A Bisayan Grammar and Notes on Bisayan Rhetoric and Poetics and Filipino Dialectology

1 We write Bisayan, and not Visayan for the reason, among others, that there is no V or sound of V in our dialect, and that there seems to be no necessity for changing in English the B of the original Bisayâ into V. ↑

2 A commitee has been found lately in Manila for this purpose. ↑

ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY

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LETTERS.

The Bisayan letters are twenty:1

a,	as a in large		h,	as h in hat		qu,	as the English k
b,		as in English	i,	sounding ee		r,		as in English
c,			l,		as in English	s,
d,			m,			t,
e,	as e in well		n,			u,	sounding oo as in good
g,	as g in good		o,	as o in long		y,	as y in young
ng̃,	as ng in long		p,	as in English

[2]

After knowing the respective sounds of these letters, according to the preceding table, no rule is necessary for the pronunciation of Bisayan words.

1 According to the nature of the Bisayan dialect and according to what some Filipino philologists have written, Rizal among them, referring to the dialects in the Philippines, the letters of the Bisayan language must be the following:

a, b, d, e, g, g̃, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, y, w.

As it can be noticed, the letters c, f, j, ñ, q, v, x and z are omitted from the preceding list, and g̃ and w are introduced. The reason for this is as follows:

c, in its sound as in city, can be substituted by the letter s; and, in its sound like c in cup, it can be substituted by k.
f is never used in Bisayan.
j, in its Spanish sound, can be substituted by h, which has an aspirate pronunciation in Bisayan in all cases. In Bisayan, there is no sound like that of the English j; however, in some places on the western and southern coasts of Leyte, the y is pronounced like the English j, as in maayo (pronounced mah-ah-joh) good.
The Spanish letter ñ, or a sound like it, can be written in Bisayan more properly with the combination of these two letters ny, as in minyo (pr. mean-yo) married.
q is not necessary, since the k can be used in all cases, where q is needed. The phrase quiquilàon co (I shall see it) can be perfectly written kikiláon ko.
v is never used in Bisayan.
x, in its Spanish sound, can be substituted by ks; and, in its English sounds, it can be substituted by gs or ks, respectively.
z, in either its English or its Spanish sound, is never used in Bisayan.
The g̃ is for the nasal sound that is very often used in Bisayan, like the ng in song, longing. The g is preferable to the combination ng̃, which would sometimes lead to confusion; because this combination ng in Bisayan, is not pronounced as one letter, in many instances, but each of these letters is pronounced; as, for example, the word bug̃a (fruit), if written bunga, should sound booong-ghah, which means to dart or to be darted.
w is needed in all cases of sounds like Spanish dipthongs; but it must be used in Bisayan always as a consonant, never as a vowel.

Notwithstanding the preceding considerations, the orthography used in this book is the old one, but simplified to a certain extent, on account of the fact that this alphabet (if it can be properly called an alphabet, it having no f or sound of f) is not yet used, even known, but by very few persons among the Bisayan speaking people.

It would be very desirable for the people to adopt the new orthography proposed in this note, because it is evidently more simple and proper for the particular nature of the Bisayan dialect. [2]

A study of the method of reducing the number of Bisayan vowels is also to be desired, as it seems that not more than three are needed, to wit: a, e or i, o or u.

The nature of the Bisayan tongue argues for such a simplicity. Dr. T.H. Pardo de Tavera, referring to the ancient Filipino alphabet, says: “The alphabet was composed of seventeen letters, three of which were vowels. A consonant standing alone was always pronounced with an a sound following; by the use of a dot or dash near and above the consonant stem, in much the same fashion as is used in certain systems of shorthand, instead of the sound of the a, the sound of the vowels e or i was produced: when the dot or dash was placed below the consonant stem the vowel sound given was equivalent to o or u.” (See Census of the Philippine Islands: 1903 Volume One, page 327). ↑

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THE ACCENTS.

The orthographical accent is an important sign in Bisayan, in order to give to the words their proper pronunciation, and, consequently, their proper meaning.

Of the emission of the voice in pronouncing the Bisayan vowels, there are two ways: one is the ordinary way, like that of the English vowels, as in

baga	(red-hot coal or wood),
dinhi	(here),
olo	(head),

and the other is by a guttural suspended emission of the voice, like

the last a in bagà	(lungs),
the last i in dirì	(not or no), and
the last o in torò	(drop).

This guttural pronunciation is only used in the endings of words.

From the various combinations of these ways of pronouncing the vowels and the force with which they are pronounced, it follows that a vowel, no matter which one it is, has four different sounds:

1st. As ordinarily, and without any particular force.
2nd. As ordinarily, but with force in its pronunciation.
3rd. By a guttural suspended emission of the voice, and without force.
4th. By a guttural suspended emission of the voice, and with force.

[3]

The first way does not need any orthographical sign. But the last three ones require a special orthographical accent in each ease.

When a vowel is pronounced as ordinarily, but with more force than others in the same word, the proper accent is the acute (´).

When a vowel is pronounced with a suspended guttural sound, but without any force, the corresponding accent is the grave (`).

And when a vowel is pronounced with a suspended guttural sound with force, its accent is the circumflex (ˆ), which is simply the combination of the two foregoing accents, as this last represents a sound that is the combination of the two sounds, suspended guttural and with force.

Therefore, in writing the word quita, for example, in its three different meanings and according to its three different pronunciations, it must be as follows:

quitá

(we)

quità

(see)

quitâ

(look at).

RULE. There are three different accents in Bisayan: the acute (´); the grave (`); and the angular, which we may call improperly circumflex (ˆ).

The acute is located wherever it is needed, either at the beginning or in the middle or at the ending of the word. Examples:

úpa

(reward)

upá

(rice chaff).

The grave and angular, by their nature, are only used upon words ending in a vowel, and then only upon the last vowel. Examples:

dacò

(large),

dacô

(larger)

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PUNCTUATION.

The signs of punctuation in Bisayan are the same as those in English, the rules for the use of the period (.), colon (:), semicolon (;), comma (,), parenthesis (), dash (—), quotation marks (“ ”) and apostrophe (’) being identical. [4]

But the rules are different for the use of the interrogation and exclamation points, and hyphen.

In Bisayan, the Spanish way is followed in using two points of interrogation and two of exclamation, the one at the beginning of the question or exclamation (¿) (¡), and the other at the ending (?) (!).

While the hyphen (-) is also used in Bisayan to connect parts of a word divided at the end of a line, and to connect two or more nouns, adjectives, or particles, so as to form them into a single compound, it has an additional use which is to separate distinctly the syllables of certain words that would have a different meaning or none at all without the said separation. Examples:

sál-ong	(to hook)	sálong	(resin)
súl-ay	(belching of an infant)	súlay	(prop)
bac-ad	(to unroll)
os-og	(to draw near from afar)
im-im	(lip)
sid-ap	(to look at)
san-o	(when, future)
cacan-o	(when, past)1

NOTE.—The above separations are not of the same character as those caused by contractions or elisions, where the proper sign is not a hyphen, but an apostrophe. As,

gáb’i	from gabii	(night)
cabitón’an,	from cabitoónan	(stars)
pabáy’i,	from pabayái	(leave him or her)
it’ im’ bugtò ng̃an hit’ ac’ patód,	from iton imo bugtò ng̃an hitón acon patód	(your brother or sister and my cousin).

Therefore, it would not be correct to write gab-i, cabiton-an, pabay-i, where the apostrophe should be employed instead of the hyphen. However, the apostrophe is used only when needed to avoid wrong pronunciation or confusion. [5]So the last of the preceding examples is written without any sign of punctuation, thus: it im bugtò ng̃an hit ac patód.

1 In most of the towns of the island of Sámar, such separation as well as that by apostrophe is frequently disregarded, this being one of the most noticeable differences between the Sámar and Leyte dialects. ↑

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VOWELS

The Bisayan people, especially in Leyte, always have a tendency to separate the vowels in pronouncing the words, there being no Bisayan dipthong. So it is bi-ol (small basket) and not biol; cá-on (eat), ti-il (foot), ma-opay (good), and not cáon, tiil, maopay. But this refers only to spoken language, not to written.

Some words, like uásay (axe), sabáo (broth) are pronounced ua-say, sa-bao, and not u-a-say, sa-ba-o. These syllables ua and ao are not dipthongs. The u in the syllable ua and the o in the syllable ao, are not the vowels u, o, but the consonant w. These words should be written more properly wásay, sabáw.1

1 See the note on the first page of this book. This is one of the facts that urge the adoption of a more logical alphabet (?) for the Bisayan tongue. ↑

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SYLLABLES

Every vowel1 with the consonant or consonants pronounced with it and every vowel pronounced alone form one syllable, and are written as such. This is the rule applied to the division of a word at the end of a line. Examples:

ca-ru-ca-yá-can	(conversation)
bác-dao	(stand)
a-ha-cá	(hemp), etc.

1 Except o and u when used as consonants, their function then being properly that of a w. ↑

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CAPITALIZATION

In Bisayan, the following words should begin with capitals:

1. The first word of every sentence.
2. The proper nouns.
3. The names of the days of the week and the months of the year.
4. Titles of honor or office. [6]
5. All words, except prepositions, conjunctions and unimportant adjectives, in the titles of books and essays.
6. All names of God, and expressions referring to the Deity.
7. Words representing important events in history and epochs of time.

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CONTRACTIONS

There is no contraction used in Bisayan, except that in the sign mg̃a (a particle employed to express the idea of plurality).

Mg̃a is for mang̃a composed of ma (an important prefix of the Bisayan and Tagalog dialects, which bears the idea of abundance or plurality) and ng̃a (a conjunctive particle which is necessarily employed to connect the variable parts of speech).

NOTE. It would be desirable to have the following contractions adopted in Bisayan, inasmuch as they are universally recognized:

i.e.	for id est.	P.S.	for,, post scriptum.
e.g.	for,, exempli gratia.	N.B.	for,, nota bene.
viz.	for,, videlicet.	a.m.	for,, ante meridiem.
etc.	for,, et cetera.	p.m.	for,, post meridiem.1
P.D.	for,, post data.

1 The author believes that it is better to adopt these contractions than to invent others of Bisayan origin for the reason that they afford signs universally understood, and because every tongue has a tendency to assimilate such universal signs. ↑

ETYMOLOGY.

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Parts of Speech.

These are eight in number, in Bisayan: article, noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection. [7]

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ARTICLES.

There are three classes:

Definite:	an	(the)
Indefinite:	in	(a)
Personal:	hi or si	(no equivalent in English).

The definite article, as well as the indefinite, is used in Bisayan in the same manner as its equivalent in English. The definite article, however, is sometimes used before proper nouns, and it is very often used before the demonstrative and possessive pronouns. Examples:

Nacánhi an batà	(the boy or girl has come)
Nacánhi in batà	(a boy or girl has come)
An Dyos1 macagagáhum	(God is omnipotent)
An iní nga bucád	(this flower)
An acon calò	(my hat)

The personal article is always used before the names of persons; it is also used before the personal pronouns, except the third persons. Examples.

Hi Pedro	(Peter)
Hi acó	(I)
Hi icao	(you)

Instead of hi, si may be used.2

These articles do not change in gender. Examples: an amáy (the father), an iróy (the mother); hi Juan (John), hi María (Mary).

The definite and indefinite articles change in the plural in the following way: [8]

SINGULAR	PLURAL
an	an mg̃a3
in	in mg̃a

The personal article does not change, in person or number, except in the third person plural where it takes the form of the third personal pronoun third person, plural number. Examples:

Hi quitá	(we)
Hi camó	(you, in plural)
Hirá Pedro ng̃an hi Juan	(Peter and John)

DECLENSION.—Articles have two cases: nominative and objective.

	SINGULAR			PLURAL
NOMINATIVE:	an	in	hi or si	an mg̃a	in mg̃a	hirá or sirá
OBJECTIVE:	han or san	hin or sin	ni, can	han mg̃a or san mg̃a	hin mg̃a or sin mg̃a	nira, canda

Examples:

An batà nagbahása han surát ni Pedro	(the boy reads Peter’s letter).
Hirá Carlos ng̃an hi Juan naghátag canda Tomás ng̃an hi Pedro hin mg̃a bucád	(Charles and John gave flowers to Thomas and Peter).

The objective case covers all the different cases used in other languages after the nominative, that is to say, the genitive, dative, accusative and ablative cases.

RULES. 1. The Bisayan articles are used immediately before the words to which they refer.

2. The definite article may be used without expressing the object to which it refers, having, in this case, the nature of a relative pronoun. Examples:

An nagtótoon, nahabábaro	(He, who studies, learns).
An mg̃a nagtututdò ha aton	(They who teach us.)

[9]

3. The personal article is always necessary before the names of persons. It is not correct to say “Pedro nagsusurat”; hi is needed, and it must be: “hi Pedro nagsusurat” (Peter is writing).

EXCEPTIONS. 1. Between the definite article and the word to which it refers, other words may be placed, in some instances, as in this phrase:

An iní ng̃a baláy	(this house), or
an maopay ng̃a batà	(the good boy or girl).

The regular order in constructing the last phrase is:

an batà ng̃a maopay.

2. When the names of persons are in the vocative case, the personal article is not used. Thus we say:

Mariano, cadí dao	(Mariano, come, please).
Pamatì, Juan	(listen, John).

3. In the objective case of hi, can is used before the verb, and ni after the verb. Examples:

An can Juan guinsurát	(what John wrote)
An guinsurát ni Juan	(what John wrote)

N.B.—The indefinite article, when needed at the beginning of the sentence, is replaced by the phrase “usa ng̃a” So, if we wish to say “a boy came yesterday,” we should not say

in batà nacánhi cacolop; but

usá ng̃a batà nacánhi cacolóp.

This phrase usá ng̃a is not a perfect article, but it has the character of an adjective, even when used as an article. Therefore, both the indefinite in and the phrase usá ng̃a may be used in the same sentence. So, we can say, changing the regular order of the last sentence:

Nacánhi cacolóp in usá ng̃a bata

(a boy came yesterday).

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NOUNS

These are substantive and adjective. Both may be grouped [10]in the following classes: primitive, diminutive, figurative, verbal, compound, derivative, proper, common, positive, comparative, superlative, cardinal, ordinal, partitive, distributive and collective. Nothing particular needs be said about the primitive.

DIMINUTIVE

Examples:

PRIMITIVE		DIMINUTIVE
baláy	(house)	balaybálay
saróual	(trousers)	sarouálay
carahà	(frying-pan)	caraháay
balóto	(little boat)	balotóhay

As is seen, the diminutive is formed by the repetition of the primitive or by adding to the latter the affix ay or hay.

The primitive is repeated when it has not more than two syllables. As,

from

dáhon	(leave),	dahondáhon,
cáhoy	(tree),	cahoycáhoy.

The affix ay or hay is added when the primitive has more than two syllables; ay being used in cases where the noun ends with a consonant, or a vowel with a grave or angular accent; and hay being employed when the primitive ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented or a vowel that is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it, or is preceded by more than one consonant. As,

from

sacayán	(boat),	sacayánay,
habobò	(low),	habobóay,
balicô	(crooked),	balicóay,4 [11]
abacá	(hemp),	abacáhay,
babaye	(woman),	babayéhay,
banat-i	(a tree so called),	banat-ihay,
malacsi	(fast),	malacsihay.

But the dissyllabic primitive is not repeated when its first vowel is followed by more than one consonant, or when the last vowel has an acute accent or is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it. In such cases the affix ay or hay is employed, the rules established for the use of these affixes being applicable to such diminutives. As,

from

támsi	(bird),	tamsíhay, not tamsitamsi,
túl-an	(bone),	tul-ánay, not tul-antul-an,
pulá	(red color),	puláhay, not pulapula,5
sagpò	(plug),	sagpóay, not sagposagpò,
sab-a	(a kind of banana),	sab-áhay, not sab-asab-a,
bungto	(town),	bungtóhay not bungtobungto.

Generally, as it has been observed in the preceding examples, the adjectives follow the same rules. As,

from

matám-is	(sweet),	matam-isay,
malomó	(soft),	malomóhay,
halípot	(short),	halipótay.

But in must of the adjectives formed with ma (a particle bearing the idea of abundance) and ha6 (a particle that bears the idea of place), like maopay, mabusag, mapulá, hatáas, halabà, the prefixes ma or ha are disregarded in the formation of their diminutives, their abstract roots being the only elements taken into consideration, as if such [12]adjectives were dyssillabic. Thus, opay, busag, pulá, táas, lubà, being the abstract roots of the last mentioned adjectives, their diminutives will be:

from

maópay	(good),	maopay-ópay
mabuság	(white),	mabusagbúsag
mapulá	(red),	mapulapulá
hatáas	(high),	hataastáas
halabà	(long),	halabalabà7

There are some adjectives that have irregular diminutives. Such are the following:

		DIMINUTIVE
from		REGULAR	IRREGULAR
dacò	(large),	dacòdacò	dacolaay8
gutì	(small)	gutigutì	gutirurù9

FIGURATIVE

We call those nouns figurative that are applied to the objects which, not being of the same nature as that which is expressed by their roots, show nevertheless analogy or similarity with those represented by the corresponding primitive, in their meaning, form, use, or application.

Examples:

from

bobón	(fountain),	mobonbóbon10	(fontanel);
cabáyo	(horse),	carocabáyo,	(objects that are like a horse or cloud).
dámpog	(cloud),	darodámpog,	(objects that are like a horse or cloud).

When the primitive has not more than two syllables, the formation of its figurative follows the same rules as those for the dissyllabic diminutive. As,

from [13]

hadì	(king), we have
hadihadi	(a person who, by his vanity or harshness, resembles the figure of a king).

But when thy primitive has more than two syllables, or its last vowel is preceded by more than one consonant or is pronounced separately from the consonant—preceding it, its figurative is formed by adding to the root a prefix composed of its first syllable if it begins with a consonant or of its first vowel if it begins with a vowel and the syllable ro (a particle that bears the idea of imitation, repetition, or collection). As,

from

sacayán	(boat),	sarosacáyan
ulalahípan	(centipede),	uroulalahipan
isdà	(fish),	iroisdà
can’on	(cooked rice)	carocan’on11

NOTE.—Many of the figurative nouns have the same forms as the collective. There are few figuratives among the adjectives; of these, those having the form of figuratives are really comparatives.12

VERBAL

These are formed from the verb-root transformed by particles referring to the agents or the objects of the roots.

Examples:

from

sáyau (to dance)
- parasayáu (dancer),
- tigsayáu (person who sometimes dances),
- magsarayáu (person appointed to dance)
- sarayauán13 (place designed for dancing). [14]
- sarayauón (dance or musical piece to be danced)14;

from

umá (to farm)
- paraúma (farmer),
- tig-úma (person used to do farming),
- mag-urúma (person in charge of farming),
- urumáhan, contracted urúmhan (place designed for farming),
- urumáhon, contracted urúmhon (ground or plant to be cultivated);

from

surat (to write), the similar verbals as above, so far as the idea of the root and the use permit, with this variant:
- susurátan, not sururátan,
- susuráton, not sururáton;

from

toóc (to weep), the similar verbals, so far as the root and the use permit, and this besides:
- matóoc (weeper);

from

bóong̃ (to break), the similar verbals, and this:
- maboroóng̃ (liable or expected to be broken);

from

inóm (to drink), the similar verbals, and the following:
- mainominóm (an inviting drink);

from

sosón (to correct), the similar verbals, and this:
- hinóson (person fond of or bold in correcting);

[15]

from

útang̃ (to borrow),
- hing̃útang̃ or hing̃ung̃utáng̃15 (person fond of or bold in borrowing).

It may be observed that not all of the verb-roots produce the same number of verbal nouns. It depends on the particular character of every idea conveyed in the root, and mainly on the use.

From the preceding examples, it is seen that the transformative particles of the verbal nouns are various, the said particles being the prefixes para, tig, mag, ma, hi, the interfixes16 r, ro, um or the affixes an, on. These particles are very important in Bisayan as they greatly help to enrich the limited vocabulary of this tongue.

For the sake of clearness, we shall see first the affixes.

An, on.

These particles refer to the complement of the verb-root, an to the indirect object of the action (generally regarding the place where the act occurs), and on to the direct object (generally referring to the termination of the action).

An or on is used when the root ends with a consonant or a vowel with a grave or angular accent.

An h preceds them when the roots ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented, or pronounced separately from the preceding consonant or consonants.

The particle an or han is simply added to the root, as,

from

catúrog	(to sleep),	caturogán	(sleeping place);
sing̃ba	(to adore),	sing̃báhan	(church);
taclob	(to cover),	taclóban17	(covering place);[16]
tan-ao	(to see at a distance),	tan-aoan18	(watching place);

or is employed either with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the root or with the first consonant and vowel of the root instead, as

from

cáon

(to eat)

caraonán

from

tíroc

(to assembly)

titiroeán

(meeting place);

or with its first vowel if the root commences with a vowel, as

from

aro

(to ask)

aaroán

(place designed for asking).

The particle on has the same use as an, as

caturogón,
siringbahon,
lilibácon	(from libác, to backbite),
aaroon.

NOTE.—The affix an is sometimes doubled, as,

from

lohód

(to kneel down),

lodhanán19

from

tambò

(to lock out),

tamboànan, from tambóan

(window).

Para, tig.

Para bears the idea of habit, custom or occupation. Tig conveys the idea of a repeated, but not frequent, act. [17]

They are simply prefixed to the root without any other complementary particle, as,

from

cánhi (to come).
- paracánhi,
- tigcánhi.

Ma, with on, with ro, or with r.

The particle ma conveys the idea of fondness, desirableness, or passive potentiality or possibility.

When, it means fondness, it is employed either by putting it at the beginning of the root without any other particle, as

from

cáon

(to eat),

macáon

(glutton),

or by combining it with the affix on or hon, according to the case, as

from

catúrog

(to sleep),

macaturogón

(sleepy head),

from

arába

(to moan),

maarabahón

(person fond of moaning).

When the prefix ma, bears the idea of desirableness, it is placed before the doubled root, when the root has not more than two syllables and its last vowel is preceded by not more than two consonants or is not pronounced separately from its preceding consonant or consonants, as

from

cáon,

macaoncaón

(thing inviting to be eaten)20

[18]

from

oná

(to commence),

maonaoná

(provocative, quarrelsome),

and in cases where the root has more than two syllables, or if not, where its last vowel is preceded by more than two consonants or is pronounced separately from the consonant or consonants preceding it, then this prefix is employed in combination with the interfix ro preceded by the first consonant and vowel of the root or by the vowel only if the root begins with a vowel, as

from	catúrog,		macarocaturóg,
from,,	bányac,	(to kick),	maharobányac,
from,,	síd-ap,	(to look at),	masirosíd-ap,
from,,	arába,		maaroarabá,
from,,	ígham,	(to grunt),	mairoígham,
from,,	ós-og	(to draw near from afar),	maoroós-og.

When the particle ma conveys the idea of passive potentiality or possibility, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the root. The r with its complementary vowel is put after the first syllable of the root. As,

from	bóong	(to break),	maboroóng	(brittle)
from,,	abót	(to reach),	maarábot	(attainable).

The particle ma is frequently replaced by the prefix ig or i combined with the interfix r or its substitutes, as

from	tambal	(to cure),	igtarámbal or itárambal	(medicine),
from,,	surat	(to write),	isusúrat	(thing to write with).

Mag and the r.

The prefix mag bears the idea of forcible, necessary, or continuous agency. It is employed with the interfix r combined with and before the first vowel of the root. This combination is placed between the first and the second syllable of the root. But when there is an r in the root, the interfix r is replaced by the first consonant of the [19]said root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix r is sometimes suppressed, the said first vowel being used instead of the interfix. As,

from	sódoy	(to stroll about),	magsotodóy	(one who strolls about)
from,,	bilíng̃	(to seek or search),	magbiríling̃	(searcher),
from,,	siríng̃	(to request),	magsisíring̃,	(petitioner), not magsiríring̃,
from,,	ósoc	(to set up),	mag-orosóc	(person designed to set up),
from,,	arót	(to cut the hair),	mag-aárot	(barber).

The particle mag is frequently contracted into ma, in which case the root is considered as having an r, as

from	suláy	(to tempt),	manunúlay	(tempter),
from,,	tábang̃	(to assist),	mananábang̃	(helper).

Hi

This particle conveys the idea of boldness. When the root begins with a labial consonant, except the m, the said consonant is transformed into m, as

from	bása	(to read),	himása	(person bold in reading),
from,,	pitíc	(to leap),	himític	(person bold in leaping).

When the root begins with an m, the prefix hi is not commonly used but the prefix para ma, or tig, as

from	múlay	(to teach),	para-, ma-, or tigmulay, not himúlay,
from,,	mogó	(to observe),	para-, ma-, or tigmógo, not himógo.

When the root begins with a vowel, ng̃ is21 appended to the prefix; ng̃ is also appended when the root begins with a guttural consonant, but then the said consonant is suppressed. As,

from	ásoy	(to refer),	hing̃ásoy	(garrolous),
from,,	cáon	(to eat)	hingáon	(bold in eating), [20]
from,,	gúbat	(to invade),	hing̃úbat	(bold in invading).

When the root commences with the nasal consonant ng̃, the prefix hi is ordinarily replaced by the prefix para, ma, or tig, or the first syllable of the root is made long, as

from

ng̃isi

(to laugh, showing the teeth),

para-, ma, or tig̃ngisi, or ñgisi

(person fond of grinning).

When the root begins with any other consonant, except l, n, r, the said consonant is suppressed and the letter n is appended to the prefix, as

from	dolóng,	(to struggle),	hinólong	(bold in struggling),
from,,	sosón	(to correct),	hinóson	(bold in correcting),
from,,	tápod	(to confide),	hinápod22	(bold in confiding)

In all of these cases, the syllable following the prefix hi is sometimes doubled, according to the use, as,

from	himític,	himimític,
from,,	hing̃ásoy,	hing̃ang̃asóy,
from,,	hinóson,	hinonoson,23 etc.

Um.

This particle bears the idea of option. It is used among the verbs for the subjunctive mode. It is always combined with the interfix r or its substitutes, and is placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. When the root begins with a vowel, the interfix is placed immediately before the vowel. Examples:

from	cáon	(to eat),	cumaraón	(person going to, or expected to, eat), [21]
from,,	abót	(to arrive),	umarábot	(person expected to arrive),
from,,	arò	(to ask),	umaarô	(person expected to ask).

Some roots without r follow the rule as if they had an r, as,

from

sacá

(to go up, to board),

sumasáca

(boarder).

Observations: 1. There are verbals formed with ma combined with the interfix r or its substitutes. This formation takes place only in the intransitive verbs commencing with the particle ca which then conveys the idea of passivity. As,

from	caauód	(to be ashamed),	macaaráuod	(shameful),
from,,	cabórong̃	(to be confused),	macabobórong̃	(confusing),
from,,	casína	(to be angry),	macasisína	(odious).

2. The infinitives of the verbs, which are always preceded by the particle pag, are frequently employed as substantives. In such cases the particle pag is transformed in the plural, its g being then replaced by the letter ng̃ if the root begins with a vowel or a guttural consonant, except g, or by the consonant n when the root commences with a dental consonant, or by the m if it begins with a labial. In the plural, the roots commencing with a consonant lose said consonant. When the root begins with a nasal or with the guttural g, said consonant is preserved and the g of pag is replaced by n. Examples:

from arò (to ask), cáon (to eat), dáop (to approach) bása (to read), ng̃oyng̃oy (to groan), gábot (to, pull), we have:

SINGULAR		PLURAL
pag-arò	(asking)	pang̃arò,
pagcáon	(eating)	pang̃áon,
pagdáop	(approaching)	panáop,
pagbása	(reading)	pamása,
pagngoyngoy	(groaning)	panngóyagoy,
paggábot	(pulling)	pangábot,

[22]

3. The infinitives of roots commencing with the particle ca are also used as substantives, and then with or without the prefix pag.

from

cabido

(to be sorry),

pagcabídò, cabídò,

(sorrow).

In such cases, the affix an or on is sometimes employed, as

from	casáquit	(to be sad),	casaquítan	(sadness),
from,,	casína	(to be angry),	casinahón	(anger).

COMPOUND

The use gives the following:

from solód (to enter) and baláy (house),	sólodbálay, which means the person who thru his intimacy with the occupant of a house, enters in at any time;
from sacá (to go up) and lúsad (to go down),	sacálúsad, applied to the person who is very busy or who suffers a great misfortune and goes up and down the house repeatedly. It is also applied to boys or girls who go out the house frequently, especially without permission of their parents;
from dosô (to push) and bótong (to pull),	dosô-bótong,24 applied to a person who takes determinations that are contradictory;
from cábcab (to scratch) and tocâ (what a bird does when it picks up or bites something with its beak),	cábcabtocâ, applied to persons who have to expend for their subsistence all that they gain by their work;
from di, contraction of dirì (not), abotón, from abót (to reach), and calóton, from cálot (to scratch), [23]	diabotóncalóton, applied to that part of the human back, which our hands cannot reach to scratch when it itches;
from tábag (help), ha, a preposition for the objective case, among̃ámong̃ (to malign);	tabaghaamong̃-ámong̃, applied to those who maliciously pretend to help a person in trouble, but injure him. Etc.

DERIVATIVE

We consider under this heading the nouns derived from other nouns. Those originated from a verb are already treated as verbals. Most of the derivatives are adjectives.

The derivatives, like the verbal, are formed with particles, prefixes, interfixes, and affixes.

The usual particles are ca, ma, maca, mag, maqui, hi, pala, tag, as prefixes; r, in as interfixes; and an, on as affixes. As,

from	pauà	(light),	capanà	(clearness)
from,,	áram	(wisdom),	maáram	(wise)
from,,	bayáu	(brother in law),	mabaráyau	(brother-in-law-to-be)
from,,	bidò	(sorrow),	macabibidò	(sorrowful)
from,,	isdà	(fish),	maquiisdà	(fond of fish)
from,,	púsod	(navel),	himósod	(payment for attending to the navel of a new-born child)
from,,	bugtò	(brother or sister),	magbugtò	(referring to two persons who are brothers or sisters)25
from,,	bisaya	(bisayan),	binisaya	(bisayan tongue)
from,,	salâ	(fault or guilt),	saláan	(guilty)
from,,	búuà26	(lie),	buuáon	(liar).

[24]

Ca bears the idea of quality, and is used alone or in combination with the affix an. As

from	hatáas	(high),	cahatáas	(height),
from,,	dáot	(bad),	caraótan, carát’an	(badness).
from,,	pauà	(light),	capauà	(clearness).

It is sometimes combined with the interfix in and the joined affix anon, as

from

masúgot

(obedient),

camasinug’tánon

(obedience).

Ma conveys the idea of abundance and future condition. In the first case, it is added at the beginning of the primitive, which is the form of great many adjectives, as,

from

ísog

(courage, rage),

maísog

(courageous);

and when it means future condition, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive, as,

from

asáua

(wife),

maarasauá

(woman betrothed)

The particle ma is frequently combined with the interfix in and the affix on or ánon. In plural, the ma is appended with g. As

from	túman	(performance),	matinumánon	(faultless) plural, magtinumánon
from,,	sugót	(obedience),	masinug’tánon	(obedient)

It is also used without any affix, and then the primitive is doubled as from tubâ (a wine) matubatubâ (person or thing that smells as tubâ).

Maca has the idea of potentiality, and is added to the beginning of the primitive, by doubling the first syllable of the primitive or by using the intermix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive. As,

from	álo	(shame),	macaaálo	(shameful),
from,,	lípay	(joy),	macalilípay	(rejoicer),
from,,	budlay	(grievance),	macaburúdlay	(grievous).

Mag conveys the idea of mutual relationship, and also [25]of continuity in a few cases. It is simply added at the beginning of the primitive.

Relationship. Examples:

from

patód

(cousin),

magpatód

(cousins each other).

It is sometimes appended with tala, as from amáy (father), magtalaamáy (father and son, or father and daughter).

The derivatives formed with mag conveying the idea of mutual relationship, are always in plural.

Continuity. Examples:

from	ága	(morning),	Mag-ága	(the whole night until the morning);
from,,	colóp	(evening);	magcólop	(the whole day until the evening.)

Maqui signifies the idea of fondness, and is employed without any other transformative particle, as,

from

Dyos27

(God),

maquidyos

(pious).

It is used in very few cases to form verbals, as

from

hámpang̃

(to be present during a conversation),

maquihahampang̃on

(person fond of being present or taking part in a conversation).

Hi, as transformative particle of derivatives, conveys the idea of boldness, and also of consideration, or of payment. We have seen that it means boldness when joined to verbs to form verbal nouns28. As to its use, it follows here the same rules as when employed with verbs. Examples:

from	quinatsilâ	(Spanish language),	hing̃inatsilà	(one who ventures to talk Spanish, knowing but little of it). [26]
from,,	apóy	(grandfather),	hing̃apóy
from,,	púsod	(navel),	himósod29

Pala means resemblance. It is combined with the affix an. As,

from	buyo	(betel nut),	palabuyóan	(applied to the wine of cocoanut, that resembles the taste of the betel nut)
from,,	biráu	(a plant),	palabirauán	(applied to the fruit of cocoanut that resembles the color of biráu)
from,,	camote	(sweet potato),	palacamotián	(applied to the fruit of “nang̃ca” (a tree) that resembles the color of camote)
from,,	gátas	(milk)	palagatásan	(applied to the young rice or corn whose grain is yet liquid resembling the milk)

Tag conveys the idea of ownership or authorship. It is simply added to the primitive. As

from	baláy	(house),	tagbaláy	(owner of a house)
from,,	sugò	(order),	tagsugò	(author of an order).

It is sometimes used to indicate distribution, and then it is frequently combined with the prefix ma preceding it. As

from	túig	(year),	tagtuig	(year by year)
from,,	ádlao	(day),	matag-ádlao	(every day).

These last particles are sometimes replaced by iquina which expresses the same idea. As

from	túig, adlao, búlan (month), pagcáon (meal)
	iquinatúig	(every year)
	iquinaadlao	(every day)
	iquinabulan	(every month)
	iquinapagcáon,	(every meal)

[27]

The interfix r, which bears no particular meaning, is here employed under the same rules as those established for its use in the figurative and verbal nouns.

The interfix in expresses imitation. It is added at the beginning of the primitive if the latter commences with a vowel. Otherwise, it is placed before the first vowel of the primitive. As,

from	Súlug30 (the archipelago of Súlu),
	sinulúg (a fight or dance after the Suluan fashion)
from	tuyáo (crazy),
	tinuyáo (foolishness)
from	ínsic (chinaman),
	ininsic (chinese language; ways; or habit).

An and on among the derivatives, signify the idea of abundance or participation, an frequently conveying the idea of place. Both are appended to the primitive without any other particle, and complemented with an h, in the same way as in the formation of verbals.31 Examples:

from	pálad	(fate),	paláran32	(fortunate),
from,,	asáua	(wife),	asauáhan	(married man),
from,,	salapi	(silver, money),	salapian	(wealthy)
from,,	curi	(difficulty),	curián	(stubborn person)
from,,	sumat	(information),	sumatán	(credulous)
from,,	burabud	(fountain),	buraburon33	(place where there are many fountains)
from,,	taro	(wax),	taróhon	(an object that has wax on)
from,,	tubac	(ant),	tubacón	(a thing that has ants on.)

[28]

These particles are sometimes employed jointly, the an preceding the on. This compound affix, anon, bears the idea of great abundance, or birth or residence place, and is preceeded by an h according to the same rules established for an and on. Examples:

from	mang̃gad	(wealth),	mang̃gáran	(wealthy), manggaránon (rich).
from,,	abacá	(hemp),	abacáhan	(person that has hemp), abacahànon (person that owns much hemp),
from,,	Tan-auan	(a town so called),	tan-auananon	(native or resident of Tanauan).
from,,	Palo	(a town so called),	paloánon contracted palon’on	(native or resident of Palo),
from,,	Tolosa	(a town),	tolosahanon, contracted tolosán’hon	(native or resident of Tolosa),
from,,	Dagami	(a town),	dagamiánon, contracted dagamin’on	(native or resident of Dagami),
from,,	Maasin	(a town),	maasinánon, contracted maasinhon34	(native or resident of Maasin),
from,,	Sugbu	(Cebú),	sugbuánon,	(native or resident of Cebú),
from,,	Samar	(province so called),	samaránon, contracted samárnon	(native or resident of Sámar),
from,,	Manila	(Manila),	manilaanon, contracted manilan’on	(native or resident of Manila).
from,,	America	(America),	americahanon, contracted americanhon35	(American).

OBSERVATIONS. There are other forms of derivatives, viz: ca cat iquina or quina, taga, tagum or tagun, hi.

Ca means also company, as from tupad (to be side by side) catúpad (the person side by side). [29]

Cat means season, as from “áni” (harvest), “cat-aní” (harvest time).

Iquina or quina expresses nature, as from “táuo” (man), “buhi” (alive), “iquinatáuo” (property peculiar to men), “quinabuhi” (life).

Taga, means origin or residence, posession, or measure, as from “Leyte” (Island so called), “súndang̃” (bolo), “íroc” (armpits), we have: “taga Leyte” (from Leyte), “tagasúndang” (one who bears a bolo), “tagairoc” (up to the armpits). When this particle taga means measure, it is sometimes replaced by pa, as from “háuac” (belly), “paháuác” (up to the belly).

Tagum expresses the idea of power, virtue, or peculiarity. When the primitive commences with n, the m of tagum is suppressed. When the primitive begins with a consonant not labial, the said m is replaced by n. It is sometimes combined with the affix an, As: from “matá” (eye) “baba” (mouth), “lipong” (confusion), we have “tagumatá” (peculiar disease of the eye), “tagumbabáan” (person whose words have a peculiar power or virtue), “tagunlipóng̃an” (one who has the power to make himself invisible).

Hi is also combined with the interfix r and the affix an, as from “polós” (profit), “himorólsan” (profitable). Among verbs ha is used instead of hi, as from “cáon” (to eat), “hacaraón” (eatable).

NOTE.—The past participles take sometimes the affix an, as

from cauil (fish-hook), quinauilán (fish caught with “cauil”)

bitánà (a kind of fishing net), binitanáan (fish caught with “bitanà”).

There are other transformative particles not so important as those already mentioned, and which the use will show to the student.

PROPER AND COMMON

Like in other tongues there is in Bisayan a distinction between proper and common nouns. Tacloban, Catbalaógan, [30]Ilong̃-ílong̃ (Iloilo), Espanya (Spain), Pedro (Peter), Guillermo (William), etc., are proper nouns; bucad (flower), bató (stone), áyam (dog), etc., are common.

The Bisayan language has also familiar names for persons. As

of Pedro,	Péndong̃, Endong̃, Edóng̃, Edós, Pedó, etc;
of,, Juan,	Uáuang̃, Uauay, Uáuà, Uuán, Uuâ, etc;
of,, Vicente,	Tenteng̃, Titíng̃, Sente, Setée, etc;
of,, Rafael,	Pápeng̃, Paéng̃, Paél, Pápè, etc;
of,, Margarito,	Titong̃, Itong̃, Titoy, Itoy, etc.;
of,, Francisco,	Quicoy, Incoy, Quicò, etc;
of,, Juana,	Uánday, Uáday, etc.;
of,, Antonio,	Tónyo, Todóc, etc.;
of,, Alejandro,	Andong̃, Andoy, etc.;
of,, Isabel,	Sabel, etc.;
of,, Gregorío,	Goyóng̃, etc.;
of,, Saturnino,	Satúr, etc.;
of,, Claudia,	Calán, etc.

Among the names of places, there are a few formed by the preposition can (which means possession or property), and the particles ca (which denotes abundance), and guin (which conveys the idea of past passive action), as

Cansámqui	(a place, which probably belonged formerly to one named Samqui)
Can-orquin	(place probably owned formerly by one called Orquin)
Canramos,36	transformed Carrámos (place probably owned or possessed in former times by one named Ramos) [31]
Cabuyúan	(place where formerly there was much “buyu” (betelnut))
Cabalían	(place where the strong current of the sea breaks the oars (balì))
Guintiguían	(place in the “San Juanico strait,” where the strong current of the sea tests the rowers (tigui))
Guintúlyan	(a place in Basáy, Samar, where probably many fishes were caught (tulúy) with nets.)
	Etc.

NOTE.—The names of persons among the Bisayan people are all Christian at the present time. Many of the surnames are Spanish, many others being of Bisayan origin as Lágbas, Pócpoc, Macasáit, Cabaobao, Balasbas, Yagomyom, etc.

To indicate relationship, as the English papa, mamma, and respect, confidence, or tenderness, there are a number of Bisayan nouns, which show by themselves the relation between the speaker or writer and the person to whom the noun is applied. Examples:

for papa, tátay or tatáy, tátang̃ or tatáng̃, itáy, or itáng̃;
for,, mamma, nánay or nanáy, nánang̃ or nanáng̃, ináy, or ináng̃.

There are others applied to grandfathers and grandmothers, and also to those persons who act or are considered as fathers or mothers. Examples:

Mano, manóng, mamo, mamoy, babay, dudoy, dudù inco, tutoy, yuyu, iyô (applied to elder brothers, uncles or elder male relatives of any degree, even to persons not related to but respected by the speaker or writer).
Mana37 manang, manáy, mama, mamay. manding, duday, duda, insi tutay, yuya, tuta (applied to elder sisters, aunts or elder female relatives of any [32]degree, even to women not related to, but respected by the speaker or writer).
Tío, or tí, tia or tí (applied as á form of politeness and respect, respectively to men or women not related to or unknown by the speaker or writer).
Idoy, íntoy, budóy, busóy, and idáy, inday, udáy, idíng, iyíng, bididay, nonay, neneng, (applied with tenderness to boys or girls respectively).

NOTE.—The word cuán (so and so), not meaning anything by itself, is applied to persons or things whose names the speaker or writer does not know, or venture, or wish to express. As the phrase “so and so”, it helps a great deal in a conversation, and is used also instead of the verbs and other parts of speech.

The words inín (contracted of iní nga) and adâ (I guess, perhaps) are also used in the conversation, as auxiliary particles, they being then equivalent to the English why.

Examples:

Question.—“¿Guinsorat mo na an balos?” (Have you already written the answer?)
Answer.—“Oo guincoan co na gad” (Yes I already have).
Q.—¿Háin an basahón? (Where is the book?)
A.—Inin … aadto ada ha ac solód (why … I guess it is in my room)
Q.—Mapiráu, ¿ano in bubuhaton co? (I am sleepy, what shall I do?)
A.—Ada … catúrog (Why … to sleep).

POSITIVE, COMPARATIVE, AND SUPERLATIVE.

As in other languages, there are three degrees for adjectives, also used for substantives in Bisayan. These degrees are positive, comparative and superlative.

Nothing particular needs be observed about the positive degree, except what is mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs: [33]

The comparatives are formed exactly in the same way as the figuratives38, the number of syllables being disregarded, as if all has more than two syllables.

from	hatáas	(high),	harohataás	(higher),
from,,	hobóg	(intoxicated),	horohobóg	(more intoxicated),
from,,	táuo	(man),	tarotauó	(more of a man).

In the formation of adjectives prefixed with ma, this particle is preferably disregarded, as if such particle did not exist, as

from	maópay	(good),	maoroopáy	(better)
from,,	magbuság	(white),	maboroboság	(whiter), etc.

There is another form of comparative consisting in the use of the combined particles labi (more) and ca, as

labí ca maopay	(better),
labí ca mabusag	(whiter).

This last form is sometimes used for superlatives.

The superlatives are of three classes:

Those which do not admit any comparison, and which we call absolute or supreme superlatives, as

guimaopáyi

(the best of all);

those which are not so absolute, and which we call ordinary superlative, as,

capín ca maópay		(very good);
maopay nga capín
maopay hin sogóng̃39

and those which convey the idea of excess, and which we call excessive superlatives, as [34]

uraúra40 ca maópay		(to good).
maópay ng̃a uraúra

As is seen from the preceding examples, the supreme supertive is formed by adding to the beginning of the primitive the prefix gui and by appending to said primitive the affíx i. The first syllable of the primitive may be doubled as use permits. As,

from	hatáas	(high, tall),	guihataási, or guihahataasi	(the highest)
	táuo	(man),	guitáu’i	(a true and perfect man).

The first form is also adopted for the substantives to show the highest degree of identity as in this phrase:

An guiaamáyi mo gud an natauág ha imo
(It is your very father who calls you).

The ordinary superlative is formed with the particles capin ca or labí ca placed before the primitive, or with the particles caópay, ng̃a capin, or hin sogong̃ put after the primitive. As,

from	mabido	(sorry)
	capín ca mabidò	(very sorry)
	labí ca mabidò
	mabidò caopay
	mabidò ng̃a capín
	mabidò hin sogóng̃

Some of the adjectives formed with particle ma, have another form for ordinary superlative, in doubling their root and disregarding the prefix ma, as from “masiróm” (dark), “masiromsiróm”41 (very dark).

The excessive superlative is formed with the particle [35]uraúra ca placed before the primitive, or the particle ng̃a uraúra located after the root. As,

from	maasín	(salty)
	uraúra ca maasín	(excessively salty)
	maasín ng̃a uraúra

The idea of the excessive superlative is also expressed sometimes with the particles “lapás ca” (excessively), or with the phrase “dirí sonô hin ca” or “dirì socól hin ca” (out of measure), placed before the primitive, as

lapás ca maasín
dirì sonô hin ca maasín
dirì socól hin ca maasín.

NOTE.—The particles “labi” and “capin” take sometimes the affix an, as

from	mahúsay	(orderly, beautiful),
	labínan ca mahúsay	(very beautiful);
from	masáquit	(painful),
	masáquit ng̃a capínan	(very painful).

CARDINAL, ORDINAL, PARTITIVE, AND DISTRIBUTIVE.

The cardinal adjectives are the following:

usá, contracted us,	(one)
duhá	(two)
tuló	(three)
upát	(four)
limá	(five)
unóm	(six)
pitó	(seven)
ualó	(eight)
siyám	(nine)
napulò42	(ten) [36]
napulo cag43 usá	(eleven).
caruhaán44	(twenty)
catloán	(thirty)
cap’atán	(forty)
calim’an	(fifty)
caúnman	(sixty)
capitoán	(seventy)
caualoán	(eighty)
casiyamán	(ninety)
usá ca gatós	(one hundred)
duhá ca gatós	(two hundred)
usá ca yocót	(one thousand)
usá ca ríbo45	(ten thousand)
usá cagatós ca ribo	(one million), etc.

As it is noticed above, the cardinals are formed by the preposition “cag” (and), the prefix “ca” (which means collection) and the affix “an”, added to the primitives “usá, duhá, tuló, upáo, lima, unóm, pitó, ualó, siyám, napulo, gatós, yocót, ribo”, the phonetical reasons being taken in consideration. Thus we say:

caruhaán, not caduhaán,
catloan, not catuloán,
cap’atán not caupatán,
calim’an not calimahán,
caúnman, not caunoman.

The word “usa” is frequently contracted, especially in familiar language, by the supression of the last vowel. Thus:

us ca gatos		instead of “usá” ca etc.
us ca yocót
us ca ribo

[37]

In reading the numbers, the English way is followed, the particles “uga may” being sometimes employed especially in cases of large amounts. Thus, to read this number

987654321,

we would say:

“Casiyamán cag ualó cayocót, pitó cagatós caúnman cag limá caribo, ng̃a may upát ca yocót, tuló ca gatós caruhaán cag usá.”

NOTE—In Bisayan, there is no word corresponding to the English zero (0). However, its figure is used in Bisayan. It is suggested that the word “lung̃ág” (empty), or “uaráy” (nothing) be adopted as corresponding to the word “zero” which is derived from modern Latin zephiram from Arabic cafrun, cifrun or sefer (empty).

The ordinals are formed by employing the particles “ica” (which bears the idea of order), placed before the cardinal. As

ica usá,
ica napulò
ica calim’an
ica upat ca gatós
ica siyam ca yucót
icá pito ca ribo.

The ordinal of usa has also simple forms, as siyahan, siyapá, and frequently admits the particle icag instead of ica, as icag usá.

The partitives have exactly the same form, as the ordinals, except in that the ordinals cag usa, siyahan and siyapá are never used as partitives; and that there is the form tung̃â and its variants catung̃â, tung̃â or catung̃â hin or ng̃a (half), employed instead of icaduhà.

The phrase ca bahín (part) is frequently used in the partitives to avoid confusion. Thus [38]

an icaupát ca bahín

(the fourth part)

The particle ica is sometimes contracted into caas “catung̃a” (half), “cauróg” (most).

The distributives are formed by adding to the cardinals the particle tag (which conveys the idea of distribution). As

tag dúha	(two, each)
tag caualóan	(eighty, each)
tag yúcot	(thousand, each)

When the distributive bears the meaning of portion, the particle iquina is combined with tag. As

iquina tag duha

(each two), etc.

COLLECTIVE

The collective nouns are formed by adding at the beginning of the primitive the prefix ca (which bears the idea of collection or reunion) and the affix an. As,

from	bata	(boy or girl),	cabatáan	(reunion of boys or girls)
	táuo	(person),	catauóhan	(reunion of persons).
	duhá	(two),	caruhaán	(twenty).

These forms are very frequently used to make the plural of the nouns, as of the singular batá we make the plural.

mga batà or cabataan.

NOTE—The particle ca is also employed to express abstract ideas, as

from

buság

(white color),

mabuság

(white),

camabuság

(whiteness)

The particle pag is sometimes added at the beginning of the particle, as

pagcamabuság

(whiteness).

The collectives take also the form of the figuratives with or without the particles ca and an, as the use may permit, as [39]

caborobong̃tóhan,

borobóng̃to.

NOTE.—There is another class of nouns which may be called depreciative. They are limited in number. The following belong to such class:

for batà (child),

nagbobóto (a being born thru an explosion)
lumátud (person of big abdomen)
lugtuc,46
motatô47
motó, from botó (report of a gun, explosion);

for anác (son or daughter)

nahólbot (past participle of “hólbot” to pull out of a hole);

for baba (mouth)

nasárag (of “sárag” to put something in the mouth);

for camót (hand)

camrauón (from “cámram”, what an eagle does with its fingers);

for tiil (foot)

sincádol48 etc.

There are despectives derived from their primitives, as,

for húbya (lazy), “húbsac”49

The variations to which the Bisayan names are subject, are: gender, number, and cases. [40]

Gender.

The gender is scarcely regarded. We have however for few nouns the natural and grammatical genders.

Examples of natural gender:

MASCULINE		FEMININE
laláqui	(male person)	babaye	(woman)
lalaquí	(male not person)	babayé	(female not person)
amay	(father)	iróy	(mother)
bána	(husband)	asáua	(wife)
bata	(uncle)	dadâ	(aunt)
baylo	(brother in law)	hipág	(sister in law), etc.

Examples of gramatical gender:

MASCULINE	FEMININE
dudoy50	duday
tutoy	tutay
idoy	iday
intoy	inday
mano	mana
manoy	manáy
manong	manang51
tío	tía52, etc.

Number

The plural is determined by the particle mga or by those for collectives as formerly seen53, or by the interfix g among the adjectives. Examples:

of táuo (man) “mg̃a táuo,” or “catauóhan” (men),
of dacò (large), dagcò (large, plural). [41]
of matam-is (sweet), magtam-is (sweet, plural),
of hatáas (high), hagtáas (high, plural).

When the noun is preceded by numeral adjectives, the singular keeps its form, as

usá ca táuo (one man), napulò ca tauo (ten men),
usá ng̃a baláy (one house), calim’an ng̃a baláy (fifty houses).

Some adjectives do not admit the interfix g, for euphonical reason, as

of hubyà (lazy), mg̃a hubya, not húgbyà, etc.

Case.

There is no inflection for Bisayan nouns to distinguish their different cases, as in Greek and Latin. The cases are determined by the prepositions and by variable parts of speech preceding the noun.

IMPORTANT OBSERVATION.

There are great many Bisayan nouns composed of the same letters, but which have different meanings according to the accent they bear. Of these are the following:

anáy	(she-hog),	ánay	(before)
apó	(grandson or grand-daughter),	ápò	(a thing fully introduced)
áyao	(distributive possession),	ayáo	(no, imperative)
bábà	(mouth),	babá	(to carry a thing on the back)
babáye	(woman),	babayé	(female not person)
baga	(red-hot coal or wood),	bága	(lung), bagá (like)
bálay	(turn),	baláy	(house)
bálod	(a kind of dove),	balód	(wave)
bálos	(return),	balós	(revenge)
bánus	(abundant, thick),	banús	(to scrub)
bárang̃	(an amulet),	baráng	(knot) [42]
bayáo	(brother-in-law),	báyao	(to lift up)
bucád	(flower),	búcad	(to dig up)
búhat	(work),	buhát	(to raise)
buhi	(alive),	buhi	(losse)
buláo	(yellow),	búlao	(to provoke a stranger)
búrong54	(fog),	buróng	(to throw)
busà	(reprimand),	búsà	(therefore)
cóbal	(thread),	cobál	(corn, callosity)
comót	(sinked),	cómot	(quick)
dósol	(pain of the stomack),	dosól	(despective form of “cáon”, to eat)
hóron	(to pass the night),	horón	(farm)
igo,	(just),	igô	(to be hit)
lága	(flame),	lagà	(cooked)
láya	(a net for fishing),	layà	(to wither), layâ (withered)
laláqui	(man),	lalaquí	(male, not person)
látos	(reaching, overtaking),	latós	(to whip)
lúya	(weakness),	luyà	(lime), luyâ (restlessness), luy-a (ginger)
muláy	(play),	múlay	(to teach)
obós	(low),	óbos	(to exhaust)
usá or usâ	(one),	úsa	(to marvel)
úpa	(reward),	upá	(rice chaff)
pátag	(plane),	patág	(a kind of basket)
píli	(a tree so called),	pilì	(to select)
pálad	(palm),	palád	(a fish)
pusò	(flower of banana),	pusô	(rice especially cooked)
pusâ	(pounded),	pusà	(to wash the feet)
púto	(a dainty so called),	pútò	(partition), putó (last son or daughter)
sábot	(agreement),	sabót	(filement or to understand)
sácay,	(passenger or companion on a boat),	sacáy	(to embark)
sócot	(frequent),	socót	(to collect) [43]
súso	(teat),	susò	(thickset), susô (a mollusk so called)
tíao	(joke),	tiáo	(maniac)
tíma	(finished),	timá	(uneven)
túba	(a plant so called),	tubâ	(wine from cocoanut or nipa)
tubó	(sugar-cane),	túbò	(to grow), etc.

Transposition of accents.

The accent of a word frequently changes its place upon its transformation.

In the diminutives formed by repetition of the root or by the affix ay, the acute accent is always placed upon the penult. As

from	baláy,	balaybálay
from,,	saróual,	sarouálay
from,,	balóto,	balotóhay.

The grave accent of the root is preserved; and its angular accent becomes grave, which is preserved in its repetition. As

from	dacò,		dacòdácò
from,,	bohô	(hole),	bohòbóhò	(little hole).

When the primitive has the acute accent on its penult, said accent is transferred to the last syllable of the original primitive, the repeated primitive following the preceding rules. As.

from	dáhon,	dahóndáhon
from,,	cáhoy,	cahoycáhoy
from,,	halípot,	halipótay
from,,	maópáy,	maopay-ópay
from,,	hatáas,	hataastáas

In the figuratives, the same rules are followed; and when the interfix ro is employed, the primitive generally loses its acute accent which is placed upon the penult of the figurative. As

from

sacayán,

sarosacáyan.

[44]

In the verbal nouns, it is a general rule that when the verb root has its acute accent on its penult, its verbals have said accent trasplaced to their last syllables, and viceversa, as

from	sarát, (to write),	from	bása (to read)
	parasúrat		parabasá
	tigsúrat		tigbasá
	magsusúrat		magbarasá
	susurátan		barasahán
	susuráton		barasahón
	masúrat		mabasá
	isusúrat,		ibarasá;

except when the transformative particle is ma meaning desirableness, in which case the acute accent is always on the last syllable; and also in case of the particle hi, where the accent is always put on the penult. As

masuratsurát,
himása.

In case where the penult, of the verb root is necessarily long, as when its vowel is followed by more than one consonant, and when the last syllable of the root is pronounced independently from the consonant or consonants preceding it, then the original acute accent of the root is preserved on the penult of the verbal. As

from	cánhi (to come),	dól-ong (to bear, to accompany)
	paracánhi	paradól-ong
	tigcánhi	tigdól-ong
	cumaránhi	domoról-ong
	caranhían	dorol-óngan
	caranhíon	dorol-óngon
	macanhíon	madol-óngon
	icaránhi	idoról-ong
	hang̃aránhi	hinonól-ong

In the derivatives, when the accent is on the penult of the primitive, it is also placed on the penult of the [45]derivative; and when the accent is on the last syllable of the primitive, it is also put on the last syllable of the derivative, as

from	áram,	maáram
	bayáu,	mabaráyau
	púsod,	himósod
	búua,	buuáon
	tubác,	tubacón.

It must be noted that we refer to the acute accent. It sometimes happens that the last syllable of the primitive has angular accent, in which case such accent is discomposed, the grave being kept and the acute being transposed to the penult of the derivative, as

from

salâ,

saláan,

where the a of the penult really bears two accents, angular and grave, the angular not being employed for the reason that is it not necessary, as the last two aa are pronounced separately55, and because it is not proper, as the angular accent is only used at the endings of the words.56

In the derivatives formed with taga, or tag, or maqui the accent of the root is not changed. As

from	bódo,	(salted fish),	tagabódo
	baláy	(house),	tagbaláy
	calámay	(dark sugar)	maquicalámay

The comparatives formed with, the interfix ro, have always the accent on the last syllable no matter where it was in the primitive. As

from	halábà	(long),	harohalabâ
	uguis	(white),	urouguís.

The superlatives formed with the prefix gui and the affix i always have the accent on the penult, without regarding where it was in the primitive. As [46]

from	halárum	(deep),	guihahalarúmi
	matahúm	(beautiful),	guimamatahúmi

The collectives follow the way in which their primitives are accented, so, if their, primitives have the accent on the penult, they have it on the penult, and when the primitives have the accent on the last syllable they also have it on their last syllables. As

from	bátà	(child),	cabatáan
	baláy	(house),	cabalayán.

It must be observed also that there are nouns which, thru phonetical variations, have more than one forms. Of such words are the following:

báchò, bíchò	(groaning)
bándoc, búndac	(kick)
guipic, guipác	(broken)
guisî, gusî, quisî, cusî	(sagged)
Panalaron, Palanaron, Planaron	(one of the suburbs of the town of Tacloban),57
piló, lopí	(fold)
quíróg, coróg	(trembling)
quirógpos, corógpos	(surtout)
sitsit, sutsut	(whistle)
taclap, taplac	(blanket), etc.

There are also words composed of the same letters but sounding differently and having different meanings thereby, on account of the separation with which some of their syllables are pronounced. As

bágo	(a tree),	bag-o	(new)
lauay	(saliva),	lau-ay	(repugnance)
tagóc	(resin),	tág-oc	(inarticulate voice). [47]
bágang	(an insect),	bág-ang	(grinder)
bútol	(bulky),	bút-ol	(throat)
bulánon	(moony),	bul’ánon	(from Bohol), etc.

[Contents]

PRONOUNS

There are four classes: personal, demonstrative, possessive, and relative.

PERSONAL.

They are the following:

SINGULAR		PLURAL
Acó	(I)	Quitá, camí	(we)58
Icáo, ca,59	(thou, you)	Camó	(you)
Hiyá, or siyá60	(he or she)	Hirá, or sirá	(they)

Declension

The cases are four; nominative, genitive, objective, and vocative.

First person.—Singular.

Nominative.—	Acó	(I)
Genitive.—	Nácon,61 ácon, co	(of, by me)
Objective.—	Ha ácon, dácon62	(to, for, in, at, on, upon, over, under, etc. me)

Plural.

Nominative,—	Camí—quitá.63	(we)[48]
Genitive.—	Nímon, ámon—aaton, aton, ta	(of, by us)
Objective.—	Ha ámon, dámon—ha áton, dáton	(to, for, etc. us)

Second person.—Singular.

Nominative.—	Icáo, ca	(thou, you)
Genitive.—	Nimo, imo, mo	(of, by thee, or you)
Objective.—	Ha imo, dimo	(to, for, etc. thee, or you)
Vocative.—	Icao	(thou, or you)

Plural.

Nominative.—	Camó	(you)
Genitive.—	Niyo, iyo	(of, by you)
Objective.—	Ha iyo, díyo	(to, for, etc. you)
Vocative.—	Camó	(you)

Third person—Singular.

Nominative.—	Hiyá	(he, or she)
Genitive.—	Niya, iya	(of, by him, or her)
Objective.—	Ha iya, díya	(to, for, etc. him or her)
Vocative—	Hiyá	(He, or she).

Plural.

Nominative—	Hirá	(They)
Genitive—	Nira, ira	(of, by them)
Objective—	Ha ira, dira	(to, for etc., them)
Vocative—	Hirá	(they).

DEMONSTRATIVE.

They have the same forms both for the singular and plural, as follows:

adí	(this, these, nearer to the speaker than to the listener)
ini	(this, these)
itó	(that, those, nearer to the speaker than to the listener, corresponding to the Spanish “ese, esa, eso, esos, esas”)[49]
adto	(that, those, far from both the speaker and the listener, and corresponding to the Spanish “aquel, aquella, aquellos, aquellas”).

When used before the nouns, they have the particle nga after them; said particle being frequently contracted with the pronun. As

adí ng̃a,	contracted adín,
iní ng̃a,	contracted inín,
itó ng̃a,	contracted itón,
ádto ng̃a,	contracted ádton.

The form itón sometimes takes again the particle ng̃a. So it is said itón ng̃a batâ (that boy or girl).

Adí, adto in some places have their variants yadi, yadto.

In plural, the particle mga is placed after the preceding combinations;

They have two cases: subjective and objective.

Declension.

Adí.—Singular

Subjective—	Adí, adí ng̃a, adín	(this)
Objective—	Hadí, hadí ng̃a, hadín, or hadin mg̃a	(of, etc. this)

Plural.

Subjective—	Adí, adi ng̃a mg̃a, adín mg̃a	(these)
Objective—	Hadí, hadi ng̃a mg̃a, hadín, or hadin mg̃a	(of, etc., these).

Iní.—Singular

Subjective—	Iní, iní ng̃a, inín	(this)
Objective—	Hiní, hiní ng̃a, hinín	(of, etc., this)

Plural.

Subjective—	Iní, ini ng̃a mg̃a, inín mg̃a	(these)
Objective,—	Hiní, hini ng̃a mg̃a, hinin mg̃a	(of, etc., these).

[50]

Itó.—Singular.

Subjective.—	Itó, itó ng̃a, itón, itón ng̃a	(that)
Objective—	Hitó, hitó ng̃a, hitón, hitón, ng̃a	(of, etc. that)

Plural.

Subjective.—	Itó, itó ng̃a mg̃a, itón mg̃a, itón ng̃a mg̃a	(those)
Objective.—	Hitó, hitó ng̃a mg̃a, hitón mg̃a, hitón ng̃a mg̃a	(of, etc., those)

Adto.—Singular.

Subjective.—	Adto, adto ng̃a, adton	(that)
Objective.—	Hadto, hadto ng̃a, hadton	(of, etc., that)

Plural.

Subjective.—	Adto, adto ng̃a mg̃a, adton mg̃a	(those)
Objective.—	Hadto, hadto ng̃a mg̃a, hadton mg̃a	(of, etc., those)

The forms adton and hadton are frequently used instead of itón, hitón when the object referred to is very close to the listener. Itón is sometimes replaced by the forms hadto and haton. Examples:

mopáy adtón hiní	(that one is better than this)
condî darodacô iní hadton	(but this is larger than that)
say co hatón	(I prefer that one).

POSSESSIVE.

They are the following:

SINGULAR		PLURAL
acon, co	(my, mine)	aton, ta, amon	(our, ours)
imo, mo	(thy, thine, your, yours)	iyo	(your, yours)
iya	(his or her)	ira	(their)

The forms co, mo, ta are used only after the nouns. [51]

The same distinction exists between aton and amon, as between quitá and camí.64

They have also two cases: subjective, and objective.

Declension.

Acon.—Singular.

Subjective.—	Acon, co	(my, mine)
Objective.—	Ha acon, han acon	(of, etc., my)

Plural.

Subjective.—	Aton, ta, amon	(our, ours)
Objective.—	Ha aton, han aton, ha amon, han amon	(of, etc., our)

Imo.—Singular.

Subjective.—	Imo, mo	(thy, thine, your, yours)
Objective.—	Ha imo, han imo	(of, etc., your, thy)

Plural.

Subjective.—	Iyo	(your, yours)
Objective.—	Ha iyo, han iyo	(of, etc., your)

Iya—Singular.

Subjective—	Iya	(his, her, hers)
Objective.—	Ha iya, han iya	(of, etc., his, her)

Plural.

Subjective.—	Ira	(their)
Objective.—	Ha ira, han ira	(of, etc., their)

These plurals refer to the subjects possessing. The plural referring to the objects possessed, is formed in each case by using the particle mg̃a, as

Acon mg̃a cabogtóan	(my brothers or sisters)
Iyo mg̃a láuas	(your bodies)
Ira mg̃a cabalayán	(their houses)

[52]

RELATIVE

They are as follows:

Ng̃a	(that, which)
anó	(what)
bisan anó	(whatever)
hín’o or sin’o65	(who)
bisan hin’o or bisan sin’o	(whoever)
háin	(which)
bisan háin	(whichever)

These pronouns, except hin’o and bisan hin’o have no inflection for cases.

Ng̃a.

This relative always refers to the subject of the verb. It never relates to the complement. So the sentence:

“the house that Peter builds is big”,

cannot be translated literally into Bisayan. It is expressed by passive voice. Thus:

“an baláy ng̃a guintitindog ni Pedro, dacô”;

literally “the house that is being built by Peter is big”, And this:

“the book which you gave me yesterday”

is translated:

“an basahón ng̃a ihinátag mo ha acon cacolóp”;

literally “the book which was given by you to me yesterday”

This pronoun is indispensable when a substantive is qualified by an adjective, as

maópay ng̃a táuo	(good man,)	not	maúpay táuo,
bucad ng̃a mahamót	(fragrant flower)	not	bucád mahamot66

It differs from the conjunction ng̃a (that) in that the [53]pronoun always refers to a noun, never to a verb.

NOTE.—This particle ng̃a expresses in some instances the idea of “saying,” “question,” “answer,” etc., as when we say:

Ng̃a ni Pedro: “tágui acó hin salapí.” Dáyon batón ni Juan, ng̃a niya: “uaray co salapí.”

Peter said: “give me money.” John immediately replied by saying: “I have no money.”

Pacanhía hi Guillermo. Ng̃a natón67 “guinquiquína hang̃lan ca didto.”

Make Guillermo come. Tell him: “you are needed there.”

When applied to the third person it is frequently combined with the particle laóng̃ as:

Násiring̃ hi Pedro, ng̃alaóng̃: “magtotoón aco.”

Peter said: “I shall study”.

This special idea conveyed by the word ng̃a seems to show in other instances in the Bisayan tongue, as when it is said depreciatively:

¡Ca damò hin im ng̃ang̃a!

How many things you ask or talk!

where the doubled ng̃a means request or talking.

Anó.

This pronoun has the same use as the English what, except when the latter is used as an objective relative, in which case the said English pronoun is translated by the article an. As when it is said:

“What you need is patience, not science,” which is translated:

An guinquiquinahang̃lan mo an pag-ílob, dirì hibaró. [54]

Bisan anó.

Bisan ano means “anything” or “whatever.” Examples:

Whatever you do I’ll know it.

Bisan ano in buháton mo, hisasabotán co.

Give me anything eatable.

Tágui aco hin bisan anó ng̃a hacaraón.

It is frequently replaced by ano lâ, or anoano lâ. Ex.:

Anything you may desire, I’ll give you.

Ano lâ ng̃a caruyágon mo, ihahatag co ha imo.

You wish to see everything.

Anoano lâ buót mo hiquit’an.

When it is preceded by an article, it means “which,” as

Which horse do you like?

¿An anó ng̃a cabayo in buót mo?

Hin’o

This relative is only used in the interrogative phrases. It is not employed as the English “who” when this relative serves as “that”. So this phrase

“that person who talks is my brother” is translated: “itón tauo ng̃a nagyayácan, acon bugto,” not “itón tauo hin’o nagyayácan, etc.”

It has two cases: subjective and objective.

Declension

	SINGULAR		PLURAL
Subjective—	Hin’o	(who)	Hirá hin’o	(who)
Objective—	Canáy, can canáy	(of, etc. whom whose)	Canda canáy	(of, etc., whom, whose)

Bisan hin’o

Bisan hin’o means “whoever” or “anyone”. Example: [55]

Whoever is there, let him come.

Bisan hin’o in adâ, pacanhía.

Anyone knows him.

Bisan hin’o náquilála ha iya.

It also has two cases: subjective and objective.

Declension.

	SINGULAR		PLURAL
Subjective.—	Bisan hin’o	(whoever)	Bisan hirá hin’o	(whoever)
Objective.—	Bisan canáy	(of, etc., whomever)	Bisan canda canáy	(of etc., whoever)

Hain.

Hain means “which.” Examples:

Which of these hats is yours?

¿Háin hiní ng̃a mg̃a calò in imo?

Similarly to “ano,” the pronoun “háin” is only used in the interrogative forms, never as ng̃a (that). So the phrase

“the book which you saw”

is translated

“an basahón ng̃a imo quinità”

(literally: the book that was seen by you), and not

“an basahon háin icao quinmità.”

Bisan háin.

It is equivalent to the English “whichever,” Examples:

Whichever of those books satisfies me.

Didâ hitó ng̃a mga basahón bisan háin maopay co.

NOTE.—These relatives hain and bisan háin must not be confounded with the adverbs of the same form, háin (where) and bisan háin (wherever). The former refer only to nouns, the latter to verbs. [56]

CONTRACTIONS.

The pronouns are frequently contracted as follows:

acó, ácon,	to	ac
nácon	to,,	nac
dácon	to,,	dac
camí	to,,	cam
quitá	to,,	quit
námon	to,,	nam
ámon	to,,	am
náton	to,,	nat
áton	to,,	at
dámon	to,,	dam
dáton	to,,	dat
icáo	to,,	ic
nímo	to,,	nim
imo	to,,	im
dimo	to,,	dim
camó	to,,	cam
adi	to,,	ad
iní	to,,	in
itó	to,,	it
adín	to,,	ad
itón	to,,	it
hadí	to,,	had
hadín	to,,	had
hiní	to,,	hin
hinín	to,,	hin
hitó	to,,	hit
hitón	to,,	hit
hatón	to,,	hat
ácon	to,,	ac
áton	to,,	at
ámon	to,,	am
imo	to,,	ini
bisan anó	to,,	bis ano
bisan háin	to,,	bis hain

[57]

[Contents]

VERBS

The verbs may be grouped in the following classes:

As to their conjugation: active, passive, negative, interrogative, suppletory, impersonal, defective.

As to their inflections: primitive, and progressive.

The Active verb represents the subject as acting, as:

acó násugò (I order).

The Passive verb represents the subject as being acted upon, as:

acó sinúsugò (I am ordered).

The Negative verb involves a negation, as:

ayáo catúrog (do not sleep).

The Interrogative verb involves a question, as:

¿diín ca cadto? (where did you go?)

The Suppletory verb supplies the lack of all auxiliary and a few other verbs as from ini (this), we have:

íiní acó (I am here), to express the verb “to be,” in Bisayan.

The Impersonal verb has not a definite subject, as:

náurán (it rains).

The Defective verb lacks one or more of its principal parts as,

iyá (receive it).

The Primitive verb is used in its original and simplest form as:

acó násurát (I write).

The Progressive verb denotes continuance of the action, as:

acó nagusurát (I am writing). [58]

CONJUGATION

VOICES

They are active and passive. The passive voice has three classes: direct, indirect, and instrumental.

The direct passive is where the subject is the direct object in active voice, as:

suratá an acon ng̃aran (write my name; literally: let my name be written by you).

The indirect passive is where the subject is an indirect object of the verb in its active voice, as:

suratí an imo amáy (write to your father; literally: let a letter be written by you to your father),

The instrumental passive is where the subject is the instrument or real object of the action, as:

igsurát iní ng̃a pluma (write with this pen; literally: let this pen be used by you in writing.)

MOODS AND TENSES

There are four moods: infinitive, indicative, imperative, and subjunctive,

The infinitive has two tenses: present, and gerund; three in passive voice: present, gerund, and past participle.

The indicative has three. The ordinary forms have present, past and future. The irregular forms have present, imperfect past, and past.

The imperative and subjunctive, have each one tense: present.

Infinitive: The present is frequently used as a noun, as:

an pagcáon (the meal).

The gerund is frequently used in compound sentences for past tenses, as: [59]

han pag-abot co (when I arrived: literally: upon my arriving).

The past participle is employed as an adjective as:

hinigugma co ng̃a iróy. (my dear mother; literally: mother loved by me).

NOTE.—There are in Bisayan forms resembling and equivalent in many instances to the Latin infinitive future ending in rus, in active, and in dus, in passive, as amaturus and amandus. Such Bisayan forms are those formed by the particle um combined with the interfix r or its substitutes (See page 20), as:

cumaráon (one who is to eat)

caraonón (a thing to be eaten).

Indicative. Ordinary forms. The present corresponds to the same tense, in English, and also to the Spanish and Latin imperfect past. As:

nácaon acó (I eat)

nácaon acó han pag-abot mo (I was eating when you arrived)

The past tense represents the English present perfect, and past, indicative mood. As:

nagsurát acó (I have written, I wrote)

The future corresponds to the English future tense, as:

másurat acó (I shall write)

Suppletory forms. The present represents the English present and future tenses, indicative. As:

He is here: hiyá háhani.

He will be here tomorrow: hiyá hahaní buás.

The imperfect past and past tense corresponds to the same tense of the Latin and Spanish languages: as

didinhi68 hi Juan han pag-abót co (John was here, when I arrived) [60]

Imperative and Subjunctive. The single tense (present) of each of these moods corresponds to the same tense in English, as:

cadto búas (go there to-morrow)

cun cumadto ca buas, tauága acó (If you go there tomorrow, call me).

Observations. 1. The English past perfect, indicative, is supplied in Bisayan by the present tense, indicative, of the potential form which we shall see later.69 As:

han imo pag-abót nacacatima na acó (when you arrived, I had already finished).

2. The English future perfect tense is supplied in Bisayan by the future tense, indicative, of the potential form. As

umabút ca ng̃anì macacatima na aco (when you arrive, I shall have finished).

3. The Latin and Spanish imperfect past tense, subjunctive mood, is supplied in Bisayan by the present, subjunctive, and future indicative. As

Cun gumican acó niyán, diri co hiya igquiquita buás (If I should go today, I would not meet him tó-morrow).

4. The Latin and Spanish perfect past tense, subjunctive, is supplied in Bisayan by the past tense, indicative.

5. The Latin and Spanish plusquamperfect past tense, subjunctive, is supplied in Bisayan by the past and future (potential) tenses, indicative, respectively. As

Cun nagdágmit acó, hinaabután co cunta hiyá (If I had hastened, I should have reached him).

6. The Latin and Spanish imperfect future tense, subjunctive, is supplied in Bisayan by the present subjunctive.

7. And the perfect future tense, subjunctive, of said languages, is supplied in Bisayan by the present, indicative, potential form. [61]

NUMBER AND PERSON.

There are two numbers: singular and plural.

There are three persons: first, second, and third. Except in the imperative, the inflections of the verbs generally do not change, in each tense. However, the progressive and suppletory forms frequently undergo some changes in plural, as

acó nagsusurát (I am writing),

camí nanunurát (we are writing)

[Contents]

INFLECTIONS.

The inflections are determined by particles, which are shown in the following tables:

(In the tables below, the dash represents the root; the sign (d) means that the first syllable of the root is doubled; s and p mean singular and plural, respectively).

TABLE 1

Primitive active
Infinitive
Present, and gerund:	PAG—, s; PANG—, PAM—, PAN—, p
Indicative
Present:	NA—
Past:	INM—, or —INM—
Future:	MA—
Imperative
(the root unaltered)
Subjunctive
UM—, or —UM—

[62]

OBSERVATIONS:

Infinitive. The present and gerund are formed by the prefix pag, and the root. In the plural, the g of pag undergoes the following changes:

When the root begins with a vowel o: with the consonant c, the pag is changed into pang the c then being suppressed. Examples:

from	“arò”	(to ask),	pag-arò,	pl. pang̃aro.
	“catúrog”	(to sleep),	pagcátúrog,	pl. pang̃atúrog.

If the root commences with a labial consonant, except m, pag is transformed into pam, and then the labial consonant disappears. Examples:

from	“báyad”	(to pay),	pagbáyad,	pl. pamáyad.
	“pilì”	(to select),	pagpilì,	pl. pamilì.

When the root begins with m, pag is transformed into pan, the m of the root remaining in it. Example:

from

“múlay”

(to teach),

pagmúlay,

pl. panmúlay.

If the root commences with any other consonant, pag is replaced by pan, the said consonant being then suppressed except when it is a g or h. Examples.

from	“hapon”	(to perch),	paghápon,	pl. panhápon,
from,,	“gúbat”	(to invade),	paggúbat,	pl. pangúbat,
from,,	“búao”	(to visit),	pagdúao,	pl. panúno,
from,,	“tubò”	(to grow),	pagtubò,	pl. panubò,
from,,	“surát”	(to write),	pagsurát,	pl. panurát.

Indicative.—Present. The transformative particle of this tense is the prefix na, which must always be pronounced long, in order not to confound it with the short na of the passive potential form, as it will be seen later.70 As

(long na)	nápilì acó	(I select)
(short na)	napílì acó	(I was selected).

Past.—This tense is determined by the interfix inm placed [63]between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root.

When the root commences with a vowel, this particle is simply prefixed to the root. As,

from “surát” (to write), “abót” (to arrive) acó sinmurát71 (I write), inmabót hirá (they arrived)

NOTE.—The m of imn is frequently suppressed. As,

from	“múlay”	(to teach),	abót	(to arrive)
from,,	minúlay,		inábot.

Future.—The particle determining this tense is the prefix ma which must be always pronounced long, so as not to confound it with the short ma used among the verbal and derivative nouns. As,

(long ma)	hiyá mácáon	(he or she will eat)
(short ma)	hiyá macaón	(he or she is a glutton)
(long)	máborong̃	(there will be fog)
(short)	mabórong̃	(confuse)

Imperative.—It is simply the root without any transformative particle.

NOTE.—There is a form consisting in doubling the first syllable of the root. But this form is used only in the preceptive language, as when we say: “tauágon ca ng̃anì, bábatón” (whenever you are called, always answer).

Subjunctive.—The single tense of this mood is determined by the interfix um which is placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix is added to the beginning as from “arò” (to ask), “umarò,” from “cáon” (to eat) cumáon.

Example:

Root: surát.

Infinitive

Present, and gerund		singular:	pagsurát		(to write, writing)
		plural:	panurát

[64]

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR				PLURAL
acó	násurat	I,	write, etc.	camí quitá	násurat	we	write
icao		they, you		camó		you
hiyá		he, she		hirá		they

PAST

acó, etc. inmurát

(I, etc. wrote)

camí, etc. sinmurát

(we, etc. wrote)

FUTURE

acó, etc. másurat

(I shall, etc. write)

camí, etc. másurat

(we shall, etc. write)

Imperative

surát icao	(write)	sumurát72 camí, hirá	(let us, them write)
sumurát72 hiya	(let him or her write)	surát quitá, camó	(let us, you write)

Subjunctive

acó, etc. sumurát

(I may, etc. write)

camí, etc. sumurát

(we may, etc. write)

TABLE 2.

Progressive active
Infinitive.
(the same as that of the primitive active)
Indicative
Present:	NAG(d)—, s; NANG(d)—, NA(d)—, or NAN(d)—, p.
Past:	NAG—, s: NANG—, NA—, or NAN—, p.
Future:	MAG(d)—, s; MANG(d)—, MA(d)—, or MAN(d)—, p.
Imperative.
PAG—, s; PANG—, PA—, or PAN—, p.
Subjunctive
MAG—, s; MANG—, MA—, or MAN—, p.

[65]

OBSERVATIONS.

Infinitive. Its forms are exactly the same as those of the primitive active.

Indicative. Present. Its singular is determined by doubling the first syllable73 of the root, prefixed by nag.

Its plural is formed according to the first letter of the root. When the root commences with a vowel, or with the consonant c as

arò	(to ask)
cáon	(to eat)

the formation takes the following process: ng̃ is added to the beginning of the root, c being suppressed, as

ng̃aro, ng̃áon;

the first syllable is doubled,73 as

ng̃ang̃aro, ng̃ang̃áon,

to which the particle na is prefixed, as

nang̃ang̃arò, nang̃ang̃áon,

which is the final form.

When the root commences with a labial consonant, as

báyad	(to pay)
múlay,	(to teach)
pili	(to select),

the formation of the plural is as follows: the first consonant of the root is replaced by m, or not altered if it is an m, as

máyad, múlay, mili;

then the first syllable is doubled,73 as [66]

mamáyad, mumúlay, mimilí;

and the prefix nan is employed, as

nanmamáyad, nanmumúlay, nanmimili,

the final form.

The last n of nan is frequently suppressed, as

namamáyad

namimili.

When the root begins with a dental consonant as

dapò	(to approach)
tábon	(to cover)
surát	(to write)

the formation of the plural consists in replacing the first consonant by n, as

napó, nabon, nurat,

whose first syllable is doubled74, as

nanapo, nanabon, nunurat,

to which the particle na is prefixed as

nanánapó, nanánabon, nanúnurat,

the final form.

If the root commences with any other consonant, the plural is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root, and by prefixing the particle nan to the root so transformed. Examples:

from	hugas	(to wash),	nanhuhugas.
	lohód	(to kneel down),	nanlolohod.
	rabot	(to pull),	nanrarabot.

Past. The singular is formed by adding to the root the prefix nag. [67]

The plural is formed exactly as the plural present, except in that the first syllable of the root transformed is not doubled.

Future.—The formation of this tense is the same, both in singular and plural, as that of the present, except in that the prefixes used here are mag, ma, man, mang, instead of nag, na, nan, nang.

Imperative.—In singular, the prefixes pag and mag are employed. In plural, the prefixes, pa, pan, pang, ma, man, mang, are used in the same way and cases as the prefixes na, nan, nang, in the present indicative.

Subjunctive.—It is formed in the same way as the future indicative, except in that the first syllable of the root is not doubled here.

Root: surát (write)

Infinitive

Present, and gerund		singular:	pagurát		(to be writing, being writing)
		plural:	panurat

Indicative
PRESENT
SINGULAR		PLURAL
acó, etc., nagsusurát	(I am, etc. writing)	camí, etc. nanunurát	(we are, etc. writing)
PAST
acó, etc. nagsurát	(I was, etc. writing)	camí etc. nanurát	(we were, etc. writing)
FUTURE
acó, etc. magsusurát	(I shall, etc. be writing)	camí, etc., manunurát	(we shall, etc. be writing)
Imperative
pagsurát icao	(be writing)	panurát quita, camó	(let us, you be writing)
magsurát hiya	(let him or her be writing)	manurát camí, hirá	(let us, them be writing)
Subjunctive
acó etc. magsurát	(I may, etc. be writing)	camí, etc. manurát	(we may, etc. be writing)

[68]

TABLE 3

Primitive direct passive
Infinitive
Present, and gerund:	PAG—A, s; PANG—A, PAM—A, PAN—A, p
Past participle:	IN—, or —IN—
Indicative
Present:	IN(d)—, or —IN(d)—
Past:	IN—, or —IN—.
Future:	(d)—ON.
Imperative
—A.
Subjunctive
—ON.

Infinitive. The present and gerund are determined in singular by the prefix pag and the affix á. Pag is used as in the active voice. The affix a is accented (if the last syllable of the root is accented) and simply appended to the root prefixed by pag. This affix is sometimes ha. The use of a or ha follows the same rules established for the use of the affixes an and han (See page 15 of this book).

In plural the prefixes pang, pam, pan, are employed in combination with the affix a. The said prefixes are used in same way as their similar in the primitive active. (See page 62 of this book).

The past participle is formed by the interfix in placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. If this begins with a vowel the in is prefixed to the root. As

from	“cáon”	(to eat),	quináon	(eaten)
from,,	“inóm”	(to drink),	ininóm	(drunk)

[69]

Indicative.—Present. This tense is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root and by then placing in it (after doubling the said first syllable) the interfix in, in a similar way as in the past participle. (See the preceding observution). As,

from	cáon,	quinacáon
from,,	inóm,	iníinóm75

Past.—The formation of this tense is exactly the same as that of the past participle seen above.

Future.—This tense is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root and appending to it the affix on. As

from	“caón,”	cácaónon
from,,	“inóm,”	iinomón, contracted iinmon.

Imperative.—The single form of this mode, consists in the root appended by the affix “á.” It must be observed that this affix “á” in the imperative bears the idea that the order or command is always directed to the second person or first plural, If such order or command is directed to some other person, not to the second, or first (quitá) plural then the subjunctive is used. As

higugmaá an Dyos (love God; lit.: let God be loved by you)
higugmaá ta an catadúng̃an (let us love justice; lit.: let justice be loved by us).
higugmaón nira an igcasitáuo (let them love the fellow-man: lit.: let the fellowman be loved by them).

The last form is also frequently used for the second person, singular and plural, and for the first person, plural. As

higugmaón mo an Dyos (love God)
higugmaón niyo, etc.
higugmaón námon, etc.
higugmaón ta, etc.

Subjunctive. The single form of this mode consists in [70]the root appended by the affix on, as it is seen in the preceding examples.

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund		singular:	pagsuratá		(to be written, being written).
		plural:	panuratá

Past participle: sinurát (written)

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR		PLURAL
acó, etc. sinúsurat	(I am, etc. written)	camí, etc. sinúsurat	(we are, etc. written)
PAST
acó, etc. sinurát	(I was, etc. written)	camí, etc. sinurát	(we were, etc written)
FUTURE
acó, etc. susuratón	(I shall, etc. be written)	camí, etc. susuratón	(we shall, etc be written)

Imperative

suratá acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quitá, camó, hírá (let me, thee, you, him, her, us, you them he written by you)

Subjunctive

acó, etc. suratón

(I may, etc. written)

camú, etc. suratón

(we may, etc. be written)

TABLE 4.

Progressive direct passive.
Infinitive.
Present, and gerund:	PAG—A, s; PANG—A, PAM—A, PAN—A, p.
Past participle:	GUIN—, s; PINA—, PINAN—, p.
Indicative
Present:	GUIN(d)—, s; PIN(d)—, PINAN(d)—, p.[71]
Past:	GUIN—, s; PINA—, PINAN—, p.
Future:	PAG(d)—ON, s; PA(d)—ON, PAN(d)—ON, p.
Imperative
PAG—A, s; PA—A, PAN—A, p.
Subjunctive
PAG—ON, s; PA—ON, PAN—ON, p.

OBSERVATIONS.

Infinitive. Present and gerund. The singular is formed by the root prefixed by pag and affixed by a. In plural the prefixes pa, pan, or pang are employed in the same cases as those mentioned for the use of nang nam, and na of the present tense, indicative, of the progressive form, active voice.76

The past participle is formed by the prefix guin added to the root.

Indicative. Present. In singular the first syllable is doubled,77 and the prefix guin is employed.

In plural the prefix pina is used and the root is transformed exactly in the same way as the plural, present tense, indicative; of the progressive form active voice.78

Past. The same as the present, except in that the first syllable of the root transformed is not doubled.

Future. Its singular is formed by the prefix pag, added to the root whose first syllable is doubled,79 and by the affix on.

Its plural is formed by the prefix pa, pang or pam and the root transformed in the same way as in the use of na nang or nam and as the trasformation of the root in the plural, present tense, indicative of the progressive form, active voice.80 [72]

Imperative. It consists in the root prefixed by pag and affixed by a. We reproduce here the observation made on the imperative, primitive form, direct passive.81

Subjunctive. Its singular is formed by the root prefixed by pag and affixed by on. Its plural consists in the use of pa pang or pam in the same way as in the plural, present tense indicative, progressive form, active voice,82 and of the affix on.

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund		singular:	pagsurátá		(to be written, being written)
		plural:	panuratá

Past participle: guiusurát s.; pinanunurát p. (written).

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR		PLURAL
acó, etc. guinsusurát	(I am, etc. being written)	camí, etc. pinanunurát	(we are, etc. being written)
PAST
acó, etc. guinsurát	(I was, etc. being written)	camí etc. pinanurát	(we were, etc. being written)
FUTURE
acó, etc. pagsusuratón	(I shall be, etc. being written)	camí, etc. panunuratón	(we shall be, etc. being written)

Imperative

Pagsuratá acó, icao, hiya, camí, hira (let me, you, him or her, us, you, them be being written).

Subjunctive

acó, etc. pagsuratón

(I may be, etc. being written)

camí, etc. panuratón

(we may be, etc. being written)

[73]

TABLE 5

Primitive indirect passive
Infinitive.
Present, and gerund:	PAG—I, s; PA—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p.
Past participle:	—IN—AN, or IN—AN
Indicative.
Present:	IN(d)—AN, or —IN(d)—AN
Past:	—IN—AN, or IN—AN
Future:	(d)—AN
Imperative.
—I
Subjunctive.
—AN

OBSERVATION:

Infinitive. Present and gerund. This form consists in the root transformed by the affix i, and by the prefix pag in singular, and pang, pan, or pa in plural, according to the rules above established for the use of these prefixes.83

Past participle,—This form consists in the root transformed by the interfix in and the affix an. The use of the interfix in follows the same rules as those hereinbefore established for the said interfix.84

Indicative.—Present. This tense is determined by doubling the first syllable of the root, and then (after the said first syllable being doubled) by placing the interfix in between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix in is prefixed to the root whose first syllable has been already doubled. [74]

Past.—This tense has the same form as the past participle.

Future.—The form of this tense consists in doubling the first syllable of the root and by appending to it the affix an.

Imperative. Its form consists in the root appended by the affix i.

The same observation is made here, as that on the imperative of the primitive direct passive.85

Subjunctive. It’s form is the root appended by the affix an.

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund		singular:	pagsuratí		(to be addressed with a letter, being addressed with a letter)86
		plural:	panuratí

Past participle: sinuratán (addressed with a letter)

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR		PLURAL
acó, etc. sinusuratán	(I am, etc. addressed with a letter)	camí, etc. sinusuratán	(we are, etc. addressed with a letter)
PAST
acó, etc. sinuratán	(I was, etc. addressed with a letter)	camí, etc. sinuratán	(we are, etc. addressed with a letter)
FUTURE
acó, etc. susuratán	(I shall be, etc. addressed with a letter)	camí, etc. susuratán	(we shall be, etc. addressed with a letter)

Imperative

uratí acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quita, camó, hirá (let me, thee, you, him, her, us, you, them be addressed with a letter)

Subjunctive

acó, etc. suratán

(I may be, etc. addressed with a letter)

camí, etc. suratán

(we may be, etc. addressed with a letter)

[75]

TABLE 6.

Progressive indirect passive
Infinitive
Present and gerund:	PAG—I, s; PAN—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p.
Past participle:	GUIN—AN.
Indicative
Present:	GUIN(d)—AN, s; PINA(d)—AN, PINAN(d)—AN, PINANG(d)—AN, p.
Past:	GUIN—AN, s; PINA—AN, PINAN—AN, PINANG—AN, p.
Future:	PAG(d)—AN, s: PA(d)—AN, PAN(d)—AN, PANG(d)—AN, p.
Imperative
PAG—I, s; PA—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p.
Subjunctive
PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.

OBSERVATIONS.

Infinitive.—Present, and gerund. Their single form is the same as their corresponding primitive form indirect passive.

Past participle. It is distinguished by the prefix guin.

Indicative.—Present, singular. The first syllable of the root is doubled87 and the affix guin added. Its plural is formed as its corresponding in the progressive direct passive, except in that here the affix an is added.88

Past.—The forms of this tense are the same as those of their corresponding form in the progressive direct passive, except in that here the affix an is added.89 [76]

Future.—The same as that of the progressive direct passive, except in that the affix an is used here instead of on.

Imperative.—The same as that of the progressive direct passive, except in that the affix i is used here instead of a.

Subjunctive—Also the same as that of the progressive direct passive, except in that the affix an is here used instead of on.

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund		singular:	pagsuratí
		plural:	panuratí

Past participle: guinsurát

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR	PLURAL
acó, etc. guinsusuratán	camí, etc. pinanunuratán
PAST
acó, etc. guinsuratán	camí, etc. pinanunuratán
FUTURE
acó, etc. pagsusuratán	camí, etc. panunuratán

Imperative

pagsuratí acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quitá, camó, hirá

Subjunctive

acó, etc. pagsuratán

camí, etc. panuratán

TABLE 7

Primitive instrumental passive.
Infinitive.
Present, and gerund:	PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.
Past participle:	I—IN—, IIN—[77]
Indicative
Present:	I—IN(d)—, IIN(d)—
Past:	I—IN—, IIN—
Future:	I(d)—
Imperative
I—
—AN
Subjunctive
I—

OBSERVATIONS:

Infinitive, Present, and gerund. The same observation is made as that on the same tenses of the primitive, active, with the addition that here the affix an is appended to the root.

Past participle. It is formed by the prefix i and the interfix in. If the root commences with a vowel, the prefix and the interfix are joined, as

from “arò” (to ask), iinarò.

Indicative.—Present, past. They are the same as the present and past tenses indicative of the primitive direct passive, with the addition of the prefix i.

Future.—It is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root and by using the prefix i. As

isusurát, iaaro.

Imperative.—The first form consists in prefixing to the root the particle i. The second form consists in affixing to the root the particle an.

Subjunctive. It consists in prefixing to the root the particle i.

NOTE.—The instrumental passive is also employed to express substitution; as when we say in English: [78]

Read this word for me: ibása acó hiní ng̃a polong̃ (literally: let me be substituted by you in reading this word).

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present and gerund		singular:	pagsuratán		(to be used in writing, being used in writing)
		plural:	panuratán

Past participle: isinurát: used in writing

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR		PLURAL
acó, etc. isinusurát	(I am, etc. used in writing)	camí, etc. isinusurát	(we are, etc. used in writing)
PAST
acó, etc. isinurát	(I was, etc. used in writing)	camí, etc. isinurát	(we are, etc. used in writing)
FUTURE
acó, etc. isusurát	(I shall etc. be, used in writing)	camí, etc. isusurát	(we shall etc. be, used in writing)

Imperative

isurát or suratán acó, icao, hiya, camí, quitá, camó hira (let me, thee, you, him, her, us, you, them be used in writing).

Subjunctive

acó, etc. isurát

(I may etc. be, used in writing)

camí, etc. isurát

(we may etc. be, used in writing)

TABLE 8.

Passive Progressive Instrumental
Infinitive
Present and gerund:	PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.
Past participle:	IGUIN—
Indicative
Present:	IGUIN(d)—, s; IPINA(d)—, IPINAN(d)—, IPINANG(d)—, p.[79]
Past:	IGUIN—, s; IPINA—, IPINAN—, IPINANG—, p.
Future:	IG(d)—, s: IPA(d)—, IPAN(d)—, IPANG(d)—, p.
Imperative
PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.
IG—, s; IPA—, IPAN—, IPANG—, p.
Subjunctive
IG—, s; IPA—, IPAN—, IPANG—, p.

OBSERVATIONS:

The observations made on the conjugation of the progressive direct passive are applied to the above conjugation except in that the present, and gerund take the affix an, and that the past participle, the present, and past indicative, and the subjunctive, plural, take the prefix i, and in that the imperative has the affix an, and the subjunctive singular the affix on, and the future, imperative, and subjunctive have a g after the prefix i.

Example:

Root: surat

Infinitive

Present, and gerund		singular:	pagsuratán
		plural:	panuratán

Past participle: iguinsurát.

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR	PLURAL
acó, etc. iguinsusurát.	camí, etc. ipinanunurát
PAST
acó, etc. iguinsurát	camí, etc. ipinanurát
FUTURE
acó, etc. igsusurát	camí, etc. ipanunurat

[80]

Imperative

Pagsaratán or igsarát acó, icáo, hiyá. Panoratán or ipaanrát camí, quitá, camó, hirá.

Subjunctive

acó, etc. igsurát.

camí, etc. ipaaurát.

NEGATIVE FORMS

These forms consist in employing the adverbs “diri” before the inflections of the infinitive, present and future indicative, and subjunctive; “uaráy” before the past indicative, and “ayáo” before the imperative.

As to the inflections of the root, they are the same as those of the corresponding; affirmative except the past indicative, which always takes the inflections of the imperative.

Example:

Negative Primitive Active.

Root: surát

Indicative.

Present, and gerund		singular:	diri pagsurát		(not to write, not writing)
		plural:	diri panurat

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR		PLURAL
diri acó, etc. násurát	(I do not, etc. write)	diri camí, etc. násurát	(we do not, etc. write)
PAST
uaráy acó, etc. surát	(I did not, etc. write)	uaráy camí, etc. surát	(we did not, etc. write)
FUTURE
diri acó, etc. másarát	(I shall not, etc. write)	diri camí, etc. másurat	(we shall not, etc. write)

Imperative

ayáo surát icáo, quitá, camó (let you, us not write)

diri sumurát hiyá, camí, hirá (let him, us, them not write) [81]

Subjunctive

diri acó, etc. sumurát

(I may not, etc. write)

diri camí, etc. sumurát

(we may, etc. not write)

NOTE.—The past consists sometimes, among the primitive forms, in the root having the first syllable doubled; and among the progressive forms, it consists in the prefix pag and the root whose first syllable is doubled. In plural, the pag undergoes the same changes as in the active conjugation.

Examples:

uaráy acó susurát	(I did not write)
uaráy acó pagsusurát	(I did not write)

Negative Progressive Active.

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund		singular:	diri pagsurát		(not to be writing, not being writing)
		plural:	diri panurát

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR		PLURAL
diri acó, etc. nagsusurát	(I am, etc. not writing)	diri camí, etc. nanunurát	(we are, etc. not writing)
PAST
uaráy acó etc. pagsurát	(I was etc. not writing)	uaráy camí etc. panurát	(we were etc. not writing)
FUTURE
diri acó etc. magsusurát	(I shall etc. not be writing)	diri camí, etc. manunurát	(we shall not, etc. be writing)

Imperative

ayao icao pagsurát	(do not be writing)	ayao quitá, camo panurát	(let us, you, not be writing)
diri hiya magsurát	(let him not be writing)	diri camí, hirá manurát	(let us, them not be writing)

Subjunctive

diri acó, etc. magsurát

(I may, etc. not be writing)

diri camí, etc. manurát

(we may, etc. not be writing)

[82]

INTERROGATIVE FORMS

They are determined by the phrases “cay anó” (why), and by “diín”, “háín” (where), and by “san-o”, “cacan-o” (when, past and future respectively).

Cay ano

The interrogative conjugation by this phrase simply consists in the regular conjugation of the verb, placing before every inflection the said phrase followed by the particle ng̃a. As

¿cay anó ng̃a nasurat ca?	(why do you write?)
¿cay anó ng̃a sinmurát hiya?	(why did he or she write?)
¿cay anó ng̃a macadto quita?	(what shall we go there for?) etc.

Diin, hain.

The interrogative primitive formed; by these adverbs, has only two inflections: one which consists in the original root, and which is the past tense indicative; and the other which consists on the same root, its first syllable being doubled; this last form is for the present and future tenses, indicative. These three tenses are the only tenses that this conjugation has. The adverb “diín” is for the present and past tenses. The adverb “háin” is for the future. Thus:

Present:	¿diin acó susurat?	(where do I write?)
Past:	¿diin ca surát?	(where did you write?)
Future:	¿háin camí susurát?	(where shall we write?)

The interrogative progressive only differs from the preceding one in that the particle pag precedes all of the inflections. In plural this pag becomes pa, pan, or pang, according to the same rules laid on the progressive active form.90 Thus:

¿diín ca pagsusurát?	(where are you writing?)
¿háin camó panunurát?	(where will you be writing?)

[83]

In passive voices, these same forms are followed except in that the root takes the affix a in the direct passive and the affix i in the indirect passive, and the prefix i for the primitive form, or the prefix ig for the progressive form, in the instrumental passive. Thus:

¿diín suratá?

¿diín suratí?, etc.

NOTE.—Instead of the prefix ig or i, in the instrumental passive, the affix an is frequently employed. As

¿diín susuratán? for ¿diín isusurát? etc.

Cacan-o san-o

“Cacan-o” is placed before the past indicative; “san-o” is used before the future, indicative. They are the only two tenses of this kind of conjugation. As to the inflections in the primitive form, the past is simply the root, and the future is the root, whose first two letters are doubled. As

¿cacan-o camo surat?	(when did you write?)
¿san-o ca cácanhi?	(when will you come?)

In the progressive form the root takes the prefixes pag for the singular and pa, pan, pang in plural.

In the passive, the affix a is used in the direct passive; the affix i, in the indirect passive; and the prefix i or ig in the instrumental. These prefixes are frequently replaced by the affix an. Examples:

¿cacan-o surata?

¿Ban-o susuratí? etc

IMPORTANT OBSERVATION. The verb referred to by any adverb of time takes the same form, as to the indicative, as the adverbs cacan-o and san-o. As

buás acó cacanhi	(tomorrow I shall come)
canina han ága acó pagsurát	(this morning I have written)91

[84]

SUPPLETORY VERBS

Irregular conjugation

The suppletory verbs in Bisayan are those formed by the pronouns “iní”, “adí”, “itó”, “itón”, “adtó”, “adtón”; to supply the English “to be”, and those formed by the adverbs “dinhi”, “didi”, “dida”, “dídton”, “díthon”, “dídto”, to supply the same verb “to be” and also the verbs “to come”, and “to go.” Of these verbs we call pronominal those derived from pronouns, and adverbial those derived form adverbs.

PRONOMINAL FORM.

This is a defective form, as it has only one inflection which consists in doubling the first vowel it being for the present tense, indicative mood. Ex.:

iini acó	(I am here)
aadí camí	(we are here)
iito hiya	(he or she is there)
iiton hira	(they are there)
aadto ca	(you are there)
aadton camo	(you are there)

NOTE. In same places of Leyte, as Dulag, these forms are not used but instead of them, the pronouns are doubled as: iniini, adiadi, itoito, etc.

In using these forms it is preferable to have the pronouns follow them.

ADVERBIAL FORM.

This conjugation is common to the adverbs dínhi, didí, didto, dithon, didto.

Root: dinhi (here)

Infinitive

Present, and gerund		singular:	pagdinhi		(to be here, being here)
		plural:	paninhi

[85]

Indicative

PRESENT, AND FUTURE
SINGULAR		PLURAL
acó, etc. aanhi or hahaní	(I am, etc. shall be, etc. here)	camí, etc. aanhi or hahani	(we are, etc. shall be, etc. here)
Imperfect past, and past.
acó, etc. didinhi or nacanhi	(I was, etc. here)	camí etc. didinhi or nacanhi	(we were, etc. here)

Imperative

dinhi icao, etc. (be here, etc).

Subjunctive

acó, etc. maanhi or mahani

(I may etc. be here)

camí, etc. maanhi or mahani

(we may, etc. be here)

OBSERVATIONS.

Infinitive.—Present and gerund. Here the particles pag and pan are employed in the same way as among the primitive active voice92. As

SINGULAR	PLURAL
pagdinhi	paninhi
pagdidí	panidí
pagdidâ	panidâ
pagdidton	panidton
pagdithon	panithon
pagdidto	panidto.

Indicative.—Present and future. It is formed by replacing the first two letters of the root with the prefix a doubled. As

from	dinhi	aanhi,
from,,	didí	aadí
from,,	didâ	aadâ
from,,	didton	aadton
from,,	dithon	aathon
from,,	didto	aadto

[86]

NOTE.—The form hahani is the transformation of aanhi, where the h is doubled and transposed by placing each h before each a. The other pronouns have not such a form.

Imperfect past and past. Their single form consists in doubling the first two letters of the root, as

from	dinhi	dídinhi
from,,	didi	dídidi
from,,	didâ	dididâ
from,,	didton	dídidton
from,,	dithon	dídíthon
from,,	didto	dídidto93

Imperative.—It simply consists in the root.

Subjunctive.—It has two forms. The first consists in in prefixing to the root the particle ma; the second form consists in replacing the first two letters of the root with the prefix maa. As

from	dinhi,	madínhi,	maánhi
from,,	didí.	madidí,	maadí
from,,	didâ,	madidâ	maadâ
from,,	didton,	madidton,	mandton
from,,	dithon,	madithon,	maathon
from,,	didto,	madidto,	maadto.

NOTE—The form mahani is a transformation of maanhi like hahani of aanhi.

The verbs that supply the English “to come” and “to go” are conjugated as ordinarily. But they have a basis for conjugation, derived from the original root, and which we call conjugational root. So from the original roots

dinhi, didí, didá, didton, dithon, didto,

we have the corresponding conjugational roots:

cánhi, cadi, cadá, cadton, cathon, cádto. [87]

The form followed in this conjugation is that of a primitive. Thus from the root “canhi”, we have:

Infinitive, present and present participle: pagcanhi (to come, coming)

NOTE.—But the plural of this tense is irregular. It is

pagpacánhi (to come, coming, plural).

Indicative	present:	acó, etc., nácanhi.
Indicative,,	past:	acó, etc., quinmánhi.
Indicative,,	future:	acó, etc., mácanhi.

Imperative: cánhi, etc.

Subjunctive: acó, etc. cumánhi.

NOTE. The past, indicative, and the present, subjunctive, have the irregular forms, nacanhi and macanhi respectively, which must not be confounded with the present and future, indicative, as the accent of the former in past and subjunctive is on the penult and not on the first syllable as in the present and future indicative.

Observation.

We have seen that when the verb “to be” refers to a place it is frequently expressed in Bisayan either, by the pronominal form or by the adverbial form.

But when the verb “to be” is equivalent to the Spanish “estar”, i.e., when it represents state, situation, or contingent condition, it is then expressed by the particles pag, nag, ma, na added to the words which are predicate of “to be” in English. As

I shall be sorry: magmamabidò acó.

In cases where the verb “to be” needs to be represented by an independent word, the expressions “amo”, “asya”, “asáy”, “say” (which express identity, rather than a mere essence, substance or existence) are frequently employed. As [88]

Peter is the owner of this house		Hi Pedro ámo an tag-iya hiní ng̃a baláy
		hi Pedro asya an tag-iya, etc.
		hi Pedro asáy tag-iya, etc.
		hi Pedro say tag-iya, etc.

In other cases, the verb “to be” is not translated into Bisayan. As

God is omnipotent: an Dyos macagagáhum.

IMPERSONAL VERBS

The impersonal verbs follow the two forms: primitive, and progressive.

Owing to the fact that the Bisayan tongue has indirect and instrumental passive, all of the verbs, no matter to what class they belong, have passive voice. So the intransitive verbs of other languages have passive voice in Bisayan, The same thing happens to the impersonal verbs. They have indirect and instrumental passives which are complete in their conjugation.

Thus, in passive, there is no impersonal verb in Bisayan. The forms of conjugation of this kind of verbs are the same as those of the regular verbs.

Examples:

nagdadalogdog	(it thunders)
nagiinuran	(it rains persistently)
inuuranán hirá	(the rain falls on them; literally: they are rained)
etc.

DEFECTIVE VERBS

The following belong to such class: may (to have) which has only, one form.

á	(no, I do not wish)
iyá	(receive it)
ohò	(look at it)

May is also used as impersonal and then it means “there, is, there was, etc.”; conó (he or she says or said; they say or said;—it is said, it was said) [89]

ambót

(I do not know)

The English “to have” is also expressed in Bisayan by the root may-adà, whose irregular conjugation as follows:

Infinitive

Present, and gerund: pagcaada or pagcamay-adà (to have)

PRESENT
SINGULAR		PLURAL
acó, etc. may ada or nagcacaada.	(I etc. have)	camí, etc. may adá or nangagcacaada	(we, etc. have)
PAST
acó, etc. nagcaada	(I, etc. had)	camí, etc. nangagcaada	(we, etc. had)
FUTURE
acó etc. magcacadá	(I shall, etc. have)	camí, etc. mangacacaada	(we shall, etc. have)

Imperative

pacaadá

Subjunctive

magcaadá

NOTE 1. The strict meaning of the form may-ada is “to acquire”, rather than “to have”, for which the defective may is used.

2. The impersonal and defective may is very frequently joined to verbs in passive voice, it keeping its impersonal character. As

May naquita co nga bucad (I saw a flower; literally: There is a flower seen by me),

its regular order being:

may bucad nga naquíta co.

May tinagan co hin salapi (I gave money to someone; literally: there is some one given by me with money);—where the words “tauo nga” are tacit, the regular form being:

May tauo nga tinagan co hin salapi.

OTHER CLASSES OF VERBS

There are other kinds of verbs whose distinguishing character consists in their conjugational roots. They are always [90]derived from the ordinary verbs, but bear different meaning, although conjugated as ordinarily.

The conjugational roots in active voice are different from those in passive.

From the original root SURAT we have the following classes:

ACTIVE VOICE

Conjugational root	Indicative Present	Classes
sinurat	nagsisinurat	CONTINUATIVE
casurat	nacacasurát	ABSOLUTE POTENTIAL
cagsurat	nacacagsurát	RELATIVE POTENTIAL
isusúrat	náisusurat	ABSOLUTE APTATIVE
ipagsusúrat	náipagsusurat	RELATIVE APTATIVE
pagpasurát	nápasurát	ABSOLUTE PERMISSIVE
papagsúrat	napapagsurát	RELATIVE PERMISSIVE
papágsurat	pinasusurát	ABSOLUTE IMPERATIVE
papagsurát	pinapagsurát	RELATIVE IMPERATIVE
susúrat	nasusúrat	IMPREMEDITATIVE
suratsúrat	nasuratsúrat	ABSOLUTE DIMINUTIVE
suratsurát	nágsusuratsúrat	RELATIVE DIMINUTIVE
suratsurát	násuratsurát	ABSOLUTE REPETITIVE
suratsurát	nagsusuratsurát	RELATIVE REPETITIVE
pasuratsúrat	nagpapasuratsurat	RECIPROCATE
From the original root “hadì,” we have
pacahádi	napacaháhì	IMITATIVE
From the original root “buság,” we have
pagticabusag	náticabusag	ABSOLUTE GRADUAL
pagticabusag	nagtiticabusag	RELATIVE GRADUAL
From the original root “sayáo,” we have
sayáo	nagsasayáo	FIGURATIVE

As it may be observed above, one original root may give a great number of different classes of verbs, as the nature of the root and use may permit. The subdivision [91]absolute and relative of these classes corresponds exactly to the primitive and progressive forms already explained.

The continuative is distinguished, in its conjugational root, by the interfix in and it expresses persistence of the action. As

nagtitinóoc an batà

(the child is crying persistently)

The potential is determined, in its conjugational roots, by the prefix paca or pacag (absolute and relative) and it means ability on the part of the subject to execute the action expressed by the original root. As

dirì hiyá nacacasurát, cay dirí maaram	(he cannot write, because does not know how to)
dirì hiyá nacacagsurát, cay damò in buhat	(he cannot write, because he is busy)

The optative has, in its conjugational root the prefix i or ipag (absolute and relative), and it represents the idea of desire. The absolute means a desire about to be executed; the relative signifies a mere intention; As

náilalacat na hiyá han ac pag-abotá	(he was about to depart when I met him)
naipagsusurat acó ha imo	(I was intending to write you)

When the absolute optative bears the particle ca, it expresses then proximate passivity, as

naicahorológ an bung̃a

(the fruit is about to fall)

The permissive is distinguished in its conjugational root by the prefix pagpa or papag (absolute and relative) and it means leave or abandonment. As

diri hiya napaútang hin salapí

(he does not lend any money; literally: he does not permit any money to be lent)

When the original root of this form is a substantive referring to a place, then the idea of “going” or “coming” is represented. As

mapa Manila camí	(we shall go to Manila)
napahorón hi Juan	(John went to the farm)

[92]

The imperative, which means order or command, is determined by the prefix papag and the interfix in. As

pinacacadto ca	(you are ordered to go there)
pinapagtoón camo	(you are commanded to study)

The impremeditative is determined by the repetition of the first syllable of the original root, and expresses a sudden and inconsiderate action. As

náyayácan ca lá

(you talk inconsiderately)

The formation of the diminutive class follows that of a diminutive noun.94 As

nagtatanomtanom cami hin camote

(we are cultivating a little camote)

The repetitive has the same formation as the diminutive.

The repetitive has the same formation as the diminutive, except in that the accent is always on the last syllable of the repetitive. It follows the formation of the figurative nouns,94 when the root has more than two syllable, or when the last syllable is preceded by more than one consonant or is pronounced separately from the preceding consonant. The repetitive expresses a repeated action. As

magtatanomtanóm acó hin abacá	(I shall cultivate hemp again)
macarocánhi acó buás	(I shall come again to-morrow)

The reciprocate is formed exactly as the diminutive, except in that the reciprocate uses the prefix pa. It means a mutual action. As

nagpapasuratsurat camí

(we are writing to each other)

It is also formed by the prefixes pag and ig, and the affix an. As “pagquítáan (to meet), iguinquiquita iguinhihisugat”. It has a passive character.

The imitative is formed by the prefix paca, the same as the absolute potential, but here the root is always a noun, the object of the imitation. As [93]

hiyá napacamaáram	(he pretends to be learned)
hiyá napacacatsilà	(he affects to be a Spaniard)

The gradual is determined by the prefix pagtica, and means an action by degrees. As

nagtiticapasò inin adlao	(the day is becoming hotter)
nagtiticalamrag an bulan	(the moon is becoming brighter)

The figurative verb has the same form as its original, except in the accent which is always on the last syllable. As

nagsasayáo hiyá tung̃ud han caol-ol

(he jumps as if he was dancing, on account of the pain he feels)

DIRECT PASSIVE

CONTINUATIVE VERB

Conjugational root: sinúrat

Infinitive:	present and gerund:	pagsinurata s; pagpinanuráta p.
Indicative:	Present:	guinsisinúrat s; guinpipinanúrat p.
	Past:	guinsinúrat s; guinpinanurat p.
	Future:	pagsisinuraton s; pagpipinanuraton p.
Imperative:	pagsinuráta s; pagpinanuráta p.
Subjunctive:	pagsinuraton s; pagpinanuraton p.

ABSOLUTE POTENTIAL

Conjugational root: hisurát

Infinitive:	paghisurát s; panhisurát p.
Indicative:	Present:	nahasusurát
	Past:	nahasurát
	Future:	mahasusurát
Imperative:	(no imperative)
Subjunctive:	mahasurát.

RELATIVE POTENTIAL

Conjugational root: hisurát

Infinitive:	paghisurát s; panhisurát p.[94]
Indicative:	Present:	nahapapagsurát s; nanhihisurát p.
	Past:	nahapagsurát s; nanhisurát p.
	Future:	mahapapagsurát s; manhihisurát p.
Imperative:	(no imperative)
Subjunctive:	mahapagsurát s; manhisurát p.

ABSOLUTE OPTATIVE

Conjugational root: isusurat

Infinitive:	pag-isusurata s; pag-ipanunurata p.
Indicative:	Present:	guin-iisusurat
	Past:	guin-isusurat.
	Future:	pag-iisusuraton.
Imperative:	pagisusurata
Subjunctive:	pag-isusuráton.

RELATIVE OPTATIVE

Conjugational root: isusúrat

Infinitive:	pag-ipagsusurata s; pag-ipanunuráta p.
Indicative:	Present:	guin-iipagsusurat, s; guin-iipanunurat.
	Past:	guin-ipagsusurat s; guin-ipanunurat.
	Future:	pag-iipagsusuráton s; pag-iipanunuraton.
Imperative:	pag-ipagsusurata
Subjunctive:	pag-ipagsusuraton.
(The permissive verbs have no passive)

ABSOLUTE IMPERATIVE

Infinitive:	papagsuratán s; papanuratán p.
Indicative:	Present:	ipinasusurat.
	Past:	ipinasurat.
	Future:	ipasusurat.
Imperative:	ipasurát.
Subjunctive:	ipasurát.

RELATIVE IMPERATIVE

Conjugational root: pasurát

Infinitive:	papagsuratán, s; papanuratán, p.[95]
Indicative:	Present:	ipinápagsurát, s; ipinápanurát, p.
	Past:	ipinapagsurát, s; ipinapanurát, p.
	Future:	ipápagsurát, s; ipápanurát, p.
Imperative:	ipapagsurát, s; ipapanurát, p.
Subjunctive:	ipapagsurát, s; ipapanurát, p.

IMPREMEDITATIVE

Conjugational root: susuráta

Infinitive:	pagsusuráta, s; panunuráta, p.
Indicative:	Present:	sinususurat.
	Past:	sinusurát.
	Future:	sususuráton.
Imperative:	susuráta.
Subjunctive:	susuráton.

ABSOLUTE DIMINUTIVE

Conjugational root: sinuratsúrat

Infinitive:	pagsuratsuráta, s; panuratsuráta, p.
Indicative:	Present:	sinusuratsúrat,
	Past:	sinuratsúrat.
	Future:	susuratsuraton.
Imperative:	suratsurata.
Subjunctive:	suratsuráton.

RELATIVE DIMINUTIVE

Conjugational root: guinsuratsúrat

Infinitive:	pagsuratsuratá, s; panuratsúrata, p.
Indicative:	Present:	guinsusuratsurat, s; pinanunuratsurat, p.
	Past:	guinsuratsurat, s; pinanuratsurat, p.
	Future:	pagsusuratsuraton, s; panunuratsuratón, p.
Imperative:	pagsuratsuráta, s; panuratsuráta, p.
Subjunctive:	pasuratsuraton, s; panusatsuráton, p

* * *

(The repetitive have the same form as the diminutive)

* * *

(The reciprocate have no passive)

* * *

(The imitative, gradual and figurative have no passive) [96]

INDIRECT PASSIVE

The indirect passive is similar to the ordinary progressive indirect passive (see page 76), except in that in the continuative form the interfix in is used.

The potential have no indirect passive.

The optative have their indirect passive as that of the ordinary form (see page 73 et seq.), as to the affixes.

The imperative have no indirect passive.

The impremeditative has its indirect passive the same as that of the primitive indirect passive (see page 74) as to the affixes.

The indirect passive of the diminutive is the same as that of the ordinary, primitive (See page 78 et seq) as to the affixes.

INSTRUMENTAL PASSIVE.

The instrumental passive of the continuative impremeditative and diminutive verbs is similiar to that of the progressive (page 79 and 80) as to the prefixes.

The other verbs above mentioned have not instrumental passive.

NOTE. There are other classes of verbs formed by other particles and combinations; but their conjugation will be of no difficulty if the different forms hereinbefore given are thoroughly mastered.

DEPRECATIVE VERBS

There are verbs used in a depreciative tone. Examples.

for	cáon	(to eat)	ásoc, lámon, etc.
for,,	lacát	(to walk)	laág
for,,	yacán	(to talk)	yaquimbot, etc.

These verbs are conjugated as ordinarily. [97]

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ADVERBS

The adverbs are of the following classes:

ADVERBS OF PLACE

DIIN (where),—BISAN DIIN (wherever, anywhere),—DIDI (here, nearer to the speaker then to the listener),—DINHI (here),—DIDÂ (there, nearer to the listener than to the speaker),—DIDTO (there),—HARANI (near),—HARAYÒ (far).

ADVERBS OF TIME

CACAN-O (when, past),—SAN-O (when, future),—BISAN CACAN-O (whenever, past),—BISANSAN-O (whenever, future),—NIYÁN (now),—CANINA (before, short time ago, in the same day),—CAGAB’I (last night),—CACOLÓP (yesterday),—CASANGAB’I (the night before last),—CASANGCOLOP (the day before yesterday),—CASANGYADTO (the day previous to the day before yesterday),—ANAY (before, anciently),—UNINA (after, in the same day),—BUAS (to-morrow),—ISANGBUÁS (the day after to-morrow),—ISANGYÁDTO (the day following the day after to-morrow),—CANONAY (always),—DAYÓ-DAY (persistently),—LAYON (soon),—DÁYON (immediately),—HADTO (then, before),—NG̃ANÌ, CUN (when, whenever),—NAMAN (again),—LIUAT (again),—PA (yet),—NA (already),—AGSOB (frequently),—DANAY (sometimes),—NGÁHAO (then).

ADVERBS OF DEGREE

CAPIN, LABIS, LAPÁS (more),—ORÓG (most),—URAÚRA (excessively),—TUMAN (a little scarcely).

ABVERBS OF MANNER

AMO, ASYA (so, thus),—ONAN-O (how),—MAN (also),—COLAÓNG, COLASÓT, COLANTOY (for example, for instance).

ADVERBS OF DOUBT

ADÂ, MAHAMOC, MASAGNI, MAHARANI, CADUÁS TING̃ALI, BANG̃IN, SABALI (probably, perhaps),—BAGÁ (as).

ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION

OO (yes),—MANGUD (indeed),—CAIYA, UGA, CAY UGÂ, GUI-HÁPON (of course).

ADVERBS OF NEGATION

DIRI (no),—UARAY (no, past),—AYAO (no, future).

ADVERBS OF CAUSE

CAY (because),—TUNG̃ÚD (because). [98]

OBSERVATIONS 1. Many adjectives and phrases are employed as adverbs, as

igbao	(above)
niyán ng̃a adlao	(to-day)
damò	(much)
etc.

2. Some of the adverbs are frequently contracted, as those composed of “bisan” which is contracted into “bis.” Examples:

bisan diín	contracted	bis diín
guihapon	contracted,,	guiháp.

3. The adverbs have diminutive, comparative and superlative. As

from harani, haraníay, haroharaní, guihaharanií; etc.

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PREPOSITIONS

HA (to, from, over, under),—TIPA (against, towards),—TUNG̃UD (for),—PATI, UPOD (with),—GAUÁS (without),—CAN (of, to),—TICANG, GUICAN (from, since),—TUBTUB (up to, till, until),—TALIUAN (after),—LÁBUT (except).

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CONJUNCTIONS

The conjunctions are of the following classes:

COPULATIVE

UG, NG̃AN (and),—MAN (also),—NG̃A (that).

DISJUNCTIVE

O, CUN, 95 BA (or).

ADVERSATIVE

CUNDÌ (but),—SABALI, UGARING (but, though), CUN, NGANÌ (if),—BISAN (even, though),—BACAY (as),—CUNTÀ (which bears the idea of past or future desire: it may frequently be translated in English with the phrase: “if possible”). [99]

CONDITIONAL

CUN NG̃ANÌ, ABI,96 UGARING (if).

CAUSAL

CAY, TUNGUD, BACAY, SANGLIT, CAY (inasmuch, because).

FINAL

BASI (in order to),—BANGIN (lest).

CONTINUATIVE

TACAY (then),—BUSA (therefore),—TARA (then).

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INTERJECTIONS

Admiration: ¡a!, ¡ay!, ¡báá!, ¡abaá!, ¡baadao!, ¡abaadao! ¡pastilan!, ¡pauican!, ¡pauísac!, ¡palipac!, ipalísac!, ¡pauiday!, ¡aguimpauican!, ¡aguimpastilan!, ¡aguimpauisac!, ¡aguimpali, pac!, ¡aguimpalisac!, ¡aguimpauiday!, ¡pascalan!, ¡bongansiso!, !odoy!, ¡alágad!, ¡alagad dao!, ¡an ac pa!, ¡ito ngahao!, etc.

Pain and sorrow: ¡ay!, ¡ayhay!, ¡aguí!, ¡aroy!, ¡óhoy!, ¡pastilan!, etc.

Attention: ¡óho!, ¡ohondá!, ¡tabí!, ¡oy!, ¡acay! ¡hacay!, ¡solibangco!, etc.

Insistence: ¡gad!, ¡daó!, ¡uga!, ¡lugá!, ¡ugaring!, ¡lugaring!, ¡caiyá!, ¡pudó!, ¡haromámay!, etc.

Reprobation: ¡diri!, ¡uaráy!, ¡ayao!, ¡hulát!, ¡bodó!, ¡buró!, etc.

Surprise: ¡ay!, ¡an!, ¡alágad!, ¡ús!, ¡balitao!, ¡bayá!, etc.97

Pity: ¡cairó!, ¡in tauo!, ¡pastilán!, ¡odóg!, ¡baadao!, ¡aguí!, etc.

Desire: ¡cunta!, ¡upayda!, ¡unta!, ¡mangad pa!, ¡ihinaotpa!, ¡tubangan pa la!, etc.

Joy: ¡ay!, ¡ahay!, ¡upayda!, ¡salamat!, ¡ta!, etc.

Aversion: ¡á!, ¡aguí!, ¡ambot!, ¡sabá!, etc.

Invitation: ¡cadí!, ¡taná!, ¡halá!, etc. [100]

Self-correction: ¡au!, ¡ay!, ¡sapayán!

Suspension: cuan.… inín.… ¡hulat!, ¡niyan!, etc.

Despair: ¡sahó!, etc.

Gratitude: ¡salamat!, ¡Dyos mag báyad!, ¡Dyos mag sugá!, etc.

1 We do not write “Dios”, because it would be pronounced Di-os.—See “Vowels”, supra. ↑

2 The use of s instead of the h, in these articles, depends upon the place where Bisayan is spoken. In the towns of Burawen, Dúlag and Abúyog, of the island of Leyte, and in some places in Sámar, the h is never used, but the s instead for these articles. Generally, it is considered more solemn to use the s instead of the h, in speeches, letters and poetry. But many times it is considered as a ridiculous affectation, in places where the h is used.

It will be noted that, in some instances, the Bisayan people show a tendency to change the aspirate sound of the h, or soft sound of the Spanish j, into s. So in olden times, the name Juan was pronounced Suan; Jueves was pronounced Suebes; and from the Spanish jugar, they made the Bisayan word sugal, which is still in use. ↑

3 See “Contractions”, supra. As it is seen, the m is for ma. This contraction shows exactly the way in which the Bisayan original letters were used. It is simply the ancient way of writing preserved after the adoption of the Spanish letters. ↑

4 This diminutive as well as the preceding does not need to be accented with grave and angular accent, as originally, first, because such accents are onlv used at the ending of the words (see the rule, page 3), and second, because the suspended guttural suund of the last vowel of its primitive is in some way preserved by means of the separation with which the vowels oa are pronounced (see “Vowel”, page 5) ↑

5 But if the primitive is mapulá, the diminutive will be mapulapula, as will be noted later. ↑

6 In some places in Leyte and Samar, this particle is hi, not ha, where it is said hibobò, hilipot, hilabà, hitáas. But, in my opinion, it is simply a result of confounding the particle ma which is more proper for adjectives as it bears the idea of abundance, with the personal article hi with which it is thus intended to personify the abstract ideas of bobò, lipat, labà, táas. ↑

7 It has also the regular form “halabáay”. ↑

8 This is a metathesis of “dacoalay”, by the transposition of the liquid consonant l; and this l in “dacoalay” has been substituted, for phonetical reason, for the y of “dacoayay”, which is the diminutive of “dacoay” not used. ↑

9 It seems that this diminutive is the contraction of “gutiay nya durò”; it is not strictly a diminutve, it is a superlative. ↑

10 Transformed from bobonbòbon. ↑

11 We do not write can-on, because it is a contraction of caran’on, which is also contracted from caraonón. ↑

12 See “Comparative” and “Collective”, infra. ↑

13 The last u is not a vowel properly; it should be the consonant w. See notes on pages 1 and 5 of this book. ↑

14 It also means anxiety for dancing. So from isóg (to enrage), it is said: “daco it ac isogón” (contracted from irisogón), my rage is great. ↑

15 The second syllable of the combined prefix is sometimes doubled to make the sentence more emphatic. ↑

16 Interfix is there used to designate the particle placed within a word. ↑

17 Such is the name of the present capital of the province of Leyte. According to a tradition, this name originated from the fact that before the town was formed, a point of the eastern coast of its present site was known as a place where fishes were taken from the sea by a bamboo instrument, like a cover called taclob. ↑

18 It is the name of one of the most important towns in Leyte, located on the eastern coast of said island. Also according to a tradition, in the southwestern part of the present site of that town, before the town was built, there was a large tall tree, from whose prominent branches the people used to watch (tan-ao) the Moros from Sulu, when invading the coasts of Leyte.—The last o of this tan-ao is properly the consonat w. ↑

19 From lolodhanan from lolohodanan, where the ó is suppressed, and the h and d, transposed, for phonetical reasons. ↑

20 As when we say: “macaoncaón iní ng̃a bayábas” (this guava is inviting). The idea of fondness sometimes takes the same form, as “macaoncaón ini ng̃a sorogóon” (this servant is fond of eating surreptitiously). This form is also used for impersonal verbs, as will be seen later, as: “macaoncáon na” (I have appetite already). ↑

21 I say “is”, because this combination ng̃ is properly one letter in Bisayan, which should be called ng̃a, as anciently. ↑

22 This is also a verbal of sapód (to gather). ↑

23 The particle hi sometimes with the verbs and especially among the derivative nouns conveys the idea of “payment for”, as when from the verbs budlay (to tire one’s self), salacáy, (to embark), and the nouns apóy (grandfather or grandmother), púsod (navel), it is said: himudlay (any thing given as in payment of any work);—hinálacay (payment for passage);—hingapóy (a present given to a grandfather or grandmother upon the the marriage of his or her grand daughter under the consideration of the former’s being the grandfather or grandmother of the latter);—himósod (present given to the midwife for cutting and attending to the navel of a new-born child). ↑

24 We use a hyphen in this word on account of the angular accent of the last o of the first verb. ↑

25 When the brothers or sisters referred to are more than two, then the interfix r is used, as magburugtò. ↑

26 The second u must be the consonant w. ↑

27 This is the modern way of pronouncing this word. The old way consisted in making two syllables out of this word, and according to that pronounciation, it is written Diyos (prouounced Di-yos), not Dyos. ↑

28 See “Hi”, under the heading “Verbal” supra. ↑

29 See note 2 on page 20. ↑

30 So we say dolúo-ha-Sulúg, which means a medicinal plant (duláo) from (ha) Sulu (Sulúg). ↑

31 See “an, on” under the heading of “Verbal”, page 15 supra. ↑

32 From paladan, the d having been solved into r. ↑

33 It is believed that the name of one of the towns of Leyte, called by the Spaniards “Burauen” and, by the natives, “Burauón”, has been originated from burabáron (Contracted and made Burauón), on account of the fact that there are many fountains in that place. There is no reason why the native name “Burauón” used by the natives until the present time should not be employed for all uses, the u of said word being replaced by the w, if the letters proposed in the note of the first page of this book are adopted. ↑

34 This word does not follow the rule. For phonetical reasons, in its formation an h is used and it is made maasinhanon contracted maasinhon instead of maasinánon which is the regular form. ↑

35 The natives, especially the low people pronounce Mericá instead of America; mericano instead of the Spanish “americano” for American. ↑

36 The name Calyarâ (native name of the town of Carigara, Leyte) has been probably originated from Cangara (placed of one called Garâ). A similar explanation might be given for the formation of the names Calbigà and Calbáyog (towns of Sámar).

Besides the particle can the pronoun hira was probably used for similar cases. We think that the word Hiraite (Bisayan name of the word Leyte, applied to a town of the island of the same name) is formed by the said pronoun hirá and Ite. probably the name of the ancient owners of that place. ↑

37 Mano and mana are probably a corruption of the Spanish “hermano,” “hermana.” ↑

38 See page 12 et seq. of this book. ↑

39 The word capin sogóng, uraura, in some localities are replaced by the Spanish word duro (hard). So they say “duro ca maopay”, maópay ng̃a duro, or maopay hin duro (very good). It is proper to adopt foreign words when there are not words coresponding in Bisayan, but we do not see why the pure Bisayan words should be forgotten when they are expressive, pure and original. The preposition cundí (but) is suffering the same fate, by the introduction of the Spanish pero. ↑

40 Instead of uraura, the word masiado, a corruption of the Spanish demasiado, is much in use. Read the preceeding note. ↑

41 It must be noted that the accent in the superlative is on the last syllable, masiromstróm, while in the dimunitive (which has exactly the same form, except the accent) the accent is upon the pennit, masiromsírom. The meaning is different in the phrases masiromsírom pa, and masiromsiróm pa; the first means “it is a dark yet”; the second “it is very dark yet”. ↑

42 The Bisayan cardinal show that the original system of Bisayan people in counting was the decimal. So napulo is a compound word from na (made) and pulò (pile, island). Napulo means “one pile made”, wherefrom the decimal system clearly shows. ↑

43 This word cag (and) is used in the island of Panay, but not in Sámar or Leyte where ngan, ug are employed for the said conjunction.

In the southern part of Leyte it is said: napala ug osá. ↑

44 A collective noun formed by the prefix ca and the primitive duha whose d is transformed into r, and by the affix an. It means the reunion of two piles. ↑

45 There seems to be no doubt that this word ribo has the same origin as the Tagalog “libo”; but each one has a different meaning: while the Bisayan libo means ten thousand, the Tagalog libo means only one thousand. To express ten thousand, the Tagalogs have the word lacsá. ↑

46 This word may have been derived from lagtuc which means the swelling of a thing due to dampness, humidity, or water. ↑

47 An onomatopoetic word bearing the idea of littleness. ↑

48 An onomatopoetic word meaning a thing that makes noise (caradul). ↑

49 As it will be seen later there are despective verbs, as; of lacat (to walk) laag; of yacán (to talk), yaquimbot. ↑

50 See page 31 of this book. ↑

51 These nouns are originated, in our opinion, from Spanish. See the note on pape 31. supra. ↑

52 We also believe that these nouns are Spanish. ↑

53 See “Collective,” supra. ↑

54 This is the origin of “Borong̃an” a town on the eastern coast of the island of Samar, on account of the fact that during certain epoch of the year, that place is more or less covered with fog. ↑

55 See “Vowels”, page 5 of this book. ↑

56 See “Rule”, page 3 of this book. ↑

57 However, the correct and proper form is the first, Panalaron, a verbal derived from panalad a plural infinitive of the verb pagsálad which means “to sound”. The said suburb of Tacloban, it is believed took this name from the fact that, anciently, the people used to sound (panálad) in such place which was then covered by the sea. ↑

58 Quita means “we”, the listener included; camí means “we”, the listener excluded. ↑

59 Only used after the verb. ↑

60 Hiyá and siyá are the same. See the note 2 on page 7 of this book. The same may be said about hirá and sirá. ↑

61 Contracted from ni (of) and ácon (mine). ↑

62 Contracted from da and ácon. This particle da is used in some places as equivalent to the preposition ha or the contraction han. So in Carigata, Leyte, they say dahani (at old times), instead of hanhaní used in Tacloban and other towns of Leyte. The forms damon, daton, dimo, diyo, diya, dira have the same explanation. ↑

63 Quita is frequently used for “acó”, as when we say tagui quitá hin salapî, (give me money), instead of tagui aco hin salapî. ↑

64 See “Personal pronouns” page 47. ↑

65 See the note 2 on page 7. We use apostrophe and not hyphen, because hin’o, sin’o are contracted from hi ano and si ano. ↑

66 However in this form in which the substantive precedes the adjective the suppression of ng̃a is permissible in poetry. ↑

67 This is another irregularity of the pronoun quita. Here it is equivalent to nimo; but this last form is inadmissible in such phrase, naton being the special pronoun for the same. ↑

68 In Dulag and other places of Leyte, this word is pronounced didínhi. ↑

69 See “Other classes of verbs”, infra. ↑

70 See “Potential Form”, infra. ↑

71 In Basay, Sámar the m is frequently suppressed, the first vowel becoming long on account of said suppression. So they say there: sínurat, ínabot. ↑

72 This form is taken from the subjunctive, as in the Spanish language. ↑ a b

73 In the towns of Dúlag, Burauen, and Abúyog, of the island of Leyte, these forms are always contracted, the first syllable of the verb so formed becoming long on account of the said contraction. Thus it is said in the mentioned places: nágsurat instead of nagsúsurat. ↑ a b c

74 See the note on page 65. ↑

75 See the note on page 63. ↑

76 See page 65 et. seq. ↑

77 It is not doubled some places, See note on page 65. ↑

78 See page 64 et seq. ↑

79 It is not doubled some localities. See note on page 65. ↑

80 See page 61. ↑

81 See page 65. ↑

82 See page 68. ↑

83 See page 62 et seq. ↑

84 See page 68. ↑

85 See page 69. ↑

86 The translation made in those conjugations is literal. We try to express in English the exact idea contained in these forms. ↑

87 See note on page 65. ↑

88 See page 70 et seq. ↑

89 See page 71. ↑

90 Page 61 of this book. ↑

91 The future of this form is the same as in the regular Tagalog form, where it is said susulat aco (I shall write), bucas aco susulat (tomorrow I shall write). ↑

92 See page 61. ↑

93 In Dúlag and other places of Leyte, the accent is transposed to the penult. So it is said: dididâ, etc. ↑

94 See the page 10. ↑ a b

95 This conjunction is seldom used, at present, for the disjunctive or. The English or and the Spanish o are difficult to translate into Bisayan with cun. For this reason the Spanish o is frequently employed in Bisayan, as well as in Tagalog for the English or. ↑

96 It also conveys the idea of “Saying”, as in the example: nasiring an catsila, ngalaong: “págame”, abi tapa: “bayari acó”. ↑

97 There is another, viz: susmaryosep or susmarosèp the corrupted Spanish “Jesús, María y José”. ↑

SYNTAX

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SUBJECTIVE RELATION

The subject of a verb may be either a noun or its equivalent, namely a pronoun, a verb in the infinitive mood, or an entire phrase. As

An Dyos macagagáhum	(God is omnipotent)
Acó nagsusurát	(I write)
An paguaon maopay	(The meal is good; literally: the eating is good)
An guinquiquinauanglan ta ámo an pag-orosa	(what we need is union).

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PREDICATIVE RELATION

The verb agree with its subject in person and number. As

panurát quitá	(let us write)
magsurát hiyá	(let him or her write)

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ATTRIBUTIVE RELATION

The nouns and their equivalents may be modified by substantives, adjectives, demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns, and participles. Except in cases of possessive pronouns, relative ng̃a is placed between the noun or its equivalents, and the modifying word. As

batá ng̃a sorogóon	(the young servant; literally: the boy servant)
an sangcay ng̃a macpay	(the good friend)
iní ng̃a baláy	(this house)
an acon amáy	(my father)
hinigugma nga iróy	(loved mother)

[101]

NOTE.—When the pronoun “adton” and its inflections are equivalent to “deceased”, “late”, the particle ng̃a is not employed. As

adton Pedro

(the late Peter)

The article also modifies the noun and its equivalents, in that it limits them. The articles always precede the word or words to which they refer. As is seen before (page 9) the personal article is always employed before the proper nouns, except in the vocative case. As

an lang̃it	(the heaven, or the sky)
hi Eudong	(Peter)

The definite article is sometimes used before proper nouns, and frequently before the demonstrative and possessive pronouns. The indefinite article is sometimes employed before the possessive pronouns. The personal article is sometimes used before the personal pronouns, except the third person. As

an Dyos	(God)
an iní ng̃a batà	(this boy)
an amon búngto	(our town)
macanhi in acon sangcay	(a friend of mine will come)
hi camó ng̃an hi acó	(you and I)

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COMPLEMENTARY RELATION

The object of the verb is always in the objective case determined by the corresponding article, or by a preposition. As

hi Pedro nagbabasa han surat	(Peter reads the letter)
hirá nang̃atúrog ha sacayán	(they sleep on the boat)
hi Tomás naruruyag hin pagcanhi	(Thomas wishes to come; literally: Thomas wishes a coming)
mácadto acó ha Abúyog	(I shall go to Abuyog).

The object of the verb to be is in the nominative case. As

an imo bahín, amo iní	(your part is this)
an táuo mamarátyon	(the man is mortal)

[102]

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ADVERBIAL RELATION

The adverbs and the adverbial phrases modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. As

“dánay” acó cumádto	(I go there sometimes)
nabasa ng̃ani acó, nábasa “man” hiyá	(If I read, he reads also).

The adverbs are generally placed next to the word that they modify, some before the said word as “agsob” (frequently), “dánay” (sometimes), “masócot” (often), “macatalagsa” (seldom), etc., and other after the said word as “pa” (yet), “na” (already), “man” (also), “gud” (precisely), etc., and some before or after the said word as “lugúd” (on the contrary), etc.

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REPRESENTATIVE RELATION

The important Bisayan word that expresses representative relations is the relative pronoun nga, which is invariable.

an batá nga tinmauag ha acon	(the boy who called me)
an cabatáan ng̃a tinmawag ha acon	(the boys who called me)

As to cases, we have seen (page 52) that this relative nga never refers to the object of the verb. The sentences in the English and other languages, where the corresponding relative pronoun relates to the object of the verb and where consequently the said relative is in the objective case, are expressed in Bisayan in passive voice which is the most used in this tongue.1 Thus, if we wish to say

the boy whom I called

we should say

an bata ng̃a tinauag co

which literally is: the boy who was called by me.

The personal, demonstrative and possessive pronouns agree in person and number with their antecedents or the word [103]or words that they represent. There is no agreement in gender because the pronouns have no gender.

1 The fact that there are three classes of passive voice in Bisayan show the great importance of the said voice in this tongue. Thus if we wish to say “I love you”, it is more expressive to say: hinihigugma co icao (literally: you are loved by me) than to say: nahigugma aco ha imo. ↑

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CONNECTIVE RELATIONS

The prepositions join the nouns, their equivalents, or the pronouns to some other word. They place in the objective case the word that depends on them.

The most important preposition in, Bisayan is ha, which is equivalent to nearly all of the prepositions of other languages. Examples:

He saw me—	hiyá quinmitá ha acon
He wrote to me—	hiyá nagsurát ha acon
I come to Tacloban—	nacanhi acó ha Tacloban
I come from Palo—	ticang acó ha Palô
I pass by your house—	linmabáy acó ha iyo baláy
He is in the room—	aadto niyá ha solód
etc.

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ABSOLUTE AND INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS

Absolute and independent constructions take place in Bisayan with vocatives, and interjections.

Vocatives, as

Pedro, ng̃a niya, cadí dao

(Peter, he said, come, please)

Interjection, as

Pastilan, caloóyi gad acó

(oh!, have pity of me)

Some independent phrases are connected with the rest of the thought by the adverb man, as

naabot camí, natutunod man an adlao

(when we arrived, the sun set; literally: we arrived, the sun also set).

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SYNTAX OF VERBS

THE INFINITIVE. The present has the construction of the noun, as

an pag-arám hin maopay ámo an catungdánan han batà

(to learn well is the duty of a boy).

The gerund expresses the idea of past when preceded by the particle han, contraction of the preposition ha and the article an, as [104]

han pagsírang han adlao, nagmamatá na acó

(when the sun raised, I was already awake).

The past participle has the construction of an adjective, as

binilangò ng̃a táuo

(prisoner; literally: an imprisoned man)

INDICATIVE. Besides its ordinary use, its present is frequently employed with the particle cuntà, to express the idea of an interrupted or intended action. As

cun uaráy ca cánhi, nalacát cunta acó

(If you had not come, I would have gone)

SUBJUNCTIVE. It being used in a subordinate propositions, it is always constructed with the conjunctions ng̃a (thato), cun, ng̃anì (if), cuntà (if possible).

Ng̃a and cun always precede the verb; ng̃anì and cunta when used for the subjunctive, is always placed after the verb. As

caruyag co ng̃a cumanhi ca buas	(I wish you to come to-morrow; literally: I wish that you may come to-morrow).1
cun lumabay hi Juan, tanága.	(If John passes by, call him)
lumabáy ng̃anì hi Juan taúaga.	(If John passes by, call him)
lumabáy cuntà hi Juan	(God grant that John passes).

NOTE.—The subjunctive form is frequently constructed with the modal adverbs and adjectives and then such combinations have the construction of an adjective. As

táuo ng̃a maopay sumurat	(a good writer: literally; a man who writes well)
macosóg sumáog ng̃a carabao	(a strong dragger carabao)
etc.

[105]

[Contents]

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS

The adjectives and verbs are always preferably employed, whenever possible, at the beginning of a phrase, clause, or sentence.

Examples:

maópay ng̃a táuo	(good man)
nagsusurát acó	(I write)
etc.

1 In Bisayan, there is no construction similiar to that of the English tongue, consisting in putting the subject in the objective case, and its verb in the infinitive: which is an exact Latin syntax, as

he wishes	me	to come
Ille vult	me	venire

Such sentence is expressed in Bisayan with the aid of the conjunction ng̃a, the subject in nominative case, and the verb in subjunctive mood, thus

caruyag niya ng̃a acó camánhi. ↑

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VIOLATIONS OF GOOD USE

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BARBARISMS

The most frequent violation of good use of the Bisayan tongue is the Barbarism.

It is committed by using foreign words, and foreign constructions.

[Contents]

FOREIGN WORDS

Many foreign words have been and are being introduced in the Bisayan conversations and writings. Must of such words are being adopted, not because they are necessary, but simply thru affectation and love of innovation, thus attempting against the purity of Bisayan. Some of the words introduced however are necessary as they have no corresponding word in Bisayan. [106]

FOREIGN WORDS UNNECESSARILY USED IN BISAYAN

Spanish words

Abierto, abre (open)	for	Binucsan, inucáb, bucás ucáb.
Adorno (adornment)	for,,	Dayan, rayandayan
Agua (used to mean perfume)	for,,	Talamhot
Aguanta (wait suffer)	for,,	Ílob, hulát
Alisto (from listo)	for,,	Andam
Amigo (friend)	for,,	Sángcay
Apique (close)	for,,	Sóoc
Apura, apurado (hurry)	for,,	Dagmit, cadagmitan
Atrever, atrevido (bold)	for,,	Paggahúm, gamhánan
Aver (for “give me”)	for,,	Icadí
Aver pa (God grant)	for,,	Mangad pa
Bajado, Bajar (low)	for,,	Habobó, obós
Bancó (bench)	for,,	Pongcóan, lincoran, pápag
Bando (edict)	for,,	Pahamatngon
Batido (for “experienced”)	for,,	Lasgud, hiara
Bote (for boat)	for,,	Sacayan
Cada usá (each one)	for,,	Tágsa
Calabozo (jail)	for,,	Bilangóan
Calculo (calculus)	for,,	Igoigo
Calle (street)	for,,	Dalan
Campana (bell)	for,,	Linganay
Canta (sing)	for,,	Laygay, laylay
Cantodes (from “cantores”)	for,,	Paralaygay
Carcel (jail)	for,,	Bi1angóan
Cargo (for “debt”)	for,,	Útang
Carne (flesh meat)	for,,	Unód
Capaz (able)	for,,	Sadang, angay, tacús
Castigo (punishment)	for,,	Siroc
Cocina (kitchen)	for,,	Lotoán
Coger	for,,	Pagdacóp pacasacób
Colá (from “colar”)	for,,	Bacá
Color (color)	for,,	Tina, samay, culay[107]
Comósta (from “como está” how are you)	for,,	Matiónan-o ca
Común (common)	for,,	Casahirác
Convida (invite)	for,,	Áabiabi, sabi
Contra (against)	for,,	Tipa, patoe, caauay
Cortina (curtain)	for,,	Biráy
Cuarta (money)	for,,	Salapí
Cuarto (room)	for,,	Solód
Cuerdas (strings)	for,,	Dolós
Cuello (collar)	for,,	Balióg
Cuenta (account)	for,,	Iháp, ísip
De balde (unusefully)	for,,	Cáuaug
De buenas (fortunate)	for,,	Paláran
Decir (for “ask”)	for,,	Siring hingyap
Defecto (defect)	for,,	Casaquihán, carát’an
De malas (unfortunate)	for,,	Uaráy palad
Derecho (right)	for,,	Tádong, dáyon, catadung̃an
Descanso (rest)	for,,	Pahúuay
Despedida (farewell)	for,,	Panamilit
Dibujo (drawing)	for,,	Badlis, Baguis
Diferencia (difference)	for,,	Guincalainan, guicaíbban
Dilatar (for delay)	for,,	Pag-uláng, pagpahalawig
Disgusto (unlikeness)	for,,	Cangalas
Dispensa (excuse)	for,,	Pasaylo, paguará
Diversion (amusement)	for,,	Caliáuan, liáoliáo
Dulce (sweet candy)	for,,	Matam’is
Empezar (to commence)	for,,	Pagticáng
Entra (for “to make love”)	for,,	Pangasáua
Entremés (joke)	for,,	Tíao
Escuela (school)	for,,	Liborán
Espejo (glass)	for,,	Salamíng
Esquina (corner)	for,,	Casóngnan
Estampa (image)	for,,	Ladáuan
Fino (fine)	for,,	Gamay, pilí
Firme (for always)	for,,	Agsub, ónob
Fuerza (strength)	for,,	Cusóg
Fuerte (strong)	for,,	Macusóg, mabácod
Fusil (gun)	for,,	Lutbang[108]
Ganancia (gain)	for,,	Polós, tubo
Gracia (grace, favor)	for,,	Parábul
Gratis (used for “payment”)	for,,	Himúdlay
Gusto (wish)	for,,	Caruyag
Hasta (until)	for,,	Tubtub, ngadá
Hechura (shape)	for,,	Daguay
Interes (interest)	for,,	Guinsisiring, guinlalánat
Jardin (garden)	for,,	Tanáman
La mesa (table)	for,,	Dulang
Latigo (whip)	for,,	Latós
Lavá (from “lavar”, to wash)	for,,	Búnac
Lavandero, a (launderer, laundress)	for,,	Magburunác
Licencia, pag (to take leave)	for,,	Sárit, panamilit
Limós (from “limosna”, alms)	for,,	Calóoy, hatag
Limpio (clean)	for,,	Mahínis
Lóa (praise)	for,,	Dáyao
Lugar (for “near” or “almost”)	for,,	Dapit, ma
Macetas (flower-pot)	for,,	Tinanóm, taranman
Maestro (teacher)	for,,	Magtorótdo
Manteca (butter)	for,,	Pinahagas
Mantel (tablecloth)	for,,	Basnig ha dulang
Mantilla (mantilla)	for,,	Taóng
Masiado (from “demasiado”, too)	for,,	Uraura
Masque (from “por más que”, although)	for,,	Bisan
Medio (half)	for,,	Catunga, bagá
Mismo (self-same)	for,,	Ngábao, gud
Muchacho (for servant)	for,,	Surogóon
Número (number)	for,,	Iháp
O bien (or)	for,,	O cun, ó, lugúd
Oración (prayer)	for,,	Pangadye, paugamuyo
Orden (order)	for,,	Sugo
Pabyon (from “pabellón”)	for,,	Biráy
Paciencia (patience)	for,,	Pag-ilub
Pago (for “debt”)	for,,	Utang[109]
Palati (from “palatico”, from “práctico”)	for,,	Mag-oróna
Paño (cloth)	for,,	Panapton, pudóng
Pañolito (handkerchief)	for,,	Modongpódong
Para (for, halt)	for,,	Basi, ngada, hulat, ocóy, toróoc
Parecer (opinion)	for,,	Sagbang
Parejo (equal)	for,,	Sáma, sandag
Paseada (from “paseo”)	for,,	Lacatlácat
Peligro (danger)	for,,	Cataragman
Pensar (for talent)	for,,	Talíno
Perdona (from “perdonar”)	for,,	Pasaylo
Pero (but)	for,,	Cundi
Pertina (for “pretina”, waistband)	for,,	Háuac
Pierde (from “perder” to lose)	for,,	Lupig, nara
Pintar (to paint)	for,,	Dum-it, díhog
Pintura (paint)	for,,	Idirihóg
Plato (plate)	for,,	Pingan
Platito (a little dish)	for,,	Lampay
Pliegues (plaits)	for,,	Lopi
Pobre (poor)	for,,	Cablas
Polvo (powder)	for,,	Bócboc
Posta (from “apuesta” bet)	for,,	Butáng
Precio (price)	for,,	Pulít
Preparar (to prepare)	for,,	Pag-andam, pagtíma
Preso (prisoner)	for,,	Binilangá.
Probar (to taste)	for,,	Tilao, sari
Propecto (from “perfecto,” perfect)	for,,	Guinóod
Prueba (proof, evidence)	for,,	Paacamatóod
Principal (chief, capital)	for,,	Labáo, pohonan
Provecho (profit)	for,,	Polós
Puerta (door)	for,,	Ganghaán
Pulido (neat)	for,,	Hag-id, mahamis
Puro (pure)	for,,	Putli, lonlon, sandag, sáhid
Queja (complaint)	for,,	Sumbong
Querido (dear)	for,,	Hinigugma, pinalanga
Que ver (for “to do”)	for,,	Láhot[110]
Quinolá (from colar)	for,,	Bináchan
Rabenque (from “rebenque”, whipe)	for,,	Latob, latos
Recibi (from “recibir”)	for,,	Carauat
Reclamo (claim)	for,,	Paglánat
Redondo (round)	for,,	Lipóron, malídong
Regalo (present)	for,,	Higugma, hatag, bucad
Regular (regular)	for,,	Igó, socol
Relo, relos (from “reloj” watch, clock)	for,,	Orasán1
Remo (oar)	for,,	Gaód
Renuncio (from “renunciar”, to renounce)	for,,	Pagdiri, pagdiuara
Reventa (from “reventar” to explode)	for,,	Pagbotó
Rico (rich)	for,,	Mangáran
Rugal (from “lugar”, spot)	for,,	Caraanan, tuna, umá
Saco (sack)	for,,	Sopót
Sadá (from “cierra”, close)	for,,	Locób
Sala (hall)	for,,	Ruáng
Saya (skirt)	for,,	Tampí, Talapí
Seguro (for “probably”)	for,,	Mahámoe, angay la
Señor (Sir, Mister)	for,,	Guinoo
Sirve (from “servir” to serve)	for,,	Pagmangno pag-ágad
Suerte (for “talk”)	for,,	Himangrao
Sustento (maintenance)	for,,	Pagbubi, iburuhi, cabuhian
Tabla (board)	for,,	Bugha
Tachar (for “contempt”)	for,,	Yúbit, támay
Taza (cup)	for,,	Yahóng
Tiempo (time)	for,,	Adlao, túig
Tienda (merchandise, store)	for,,	Baligya, baligyáan
Tieso (stiff)	for,,	Dángag, tadóng
Tocar (to play)	for,,	Pagtonóg
Tocador (for glass)	for,,	Salamíng
Tonto (fool)	for,,	Lórong, palinqui, pádlas
Trabajo (work)	for,,	Buhat[111]
Tranea (cross-bar)	for,,	Síol, Balabág
Tumba (to tumble)	for,,	Púcan
Vacio (empty)	for,,	Lungág
Ventana (window)	for,,	Tambóan
Verde (green)	for,,	Saguindáhon
Vicio (vice)	for,,	Casaquihán
Virtud (for “power”)	for,,	Gahúm
Zurce (for “zurcir” to darn)	for,,	Pagtábing,

And many others.

CHINESE2 WORDS

Bochang (for sow)	for	Cablas
Buísit (unfortunate)	for,,	Uaray pálad
Camsya (for “thank”)	for,,	Salámat
Gonggong (foolish)	for,,	Uaray salabótan
Lamloc (dear, fat)	for,,	Matamboc
Laotuy (old)	for,,	Lagás, gurang
Syâ (for eat)	for,,	Cáon
Sinqui (new)	for,,	Bag-o
Tampuâ (excess, present)	for,,	Táuad, labis
Uchang (rich)	for,,	Mangáran
Uísit (fortunate)	for,,	Paláran.

and some others.

ENGLISH WORDS

Haló (halloo)	for	Ohó
Miting (“meeting”)	for,,	Catirócan
Háyc (“hike”)	for,,	Paglacát, sódoy
Moning (for “money”)	for,,	Salapí
Sausau (chow-chow)	for,,	Pagcáon, caraonón

And others.

NOTE.—At present, among the students it is frequent to hear “¿háin an ac dyografi (geography), an ac arismitic (arithmetic)?” “¿aada ca ha fif (fifth) greyd (grade)?” “maaram na acó mag espeling (spelling)”—Why do they not talk in English? [112]

OBSERVATION. There are some Tagalog words and constructions used in Bisayan; but we do not consider their use as a barbarism, because Tagalog and Bisayan are both dialects of a common tongue, and because such use may help the formation of a possible Filipino language.

FOREIGN CONSTRUCTIONS

Among others, the following is a barbarism in the construction: “maoroopay iní QUE hitón”, (this is better than that). The use of the QUE (which is Spanish meaning “than”) is entirely Spanish and is not necessary in Bisayan, as the mentioned sentence is expressed simply and with the same strength and more purity and correctness: “maooropáy iní hitón”.

FOREIGN WORDS NECESSARILY ADOPTED IN BISAYAN

But there are many words now in use in Bisayan the adoption of which enriches rather then destroys the language. We refer to those words that have been necessarily imported from other languages to express ideas not represented by any word, or whose corresponding words are lost in Bisayan.

We do not consider their use as a barbarism, as it is not considered us such in English, Spanish, French and other European languages the adoption of Greek and Latin words. We not only do not criticize such adoption in the Filipino dialects but rather desire and encourage it, because it will undoubtedly enable our dialects to be used in all kinds of scientific and artistic expressions.

Among the foreign words already adopted, the following may be counted:

Dyos (from the Spanish Dios). It is true that we have the Tagálog Bathala which refers to the omnipotency, and the Bisayan Laón which refers to the eternity. But in view of the fact that the word Dyos derived from the Latin Deus, from the Greek Zeus which means Divinite, Supreme Being, has been so much used in Bisayan, and it represent another phase of the attributes of God, we think that the said [113]word DYOS ought to be adopted in Bisayan, adapting its form to the inflections of our dialect.

Oras (from the Spanish hora “hour”).—We have to adopt this word, as there is no corresponding expression known in Bisayan. By its adoption we have a way to avoid the use of reloj, with the derivative orasan already used.

Bapor (from the Spanish “vapor” steamboat). It has no corresponding in Bisayan. We have sacayán (boat), but it does not include the idea of the “steam.”

Papel (from the Spanish “papel”).—It has no corresponding in Bisayan.

The Spanish names of the days of the week, and of the months of the year, which must be written in Bisayan form, as: LUNES, MARTES, MYERKOLES, HWEBES, BYERNES, SABADO, DOMINGO, ENERO, PEBRERO, MARSO, ABRIL, MAYO, JUNYO, HULYO, AGOSTO, SEPTYEMBRE, OKTUBRE, NOBYEMBRE, DISYEMBRE.

Arorú (from the English “arrow-root”). A plant. And many others. [115]

1 See “Foreign words necessarily adopted in Bisayan”, infra. ↑

2 We do not refer to those Chinese words imported to Philippines with Chinese objects. Such words are to be kept necessarily in Bisayan, because their equivalent vernacular expressions, either are lost, or never existed. ↑

[Contents]

APPENDIX

[117]

[Contents]

NOTES ON BISAYAN RHETORIC AND POETICS

FIGURES OF SPEECH

Simile. This figure is one of the most used in Bisayan, even in ordinary conversations.

Examples:

1. Bagá an násirong ng̃a dila.

Applied to a person or thing intended to be kept out of the rain, but which becomes wet, like the tongue (dila) which is always wet in the mouth.

 Canogon pa dao la—san imo catindog
maópay si báyhon—maráot an bántog
igpapananglit co—bayábas ng̃a hinóg,
maópay an panit—olóron an onód

(A popular song,)

Where the resemblance is between “maopay si bayhon” and “maopay an panit”, and also between “maráot an bantog” and “olóron an onód”.

Metaphor. It is also used, especially in poetry.

Example:

 Cáhoy ca ng̃a linauáan
sa búquid nanauantáuan
cun canan Dyos ca pagbut-an
matopóng sa ulasiman.

(A popular song)

Applied to one who is in a high position in life, like “cahoy ng̃a linauáan”, the “lauáan” tree being one of the tallest trees.

Allegory. It is also found in Bisayan.

Example:

Ugá ng̃a cáhoy si láuas,
patáy na, layâ si dáhon
[118]
nanaringsing sin casáquit
namúng̃a sin camatáyon

(A popular song)

Here the life or body (láuas) is called a dry tree (ugá ng̃a cáhoy), already dead (patáy na), whose leaves are withered (laya si dahon), and which sprouted sorrow (nanaringsing sin casáquit), and gave as fruit, the death (namúng̃a sin camatáyon).

Personification. One of the most frequent cases of personification in Bisayan is that consisting in applying to things and objects the personal article si.

Example:

Nagtitinang̃is si tucmo

cay tiarábut an bagyo.

(A popular song)

Where the turtle-dove, (tucmo) is personifed by si. The expression would lose much of its charm if the article an is employed instead of si.

Antithesis. We have this figure in Bisayan.

Example:

Canógon pa dao la—san imo catindog

maópay si bayhon—maráot an bantog, etc.

Where “maopay” (good) and “maraot” (bad), “bayhon” (face) and “bántog” (fame) are contrasted.

Epigram. This figure, in its modern meaning, is used in Bisayan.

Example:

Gumhúlat pa an naghínay.

an nagdagmit, uaráy.

Which literally means: he who went slow was awaited for; he who hastened was not waited for. Its point is equivalent to that of the English “slow, but sure.” “Guinhulat” (was awaited for) “uaráy” (was not), “naghínay” (went slow) and “nagdágmit” (hastened) are contrasted. [119]

Metonymy. It is also found in Bisayan.

Example:

An patay palang̃it, an buhi pacauít.

Literally: let the dead go to heaven; let the living go to the “cauít” (a bamboo where the tubâ wine is ordinarily placed). The figure consists in this word “cauít,” container, for “tuba wine,” the thing contained.

Synecdoche.

Example:

Pag árog hin damò nga bugás cay damo camí ng̃a babà.

Literally it means: “Prepare much rice because we are many mouths.” Here the mouths (baba) a part, is used for person, the whole.

Apostrophe. We have it also in Bisayan.

Example:

Ohoy mg̃a lang̃it—mga cahatas’an.
tabang̃i, buligui—adin may pinas’an
an iní nga pálad—con diri mabáui
nouontan dao adá—sinin quinabuhi

(A popular song)

Literally: Heavens, altitudes, protect, help this who suffers something; if this fate is not averted, it will undoubtedly affect the life.

Exclamation.

Example:

¡Pastilán bidíday,—bididay ca man la
ng̃a nacacalucmay—sinin hunahuna! …
¡ayáo pag saquita!—¡ayáo pagbidóa,
cay mag titinangis—canugon san luha! …

(A popular song)

Interrogation.

Example:

Mg̃a langit, mg̃a langit;

¿háin dao dapit an sáquit? …

[120]

sa calibutan uaráy man:

sabali sa panomdoman.

(A popular song)

Hyperbole. It is frequent in Bisayan.

Examples:

1. Macapánas hin buquid. (Man able to level a mountain)
2. Macasagpo bin bahá. (Man able to suspend a flood)

2. Cun totóo, intoy—ng̃a imo tinguha

pag biling la anay—sílot ng̃a may bóa.

(A popular song)

Literally: If your love is true, look for a “silot” (a young fruit of cocoanut) which has “bua” (the bulb of the old cocoanut fruit when it is old enough to be used as a seed).

Climax

Example:

¡ .….….…
nanaringsing sin masáquit,
namúnga sin camatáyon.

Irony.

Example:

¡Camaopay mo! uaray ca gud pag tuman han imo pólong̃.

Literally: How good are you! you did not keep your word.

Asyndeton.

Example:

Ohoy mg̃a lang̃it—mg̃a cahatas’an

tabang̃i, buligui, inín may pinas’an, etc.

(A popular song)

Repetition. [121]

Examples:

1. Dirì co cay yubit—diri co cay dáyao

pamahonpáhon mo—baga may parayao; etc.

(A popular song)

2. Pastilán, bididay—bididay ca man la

ng̃a nacacalúcmay—sinín hunahuña, etc.

(A popular song)

Concatenation.

Example:

Pastilán ca curi—cacuri capinan
capin ca mabide—san bido sa dughan,
dughan co pagílob—ilob calauasan,
láuas co naponò—pono casaquitan.

(A polular song).

[Contents]

PROSE

Of the three universal important forms in prose, i.e., description, narration, and exposition nothing in general needs be observed.

LETTERS

At present, one of the forms most generally employed in Bisayan prose is that belonging to the class of narration, the letter.

Nothing special needs be observed about letters, at present times, apart from their external forms and the tendency to innovation prominently shown in them, more than anywhere else, by frequent barbarisms.

As to the external forms of the Bisayan letters, it is to be observed that a routinary introduction is almost universally followed. We refer to the ordinary introduction consisting in the following ideas and order: “This letter has [122]no other purpose” 2) “but to ask how you are” 3) “because as to me” 4) “I am in a good health”.

And after such an invariable introduction, the writer goes on in a paragraph apart; “And I shall add that”, etc.

Example:

Uaráy láin ng̃a tuyó hiní ng̃a acon surat cúndi an damo ng̃a mg̃a pang̃omósta co ha imo, cay cun acó in ipaquiána, calooy sa Dyos maópay.

Ng̃an isonouod co liuát, etc.

This is the introduction generally adopted. We do not hesitate to state that more than fifty per cent of the letters written in our Bisayan commence with these or equivalent ideas and in the same order.

As to the barbarisms, they are employed thruout the entire letter.

On the heading it is usually written:

Tacloban, á 2 de Octubre de 1908.

instead of:

Tacloban, ica 2 han Octubre han 1908.

On the introduction it ordinarily appears

Sr. D .….….….….….….….….….…

Sra. D.^a .….….….….….….….….….…

Mi estimado amigo:

Muy estimada Señora:

The body of the letter is usually as follows:

Uaray lain ng̃a objeto hini ng̃a acon surat, sino an damo ng̃a mg̃a pangomosta ha iyo ngatanán, cay cun camí in iyo ipaquiána, calooy sa Dyos, uaray ano man ng̃a novedad. [123]

Y de consiguiente, tatay, isusunod co liuat; cun uaray mo inconveniente, gusto co cunta comadá pag vacacion; pero como guinadvertir mo man aco han nacadi ca ng̃a mag procurar acó hin pag obtener anay han titulo, por eso amo iní ng̃a dirí aco na atrever pag guican mientras dirí paca aco macacarauát han imo contestation ng̃a pag hatag hin permiso, bisan cun sobra y basta gud an acon mg̃a deseos pag visita ha iyo. etc.

[Contents]

POETIC FORMS

Of the three main classes of poetry, epic, lyric and dramatic, the lyric is the only one preserved in Bisayan in the form of popular songs. The dramatic form is found at present mainly in the translations of Tagalog and Spanish dramas, usually employed as plays on the Patron’s days in the towns.

VERSIFICATION

Rhythm and rhyme are observed in Bisayan poems.

The rhyme is not so perfect as that of the Spanish verses. Consonant words or with similar sounding endings are employed in Bisayan.

Kinds of meter. There are two kinds of meter most used in Bisayan poetry: verses of six syllables, verses of eight syllables, and verses of twelve syllables divided in two fragments of six syllables each.

Examples:

Verses of six syllables:

¿Háin ca na, punay?…
cadí na panambo,
tambo madalíay,
liaua si casbo;
basi humalayhay

[124]

inín saquit, bido
nga asay tiónay
san casingcasing co.

Verses of eight sy11ab1es:

Acó iní sugadsugad
san bánua nga tarotánglad,
bisan cun diín italad
mabubuhi cun may palad,

Verses of twelve syllables:

Togon co sa imo,—mahal nga inógay
di ca gud padará—san damo nga sangcay;
an paglacát nime—gabay magmahinay,
nga diri hatócso,—lumiscad san látay.

Note.—The verses of twelve syllables are really verses of six, the odd verses not being rhymed.

Combinations. As seen in the preceding examples the combinations are the following:

The verses of six syllables are grouped in four verses, the even verses being rhymed.

The verses of eight syllables are grouped also in four verses all rhymed.

The verses of twelve syllables are also grouped in four rhymed verses.

[Contents]

COLLECTION OF SOME BISAYAN SONGS

NOTE—In transcribing the following songs, we shall use, the orthography proposed in the note of the first page of this book using only three vowels: a, i, o.

MORAL POETRY

Si nanay, si tatay di ko babayuán
kay damò ng̃a dogô an akon naotag̃
kun pag-ilsipon an siyam ka botan.
g̃a pag-inókoy ko sa kan nanay riyán.

Togon ko sa imo, mahal g̃a inógay:
di ka god padará san damò g̃a sangkay;
an paglakat nímo gabáy mag mahinay,
g̃a dirí katokao, lomiskad san látay.

[125]

Kamakaroroyag sa matá pagkit’on
sinin mag-asawa g̃a waray sin limbog,
kon daw naabot na ira kamatayon
náboká an lang̃it bási nira sadlon.

Ayaw gani kahihilig
ayaw karirikandikan,
kay di man bagyo an toig,
di man kikilá an bolan.

PHILOSOPHIC POETRY

Mg̃a bitoón sa lag̃it
may mapawà, may mag̃itg̃it,
con sa tawo igpanag̃lit,
may malípay, may masákit.

Kahoy ka g̃a linawaán
sa bokid nanawantawan,
kon kanan Dyos ka pagbot’an
matopóg̃ sa olasiman.

Di ko ginkakasorok’an
an salapí, an bolawan;
say ko ginkikinahag̃lan
maopay g̃a ginawian.

Sogad gud akó san gamót
g̃a nailarom sa kotkot,
kon kanan Dyos pagboót
malábaw akó san ódlot

Diri ba ako pagsirig̃.
indayon, paghang̃narig̃,
kay bag̃in kitá kapadg̃an,
harayó an borogkátan.

Guin holát pá an naghinay;

an nag dagmit, waráy.

Waráy hiní balos báyad

bas’la an boót longáyad

LOVE POETRY

An bató bantilis náibas, nákilot
sa toró san tóbig sa darodagínot:
¡kasig̃kasig̃ pa ba an diri homómok.
sa gógma san tawo kon sa tarinónot.

Di ba sadto ánay imo akó sig̃sig̃
sa walá g̃a kamót, todló tamoyig̃kig̃;
baman itó niyán di ka na násiplat,
¿anó an solá ko sa imo nabóhat?

An sakít sa domdom og sa honahona,
makori ilig̃kod, makori íhigda:
¿ihagád sa láng̃it? ¿itamod sa tona?…
¡A baá Dyos ko, máonan’o dao la!…

Pastilán kakori, ka kori kapinan
kapin kamabido san bido sa dóghan;
doghan ko pag-ilob, ilob kasawásan,
láwas ko g̃a ponó pone kasakitan.

Pastilán, bididay, bididay ka man la
ga nakakalokmay sinín honahona:
ayáo pag sakita, ayao pag bidóa,
kay mag titinangis kanógon san loha.

Pastilán ka kori, ka kor ig̃akapin
san may pag kasákit sinin kasig̃kasig̃:
igpapanag̃lit ko sa osá ga borig̃
bisan parigóson may gihapon bilin.

Háin ka na ponay,
kadi na panambo,
tambo madaliay.
liawá si kas’bo.
basi homanáyhay
inin sakit bido
g̃a asáy tiónay
sa kasigkasig ko.

Abá Tig̃tig̃ abá Tig̃tig̃.
ioli an akon sig̃sig̃.
opayda kon logarig̃on,
kondi kanan taklobauon.

Akon iglilibaglibag̃
inin kasákit sa doghan
baman ha banig ig matag̃
sakit ga magtitilógag̃.

Kadto na, kadto na, kadto na soranga
kadto na pag bilig̃ sin ibá g̃a gogma
ayaw gad pag hig̃yap sin sogad sa akon
asáy tig̃ohán maópay ga láyhon

[126]

Kon boot ka mang̃asáwa
inín barás pag pisia,
di ka g̃ani makapisi
pag toraw na la ganoli.

Kon daw ha kasirig̃anon
tobig ka g̃a irinómon
diri sa dáhon pahonbon,
pahónbon sa doghan nakon

Kon bagá kahoy si lawas
patay na, laya si dahon
nanarig̃sig̃ sin kasákit
namóg̃a sin kamatáyon

Kap’atán ka tuig an akon paghig̃yap

pag-imasisirig̃ sa imo, binórak.

Han nákadto ka ha pantaw
akon ka gintitinan-aw
harápit ako matónaw
sa dako g̃a pag kahidlaw

Anó iní g̃a nádoróy
kamasakit, kamakapoy,
an lawas sogád sin káhoy
g̃aginhaharoharópoy

Bohi pa an bató g̃a pinamonakan

didto la katikag̃ an karokayakan

Pastilán ka kori san pag-ig̃irikan
natag̃is si inday g̃a binabayáan,
gabáy daw la habsan inín kalalawdan
g̃a diri tomólin inín pagsarakyan

Han nakadto ka ha lawdon
akon ka gintinan-awon
hapit kó ikaw karawton
ha barás diri patonbon.

Kon nag-iimót ka san imo kamathom
san pag kamabaysay san imo pamayhon,
bisan la an todló, an bohók, panapton
kon asay somirag̃, maopay na nakon,

Hiará ako magnawá
magsakaysakay sa bará
og didto ako hidagsa
sa kam g̃awan g̃a tuna

Katlóan ka tuig g̃a akon kahidlaw

sogád ka sin tobig nakon ikaóhaw

Kon baga ako si taro
tonáw na sa pag kaálo;
maopay si alimag̃o
kay may pag kalonolóno

Mga lagit, mga lagit,
¿háin daw dapít an sakit?.…
sa kalibótan waráy man
sabáli sa panomdoman

Sin pag kamamig̃aw sinín kakorolpon
waráy god nabantad bis osá g̃a dahon
bis an mg̃a tamsi sáhid mabidó an
¿say pa ba an tawo, di aipan gihapon?.…

Hinógay na intoy, siton pakalipog̃
sin kinarokanhi sinin amon libog̃
opayda kon hiro iton imo bayhon
maamog̃ ka daw la sinín bantog namon

SUNDRY

Adto na si adlaw
linmoyó sa bokid,
oli na, indayon,
kay waray pa tóbig.

Hi nonay g̃a kawayánon
malobaylobay hag̃anon
naglilinakat ha kógon
hi hawak royokdoyókon.

Itón imo baba
g̃a nagyayabora
g̃a nagyiyinákan
sitón lonlun bowa;

kon di ko kahadlok
pághirót sin gaba
pag-oonloton ko
itón imo dila

Akó magtotóon diri ko sasabwan
mangad na maloto, diri ko sosog̃-an
si akó mátimo di ko poporoton
mangad na mabosóg, diri ko totolnon.

Anó man in akon kon diin ka kadto,
di mo la pag dad-on an tubig, kalayo:
di mo mam binohi ini g̃a lawas ko
tinmobo si inday kosóg san amáy ko.

[127]

An tansman nimo mandig̃
ginsisinólod san kand g̃
an taranman nakikil g̃
kay gin bobowad san baktin.

¿Ano ba, Dyos ko, an nakakasógad,
an isda sa dagat g̃a nagkakalópad?…
¿ano ba, Dyos ko, iní ga nadoróy,
inin katamsihan g̃a nagkakalag̃oy?…

Kanogon pa daw la san imo katindog
maópay si bayhon, maráot an bantog:
igpapanag̃lit ko, bayabas g̃a hinóg,
maópay an pánit, oloron an onód.

Ambot daw ada maorán
si dampog nag̃o odtóhan
bisan la inin pag̃ánod
doróyog tipailáwod

Busa, bayái, balitaw,
ayáw gad tood kay tíaw
iní g̃a akon pagbolaw
igpapahaoli g̃ahaw.

Hilag̃kag kitá, hilag̃kag
sinín palawán g̃a pankag
kay bag̃in, idáy, makárag
dó loktan sinín alámag.

Makadí kamí maoli,
maoli g̃a bagá diri,
naghihiawil pa g̃ani
san ka maopay sangawi

An di ko iginpinólog̃
an kabasólan in akon:
si kahoy di mag torópog̃
may balíko, may matadog̃

Anó man in akon kon diín ka hanoy
di mo la pagdad-on an tobig, an kahoy
iní g̃a lawas ko g̃a makalolóoy
tinmobo kan tatay, kan nanay g̃a iróy

Diri ko kay yóbit, diri ko kay dayaw
pamahonpáhon mo bagá may paráyaw;
an imo pamálod pagkasadag̃ana,
baga nagkokori an akon ginhawa.

Ayáw gad hin tamay, ayáw gad hin yóbit
kay magsáma man la inín aton pánit;
an aton logárig̃ ginkakalainan,
kay diri mag-osá inín aton g̃aran.

Busa, bayái, bayái,
bayái ayáw baliki,
bisan dahon sin kamoti
mabobohi kami dinhi.

Abá Lolay, abá Lolay
ligid ligid sinin baybay
kon igkita ka sin away
dalagan, ayaw papátay

Makadí kami maoli
sa baláy g̃a sinorambi
bisan la mawaráy bóg̃bog̃
maoli kay logarig̃on

An di ko iginkinanta1
an kabasolán onína;
si kahoy di magsaráma
may baliko, may balísa

An akon pagkinantáhon1
báyad san akon kináon;
bisan la akó tog̃boyón
g̃a diri oraoráhon.

Nag sisirom na daw inín kakorolpon
g̃atanán g̃a tamsi sa káhoy na hapon
kitá man an tawo ga may isip domdom.
máoli sa balay g̃a kalogarig̃on

[128]

1 Derived from the Spanish “cantar” (to sing) ↑ a b

[Contents]

NOTES ON FILIPINO DIALECTOLOGY

It is beyond any question that most of the Filipino dialects are derived from a common origin: the Malay tongue.

For this reason many Bisayan words are exactly the same in other Filipino dialects, and many others bear some local dialectal differences, thus always showing a common origin.

The following lists are short collections of such words.

[Contents]

WORDS EXACTLY THE SAME IN BISAYAN AND IN TAGALOG

A

Ako.1—I
Agaw.—To snatch
Ag̃lit.—A little pot
Amihan.—North wind
Anák.—son, daughter
Anino.—Shadow
Apo.—Grandson, grand-daughter
Apog.—Lime
Asawa.—Wife
Asín.—Salt
aswag̃.—Witch
Atáy.—Liver
Away.—Fight

B

Baboy.—Pig
Baga.—Red-hot
Bagá.—as, like
Baga.—Lung
Bagon.—To raise
Bantay.—Watch
Bantilis.—A kind of rock
Basa.—To read
Bata.—Child
Bató.—Stone
Bawi.—To recover
Bayabas.—Guava
Bayad.—Pay
Bayáw.—Brother-in-law
Boká.—Open, untied
Bokás.—Open
Bokó.—Knot
Bohók.—Hair
Bog̃a.—Fruit

K

Kabig.—Pull
Kahoy.—Tree, timber, wood
Kawayan.—Bamboo
Kilala.—To know
Koha.—Take
Kólag̃.—Insufficient
Kota.—Wall

D

Dagat.—Sea
Dahon.—Leave
Dalí.—Quick
Dila.—Tongue
Dogó.—Blood

I

Ibabaw.—Over
Ikaw.—Thou, you
Init.—Heat
Inóm.—Drink

[129]

H

Habagat.—West
Hagdan.—Staircase
Hayop.— Animal
Hiláw.—Unripe
Hínay.—Slow
Hinog.—Ripe
Hógas.—Wash

L

Labis.—Excess
Lakbay.—Go over
Lag̃aw.—Fly
Lag̃it.—Heaven, sky
Lalaki.—Male
Laway.—Saliva
Likod.—Back
Limá.—Five
Liwanag.—Clearness
Lokso.—Jump
Lohá.—Tear
Lorâ.—Spit
Lotò.—Cooked

M

Manók.—Chicken
Matá.—Eye
Matambók.—Fat
May.—There is, etc.
Maya.—A kind of bird

N

Nipá.—Nipá
Nipis.—Thinness
Nosuos.—To rub

O

Ogát.—Vein, nerve
Olo.—Head
Oo.—Yes
Opa.—Payment
Otag.—Debt
Owák.—Raven
Owáy.—Vine

P

Pakpak.—Applause with palms
Pait.—Bitterness
Palad.—Palm of the hand
Patay.—Kill
Pati.—Also, with
Patog̃.—To place over
Payog̃.—Umbrella
Paypay.—Fan
Pili.—A tree so called
Pili.—To select
Pingan.—Plate
Pitó.—Seven
Pokpok.—To beat
Pola.—Red
Posod.—Navel

S

Sa.—To, at, from, on, etc.
Sabaw.—Broth
Sakay.—To embark
Sakit.—Sickness
Sagig̃.—Banana
Saló.—Receive
Saway.—To correct
Sawsaw.—To wash
Siko.—Elbow
Sig̃ba.—To adore
Sili.—Pepper
Siyá.—He, she
Siyam.—Nine
Soka.—To vomit
Sog̃ay.—Horn
Solog̃.—Forward
Sonod.—Follow
Sonog.—Fire

T

Táas.—Height
Tabas.—To cut
Tadtad.—To prick
Tag̃is.—To weep
Tahí.—To sew
Timog.—South
Tiyán.—Belly
Tobâ.—A wine
Tobig.—Water
Tobó.—Sugar cane
Tobò.—Profit, to grow
Tohod.—Knee
Tohog.—To string
Tonóg.—Sound
Twad.—To face dawnwards

W

Waló.—Eight

[130]

[Contents]

WORDS WITH SOME DIALECTAL DIFFERENCES

Differences in the vowels i, o.

BISAYAN	TAGALOG	ENGLISH
Akon	Akin	my, mine
Amon	Amin	our
Aslom	Asim	acidity
Aton	Atin	our
Atóp	Atíp	roof
Bitóon	Bitúin	star
Bokog	Bikig	fish-bone, bone
Bogás	Bigas	rice
Bog-at	Bigat	weight
Bolad	Bilad	to sun
Bog̃ol	Big̃í	deaf
Kan-on	Kanin	cooked rice
Kaon	Kain	to eat
Katol	Katí	to itch, itching
Dámò	Dami	amount, much
Datóg̃	Datig̃	to arrive
Dokót	Dikit	to adhere, adhered
Dolóm	Dilim	dark
Gorót	Gilit	slice
Hábol	Habi	to weave
Harok	Halik	kiss, to kiss
Hatod	Hatid	to accompany
Horám	Hiram	to borrow
Iuomon	Inumin	potable water
Itom	Itim	black
Liog	Liig	neck
Pawod	Pawid	weaved nipa
Salóg	Sahig	floor
Sandig	Sandal	to lean
Takóp	Takíp	cover
Tanom	Tanim	plantation
Taróm	Talim	edge of a sword, etc.
Tindok	Tundok	a kind of banana
Tindog	Tindig	to stand
Tonok	Tiník	thorn

[131]

Differences in k, h, l, r, d, t.

BISAYAN	TAGALOG	ENGLISH
Adlaw	Araw	Sun, day
Aram	Alam	Wisdom
Badò	Barò	Chemise
Balay	Bahay	House
Balo	Bao	Widow, widower
Balon	Baon	Provision
Barahibo	Balahibo	Feather, dawn
Bari	Bali	To break
Bolan	Bwan	Moon, month
Kagód	Káyud	To scrath
Kalot	Kámot	To scratch
Kamó	Kayó	You
Koló	Kukú	Nail
Dalan	Daan	Path, road
Daraga	Dalaga	Young girl
Digò	Ligò	To bath
Dirì	Hindì	Not
Hadì	Harì	King
Halabà	Mahaba	Long
Halarom	Malalim	Deep
Harayò	Malayò	Far
Higdà	Higà	To lay down
Iróg	Ilog̃	Nose
Lakát	Lakad	To walk
Lawod	Láot	Ocean
Mahínis	Malinis	Clean
Namok	Lamok	Mosquito
Napolo	Sampù	Ten
Parabol	Palaboy	Favor, grace
Pirit	Pilit	To force
Poro	Pulò	Island
Roag̃	Lwag̃	Broad
Salod	Sahod	To receive
Sarapati	Kalapati	Pigeon
Sarowal	Salawal	Pants
Sira	Sila	They
Sirag̃	Silag	To appear
Sirog̃	Silog̃	Beneath
Sodlay	Suklay	Comb
Sorat	Sulat	Letter
Sorok	Sulok	Corner[132]
Talig̃a	Taig̃a	Ear
Tarog̃	Talog̃	A plant
Torò	Tulò	Drop
Torog	Tulog	To sleep
Toktok	Togtog	To sound, to play

Differences in the accent, and in the separation of the syllables.

BISAYAN	TAGALOG	ENGLISH
Bálik	Balík	to come back
Kohà	Kuha	to take
Gaód	Gáod	oar
Hipág	Hípag	sister-in-law
Laón	Láon	old, ancient
Sábay	Sabáy	simultaneous
Tawá	Táwa	laugh
Kab-it	Kabít	connected
Kam-aw	Kamao	a dish
Kan-on	Kanin	cooked rice
Koan	Kwán	so and so
Gab-i	Gabí	evening, night
Sab-a	Sabá	a kind of banana
Sab-it	Sabit	to hook
Tan-aw	Tanaw	to look
Tig-a	Tigás	hardness
Tul-id	Twid	straight

Transformation from a to o, and viceversa.

Alapoop	Alapaap	cloud, fog
Kamót	Kamay	hand
Doha	Dalawá	two
Habobò	Mababà	low
Sokól	Sukat	measure
Toló	Tatlo	three
Onóm	Anim	six
Opat	Apat	four
Otok	Utak	brain

[133]

1 A: We use in these lists the orthography proposed in the first page of this book, as an orthography practically the same is now being much used in Tagalog. But we employ only three vowels: a, i, o. ↑

[Contents]

ERRATA

The errata have been applied to the text, except in a few cases where the misspelling could not be located.

PAGE	LINE
1	7 (note)	city.	for city,
2	1 (note)	this method	for,, the method
8	15	han	for,, han, canán
13	3 (note)	SUPRA	for,, INFRA
15	23	wich	for,, with
18	10	as.	for,, as
18	27	MGA	for,, MAG
19	11	mag-áarot	for,, mag-aárot
19	19	(person bold) in reading	for,, (person bold in reading)
23	11	whe	for,, we
23	31	(lier)	for,, (liar)
24	5	pauá, capauá	for,, pauà, capauà
25	1	simyly	for,, simply
25	21	take	for,, taking
26	29	expresses,	for,, expresses
30	1 (note)	names	for,, name
31	6	tastes	for,, tests
32	31	adje-	for,, adjec-
34	last line	excesive	for,, excessive
35	1	before primitive	for,, before the primitive
35	17	paintful	for,, painful
36	29	insted	for,, instead
37	28	that and	for,, and that
38	14	te	for,, the
38	16, 21	cabataán-(reunion	for,, cabatáan-(reunion)
38	19	ty make	for,, to make
39	4	despective	for,, depreciative
39	7	tru	for,, thru
39	23	voriations	for,, variations
39	3 (notes)	parvity	for,, littleness
39	3, 4 (notes)	onomatopic	for,, onomatopoetic
40	4, 12	FEMENINE	for,, FEMININE
40	23	or of	for,, or by
41	11	inflexion	for,, inflection
41	16	samet leters	for,, same letters
42	17	zingiber	for,, ginger
42	29	moderstand	for,, understand
42	30	passanger	for,, passenger
44	20	follwed	for,, followed [134]
46	9	cabataán	for,, cabatáan
40	15	guipác, guipác	for,, guipic, guipác
46	29	(saliba)	for,, (saliva)
46	30	(resine)	for,, (resin)
46	30	(unarticulate voice)	for,, (inarticulate voice)
47	10	Quitá, camí (we)	for,, Quita, camí (3) (we)
49	1	further from the speaker than from the listener	for,, far from both the speaker and the listener
50	20	the form hadton	for,, the forms hadto and haton.
52	1	REEALATIVE	for,, RELATIVE
52	11	inflexion	for,, inflection
52	16, 19, 24	litterally	for,, literally
52	16	verted	for,, expressed
52	28	flwer)	for,, flower)
52	3 (Notes)	preceds the adjetive	for,, precedes the adjective
52	4 (Notes)	permisible	for,, permissible
58	15	litterally	for,, literally
59	1, 4	litterally	for,, literally
59	21	I have written (I wrote	for,, (I have written, I wrote)
60	16, 17	subjuntive	for,, subjunctive
60	26	hade	for,, had
62	16	Examp	for,, Example
62	18	the said consonant, being	for,, the said consonant being
62	1 (Note)	Potencial	for,, Potential
63	9	FNTURE	for,, FUTURE
63	23, 24	dermined	for,, determined
64	21	the some	for,, the same
64	1 (note)	snbjunctive	for,, subjunctive
65	28	if it an M	for,, if it is an M
67	1	Ehe	for,, The
67	5	excep	for,, except
68	18	ef	for,, of
68	21	an HAND	for,, and HAN
68	23	the combination	for,, combination
68	30	(drinked)	for,, (drunk)
69	21, 23, 26	litt.	for,, lit.
70	5	INDICATIVE	for,, INFINITIVE
76	10	INDICATIVE	for,, INFINITIVE
77	17	and interfix	for,, and the interfix
78	1, 2	litterally	for,, literally
78	26	PROGRESSIVE INDIRECT PASSIVE	for,, PASSIVE PROGRESSIVE INSTRUMENTAL
80	32	us you	for,, us, you
80	32	than not write	for,, them not write [135]
81	4	in primitive forms	for,, among the primitive forms
81	5	and in	for,, and among the
82	17	and other	for,, and the other
82	23	wher	for,, where
83	13	there are	for,, they are
83	18	came	for,, come
83	29	take	for,, takes
84	24	postponed to them	for,, follow them
84	25	ALVERBIAL FORM	for,, ADVERBIAL FORM
86	2	cach	for,, each
86	3	befere	for,, before
86	26	ordinaryly	for,, ordinaryly
87	3	preseut	for,, present
87	14	with present	for,, with the present
87	24	contigent	for,, contingent
88	24	the rains	for,, the rain
88	24	than; litterally	for,, them; literally
89	3	it as follows	for,, as follows
89	18	os the form	for,, of the form
89	23	litterally	for,, literally
90	7	CONJNGATIONAL ROOT	for,, CONJUGATIONAL ROOT
91	27	leave of abandonment	for,, leave or abandonment
91	29	litterally	for,, literally
92	2	the the interfix	for,, the interfix
92	20	proceding	for,, preceding
92	25	recipocrate	for,, reciprocate
93	5	hatter	for,, hotter
96	26	tune	for,, tone
98	19	whith	for,, with
100	13, 27	litterally	for,, literally
100	23	demonstratives	for,, demonstrative
102	29	thould	for,, should
102	31	litterally	for,, literally
102	3 (note)	litterally	for,, literally
103	21	he sad	for,, he said
103	27	litterally	for,, literally
103	32	proceeded	for,, preceded
104	6	used	for,, use
104	20	Jonh	for,, John
105	21, 22	corresponding	for,, corresponding word
106	4	adonment	for,, adornment
106	28	meet	for,, meat
107	12	mousefully	for,, unusefully
107	15	Deefcto	for,, Defecto [136]
107	16	unfurtunate	for,, unfortunate
107	20	drowing	for,, drawing
108	21	bulter	for,, butter
109	15	to lost	for,, to lose
109	23	bit	for,, bet
109	27	laste	for,, taste
110	26	maintanence	for,, maintenance
111	15	deer, for fat	for,, dear, fat
111	28	chaw-chaw	for,, chow-chow
111	2 (note)	object	for,, objects
118	34	hastned	for,, hastened
122	13	some other	for,, same order
123	23	verses of six verses	for,, verses of six syllables, verses
124	25	BISAYAN SONG	for,, BISAYAN SONGS
124	26	following song	for,, following songs.
125	27	Posed	for,, posed
128	14	aglit … aswag̃	for,, Ag̃lit, aswag̃
128	19, 20, 21	Baga, Bága, Bagá	for,, Baga, Bagá, Baga
128	3 (note)	there vowells	for,, three vowels

Colophon

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Waray-waray is one of several languages called Visayan or Bisayan, and is spoken in the eastern part of the Visayas region of the Philippines, that is, the islands of Leyte and Samar, by, currently, about 2 to 3 million speakers. This book is a grammar of the language by the (locally) well-known literator Norberto Romuáldez. This book is quite scarce, and was apparently printed using rather primitive equipment on cheap paper in the Philippines.

The author followed the Spanish-based orthography of Waray-waray (back in 1908, when the Philippines had been American territory for a decade), but was quite aware of spelling-issues, as shown in this work.

Scans for this book are available from the Internet Archive (copy 1).

Metadata

Title:	A Bisayan Grammar and Notes on Bisayan Rhetoric and Poetics and Filipino Dialectology
Author:	Norberto Romuáldez y López (1875–1941)	Info https://viaf.org/viaf/280909527/
Publication date:	2022-12-22
File generation date:	2022-12-22 21:30:42 UTC
Language:	English
Original publication date:	1908
Keywords:	Waray language -- Grammar
Project Gutenberg:	69603
QR-code:

Revision History

2005-03-05 Started.

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Page	URL
N.A.	https://archive.org/details/bisayangrammarno00romurich/page/n3/mode/2up

Corrections

The following corrections have been applied to the text:

Page	Source	Correction	Edit distance
IX	CONTRCTIONS	CONTRACTIONS	1
IX	Pronoun	Pronouns	1
IX	Verb	Verbs	1
X	Adverb	Adverbs	1
X	Preposition	Prepositions	1
X	Conjunction	Conjunctions	1
X	Interjection	Interjections	1
X	Sintax	Syntax	1
X	Barbarism	Barbarisms	1
X	innecessarily	unnecessarily	1
1, 28	.	,	1
2	this	the	2
11	bongtóhay	bungtóhay	1
12	”	[Deleted]	1
13	supra	infra	3
15	wich	with	1
Passim.	[Not in source]	,	1
18, 70	.	[Deleted]	1
18	Mga	Mag	2
19	mag-áarot	mag-aárot	2 / 0
19, 53	)	[Deleted]	1
19, 31, 31, 31, 31, 39, 89	[Not in source]	)	1
23	Whe	We	1
23	lier	liar	1
24	pauá	pauà	1 / 0
24	capauá	capauà	1 / 0
25	simyly	simply	1
25	take	taking	3
26, 61, 62, 68, 81, 134	,	[Deleted]	1
27	;	,	1
28	american	American	1
30	names	name	1
31	tastes	tests	2
32	adjetives	adjectives	1
34	very	sorry	3
34	masiromsírom	masiromsiróm	2 / 0
34	excesive	excessive	1
35, 77, 82, 87	[Not in source]	the	4
35	paintful	painful	1
35	paintful(	painful)	2
36	insted	instead	1
37	that and	and that	7
38	te	the	1
38, 46	cabataán	cabatáan	2 / 0
38	táwo	táuo	1
38	ty	to	1
39	despective	depreciative	4
39	tru	thru	1
39, 39	onomatopic	onomatopoetic	3
39	parvity	littleness	10
39, 59	[Not in source]	(	1
39	voriations	variations	1
40	FEMENINE	FEMININE	1
40	of	by	2
41, 52	inflexion	inflection	2
41	samet leters	same letters	2
42	zingiber	ginger	3
42	moderstand	understand	2
42	passanger	passenger	1
44	follwed	followed	1
46	guipác	guipic	1
46	saliba	saliva	1
46	resine	resin	1
46	unarticulate	inarticulate	1
47	PRONOUN	PRONOUNS	1
48	Demonstratives	DEMONSTRATIVE	13
49	further from the speaker than from	far from both the speaker and	17
50	form hadtón	forms hadto and haton	11 / 10
51, 53, 59, 60, 60, 60, 64, 66, 66, 67, 68, 87, 87, 87, 111, 125	[Not in source]	.	1
51	As	as	1
52	REEALATIVE	RELATIVE	2
52, 52, 52, 58, 59, 59, 89, 89, 100, 100, 102, 102, 103, 104	litterally	literally	1
52	verted	expressed	6
52	flwer	flower	1
52	preceds the adjetive	precedes the adjective	2
52	permisible	permissible	1
53	(	[Deleted]	1
54	la	lâ	1 / 0
55	and	an	1
55	[Not in source]	”	1
56	Contractions	CONTRACTIONS	11
57	VERB	VERBS	1
59, 94	:	.	1
59	(	,	2
60, 70, 97	,	.	1
60	subjuntive	subjunctive	1
60	hade	had	1
61	—	[Deleted]	1
62	Examp.	Example	2
62	Potencial	Potential	1
63	Fnture	Future	1
63, 84, 111	[Not in source]	“	1
63	dermined	determined	2
63	inter fix	interfix	1
64	snbjunctive	subjunctive	1
64	some	same	1
65	ng	ng̃	1 / 0
65	[Not in source]	is	3
66	from	form	2
67	Ehe	The	1
67	excep	except	1
68	ef	of	1
68	hand	han	1
68	the	[Deleted]	4
68	drinked	drunk	3
69, 69, 69	litt	lit.	1
70, 76	Indicative	Infinitive	3
70, 71	[Not in source]	,	2
74	[Not in source]	a	2
74	litteral	literal	1
77	(1)	[Deleted]	4
78, 91	litteraly	literally	2
78	being	used in	5
78	Progressive indirect passive	Passive Progressive Instrumental	21
80	you, us you	you, us	4
80	than	them	2
81, 81	in	among the	8
82	wher	where	1
82	[Not in source]	¿	1
83	There	They	2
83	came	come	1
83	take	takes	1
84	postponed to	follow	10
84	ALVERBIAL	ADVERBIAL	1
86	cach	each	1
86	befere	before	1
86	ordinaryly	ordinarily	1
87	preseut	present	1
87	contigent	contingent	1
88	tag iya	tag-iya	1
88	rains	rain	1
88	than; litterally	them; literally	3
89	it	[Deleted]	3
89	os	of	1
90	altho	although	3
90	Conjngational	Conjugational	1
91	of	or	1
91	moneys	money	1
92	the the	the	4
92	proceding	preceding	1
92	recipocrate	reciprocate	2
93	hatter	hotter	1
95, 103	;	:	1
96	tune	tone	1
97	ADVERB	ADVERBS	1
97	—	.	1
98	PREPOSITION	PREPOSITIONS	1
98	whith	with	1
98	CONJUNCTION	CONJUNCTIONS	1
98	become	are	5
98	be translated	translate	4
99	‘	[Deleted]	1
99	INTERJECTION	INTERJECTIONS	1
100	demonstratives	demonstrative	1
102	thould	should	1
103	then	them	1
103	sad	said	1
103	preceeded	preceded	1
104	used	use	1
104	Jonh	John	2
105	BARBARISM	BARBARISMS	1
105	[Not in source]	word	5
106	adonment	adornment	1
106	meet	meat	1
107	mousefully	unusefully	2
107	Deefcto	Defecto	2
107	unfurtunate	unfortunate	1
107	drowing	drawing	1
108	bulter	butter	1
109	lost	lose	1
109	bit	bet	1
109	prissones	prisoner	2
109	laste	taste	1
110	necssarrily	necessarily	2
110	maintanence	maintenance	2
111, 111	chinese	Chinese	1
111	object	objects	1
111	deer, for	dear,	5
111	chaw-chaw	chow-chow	2
111	do not they	do they not	8
112	súch	such	1 / 0
112	Begin	Being	2
113	steambot	steamboat	1
118	hastned	hastened	1
120	Hyberbole	Hyperbole	1
122	some other	same order	3
123	verses	syllables, verses	11
124	SONG	SONGS	1
124	song	songs	1
128	there vowells	three vowels	3
128	snatsch	snatch	1
128	Aglit	Ag̃lit	1 / 0
128	Aswág	aswag̃	3 / 1
128	Baga	Bagá	1 / 0
128	Bagá	Baga	1 / 0
129	Wreat	Water	4
133	[Not in source]	(note)	6
135	follws	follows	1
135	demonstratIve	demonstrative	1
136	,,	,	1

Abbreviations

Overview of abbreviations used.

Abbreviation	Expansion
B.A.	Bachelor of Arts
P.I.	Philippine Islands

					PAGE
DEDICATION					I
INTRODUCTION					III
PREFATORY REMARKS					IV
CONTENTS					IX
ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY
	LETTERS				1
	THE ACCENTS				2
	PUNCTUATION				3
	VOWELS				5
	SYLLABLES				5
	CAPITALIZATION				5
	CONTRACTIONS				7
ETYMOLOGY
	PARTS OF SPEECH				6
		Articles			7
			Declension		8
		Nouns			9
			Diminutive		10
			Figurative		12
			Verbal		13
			Compound		22
			Derivative		23
			Proper and Common		29
			Positive, Comparative, and Superlative		32
			Cardinal, Ordinal, Partitive, and Distributive		35
			Collective		38
			Gender		40
			Number		40
			Case		41
			Important Observation		41
			Transposition of Accents		43
		Pronouns			47
			Personal		47
			Demonstrative		48
			Possessive		50
			Relative		52
			Contractions		56
		Verbs			57
			Conjugation—Voices		58
				Moods and Tenses	58
				Number and Person	61
			Inflections		61
				Table 1.—Primitive Active	61
				Table 2.—Progressive Active	61
				Table 3.—Primitive Direct Passive [X]	68
				Table 4.—Progressive Direct Passive	70
				Table 5.—Primitive Indirect Passive	73
				Table 6.—Progressive Indirect Passive	75
				Table 7.—Primitive Instrumental Passive	76
				Table 8.—Progressive Instrumental Passive	78
			Negative Forms		80
			Interrogative Forms		82
			Suppletory Verbs		84
				Pronominal Form	84
				Adverbial Form	84
			Observation		87
			Impersonal Verbs		88
			Defective Verbs		88
			Other classes of Verbs		89
				Active Voice	90
				Direct Passive	93
				Indirect Passive	96
				Instrumental Passive	96
			Depreciative Verbs		96
		Adverbs			97
		Prepositions			98
		Conjunctions			98
		Interjections			99
SYNTAX

		Subjective relation			100
		Predicative relation			100
		Attributive relation			100
		Complementary relation			101
		Adverbial relation			102
		Representative relation			102
		Connective relation			103
		Absolute and independent constructions			103
		Syntax of verbs			103
		Arrangement of words			105
	VIOLATIONS OF GOOD USE				105
		Barbarisms			105
		Foreign words			105
		Foreign words unnecessarily used in Bisayan			106
			Spanish words		106
			Chinese words		111
			English words		111
		Foreign constructions			112
		Foreign words necessarily used in Bisayan			112
APPENDIX
	NOTES ON BISAYAN RHETORIC AND POETICS				117
		Figures of Speech			117
		Prose			121
			Letters		121
		Poetic forms			123
			Versification		123
		Collection of some Bisayan songs			124
			Moral Poetry [XI]		124
			Philosophic Poetry		125
			Love Poetry		125
			Sundry		126
	NOTE ON FILIPINO DIALECTOLOGY				128
		Words exactly the same in Bisayan and in Tagalog			128
		Words with some dialectal differences			130
			Differences in the vowels i, o		130
			Differences k, h, l, r, d, t		131
			Differences in the accent, and in the separation of the syllables		132
			Transformation from a to o and viceversa		132
	ERRATA				133

from	cauil	(fish-hook),	quinauilán	(fish caught with “cauil”)
	bitánà	(a kind of fishing net),	binitanáan	(fish caught with “bitanà”).

The Project Gutenberg eBook of Bisayan grammar and notes on Bisayan rhetoric and poetics and Filipino dialectology

INTRODUCTION

PREFATORY REMARKS

CONTENTS

ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY

LETTERS.

THE ACCENTS.

PUNCTUATION.

VOWELS

SYLLABLES

CAPITALIZATION

CONTRACTIONS

ETYMOLOGY.

Parts of Speech.

ARTICLES.

NOUNS

DIMINUTIVE

FIGURATIVE

VERBAL

An, on.

Para, tig.

Ma, with on, with ro, or with r.

Mag and the r.

Hi

Um.

COMPOUND

DERIVATIVE

PROPER AND COMMON

POSITIVE, COMPARATIVE, AND SUPERLATIVE.

CARDINAL, ORDINAL, PARTITIVE, AND DISTRIBUTIVE.

COLLECTIVE

Gender.

Number

Case.

IMPORTANT OBSERVATION.

Transposition of accents.

PRONOUNS

PERSONAL.

Declension

First person.—Singular.

Plural.

Second person.—Singular.

Plural.

Third person—Singular.

Plural.

DEMONSTRATIVE.

Declension.

Adí.—Singular

Plural.

Iní.—Singular

Plural.

Itó.—Singular.

Plural.

Adto.—Singular.

Plural.

POSSESSIVE.

Declension.

Acon.—Singular.

Plural.

Imo.—Singular.

Plural.

Iya—Singular.

Plural.

RELATIVE

Ng̃a.

Anó.

Bisan anó.

Hin’o

Declension

Bisan hin’o

Declension.

Hain.

Bisan háin.

CONTRACTIONS.

VERBS

CONJUGATION

VOICES

MOODS AND TENSES

NUMBER AND PERSON.

INFLECTIONS.