the aspirate after k, t, p, in the hiá‘ p’ing, and the loss of the short tone in the northern provinces, are all unnoticed in the old tables, while they are all recognized in modern works on sounds.

It may be remarked generally on the two systems that the tendency of words in mandarin is to coalesce in sound, while in the other system, the tendency is to more minute subdivision. The mandarin is the most widely spread, embracing two thirds of the 18 provinces.

It appears plain from the Corean and Japanese transcriptions of Chinese sounds made contemporaneous with the dictionaries, that the north of China must then have had the same dialect as that now prevailing in the kiang provinces.

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A. The circumflex tones in page 9, may be further divided. The bend of the voice may be upward or downward. Perhaps the Sháng-hái fifth tone may be best described, as sometimes a low slow falling circumflex, (l.s.f.c.) and at other times as a low even tone (l.s.e.). There would with this extension of the natural tones mentioned in section 2. be seven starting from the same key, viz. The even, rising, falling, rising circumflex, falling circumflex, rising short, and falling short tones. If subdivided into an upper and lower key, they become fourteen, and if considered according to their time as quick or slow, we have in all (the short tones not admitting of this subdivision) 24 natural tones.

B. If Roman numerals i to viii be used for the eight tones, the changes of tone occurring in combination in our dialect may be represented as follows:—In the groups v—i, and viii—i, i become v. In ii—ii; ii—vi, vi—vi and vi—ii, the last tone often becomes i, or else former becomes iii or vii. In iii—iii, iii—vii, the former becomes ii. In v—v, iv—v, v does not change, but in other cases v becomes i.

[1] In Julien’s “Methode pour transcrire les noms Sanscrits dans les livres Chinois,” p. 2; he states that Remusat first published this discovery in 1811.
[2] For a general view of the changes undergone in vowels since the tables of sounds were made, for example changes from u to ú, o to ia, chi to ch, sí to sz, ui to ei, ü to ú, é to í, á to ó, ó to á, etc. v. Grammar of Mandarin Dialect, ch. 8, § 5.

Transcriber’s Notes.

Page 5: The "Fifteen vowels" and "Thirty three consonants" were one table. They are split here for ease of layout.