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Title: Wanderings in New South Wales, Batavia, Pedir Coast, Singapore, and China, Vol. 2 (of 2)
        Being the journal of a naturalist in those countries, during 1832, 1833 and 1834

Author: George Matthews Bennett

Release date: June 23, 2024 [eBook #73903]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Richard Bentley, 1834

Credits: Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WANDERINGS IN NEW SOUTH WALES, BATAVIA, PEDIR COAST, SINGAPORE, AND CHINA, VOL. 2 (OF 2) ***






[Illustration: _From a Sketch by Chinnery._ _Pub: by R. Bentley, London,
1834._ _T. Clark, sc._

_Dutch & English portion of the European Factory at Canton._]




                                WANDERINGS
                                    IN
                             NEW SOUTH WALES,
                     BATAVIA, PEDIR COAST, SINGAPORE,
                                AND CHINA;
                                  BEING
                       THE JOURNAL OF A NATURALIST
             IN THOSE COUNTRIES, DURING 1832, 1833, AND 1834.

                                    BY
                       GEORGE BENNETT, ESQ. F.L.S.
               FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, &c.

                             IN TWO VOLUMES.
                                 VOL. II.

                                 LONDON:
                 RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.
                  Publisher in Ordinary to his Majesty.
                                  1834.

                                 LONDON:
                IBOTSON AND PALMER, SAVOY STREET, STRAND.




CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.


                               CHAPTER I.

    Pedir coast—Treaty with the Acheenese—Anarchy—Syed Hussain’s
    claims—Trade in the Areka-nut—Visit to the Village of
    Gingham—Negociation for the restoration of a Penang brig—An
    amulet—Visit of the Rajahs to the Queen—Gingham—Trade of the
    coast                                                                1

                               CHAPTER II.

    Arrive at Singapore, and sail for China—The Lemma Islands—Their
    inhabitants—Boats—Hong Kong Islands—Dr. Abel’s visit to the
    shore—A pilot’s surprise—Cap, Sing, Moon—Cum, Sing, Moon—Outlaw
    ships—Trade in opium—Researches about the hills—Botanica
    productions—Macao—Its streets—Vain endeavours to open a
    trade with the Chinese ports—The Rev. C. Gutzlaff— Harbour
    of Macao—Jealousy of the Chinese government—Fruit Wang, hee
    canes—The Casa Garden—Cave of Camoens—Tributary verses to that
    poet                                                                16

                              CHAPTER III.

    Museum at Macao—Mr. Beale’s splendid aviary and
    gardens—The Paradise bird—Natural history of this splendid
    creature—Anecdotes—Superb magpie—Loris—Description of the
    aviary                                                              35

                               CHAPTER IV.

    Reeve’s pheasants—Golden pheasants—Silver pheasants—Blue
    pigeons—Stabbed-breast pigeons—Widow birds—The horned
    Tragopan—The mandarin teal—Conjugal fidelity—Nicobar
    pigeons—Peacock pheasants—Pink cockatoo—The Ounderou monkey—A
    Pitta—Mr. Beale’s gardens—Rare productions of the vegetable
    kingdom—Native drawings—Extortionate custom                         55

                               CHAPTER V.

    Leave Macao for Whampoa—Entrance to the Bocca Tigris—Country
    about Chuen, pee—Scene at Whampoa—Approach to Canton—The town
    and suburbs—The sailor’s coffee-shop—Selling by weight—Dwarf
    orange trees—The tea shrub—Visit to the celebrated Fa-tee
    gardens—Topics of conversation—Exaggeration—Rambles in the
    suburbs—The city gate—Manufactories—Sandal-wood                     81

                               CHAPTER VI.

    Visit to the Temple of Honan—Colossal figures—The
    priesthood—Votive offerings—Mummery—Holy pigs—Their
    corpulency—The hall of the factory—Duck-boats—Alabaster—Chinese
    snake—Leave Canton and return to Macao—Visit the Lappa
    Island—Hill-pines—Mass of granite rocks—Their sonorous
    qualities—Tanka-boats—Chinese burial-grounds—Cassilhas
    Bay—Manufacture of ropes—Portuguese ladies at Macao—Origin of
    that name—Another temple near Macao                                107

                              CHAPTER VII.

    The Jesuits’ church and college of San José—The gardens—Sail
    from Macao for Singapore—Pass Pedro Blanco—Island of
    Singapore—The town—Treaty for the cession of the island
    to the British—Hills—Salubrity of the settlement—European
    burial-ground—Vicinity of the settlement—Government hill—Grand
    prospect—Commercial prosperity—New roads                           124

                              CHAPTER VIII.

    Description of an Ungka ape—His habits—Anecdotes of him—His
    death—Dissection                                                   142

                               CHAPTER IX.

    The Botanic Garden—The Croton tiglium—The true
    Camphor-tree—The Malaleuca Kayu-puteh—Excursion into the
    interior of the island—Botanical productions—Chinese farms
    and plantations—Pepper harvest—Plantain-trees—Gambir
    plantations—Boiling houses—Cultivation and preparation of
    Gambir—Dense vegetation of the Jungles—Establishment of a
    Chinese-planter                                                    174

                               CHAPTER X.

    Excursion further inland—Dense forest—An extensive
    swamp—Parasitical plants—Fungi—The pitcher plant—Return to
    Singapore—The wild pine-apple—Use of that plant—Manufactory
    of pearl sago—Visit to the Rajah of Johore—Interview
    with his Highness—Excursion to St. John’s Island—Pulo
    Panjang—Impenetrable jungle—New Harbour—Agar-agar                  202

                               CHAPTER XI.

    Sail for England—Crowned Pigeons—Straits of Dryan—Banca
    Straits—Zutphen Islands—Escape and re-capture of a crowned
    pigeon—Death of one of those birds—Dissection—Pass the
    Cape of Good Hope—Fine weather—The trumpet weed—Volcanic
    rocks—St. Helena—Buttermilk Point—James’s Town—Ficus
    Religiosa—Over-population of James’s Town—Visit to the late
    residence of Napoleon                                              228

                              CHAPTER XII.

    Tomb of Napoleon—The willows—Contrasted feelings of the French
    and English visitors to Buonaparte’s grave—Fish—Sail from St.
    Helena—Island of Ascension—Frigate birds—Shark, Sucking, and
    Pilot Fish—The Sargasso weed—Condition of the Crowned pigeons—A
    swallow captured during migration—Temperature—Arrival at
    Gravesend                                                          246

                                APPENDIX.

    Cocoa-nut tree                                                     295

    Morbid Appetite in Sheep                                           343

    The Albatross                                                      357

    Notes on the Plantain and Banana Tree                              399

    The Inhabitant of the Nautilus Pompilius                           406

    On the habits of the Viverra Mussunga, or Java Cat                 412

    Luminosity of the Ocean                                            421

    Treaty between the British and Acheenese governments               424

_Page 243, line 19_, after island, _insert_ with passengers of the French
nation.




WANDERINGS, _&c._




CHAPTER I.

    Pedir coast—Treaty with the Acheenese—Anarchy—Syed Hussain’s
    claims—Trade in the Areka-nut—Visit to the Village of
    Gingham—Negociation for the restoration of a Penang brig—An
    amulet—Visit of the Rajahs to the Queen—Gingham—Trade of the
    coast.


It is stated, that during the life of the former rajah, Pedir was not
a tributary district to the territory of Acheen, but commanded the
whole line of coast to the eastward, and from that circumstance the
Betel-nut coast, which extends to the eastward, and not to the westward
of Pedir, received the name of the Pedir coast: the old rajah was also
very expeditious in loading ships, and took the goods in barter from the
traffickers at the fixed price, unless they were rated extravagantly
high.

I had an opportunity of obtaining a copy of the treaty made with the
Acheenese, by Sir Stamford Raffles, and ratified by the Marquis of
Hastings, then Governor-General of India: it was executed at a village
near Pedir, which was pointed out to me from the roadstead, the rajah
of Acheen being at that time obliged to reside there, from political
circumstances. I annex a copy of the treaty,[1] the origin of which is
stated in the “Life and Public Services of Sir Stamford Raffles,” by
his widow. (4to. 1830, pp. 396, 397.) And in a letter from Sir Stamford
to Sir Robert Harry Inglis, he says the Acheen country “at one period
attracted more attention in Europe than most eastern countries, but which
has long declined in importance.” “For the last four years, (1819,)
the country of Acheen had been a prey to disorder and anarchy. A rich
merchant of Penang, Syed Hussain, patronized by the late Mr. Petrie,
taking advantage of the unsettled state of the capital, set up claims
to the sovereignty; and, having expended an immense sum in briberies
and corruption, contrived, by means of his superior naval force, and
the advantage of equipping his vessels from Penang, to command the
trade of the Acheenese ports, and to invest one of his sons with the
title of sultan. The Penang government, taking part with this side of
the question, strongly recommended the support of it by the supreme
government, and a force of a thousand men was actually applied for,
with proper equipments, in order to establish the newly-created king
thoroughly on his throne. Captain Coombs, a protégé of Mr. Petrie’s,
and who had been employed as the agent of the Penang government, was in
Bengal at the time of my arrival, and Lord Hastings asked my opinion. I
had no hesitation in giving it, as far as it was then formed; and the
supreme government was induced to pause. I was subsequently joined in a
commission with Captain Coombs, for the purpose of finally adjusting the
question.

“After my arrival at Penang, I was informed that Colonel Bannerman had
protested against my interference at Acheen, and had written in such
terms to the supreme government, that it was incumbent on me to await
the answer. I complied with this request; and while the question was
pending, proceeded to this place, (Singapore,) effected my object, and
returned to Penang in time to receive the further instructions of the
supreme government. These only tended to confirm what I had formerly
received, and Captain Coombs and myself accordingly proceeded to Acheen.
We remained there nearly seven weeks; during the early portion of which,
we were directly opposed in our politics; but at length, after a paper
war, which actually occupies above a thousand pages of the Company’s
largest sized paper, he came round to my opinion, and was satisfied,
that in justice and honour, there was but one course to pursue, namely,
supporting the cause of the legitimate sovereign. The spurious claims
set up by Syed Hussain were proved to be unfounded, and it was clear he
had grossly deceived our government. We therefore concluded a treaty,
and effected all the objects we required, namely, the right of having a
resident and establishment at Acheen, and to exclude all foreign European
nations from having a fixed habitation. All that we had then to do, was
to require the governor of Penang to restrict Syed Hussain from further
interference, and troops and equipments of course became unnecessary.

“I never had a more disagreeable duty, and consequently was highly
satisfied to bring our mission to so desirable a conclusion. It was an
object of great importance to take the right side of the question;
and had our government been once committed on the other, and troops
introduced, we should soon have been so deeply involved, that a worse
than Candian war might have been apprehended. In a country like Acheen,
by military operations, we had every thing to lose, and nothing to gain.”

It was discovered, when too late, by the supercargo, that the village of
Pedir was the worst place on the coast to procure either a quick dispatch
or a cheap cargo of the Areka-nut; for the rajah is obliged to treat
with merchants, to supply the ship with the requisite quantity which has
been agreed upon: the other European vessels had anchored at the village
of “Gingham,” about eight or nine miles further to the eastward. At
this place, the contracts are made with merchants, not with the rajah;
and the merchants pay the rajah his dues. It is always best to contract
with the merchants, who can supply it at a quicker and cheaper rate than
the rajahs, who must themselves apply at last to the merchants; and the
payment proceeding through the hands of the rajah, or his ministers, the
latter take care that some remains behind for their special use; and, at
the termination of the affair, the buyer will find that he is the loser,
not the seller. Sawang, Tellisomoy, and other places on the coast,
abound also in the Betel-nut.[2]

Another error which was fallen into by not being acquainted with the
custom of the place, was purchasing the nut by the pecul instead of the
_laxar_, by which much loss is sustained by the buyer. The luxur or laxar
is in weight one pecul and thirty-five-hundredths of a pecul: it consists
of ten thousand nuts, and from ten to twenty-five per cent., according to
the bargain previously made, is given over, for nuts which may be rotten
or otherwise damaged.

Several vessels, the Eleanor, Helen, Dania, (Denmark ship,) and Peru,
were lying in Gingham roads, for cargoes of Areka-nut. I took an
opportunity of visiting the village of Gingham, proceeding thither in
the ship’s boat. The coast to the eastward still maintained the same
picturesque character as about Pedir, except perhaps in some parts where
it was more densely wooded with cocoa-nut and other trees close to the
beach. We passed a cluster of palm-leaved thatched, bamboo huts, which
was the village of Ilbu. The village of Gingham was not visible from
the roadstead, being situated a short distance up a river, and hidden by
the dense foliage of various kinds of trees growing about it. A short
distance further to the eastward, a cluster of habitations formed the
village of Buron; and Sawang (or, as called by the Malays, Putukurra) is
several miles still further in the same direction.

I have before mentioned, that a Penang brig had been seized by the
Acheenese grab, the Nacodar (or master) of which, having been accused of
trading in arms and ammunition, with one of the rajahs upon the coast,
at present at war with the ruler of Acheen: many of the commanders of
vessels then on the coast were desirous of getting, if possible, the
vessel returned. She was the property of several native merchants at
Penang, and had been chartered by an English merchant there for the Pedir
coast, first calling at the Maldive islands for a cargo of dried fish.

A brother of the Acheenese rajah, named Pungarang Ibrahim, a fine and
handsome Malay, was on board the grab; and to him application was made
for the restoration of the vessel. He had a very intelligent Malabar
native as an interpreter, who spoke several European languages—English,
French, Spanish, &c.—fluently. The question, whether or not the
vessel was a legal prize to the Acheenese government, was discussed by
the native party with considerable force and eloquence. The Nacodar
was accused of having disposed of arms and ammunition, under British
colours, to the rajah mudar of Sambalangang, against the treaty concluded
between the British and Acheenese governments, the rajah of Sambalangang
being at war with the king of Acheen; and one of the articles of the
treaty states, that any British vessel supplying an enemy of the rajah
of Acheen with arms and ammunition, is liable to confiscation; and
upon this article of the treaty, it was contended that the brig was
a legal capture. The Pungarang[3] Ibrahim then produced the original
treaty, written in the Malay and English languages, duly signed by the
governor-general of India, Sir Stamford Raffles, and Captain Coombs.

The Nacodar stated, in his defence, that he having given, and not sold,
the arms and ammunition in question, the brig was not liable to the
consequences of a breach of the treaty. The discussion concluded by the
rajah declaring, that if the commanders would return in one or two hours,
they should receive his final decision, as he would consult the old
queen, who has much power, upon the subject. When the commanders returned
on board the grab, the queen was present, who was a fine old lady, and
received her European visitors in a very cordial manner. The subject
relative to the vessel was then renewed: they were anxious to procure
the nacodar, (who had sought refuge on board one of the ships,) and take
him to Acheen, where, most probably, his life would be sacrificed; or
the rajah offered to send him to Penang, in irons, to be tried by the
authorities at that place, if any commanders of the vessels going to that
port would take charge of him.

In the renewed discussion of the subject, the justice of the case
appeared decidedly in favour of the rajah’s party, as it was now
ascertained that a shot had been fired from the brig, which had killed a
man on board the grab.

The rajah summed up his final decision to the following effect, through
the medium of an interpreter:—“Let the native Nacodar be sent on board
my vessel; I will not injure him; I will make a solemn engagement with
you to that effect; but I intend sending him to the settlement of Penang
in chains, there to be dealt with as the judges at that settlement may
determine: if the man has not done wrong, why is he afraid to come on
board? here are plenty of Europeans.” And thus concluded an address
replete with excellent sense and sound discrimination—“I appeal to your
English laws whether I have not decided justly, and according to the
treaty solemnly ratified between the Sri Sultan Alla, Iddeen Jowhara,
Allum, Shah, Sultan of Acheen, and the British government?”

One of the commanders, who afterwards asked the rajah to give up
the vessel as a matter of courtesy, received the following sensible
reply—“Would one of your men-of-war surrender a prize which had been
proved a legal capture?” He then added, that the vessel should be taken
to Acheen, and when there, if found by his brother, the rajah of Acheen,
to be illegally seized, she should be returned forthwith to Penang, and
the owners indemnified for her detention, and any damage she might have
sustained while in their possession.[4]

The rajah is a fine and handsome young man, of very pleasing manners,
and an intelligent countenance; his face was full, broad, and had the
true Malay characteristics; he had upon his left arm a large seal, or
amulet, of about two inches in diameter, upon the stone of which (called
“Pungli” by the Malays) a sentence of the Koran was engraved; he said
it was intended as a charm against his being injured; “so the Acheenese
believe,” he added, but did not appear to place much faith himself in its
supposed powers.

The different rajahs came on an appointed day from the different
districts in the vicinity, to Pedir, to pay their respects to the old
queen previous to her departing to Acheen in one of the men-of-war, which
she did on the evening of the 20th of July, accompanied by the whole of
the Acheenese fleet.

Accompanied by Captain M’Alister, I visited the village of “Gingham.”
At the entrance of the river, a bar, (similar to, I believe, the whole
of the rivers upon this coast,) on which usually rolls a heavy surf,
rendering its entrance somewhat dangerous for boats; the river maintained
a very winding course even to the village: a number of shrubs abounded
in the water, and about the banks, among which were the _Acanthus
ilicifolia_, and several others. The village of Gingham is situated
about a mile distant from the entrance of the river; the thatched-houses,
of which it is composed, were partially concealed by the graceful and
elegant Bamboo, Eju, Cocoa, and Areka palms. Having landed and ranged
about the village, I made inquiry of the native merchants, who were
the Moormen of Hindostan, many of whom had been born in India, and
others on the coast, respecting the trade of the place, which consists
exclusively of the Betel-nut; they informed me that they contracted with
the supercargoes of vessels[5] visiting the coast, paying to the rajah
a certain tribute. The export is from forty to sixty thousand peculs
annually, during the months of May, June, July, and some part of August.
The total amount collected upon the coast, the greatest portion of which
grows some distance inland, is computed at or about eighty or ninety
thousand peculs.

The number of vessels, of all classes, freighted every year upon this
coast during the season, varies, and depends a great deal upon their
size; sometimes forty of all classes had been loaded, but when a large
Bombay Indiaman comes and takes ten thousand peculs at one time, of
course it occasions a scarcity for the smaller ones; in this case,
therefore, although the number of vessels loaded is not so great, the
quantity exported is pretty nearly the same.[6]

The cargo sent on board the ship in which I visited Pedir, came not
from the Pedir district alone, but was brought (by contracts entered
into by the rajah of Pedir, with the native merchants of those places)
from Gingham, Sawang, &c., and of course at an increased price. I made
inquiry, if a ship was brought next month, (August,) whether they could
load her with Areka-nut, and what period of time they would take to
deliver six thousand peculs on board. The reply was, that at this season
a greater scarcity of nut prevailed than usual, on account of internal
wars drawing away the men, and causing a scarcity of hands to collect and
shell it; my informant, therefore, would not engage to deliver any next
month, but the following May would engage to supply the quantity of six
thousand peculs in a week, receiving dollars, cambrics, long cloths,
opium, iron, &c., in exchange, and delivering the Areka-nut at one dollar
the pecul; however, much depends on the agreement of price between the
contracting parties at the time, and the greater or less demand for the
European and other goods brought into the market.

There was an abundant supply of fish in the fish-market at Gingham,
consisting of very large specimens of Acanthurus, or lancet-fish,
Chœtodons, Cyprinus, several species of the Perch tribe, the Barracouta,
Shark, as well as a number of others, varying in form, size, and colour;
and it appeared from the collection exhibited, that abundance was taken
upon the coast.

On the evening of the 23d of July, we sailed from “Pedir,” bound for
Singapore and China, having six thousand and eight peculs of Areka-nut on
board. The cargo was purchased for five thousand four hundred and forty
Spanish dollars, forty peculs of iron, thirty kits of Swedish steel,
thirty peculs of lead, and three chests of opium. Upon the iron a profit
was gained upon the invoice prices of 77½ per cent.; upon the lead, 81½
per cent.; and upon the steel, 48 per cent. Upon the opium there was,
as I have before mentioned, but very little profit; indeed, the price
of a dollar and a-half per pecul was too high for this article; but,
unfortunately, the speculation originated at Batavia, and being the first
ship chartered for the purpose from thence, the parties were consequently
ignorant of the people and country, and of the kind of merchandize most
advantageous for barter. From the number of ships requiring nut at the
same time, payment in dollars, and at an advanced price, is sometimes the
only means of procuring a cargo, unless the vessel remained so long as to
be ruinous to the speculators.[7]




CHAPTER II.

    Arrive at Singapore, and sail for China—The Lemma Islands—Their
    inhabitants—Boats—Hong Kong Island—Dr. Abel’s visit to the
    shore—A pilot’s surprise—Cap, sing, Moon—Cum, sing, Moon—Outlaw
    ships—Trade in opium—Researches about the hills—Botanical
    productions—Macao—Its streets—Vain endeavours to open a
    trade with the Chinese ports—The Rev. C. Gutzlaff—Harbour
    of Macao—Jealousy of the Chinese government—Fruit—Wang, hee
    canes—The Casa garden—Cave of Camoens—Tributary verses to that
    poet.


After a long passage down the Straits of Malacca, we arrived at Singapore
on the 19th of August, and sailed again on the 22d for China.

At daylight, on the 6th of September, we were off the “Lemma Islands,”
having previously arrived in soundings on the 4th, and were frequently
visited by Comprador boats seeking for employment. We took a pilot from
one of them to direct us to “Cap, sing, Moon.” The Lemma Islands, like
most of those about this part of the China coast, are bold, rugged, and
but very scantily covered by vegetation; its geological structure is
principally coarse granite, approaching to sienite, and quartz, which
enters largely into their composition.[8] The inhabitants of these
islands appear to be principally fishermen, and their boats animated the
waters around to some distance, in great numbers: some were of very large
size, being probably of sixty or seventy tons burden, and are inhabited
by whole families; the clatter of women, squalling of children, and
barking of dogs, could be heard in concert, when in beating to windward
we came near any of them.

These slenderly constructed but admirable boats, with their large mat
sails, some having one, two, or three masts, sail with rapidity: they
would often lower a small awkward punt, and bring some fish on board for
sale. The women worked hard, and one would be often seen with an infant
at her back, with others running after, seeking her protection, whilst
she assisted in the various occupations of the ship, in tacking and
hauling the ropes. They all had a dark, wretched appearance, from the
exposure to weather and hardships of many descriptions. When the weather
is stormy, the vessels bring up under lee of one of the numerous islands,
grouped about the coast. I have often seen them assembled, from twenty to
fifty, for the night, under the lee of one of them, on the shore close to
which, some small miserable thatched huts, containing numbers of wretched
inmates, and small patches of cultivated land were visible.

On the 10th we were off Hong Kong Island. It is lofty, bold, and
occasionally its barren appearance is diversified by the verdure of the
ferns and other plants, which give some beauty to the huge piles of
rocks, towering towards the heavens, in gently sloping as well as abrupt
declivities. At one part a small cascade fell from the rocks above into
the ocean abyss beneath, and other places bore the appearance of mountain
torrents being formed during heavy rains.

Dr. Abel, who landed upon it, says, “I took advantage of the first
watering boat to visit the shore, and made one of these mountains and the
waterfall the principal objects of my visit. This mountain, the highest
on the island, is, according to Captain Ross, who has measured it, about
fifteen hundred feet above the level of the sea, and is composed of trap
approaching to basalt in the compactness of its structure. In ascending
it, I followed the course of a delightful stream, which rises near
its summit, and found by its side a number of interesting plants. The
general surface of the mountain, and indeed of every part of the island
of Hong Kong, that I was able to visit, is remarkably barren, although
in the distance it appears fertile, from a fern which I believe to be
the Polypodium trichotomum of Kœmpfer, which supplies the place of other
plants. I ascended about one thousand feet, and returned by a path which
passed over a small hill, or rather mound, differing in structure from
all the rocks in its neighbourhood, being composed of a very friable
stone of a reddish white colour, much resembling disintegrated feltspar.
On reaching the shore, I examined the rocks by the waterfall, where they
are exposed in large surfaces, and found them composed of basaltic trap,
exhibiting in some places a distinct stratification, in others a confused
columnar arrangement. It is also divided into distinct, well-defined,
rhomboidal masses, separated from each other by very obvious seams, in
which I frequently found cubic crystals of iron pyrites.”[9]

The further progress of the ship was extremely tardy, from calms and
adverse winds, so that we did not reach the Cap, sing, moon harbour,
until the morning of the 12th, and then, from calms, could not enter
it, but anchored outside. The Chinese pilot on board was but of little
service, and he was quite surprised at the commander’s knowledge of the
islands, depth of water, &c., until he found out that he derived it from
the charts and Horsburgh’s Directory. It was quite amusing, when any
difference of opinion existed between them, to hear the pilot, in a pet,
declare, “You look at bookee, but you not alway savez a rightee; bookee
wrong, you wrongee sometime.”

A greater or lesser number of different species of _Libellula_ have been
flying about the ship, ever since we have been in soundings; and it is
said, that when a great number of these insects are seen flying about the
ship, a northerly wind may be expected; but I seldom found the assertion
borne out by the fact, except its happening four or five days after can
be considered a corroboration.

On the following day we entered the “Cap, sing, moon,” for a short time:
it is regarded as a safe and is certainly a picturesque harbour, but
lately it has been left by many of the opium ships for another, by some
considered a safer harbour, and called the “Cum, sing, moon,” formed by
different islands, and the main land to the northward of Macao, and
distant about eighteen miles from that settlement. The “Cap, sing, moon,”
has some towering verdant mountains, with fertile valleys, and little
thatched cottages of fishermen and others, peering through a thicket of
foliage. This is contrasted at another part by barren hills, destitute
of any beauty, excepting what may be scantily imparted by a few stunted
shrubs or ferns.

Well may this be called a celestial empire, wherein moons and stars
condescend to take up their local habitation. It is ludicrous to hear
the inhabitants talking of having intercourse with the celestial people
in the different moons, “Where did you come from last?” “I came from the
other moon,” was a very common question and answer.

On the 14th of September we sailed over to the “Cum, sing, moon,”[10]
and anchored at six o’clock, P.M.; this possessed far more extensive and
picturesque beauties than the harbour we had left.[11] The entrance is,
however, difficult, and even dangerous for strangers; yet, after having
been once, the same person could easily take a ship in or out at any
time without risk, taking advantage of the tides. From the land around
this place not being so elevated as in the rival harbour, the gusts that
descend from the gullies in stormy weather are not so violent, and a ship
is consequently not so liable to drive as has been experienced during
some severe typhoons, which occurred a short time previous to our arrival.

Many of those _outlaw ships_ that trade in opium, (one of the most
important, although prohibited, branches of commerce in the Chinese
empire,) remain either in this harbour, or that of the “Cap, sing, moon,”
during the season of the year that typhoons are expected, and anchor off
the island of Lintin during the fine-weather months. One part of this
trade in opium is carried on by the Chinese smuggling boats, which take
it from the European receiving ships stationed here, or more properly
speaking at “Lintin,” (this being merely a temporary place of refuge from
typhoons).

By occasionally visiting the Hercules, one of the receiving ships for
opium, I was able to observe, through the kindness of Mr. Parry, her
chief officer, how this extensive and lucrative trade is conducted. The
sales are effected in Canton by the European merchants, and orders sent
down with the smuggling boats for the delivery of the opium from the
different ships; the boats engaged in this occupation are armed with
spears, shields, and even fire-arms, to repel any attack that may be made
upon them by the mandarin guard-boats. They are also manned by a very
brave and athletic crew; indeed Chinese fight very well one against the
other, but cannot bring forward sufficient courage to face Europeans,
except the advantages are overpowering on their side. These boats are
provided with sails, in addition to a number of oars and rowers, and they
pass through the water with inconceivable rapidity. The mandarin boats,
having a weaker and less choice crew, can seldom or ever overtake them;
this, however, may in part be explained from the fact of the guard-boats,
(the revenue cutters,) sent by the Chinese government to cruize against
smugglers, coming alongside for a supply of the prohibited drug, to
smuggle it themselves into the heart of the Chinese empire. Any thing can
be done by bribery in this country, and these boats are often employed
for smuggling cassia, treasure, &c. on board European ships at Lintin,
&c.; indeed every smuggling boat that takes opium from an opium ship,
leaves a payment of one dollar on each chest for the mandarins, and on
the opium returns being made up, the sum is regularly paid to them; each
boat leaves also a kum, shaw, or present for the ship, of five dollars.

The chests of the drug are opened on board; the balls or cakes are taken
out, and immediately deposited in small mat bags, brought by them for
the purpose, and sown up; being in that way more convenient to smuggle
than in large heavy chests. There are three kinds of opium usually sold
in the English ships—the Malwa, Benares, and Patna; a fourth, the Turkey
opium, is confined to American and other foreign vessels. The Patna
opium is in balls, packed in partitioned cases, each chest containing
forty balls. Old opium fetches a higher price than new; the former being
solid, the latter soft and more liable to run. The old chests, so termed,
are usually two years old when they come under that denomination. The
Malwa opium is in rather flattened cakes. The prices of this drug of
course fluctuate very much: the consumption in the Chinese Empire must
be enormous, and is entirely—not the least extraordinary part of the
affair—carried on by an illicit trade.[12]

The payments are usually made, if to any extent, in Sycee silver, which
is taken by weight, no silver coinage being acknowledged by the Chinese
government. The Chinese purchasers of the opium refine it by boiling,
previous to using it for smoking: the mandarins, besides smoking, use it
also in the form of tincture, usually carrying a small bottle containing
it about them. The present Emperor of China has been described as being
totally incapacitated from any business, through the excess to which he
has carried the debilitating practice of opium smoking.

I took several opportunities of making _herborisations_ about the hills
in this harbour; and in so doing, fortunately, did not meet with any
molestation from the inhabitants. On landing, usually upon a sandy
beach, or rocks of granite, shell-fish, and other marine animals, were
very scarce. The hills were covered, about the declivities, with a large
quantity of shrubs and plants, and a variety of grasses: the summits
were usually barren, and covered with sand. Two or three species of
_Melastoma_ were very abundant; and one species, the _quinquenervia_,
was in full flower, being beautifully covered with a profusion of large
rose-coloured blossoms, forming a contrast, by their brilliancy, to the
dull, uninteresting character of the vegetation around.

Several of the fern tribe were also abundant, either by the borders of
the rivulets, or strewed over the declivities and summits of the hills.
Among them was the _Gleichenia hermanni_, _Bluchnum_, _Polypodium_,
&c.; as well as a _Ficus_, bearing small red fruit, and other shrubs.
In the valleys, or any little irrigated spots, the cultivation of rice
was particularly attended to. The fruit of the _Melastoma_ (for several
of the shrubs were in fructification) yielded a dark bluish juice, on
which several coleopterous insects fed. Two water snakes were caught
upon the beach; one of a bright yellow over the head and neck, and of
slender form. Among other botanical specimens collected was a _Rhus_,
_Flemingia_, _Rosa_, _Malva_, _Cereopsis_, &c.

On the 1st of October I visited Macao. This ancient colony of the
Portuguese, in China, has a very picturesque and romantic aspect on
approaching it from the sea: it is situated upon a peninsula, and, from
bearing some resemblance to a mallet, has received the name Macao, which
in the Portuguese language signifies that instrument. The white houses,
rising one above the other; the high mountains in the back-ground, and
about it; the castle, and monasteries, perched on the elevated summits
of some of the hills; the numerous sacred edifices, elevating themselves
above the neighbouring houses, the most conspicuous objects in all Roman
Catholic countries,—all contribute to the beauty of this little city: it
seemed, both from the roadstead and on landing, a Portuguese town, to
which the taste and wealth of our native land had been added, not the
least cause of its neatness or beauty: it contains also very agreeable
society, both for residents and strangers.

The streets of Macao are very narrow: this, however, affords shelter
to the pedestrian from the fervent rays of the sun; they are likewise
ill-paved and very steep, the houses rising from the _Praya Grande_ on
one side, and the inner harbour on the other, terrace upon terrace,
and are constructed upon a very solid foundation of rock: the pavement
consists of smooth and rough stones, without any attention having been
given to their relative sizes; so that a person taking a short walk, may
often expect to return with a strained ancle.

The private residences of the Europeans are very convenient, spacious,
and more delightful for their interior accommodation, than for any
exterior beauty.

Many vessels have been sent to the east coast of China, by enterprising
merchants of Canton, to endeavour, if possible, to open a trade with
some of the Chinese ports on that coast. A highly-talented gentleman,
the Rev. C. Gutzlaff, with whom I had the gratification of forming an
acquaintance, has often accompanied the vessels; but the result has
been a very limited degree of success; the imbecility of the Chinese
government has been fully ascertained; and during the last voyage, edicts
were stuck about the village off which the vessel had anchored, stating
that the foreign vessel had been driven away, while she still remained at
anchor within sight of these very papers, endeavouring to carry on some
traffic with the inhabitants; but, from the fear of the mandarins, it was
effected but to a very limited extent. It is stated that the embassy of
Lord Amherst is still mentioned by the Chinese, who say that it was fully
expected, from the force he had with him, he would not have suffered
himself to be driven away, but would have obliged the Chinese government
to accede to any terms he chose to propose.

The gentleman I have before mentioned, the Rev. C. Gutzlaff, is well
acquainted with several dialects of the Chinese language, which he
speaks with such fluency, as to be, when disguised, taken for a Chinese:
he studies mankind, and endeavours to spread the Christian religion
in a truly missionary spirit, so as to conduce (which a pure religion
necessarily must do) to the happiness of the people: he also endeavours
to effect his benevolent purpose towards them, by distributing tracts
relating to the sciences of astronomy, geography, &c. written in the
Chinese language; endeavouring, by an admirable religious feeling of
benevolence, to promote the welfare of the people by spreading a purer
religion than they possess; at the same time cultivating their minds
in other branches of knowledge, enabling them to receive more vividly
the impressions of the divine Spirit. Would that all our missionaries
followed the same plan! how inestimable, then, should I consider their
cause!

The inner harbour of Macao is spacious, and capable of affording
anchorage to a large number of ships, safely sheltered from every gale;
but only twenty-five European vessels are permitted to anchor, and those
only which belong to the Spanish or Portuguese nations; excepting in
case of distress, when a ship of any other European power may require
immediate repairs; but even then there is much trouble and difficulty in
procuring the requisite permission: this proceeds from the usual jealousy
of the Chinese government towards Europeans. Nearly two centuries ago,
or perhaps more, permission was granted by the Chinese authorities for
twenty-five foreign vessels of the Portuguese and Spanish nations to
enter the harbour; and these are always regarded by this extraordinarily
blinded people to be the very identical vessels which had at that time
received the original indulgence from the imperial government.[13]

Fruit is neither particularly abundant nor excellent in this part of
China; the great variety of oranges may be regarded the best, as also the
elegant scarlet Lit, chi (_Dimocarpus litchi_). There is another fruit,
of which also there are several varieties—it is a _Diospyrus_,—(the
_Diospyrus Kaki_?[14]) or Chinese date plum. One of the varieties known
by the Chinese under the name of Ngnow, sum, tzee, or bull’s heart
Diospyrus—(Ngnow signifying bull; sum, heart; tzee, this particular
fruit, the Diospyrus)—resembles, in external appearance, a Tomata, except
in being of a larger size, and of a bright red colour: when divided, it
is found to contain a yellowish semi-transparent pulp, not unlike a plum
either in flavour or appearance, and contains several oblong brownish
seeds. The outer skin has an astringent property, which discolours the
steel of a knife when employed to divide the fruit, which is not at all
requisite for the purpose. The other kind is much smaller, oval, about
the size of a date; being similar to the former in colour; it is called
by the Chinese Kai, sum, tzee, or fowl’s heart Diospyrus: in taste it
closely resembles the mawkish sweetness of a ripe date. I had only an
opportunity of seeing two of the varieties of this fruit, but there are
several other kinds.[15] The flat peach, or “Peen to” (peen signifying
flat, and to, peach) of the Chinese, is a variety of the peach,
appearing, although in reality of a perfectly natural form, to have had
its flatness produced by artificial means. The blossoms of the tree are
double, but fertile. The fruit is described as being of an excellent
flavour.

The canes, so much valued, and sold usually at a high price, and known by
the name of the _Wang, hee_, (Wang signifying yellow, and hee, root,) are
said to be the root of the narrow-leaved bamboo, which grows abundantly
about Macao, forming very pretty hedges or inclosures: these are valuable
and rare, on account of the sufficiently straight descending roots being
difficult to procure; many trees must consequently be destroyed before
those particular roots of the requisite length and straightness can be
obtained. The roots of this bamboo are very troublesome when planted,
more especially in a garden, from spreading so far, and so much towards
the surface of the ground, as to tear up the paths, &c.

I visited, in company with Mr. Fearon, the Casa garden, in which is
situated the principal object of my visit—“Camoens’ Cave;” celebrated as
the spot where that distinguished poet wrote the poem of the Lusiad. It
is not correct to call it a _cave_—it is merely masses of granite rocks
piled one over the other in that extraordinary and romantic manner in
which that kind of rock is so often seen grouped; and this forms a kind
of archway, which has been denominated a cave. Delightfully surrounded by
umbrageous trees, and shrubs overhanging the rocks, the seclusion of the
spot might well have been chosen by one inclined to meditate and compose;
where all the objects around him would not fail to excite the poetical
imagination to a much higher degree than could possibly be effected in
the hurry and bustle of society. A summer-house has been erected upon
these granite masses.

Some beautiful Latin verses (which I hope to see engraved and placed
on the spot) have been written by J. Davies, Esq., who having kindly
favoured me with a copy, I with pleasure insert them.

    IN CAVERNAM, UBI CAMOENS FERTUR CARMEN EGREGIUM COMPOSUISSE.

    Hic, in remotis sol ubi rupibus
    Frondes per altas molliùs incidit,
        Fervebat in pulchram camænam
          Ingenium Camöentis ardens:

    Signum et Poëtæ marmore lucido
    Spirabat olim, carminibus sacrum,
        Parvumque, quod vivens amavit,
          Effigie decorabat antrum:

    Sed jam vetustas, aut manus impia
    Prostravit, Eheu!—Triste Silentium
        Regnare nunc solum videtur
          Per scopulos, virides et umbras!

    At fama nobis restat, at inclytum
    Restat Poëtæ nomen, at ingenî
        Stat carmen exemplum perenne
          Ærea nec monumenta quærit!

    Sic usque virtus vincit, ad ultimos
    Perducta fines temporis, exitus
        Spernens sepulchrorumque inane,
          Marmoris ac celerem ruinam!

The Casa gardens, in which the _cave_ is situated, are extensive, and
have even now, in their neglected state, sufficient beauty to be regarded
as the most retired, romantic, and beautiful spot in Macao.




CHAPTER III.

    Museum at Macao—Mr. Beale’s splendid aviary and
    gardens—The Paradise bird—Natural history of this splendid
    creature—Anecdotes—Superb magpie—Loris—Description of the
    aviary.


A museum has been established at Macao, by the English residents, and
even now contains an extensive and excellent collection of birds, beasts,
weapons, fossils, &c. from all parts of the world. Several rooms are
appropriated solely for this collection, having a person to take charge
of them, and attend upon visitors. So little encouragement, however, is
given to natural science, and the European merchants are so much absorbed
in mercantile affairs, that, on the dissolution of the establishment
of the Honourable East India Company, this excellent nucleus for an
extensive, valuable, and, (with scientific arrangement,) useful
collection, will no doubt be broken up and dispersed.

The great object of attraction at Macao, (together with the agreeable
society of the English and American ladies, and the beautiful specimens
of the fine arts to be seen in the painting room of the celebrated
Chinnery,) is the splendid aviary and gardens of T. Beale, Esq. How
pleasant it is to see this gentleman (now resident for upwards of forty
years in China) devote his leisure moments to the care and delight of
the elegant and brilliant productions of nature, both in the animal as
well as in the vegetable kingdom. On entering the large doors, which open
from a narrow lane, the ear is saluted by various noises proceeding from
a number of caged birds, inhabiting the verandah of the dwelling. The
peculiar notes of the Minas, the different screams of Loris, parrots,
and parroquets, the twitting of the smaller birds, are variously heard
vying with each other in loudness; the occasional caw of the ætherial
Paradise Bird, or its resounding note of _whock, whock, whock_, is also
heard. The attention of the visitor is diverted from the elegant plumage
of the birds to the beautiful flowers of splendid tints in the garden
before the verandah, or placed in pots upon the balcony. This garden
proves attractive to the gay, but fickle butterflies that flit about the
flowers, as well as to numerous wild birds. Individuals visiting Macao
are eager to view these splendid natural objects; and the liberal owner
readily affords this gratification to the stranger no less than to his
friends.

The first, both for variety as well as the inconceivable delicacy of
its plumage and tints, of which I intend to attempt a description, is
that “aërial creature” of fairy form, decked in nature’s most delicate
and beautiful colours, the _Paradise Bird_. This is the common or Great
Bird of Paradise, the _Paradisea apoda_[16] of Linnæus, the _P. major_
of Shaw. The length of the bird is usually two feet, measuring from the
bill to the tip of the side feathers. The specimen in the possession of
Mr. Beale, is a fine male, and was, at the time I beheld him, arrayed in
his full and splendid plumage: he is enclosed in a large and roomy cage,
so as not, by confinement, to injure in the slightest degree his delicate
and elegant feathers.

This beautiful creature has been in Mr. Beale’s possession nine years,
and was originally procured from the island of Bouro, (one of the
Molucca group,) which is situated in about the latitude of 3° 30′ south,
and longitude 126° 30′ east. It was presented to Mr. Beale by Mr.
Bletterman.

In Valentin’s account of the Birds of Paradise, (quoted in Forrest’s
Voyage to New Guinea, &c.) it is mentioned that the Portuguese first
found these birds on the island of Gilolo, the Papua Islands, and New
Guinea; and they were known by the name of _Passaros da sol_, i.e. birds
of the sun. The inhabitants of Ternate call them _Manuco dewata_, the
bird of God. The accounts of the bird having no legs, being constantly
on the wing, and in the air, on which it lived, are of course perfectly
fabulous: to support which account, however, the legs of the birds were
always cut off, when the preserved specimens were offered for sale.
Another reason for cutting off the legs is, that the birds are found to
be more easily preserved without them; besides, that the Moors wanted the
birds without legs, in order to put them, in their mock fights, on their
helmets, as ornaments. The inhabitants of Aroo, however, have offered the
birds for sale with legs these seventy or eighty years; and Pigafetta,
shipmate of Ferdinand Magelhaens, who had often seen them, proved, about
the year 1525, that they were not without legs. There are several
species of these very elegant birds.

The Ternate people call them Burong Papua, or Papua birds; sometimes
Manuco dewata, and likewise Soffu or Sioffu. The Amboyna natives call
them Manu, key, aroo, the bird of the islands, Key and Aroo; because the
natives of the two last places bring them for sale to Banda and Amboyna.
At Aroo, the people call them Fanaan. Properly, these birds are not found
in Key, which is fifty Dutch miles east of Banda; but they are found
at the Aroo islands (lying fifteen Dutch miles further east than Key)
during the westerly or dry monsoon, and they return to New Guinea as soon
as the easterly or wet monsoon sets in. They come always in a flock of
thirty or forty, and are led by a bird which the inhabitants of Aroo call
the King, distinct from the Little King Bird of Paradise. This leader
is black, with red spots, and constantly flies higher than the rest of
the flock, which never forsake him, but settle as soon as he settles; a
circumstance which occasions their ruin, when their king alights on the
ground; whence they are not able to rise, on account of the singular
structure and disposition of their plumage. They are likewise unable to
fly with the wind, which would destroy their loose plumage, but take
their flight constantly against it, cautious not to venture out in
hard-blowing weather, inasmuch as a strong gale frequently obliges them
to fall to the ground. It is also stated, that in Aroo, these birds
settle on the highest trees, especially on a species of small-leaved
Waringa trees, that bear red berries, on which they chiefly live. (Ficus
Benjamina? Hort. Malab. 3. f. 55. Rumph. Amboyn. 3. f. 90.) The natives
catch them with birdlime[17] and in nooses, or shoot them with blunt
arrows; but though some are still alive, when they fall into their hands,
the catchers kill them immediately; and often cut their legs off, draw
the entrails, dry and fumigate them with sulphur, or smoke only.[18]

For the delicacy and harmony in the arrangement of the colours in this
bird, as well as its remarkably light and delicate appearance, it may
well be named the Bird of the Sun, or of Paradise, for it surpasses
in beauty the whole of the feathered creation, appearing more like a
celestial inhabitant than one of earth. Although the bird has been nine
years in Mr. Beale’s aviary, yet it does not exhibit the appearance of
age, but is lively and healthy.

The neck of this bird is of a beautiful and delicate canary yellow
colour, blending gradually into the fine chocolate colour of the other
parts of the body; the wings are very short, and of a chocolate colour.
Underneath them, long, delicate, and gold-coloured feathers proceed from
the sides in two beautiful and graceful tufts, extending far beyond the
tail, which is also short, of a chocolate colour, with two very long
shafts of the same hue proceeding from the urupigium. At the base of the
mandibles the delicate plumage has during one time (according as the rays
of light are thrown upon it) the appearance of fine black velvet, and
at another a very dark green, which contrasts admirably with the bright
emerald of the throat. There is nothing abrupt or gaudy in the plumage
of this bird; the colours harmonize in the most elegant manner, and the
chasteness does not fail of exciting our admiration. The mandibles are of
a light blue; irides bright yellow; and the feet of a lilac tint.

This elegant creature has a light, playful, and graceful manner, with an
arch and impudent look; dances about when a visitor approaches the cage,
and seems delighted at being made an object of admiration: its notes are
very peculiar, resembling the cawing of the raven, but its tones are by
far more varied.[19] During four months of the year, from May to August,
it moults. It washes itself regularly twice daily, and after having
performed its ablutions, throws its delicate feathers up nearly over the
head, the quills of which feathers have a peculiar structure, so as to
enable the bird to effect this object. Its food, during confinement, is
boiled rice, mixed up with soft egg, together with plantains, and living
insects of the grasshopper tribe; these insects when thrown to him, the
bird contrives to catch in its beak with great celerity; it will eat
insects in a living state, but will not touch them when dead.

I observed the bird, previously to eating a grasshopper, given him in an
entire or unmutilated state, place the insect upon the perch, keep it
firmly fixed with the claws, and, divesting it of the legs, wings, &c.,
devour it, with the head always placed first. The servant who attends
upon him to clean the cage, give him food, &c., strips off the legs,
wings, &c., of the insects when alive, giving them to the bird as fast
as he can devour them. It rarely alights upon the ground, and so proud
is the creature of its elegant dress, that it never permits a soil to
remain upon it, and it may frequently be seen spreading out its wings
and feathers, and regarding its splendid self in every direction, to
observe whether the whole of its plumage is in an unsullied condition. It
does not suffer from the cold weather during the winter season at Macao,
though exposing the elegant bird to the bleak northerly wind is always
very particularly avoided. Mr. Beale is very desirous of procuring a
living female specimen of this bird, to endeavour, if possible, to breed
them in his aviary.[20]

The sounds uttered by this bird are very peculiar; that which appears to
be a note of congratulation resembles somewhat the cawing of a raven,
but changes to a varied scale in musical gradations, as _he, hi, ho,
haw_, repeated rapidly and frequently, as lively and playfully he hops
round and along his perch, descending to the second perch to be admired,
and congratulate the stranger who has made a visit to inspect him; he
frequently raises his voice, sending forth notes of such power as to
be heard at a long distance, and as it would scarcely be supposed so
delicate a bird could utter; these notes are _whock, whock, whock,
whock_, uttered in a barking tone, the last being given in a low note as
a conclusion.

A drawing of the bird, of the natural size, was made by a Chinese artist.
This was taken one morning to the original, who paid a compliment to
the artist, by considering it one of his own species. The bird advanced
stedfastly towards the picture, uttering at the same time its cawing
congratulatory notes; it did not appear excited by rage, but pecked
gently at the representation, jumping about the perch, knocking its
mandibles together with a clattering noise, and cleaning them against the
perch, as if welcoming the arrival of a companion.

After the trial with the picture, a looking-glass was brought, to see
what effect it would produce upon the bird, and the result was nearly
the same; he regarded the reflection of himself most stedfastly in the
mirror, never quitting it during the time it remained before him. When
the glass was removed to the lower, from the upper perch, he instantly
followed, but would not descend upon the floor of the cage when it was
placed so low.

It seemed impatient, hopping about without withdrawing its gaze from
the mirror, uttering the usual cawing notes, but with evident surprise
that the reflected figure (or, as he seemed to regard it, his opponent)
imitated so closely all his actions, and was as watchful as himself.
There was, however, on his part, no indication of combativeness by any
elevation of the feathers, nor was any irritation displayed at not
being able to approach nearer to the supposed new comer from his own
native land. His attention was directed to the mirror during the time
it remained before him, but when removed he went quietly and composed
himself upon the upper perch, as if nothing had excited him.

One of the best opportunities of seeing this splendid bird in all its
beauty of action, as well as display of plumage, is early in the morning,
when he makes his toilet; the beautiful sub-alar plumage is then thrown
out and cleaned from any spot that may sully its purity, by being passed
gently through the bill; the short, chocolate-coloured wings are extended
to the utmost, and he keeps them in a steady flapping motion, as if
in imitation of their use in flight, at the same time raising up the
delicate long feathers over the back, which are spread in a chaste and
elegant manner, floating like films in the ambient air. In this position
the bird would remain for a short time, seemingly proud of its heavenly
beauty, and in raptures of delight with its most enchanting self; it
will then assume various attitudes, so as to regard its plumage in every
direction.

I never yet beheld a soil on its feathers. After expanding the wings it
would bring them together so as to conceal the head, then, bending it
gracefully, it would inspect the state of its plumage underneath. This
action is repeated in quick succession, uttering at the time its croaking
notes; it then pecks and cleans its plumage in every part within reach,
and throwing out the elegant and delicate tuft of feathers underneath the
wings, seemingly with much care, and with not a little pride, they are
cleaned in succession, if required, by throwing them abroad, elevating,
and passing them in succession through the bill. Then, turning its back
to the spectator, the actions above-mentioned are repeated, but not in
so careful a manner; elevating its tail and long shaft feathers, it
raises the delicate plumage of a similar character to the sub-alar,
forming a beautiful dorsal crest, and, throwing its feathers up with
much grace, appears as proud as a lady dressed in her full ball-dress.
Having completed the toilet, he utters the usual cawing notes, at the
same time looking archly at the spectators, as if ready to receive all
the admiration that it considers its elegant form and display of plumage
demands; it then takes exercise by hopping in a rapid, but graceful
manner, from one end of the upper perch to the other, and descends
suddenly upon the second perch, close to the bars of the cage, looking
out for the grasshoppers, which it is accustomed to receive at this time.

Should any person place his finger into the cage the bird darts at it
rapidly; if it is inserted and withdrawn quickly, the slightly-curved
extremity of the upper mandible causes the intruder to receive a sharp
peck, but if the finger is placed quietly in the cage, close to the
beak of the animal, he grasps and thrusts it out, as if hinting that he
dislikes its intrusion.

His prehensile power in the feet is very strong, and, still retaining his
hold, the bird will turn himself round upon the perch. He delights to be
sheltered from the glare of the sun, as that luminary is a great source
of annoyance to him, if permitted to dart its fervent rays directly upon
the cage. The iris frequently expanding and contracting, adds to the
arch, wicked look of this animated bird, as he throws the head on one
side to glance at visitors, uttering the cawing notes, or barking aloud,
to the astonishment of the auditors, who regard the bird as being in a
very great rage at something or other beyond their conception. Having
concluded, he jumps down to the lower perch in search of donations of
living grasshoppers, seemingly in the most happy and good-humoured manner.

The bird is not at all ravenous in its habits of feeding; but it eats
rice leisurely, almost grain by grain. Should any of the insects thrown
into his cage fall on the floor, he will not descend to them, appearing
to be fearful that in so doing he should soil his delicate plumage; he
therefore seldom or ever descends, except to perform his ablutions in the
pan of water placed at the bottom of the cage expressly for his use.

Near the “_Paradise Bird_,” in another large cage, is the Superb Magpie,
having all the thievish propensities, with the usual saucy manner of the
tribe; its plumage is beautiful, the principal colour being in splendid
purple markings; the bill is of an orange colour; like dogs and children,
it seems fond of being noticed; it welcomes visitors by spreading its
long and elegant tail, as well as by raising and showing off its pretty
plumage to the best advantage, looking out sharply for insects, and,
at the same time, uttering a peculiar noise which somewhat resembles
that which is heard from a monkey in distress. When insects are given to
this bird, he is not so particular as his neighbour, but devours them
instantly entire, either dead or alive, looking immediately afterwards
for another supply. The food given to it is boiled rice, grasshoppers,
&c. Like others of its tribe, it is fond of pilfering and concealing
whatever is heedlessly left in its way, and it can carry off. To speak
phrenologically, its acquisitiveness is large, and conscientiousness
small.

Several beautiful Loris, from the islands of the eastern Archipelago,
clothed in brilliant and gaudy plumage, are in the collection. Among
these are the Amboyna and Ternate Loris, called Kustoree in the language
of the natives; the King parrot of New South Wales, (_Platycercus
scapulatus_,) and others of the parrot tribe from different parts of
the world. I observed an Indian ring-neck parroquet, with its breast,
for the whole extent, bare of feathers; (in which state it has been
for five years and upwards, and as the glands are destroyed they
cannot be renewed; the loss of plumage was attributed originally to
giving the creature salt meat;) its long tail is quite perfect. This
ridiculous-looking, half-fledged production of the parrot tribe, gets
upon and clings to the bars of its cage on any person approaching, and
commences to exercise all its power of language to amuse the visitor.
There are also some pretty _Minas_ from Cochin China, who imitate, in
their peculiar voice, not only all the sounds uttered by the birds around
them, but also the various cries of the Chinese, when vending their wares
about the streets; the imitation is strictly correct.

From the lower garden,—which is filled with choice flowering shrubs and
plants,—an ascent of a flight of steps brings the visitor to another
garden on a terrace, to which there is also an entrance from the upper
rooms of the dwelling-house: here the large and magnificent aviary is
situated. Both in external appearance, and internal arrangement, there is
a display of much taste and elegance, and every arrangement calculated
to ensure comfort to its numerous feathered inhabitants. The aviary is
forty feet in length by twenty in breadth, and probably thirty or forty
feet high; it is divided into two portions, having communications from
one to the other, usually left open, but capable of being closed, if
such a proceeding should be found necessary. It is situated on one side
of the house, the windows of which look through the lattice-work into
the aviary: the whole of the aviary, above and around, having a similar
lattice work of fine wire, surmounted by a dome at one part of the
summit. The whole construction displays much neatness and taste, as well
as being admirably calculated for the object in view; the wood-work,
between the wire-lattice, is very ornamental; the song of some of the
birds, with the bustle and twittering of others, as they hop about, or
take their flight from tree to tree, has a very animating and pleasing
effect from the sitting-rooms of the house.

In the aviary large trees and various shrubs are planted for the
convenience of the inhabitants: in the branches of the former, small
baskets, as nests, are placed for those birds whose habits cause them
to build in trees, and in those places many of the present inhabitants
of the aviary have been born and reared. Near a tank, constantly filled
with water, a quantity of artificial rock-work is constructed, forming
an ornament to the aviary as well as a place of utility for the birds of
that class who are accustomed to such situations when at liberty, and
who breed in the crevices; every precaution is likewise taken around the
aviary to prevent the ingress of rats, who, by getting in when it was
first constructed, caused much destruction among the feathered tribe.

It may certainly be said, that all the pets look full of life, and
happy and contented in their situation; they chirp, sing, wash, feed,
are merry, and, having abundance of room, their plumage looks healthy
and beautiful, so unlike the dirty ragged appearance they soon exhibit
when kept in a close, confined place, which, in a short period, brings
on disease, and eventually death. Here they can wash themselves every
morning, and they appear always eager to perform their matinal ablutions;
their unsullied plumage, the song or twitter of delight with which they
reward their benefactor, show how happy and contented they are in their
confinement.

In the aviary are separate cages, erected for the purpose of inclosing
such of the males of any of the species, as may have their combative
organs in too high a degree of excitement; the punishment for such
troublesome characters is, therefore, in the first place, solitary
confinement, and should they not be reformed under that treatment, they
are finally dismissed the aviary as incorrigibles.

It is delightful to visit the aviary at a very early hour in the morning,
when the whole of the inhabitants are in the greatest confusion, the
servants busily engaged in cleaning the habitation, and giving supplies
of food to the colony; the “plumy people” appear in the plenitude of
happiness, hopping from branch to branch, or running along the ground,
their little throats strain with harmony: the soft cooing of the numerous
pigeon tribe is heard as well as the quacking sounds of the duck tribe,
who are not gifted with any other more harmonious notes. It is at this
time that we can also observe the querulous disposition of these animals.
The males of one and the same kind, or of different species, endeavour
to grasp all the supplies for themselves, unmindful of the wants of
others, and will not permit their companions to perform their ablutions
without molestation, although they may have themselves completed what
they required. I often observed the mandarin ducks excite the drakes to
attack other males or females of the same species, as well as any other
kind of bird (not too powerful) in the aviary, against whom the lady
may have taken a dislike from some cause or causes unknown to us: there
always appears to be one pair, who exercise a tyranny over the others,
not permitting them to wash, eat, or drink, unless at the pleasure of
these little aristocrats.

As the shades of evening close in, the aviary is again in a bustle, the
birds setting themselves in their various roosting places for the night,
and keeping up a continual chattering, until the whole colony is buried
in silence and hidden in darkness. The Paradise Bird then sits tranquilly
upon his perch, and no more greets the stranger, but stares in stupid
amazement at the late visit. The cages of this, and the other birds in
the verandah, are very carefully covered up at night to protect them from
cats, or any other midnight prowlers.

It once happened, during a total eclipse of the sun, as that luminary
became overshadowed, the “feathered colony,” if not in a consternation at
the event, was exceedingly puzzled at the rapid and unusual termination
of the day, and all retired supperless to bed; they received, however, a
second surprise at the briefness of the night, for before they could be
well asleep, the cocks crowed at the reappearance of the luminary, and
they again resumed their daily amusements and occupations.




CHAPTER IV.

    Reeves’s pheasants—Golden pheasants—Silver pheasants—Blue
    pigeons—Stabbed-breast pigeons—Widow birds—The horned
    Tragopan—The mandarin teal—Conjugal fidelity—Nicobar
    pigeons—Peacock pheasants—Pink cockatoo—The Ounderou monkey—A
    Pitta—Mr. Beale’s gardens—Rare productions of the vegetable
    kingdom—Native drawings—Extortionate custom.


In the aviary, the beautiful _Phasianus veneratus_ of Temminck; the _P.
Reevesii_ of Gray, now commonly known by the name of Reeves’s Pheasant,
was seen: it is the _Chee Kai_[21] of the Chinese. The longest of the
beautiful tail feathers of this bird are six feet in length, and are
placed in the caps of the players, when acting military characters:
this I observed at Canton, where some of the beautiful tail feathers
(rather in a dirty condition, like the actors themselves, who, in their
tawdry and dirty dresses, remind one of chimney-sweepers in London on
May-day) were placed erect, on each side of their caps, as a decoration.
The Chinese do not venerate this bird, as was first supposed, and
which may have caused Temminck to bestow upon it the specific name of
_veneratus_; but it is superstitiously believed that the blood of this
bird is possessed of poisonous properties, and that the mandarins, when
in expectation of losing their rank, and being suddenly put to death
by order of the emperor, preserve some of it, in a dried state, upon a
handkerchief, on sucking which they fall down and instantly expire. I
heard the male of this bird, in the aviary, utter a very sweet, mild,
and harmonious, whistling note, as it strutted about proudly, arrayed
in its elegant plumage; occasionally approaching near the wires of its
habitation, to let the visitors notice and admire him. The ends of the
longest feathers of the tail in the living specimen were broken, although
in this place of confinement there is much extent for his movements; but
the feathers are too long ever to expect them to be preserved perfect in
any confined place.

Mr. Beale first succeeded in procuring a living male specimen of this
elegant bird in 1808, and kept it in a healthy state for thirteen years.
After its death, he endeavoured to procure others, but did not succeed
until the year 1831. Four specimens were brought, from the interior of
China, to Mr. Beale’s aviary, and purchased for one hundred and thirty
dollars. These specimens were those, I believe, subsequently taken
to England by Mr. Reeves. A female of this elegant creature has not
yet been procured, although large offers have been made for one. Much
difficulty has been experienced in procuring from the Chinese, female
birds of the Reeves’s or golden pheasants: many think it proceeds from
a desire of preventing the birds being bred; but it may more correctly
be attributable to the difficulty of persuading the Chinese that the
females can at all be an object of attraction, or worthy of purchase,
from being deficient in the brilliant plumage of the male birds; and it
is probable that they misunderstand the person who requests females to
be brought, and therefore male specimens are usually brought in place of
them. A drawing of this bird was sent to England, by Mr. Beale, in 1804;
and on the death, before mentioned, of the first living specimen ever
seen by Europeans in China, it was stuffed, and presented to a gentleman
belonging to the Dutch Factory at Canton, who expressed a great desire to
send it to Holland, as it would materially favour his interest at home:
it was, therefore, sent thither in 1817, or 1818, and was very probably
the specimen from which Temminck’s description was given.

The golden, or painted pheasants, (_Phasianus pictus_,) now so well
known even at home, are decked in elegant plumage: it can, however, be
no compliment to their harmonious blending of colours, to call them
painted, although the epithet may be considered very applicable to their
general gaudy appearance. Their brilliant tints excite more admiration in
vulgar minds than the delicate pencilling of the silver pheasant, or the
less gaudy but more elegant tinting of plumage in the Reeves’s, or the
ring-neck pheasants. The painted pheasant is called Kum, kai,[22] or Kin,
kai, by the Chinese: the eggs of the bird are described as being white,
with brown spots. These beautiful birds are brought from the districts of
Che, Kien, and Keang, nan.

The male of this bird, when courting the female, or bullying the males,
conceals the purple feathers of the wings with the golden feathers of the
back, at the same time bringing those feathers, seen like a hood upon the
back of the neck, forward, and concealing the bill; thus, on whatever
side the object of attack or courtship may be, the hood is so brought as
to hide all but the sharp, bright eye. The attitudes of this, as well as
of others of the pheasant tribe, are invariably graceful, whether upon
the ground, or perched upon the branches of a tree.

The silver, or pencilled pheasants, the Pah, haan of the Chinese, were
in fine plumage; and among many other attractions in the collection,
was the Wow, wow, or blue pigeon, of New South Wales, which has bred in
the aviary. The present, full-grown and fine specimens of that bird,
Mr. Beale told me, were the young of a pair originally brought from
Australia. They were born and reared in the aviary, and the parents
died a short time since. There were also several of the stabbed-breast
pigeons, (_Columba cruenta_,) from Manilla, whose breasts exhibited the
exact appearance of having received a wound; the feathers, for a short
distance, seeming to be smeared with the blood which flowed from it. What
could have caused this very extraordinary and exact resemblance?

Widow Birds are peculiar objects of attraction; they are of a diminutive
size, and their flight and hopping motion, when jumping or flitting from
branch to branch, reminded one of the unsettled disposition of widows in
most countries. So rapid were their evolutions, that at times it was
difficult for the eye to follow them. They had certainly a beautiful
appearance, arrayed in their dark plumage, with a tinge of yellow over
the male. The male of the widow-bird is like the female for four months
of the year, about the spring season.

There is a species of _Tringa_, or Turnstone, which was lately brought by
Captain Duran, who presented it to Mr. Beale: it was caught alive three
hundred miles from the nearest land, in lat. 15° north, and 169° east
longitude.

Another beautiful bird, which merits some notice, is that elegant
creature, the _Tragopan satyrus_, or horned _Tragopan_: it is the _Tû,
Xoû, Nieu_, of the Chinese, and may receive an appropriate English name
in the _Medallion Pheasant_, from a beautiful membrane of resplendent
colours, (more or less brilliant, according to the excitement the bird
may be in at the time,) which is displayed or contracted at the will
of the animal; at which time its purple horns are also elevated: this
appearance is usually observed during the months of January to March,
when courting the female. In the contracted state it has merely the
appearance of a purple skin under the lower mandible, and sometimes there
is not the slightest indication of the existence of any membrane in that
situation. The colours are most brilliant, being principally purple, with
bright red and green spots; they are vivid and dazzling, varying, as in
the wattle of the turkey-cock, according to the greater or lesser degree
of passion exhibited by the bird. It is supposed, and no doubt correctly,
that it is only to be found in the male specimens of this bird, for a
female has not yet been seen. This beautiful appendage is never perceived
to descend, excepting during the spring months or pairing season of the
year. The birds in Mr. Beale’s aviary were procured from the Yun-nan
province, bordering upon the country of Thibet: he has not, however,
succeeded in his endeavours to obtain females of this elegant bird. I
have coloured drawings of this bird in my possession, correctly executed
by a Chinese artist.[23]

The Mandarin Teal, or _Een-yêong_ of the Chinese, is also much and justly
admired. The plumage of the drake is remarkably elegant, that of the
female plain and undecorated. The male bird, however, during four months
of the year, that is, from May to August, changes its beautiful plumage,
and bears a close resemblance, at that time, to the female. This change
is not confined solely to the tints of the feathers, but extends even to
the epidermis of the mandibles. This bird, unlike the tribe, generally
roosts in elevated situations, upon trees, high rocks, or over the
windows of the aviary. These little creatures are regarded by the Chinese
as emblems of conjugal fidelity, and are usually carried about in their
marriage processions.

The following curious instance of fidelity was mentioned to me, as having
occurred in the instance of two birds of this species:—A drake was stolen
one night, with some other birds, from Mr. Beale’s aviary; the beautiful
male was alone taken; the poor duck, in spite of her quacks during the
distressing scene, was left behind. The morning following the loss
of her husband the female was seen in a most disconsolate condition;
brooding in secret sorrow, she remained in a retired part of the aviary,
pondering over the severe loss she had just sustained.

Whilst she was thus delivering her soul to grief, a gay, prim drake,
who had not long before lost his dear duck, which had been accidentally
killed, trimmed his beautiful feathers, and, appearing quite handsome,
pitying the forlorn condition of the bereaved, waddled towards her;
and, after devoting much of his time and all his attention to the
unfortunate female, he offered her his protection, and made a thousand
promises to treat her with more kindness and attention than her dear,
dear, lost drake; she, however, refused all his offers, having made, in
audible quacks, a solemn vow to live and die a widow, if her mate did
not return. From the day she met with her loss, she neglected her usual
avocations; her plumage became ragged and dirty; she was regardless of
her appearance; forsook her food, and usual scenes of delight, where she
loved to roam with him, now absent, and to excite his brave spirit to
drive away all the rivals that might attempt even to approach them. But
those fleeting hours of enjoyment had passed, perhaps never to return;
and no consolation that could be offered by any of her tribe had the
least effect. Every endeavour was made to recover the lost bird, as it
was not expected that the beautiful creature would be killed.

Some time had elapsed after the loss, when a person, accidentally
passing a hut, overheard some Chinese of the lower class conversing
together; he understood sufficient of their language to find out that
they said, “It would be a pity to kill so handsome a bird.”—“How, then,”
said another, “can we dispose of it?” The hut was noted, as it was
immediately suspected that the lost Mandarin drake was the subject of the
conversation. A servant was sent, and, after some trouble, recovered the
long-lost drake by paying four dollars for him. He was then brought back
to the aviary in one of the usual cane cages.

As soon as the bird recognized the aviary, he expressed his joy by
quacking vehemently and flapping his wings. An interval of three weeks
had elapsed since he was taken away by force; but when the forlorn duck
heard the note of her lost husband, she quacked, even to screaming, with
ecstacy, and flew as far as she could in the aviary to greet him on his
restoration. Being let out from the cage, the drake immediately entered
the aviary—the unfortunate couple were again united; they quacked,
crossed necks, bathed together, and then are supposed to have related all
their mutual hopes and fears during the long separation.

One word more on the unfortunate widower, who kindly offered consolation
to the duck when overwhelmed with grief: she in a most ungrateful manner
informed her drake of the impudent and gallant proposals he made to her
during his absence;—it is merely supposition that she did so; but at
all events the result was, that the recovered drake attacked the other,
the day subsequent to his return, pecked his eyes out, and inflicted
on him so many other injuries, as to occasion his death in a few days.
Thus did this unfortunate drake meet with a premature and violent death
for his kindness and attention to a disconsolate lady. It may perhaps
be correctly written on a tablet over his grave—“_A victim to conjugal
fidelity._”

Several of the beautiful Nicobar pigeons are also in the aviary, and are
usually seen perched upon the trees, even upon the loftiest branches.
They build their rude nests and rear their young upon trees, similar to
all the pigeon tribe. They usually come down to feed upon the ground,
but return to their elevated situation to repose during the night and
most part of the day. Their plumage is of a splendid bronze, and their
shape most graceful; but the long loose plumage pending from the breast,
which they seem to delight in ruffling out, in some degree conceals their
beauteous form, as seen in others of the tribe who have a smoother and
more delicate plumage. These birds inhabit Sumatra, Nicobar, and other
islands forming the eastern archipelago.[24]

Two elegant peacock pheasants from Cochin China; the jungle cock and
hen from Java; the bright scarlet cardinal; the crested partridge from
the Malay peninsula; the pretty and delicate Java sparrows; several
of the Chinese water-fowl; and numerous doves, adorn and enliven this
interesting place.[25]

A beautiful pink cockatoo, from the eastern islands, attached to a
hanging perch, is placed near the aviary; and a large, elegant Persian
cat, with fur of a most delicate silky texture, is seen attached by a
long string to a tree. The docile creature reposes during the fine sunny
weather upon the grass-plot in front of the aviary. The two latter are
removed into the house at night, and placed in the garden during fine and
serene weather.

Upon a large tree, also, on the terrace, near the aviary, is a fine
female specimen of the Ounderou monkey of Ceylon (_Simia silenus et
leonina, Gm._) The fur of the animal is black, with a large white mane
falling over on each side of the head. This specimen is nearly two feet
high, but does not walk in the erect position. A house is placed for it
in the branches of the tree, and the animal is secured by a chain, with
a moveable ring, passing round a lofty bamboo, which communicates with
the tree; so that Jenny, as the creature is called, can ascend or descend
from the tree, and range for a certain extent through the branches, or
for a short distance over the ground, when she descends. She is not
readily attracted by strangers, unless they excite her _alimentiveness_
by displaying some food. Her appearance is very ludicrous,—the black
physiognomy peering through the huge white mane, when she is seen peeping
from her kennel in the tree, exercising her secretiveness by pretending,
when called, not to notice or understand, while, in reality, her
attention is directed towards the person who may be addressing her. But,
let some fruit be displayed—rapid as thought she slides down the bamboo,
and is close to the object of attraction. Do not imagine, stranger, that
you are the object of attraction—as in the plenitude of your vanity you
might;—no, she is paying a devoted attention to your donations of oranges
or plantains, which having attained, she will soon forsake your society
to enjoy the proceeds of her efforts upon the branches of the tree, far
removed from your reach.

One morning, when I was visiting Mr. Beale, a bird had been just
received, which was purchased in Canton from a Mantchow Tartar: it was a
_Pitta_, and supposed to be the _P. brachyura_ of Gould, figured in his
splendid illustrations of the birds of the Himalaya mountains; but, from
the red abdomen and vent, it appeared to accord more with the species
called _P. erythrogastra_ of Temminck; it was in excellent condition,
very tame, feeding on insects, boiled rice, &c. This specimen was
mentioned as having been procured from Tartary; but the _habitat_ of the
first species is usually stated in our works on Natural History to be
Ceylon and the Himalayas, and the second the Philippine islands.

Much care is required when the aviary is painted, to prevent the birds
being injured, not alone from their pecking it, but, from getting the
paint upon their feathers, as they eat it when cleaning their soiled
plumage; the aviary is therefore painted as seldom as possible, and,
when done, the interior of the painted part is lined with mats, until
thoroughly dry.

The gardens around the dwelling-house display the taste of Mr. Beale,
(in spite of the frequent destructive effects of the typhoons,) in
arrangement, as well as choice of rare and valuable productions of the
vegetable kingdom. Among others may be mentioned the _Laurus Cassia_, or
China cinnamon, the leaves of which, and every part of the tree, yield,
on being broken or rubbed, a most powerful and agreeable fragrance. Here
also is a beautiful species of _Nauclea_, of the elevation of sixty or
seventy feet, and a circumference of two feet; it was of straight growth,
covered by a profusion of beautiful flowers in corymbs, and was branchy
only at or near the summit. There were also some young trees of _Cookea
punctata_, which bears the fruit called Whampee by the Chinese, and
another species of the same genus from Manilla, which differed, however,
materially from the preceding, from the foliage having a very strong
taste and smell of aniseed: from this peculiarity it has been named
_Cookea anisetta_.

Besides a multitude of the _Chrysanthemum indica_ of different brilliant
hues, in which China is so prolific, both for the number, size, and
beauty of the varieties, Mr. Beale has a low shrubby species from Japan,
which bears a profusion of small dark-red flowers. I saw a beautiful
drawing of one of the plants in full bloom, but the plant itself,
at the time of my departure from Macao, had not entirely expanded
its flowers.[26] There is a flourishing plant of the single Japanese
_Caucus_,[27] numerous varieties of the beautiful Chinese Camellias,
several species of _Bauhinias_ from India, and the Black Chilly plant
also from India. The fruit of this latter plant, before attaining
maturity, is perfectly black, or rather, as a true black does not exist
in the vegetable kingdom, a purplish black, but when ripe it becomes
red; the stem, &c. of the plant has also a dark tinge. Two species of
_Annona_, indigenous to China, and removed from its wild state in the
vicinity of Macao to this garden, particularly attracted my notice;
one is probably an undescribed species; it is found growing upon the
hills near Macao. The tree was now both in fruit and flower, the latter
being very fragrant; the Chinese name it the Hill Annona, or, in their
language, Shan, Ying, Chāo; the other species is the _A. uncata_, called
by the Chinese, Ying, Chāo.

In a pond in the garden are some beautiful specimens of the Golden Carp,
(_Cyprinus auratus_, Linn.) which inhabits the lakes of southern China;
the tail has a trifid form, the anal fins become double, and they appear
subject to several variations, which, when depicted in drawings, has
caused many to regard them as merely specimens, proceeding from the
imagination of the artist. At night the ponds are covered with a gauze
frame, to preserve the finned creatures from nocturnal enemies; but with
all the precautions used, the kingfishers sometimes capture them, and
many had received injury, although they escaped from those depredators.

A number of the Chinese varieties of oranges are in the garden, including
the _Citrus nobilis_, or Mandarin orange, and numerous others.[28]

There were also several plants of a species of _Lycopodium_, planted in
pots, and kept well watered; it is an elegant species, rising from a
stalk of about five inches in height, having on the summit its peculiar
foliage, sometimes expanded and sometimes closed. This is a very
ornamental plant; it resembles the species given me at Manilla, which I
was told had been procured from Mexico, where it is found growing upon
the rocks; and although kept for years in a dried state, revives and
expands its foliage when placed in the water.[29]

There is a plantain-tree frequently seen growing in the gardens, which is
called Fāā, tsieu, or red flowering plantain, by the Chinese. The anthers
appear fertile, but it is said not to produce fruit; the flower proceeds
from the centre of the upper part of the stem, growing erect, the scapes
being of a crimson colour, frequently tipped with yellow: this plant has
a very ornamental appearance in the gardens. I remarked also, in several
of the plants, that many of the scapes become partially changed to floral
leaflets, and the others remain in their original state.

The roots, or rather the creeping stem of the Lien, wha, of the Chinese,
(_Nelumbium speciosum_,) are seen carried about for sale in the streets
of Macao and Canton, as well as in large quantities in the bazaars.
Although highly esteemed by the Chinese, I do not admire it as an
esculent vegetable, being of a soft, pappy, and tasteless flavour;
the only gratification derived from it is found in the growth of the
plant and elegance of its blossom. According to Dr. Abel, the Chinese
cultivate and prize it above all other plants. “This splendid flower,”
he says, “celebrated for its beauty by the Chinese poets, and ranked for
its virtues among the plants which, according to Chinese theology, enter
into the beverage of immortality, flourished in the greatest vigour in
the gardens of Tung, chow. Its tulip-like blossoms of many petals, tinted
with the most delicate pink, hung over its fan-like leaves, floated
on the surface of the water, or rising on long footstalks, of unequal
height, bent them into elegant curves, and shaded with graceful festoons
the plants beneath. Near Yuen-Ming-Yuen, and under the walls of Pekin,”
continues Dr. Abel, “I saw it covering, with pink and yellow blossoms,
large tracts of land, and could sympathise with the enthusiasm of the
Chinese bards, who have sung of the delight of moonlight excursions on
rivers, covered with the flowering Lien, wha. Its seeds, in size and
form, like a small acorn without its cup, are eaten green, or dried as
nuts, and are often preserved as sweetmeats; they have a nut-like flower.
Its roots, sometimes as thick as the arm, of a pale green without, and
whitish within, in a raw state, are eaten as fruit, being juicy, and
of a sweetish and refreshing flavour, and when boiled are served as
vegetables. The leaves are said to possess a strengthening quality;
the seed vessel to cure the colic, to facilitate parturition, and to
counteract the effects of poison.”[30]

The _Arachis hypogæa_, or ground nuts, are sold in great abundance in the
bazaars, and about the streets of Macao and Canton, and are much eaten
by the Chinese, who also extract an oil from the seeds for a variety of
purposes.

Mr. Beale presented me with drawings by a Chinese artist, of the plants
from which the pith, used in the manufacture of that kind of paper known
to Europeans under the denomination of _rice-paper_, and that from which
the fibre used in the manufacture of the _grass-cloth_ is procured. I
suspect that the fibre used for the Manilla senimaya, or grass-cloth, is
not produced from the _Musa textilis_, as is commonly supposed, which
point has not, although often asserted by writers, been actually decided;
it is more probably produced from a plant similar to that used by the
Chinese, which is _Corchorus_, probably _capsularis_.

The following engraving is from the Chinese drawing.

The pith plant is procured from Oan, nāām, near the province of See,
chuen, and is named, in the language of the country, _Toong Shue_,[31]
and the following representation may convey some idea of the shrub, and
assist persons visiting China to procure, if possible, specimens in
flower or fructification.

[Illustration: CORCHORUS CAPSULARIS.]

The grass-cloth plant is produced in great abundance, both in a wild and
cultivated state, in the provinces of Fo, kien, and Che, kien, and is
named by the Chinese Māā, Shūe.[32]

[Illustration: TOONG SHUE.]

That curious plant, the _Nepenthes distillatoria_, or monkey-cup of the
Malays, is occasionally found abundant near running streams, upon the
islands in the vicinity of Macao; the Chinese name it the pig-basket
grass, (Chu, long, tzo,[33]) from the appendages or pitchers of the
leaves having, when placed horizontally, some resemblance to the form of
the baskets in which the pigs are carried to market. The Chinese avail
themselves of the well-known obstinacy of these animals, and by that
means succeed in getting the beast into the narrow conveyance; by placing
the head of the animal close to the entrance of the basket, and pulling
the creature by the tail, it enters immediately.

The dwarf trees are certainly one of the curiosities of the vegetable
kingdom in China, being a joint production of nature and art: they
are very small, placed in pots of various kinds, upon the backs of
earthenware buffaloes, frogs, towers, and rock-work, which constitutes
the Chinese taste in what these people would be pleased to term
“ornamental gardening.” The plants have all the growth and appearance of
an antiquated tree, but of an exceedingly diminutive size. Elms, bamboos,
and other trees, are treated in this manner, and are abundant in the
nursery gardens about Macao and Canton: they are produced from young
healthy branches, selected from a large tree, which, being decorticated
and covered with a mixture of clay and chopped straw, as soon as they
give out roots, are cut off and transplanted: the branches are then tied
in the various forms required, so as to oblige them to grow in particular
positions; and many other methods are adopted to confine and prevent the
spreading of the root; the stems, or perhaps they might then be termed
trunks, are smeared with sugar, and holes are bored in them, in which
sugar is also placed to attract the ants, who, eating about it, give
the trunk an appearance of age. I saw at Mr. Beale’s a number of dwarf
trees, which have been in his possession nearly forty years; and the only
operation performed to keep them in that peculiar and curious state, is
to clip the sprigs that may sprout out too luxuriantly.

There is an infamous custom existing at Macao, obliging Europeans,
arriving or taking their departure in Chinese boats, to pay several
dollars to the mandarins. Great blame is certainly attached to the
imbecility of the Portuguese government, for permitting such proceedings
to take place in their city, and not far distant from the house of the
governors. It has been said, “if strangers will resist the demand, the
governor will support them.” This is a miserable system of legislation,
and can only be construed into a fear of the Chinese by the Macao
government, which I really believe is the truth. Strangers arriving are
beset by these pug-nosed, pig’s-eyed followers of the mandarins, and
find they are absolutely forced to comply with their demands, except
they choose to be bullied and severely beaten by a multitude, which has
often taken place when resistance has been made to their demands. Why,
if the governor has the power, does he not overthrow the chop-house into
the sea, and by such active measures put a stop to the tax altogether?
It is certainly disagreeable, after a long voyage, with ladies under
your charge, to be bullied by these scoundrels, very probably some
Portuguese soldiers and residents looking on at the same time without
offering any assistance. It is not demanded of strangers at Canton: why,
therefore, is it at Macao? A demand also is made separately for ladies
landing; and should a refusal take place, the unfortunate Chinese boatmen
are squeezed, to satisfy the cupidity of the mandarins, or the ladies
insulted. Passengers and goods landing in European boats are exempt from
this imposition, as well as on embarking; so that the tax is confined to
Europeans embarking or arriving in Chinese boats.




CHAPTER V.

    Leave Macao for Whampoa—Entrance to the Bocca Tigris—Country
    about Chuen, pee—Scene at Whampoa—Approach to Canton—The town
    and suburbs—The sailor’s coffee-shop—Selling by weight—Dwarf
    orange trees—The tea shrub—Visit to the celebrated Fa-tee
    gardens—Topics of conversation—Exaggeration—Rambles in the
    suburbs—The city-gate—Manufactories—Sandal-wood.


On the 16th of October I left Macao for the “Cum, sing, moon,” and the
following morning sailed in the Lady Hayes, Captain Hector, for Whampoa,
which afforded me an excellent opportunity of viewing the scenery of the
river. We passed the island of Lintin, off which, (in the roadstead, on
the north-west side,) a number of ships were lying at anchor. About ten
P.M. we anchored off Chuen, pee, for the night. On the morning following,
as soon as the tide was favourable, we were again under weigh, and about
noon passed, with a light, but favourable breeze, the Bocca Tigris, and
entered the river. This entrance to a very magnificent and extensive
stream, is capable of being very strongly fortified. The Chinese have
forts, mounting a great number of cannon, erected on each side of the
passage: they excited some degree of interest in our minds, as being
those silenced by the broadside of his Majesty’s ship Alceste, some years
since; a triumph of British firmness over Chinese impudence.

The country about Chuen, pee had a picturesque appearance; but although
we hear so much related about the Chinese cultivating every spot of land,
not leaving even the most barren spots unoccupied, in few countries
have I seen more land left waste, much of which has an appearance of
fertility: the valleys certainly were cultivated, and had an animated and
pleasing feature in the landscape from the vivid green of the numerous
plantations of what seemed to be sugar-cane scattered about. But with
this exception, and the neat cottages nearly buried in the foliage of the
trees surrounding them, there was no interesting view: the elevated land
was, principally bare, barren, and uncultivated.

On entering the river, the scenery was very pleasing; the banks were low,
and, for the most part, under rice cultivation, which, still retaining
its green tinge, imparted a luxuriant and animating beauty to the view.
Small huts were scattered about, over which the graceful bamboo waved
its towering stem; the high and wooded hills arose in the distance of
the back ground of the landscape; and this, with boats passing about the
intersecting canals of the paddy-fields, formed the principal feature of
the country about the Canton river to Whampoa, where we arrived in the
evening,[34] and left in a boat for Canton (a distance of twelve miles)
on the following day.

The scene at Whampoa, with so large a number of shipping collected
together, was remarkably animating; and at this season, there was a noble
addition of most of the ships of the Honourable East India Company,
the finest class of merchant-ships in the world. On proceeding from
Whampoa to Canton, the banks of the river were flat, and cultivated with
wooded hills in the distance, villages, pagodas,[35] which formed, in
combination, some very interesting scenery. As we approached Canton,
the bustle and multitude of boats increased upon the river: these boats
contained whole families, who had been born and bred in them. They
could often be seen containing the young sprawling infant, just able to
walk, the new-born infant, and the aged grandmother, all reared in this
confined space; but at the same time, the people wore an appearance of
happiness and content upon their countenances, in spite of their squalid
misery. They keep their boats, in a very neat and clean condition, which
certainly confers some degree of credit upon the people. The flag-staffs
and the noble pile of buildings, forming the factories of the different
nations, appeared to our view; and, arriving soon after, I called upon
and remained during my residence in Canton with my friend, Mr. Whiteman.

Canton is generally said to possess but little, in the confined spot
allotted to the range of Europeans, to interest the stranger. This may
be partially correct; but still the peculiar customs of the people and
the range of the suburbs may afford many days of amusement, being novel,
and unlike what is seen in any other country in the world. The range of
factories or Hongs belonging to different nations, having flag-staffs,
on which the national colours are hoisted from sunrise to sunset, are
fine buildings, more especially those belonging to the English East
India Company, which are of greater extent than the whole of the others.
Several weeping willows are planted about the open space near the river,
in front of the factories. The English and Dutch hongs have neat gardens,
laid out for a promenade, in front of them; but the open space before
most of the others forms the “quarter-deck,” where every evening the
European residents take their limited walk.

The weather in front of the factories is usually at this season of the
year sultry, but on entering the alleys of the hongs, cold currents
of air are felt pouring down upon the just heated frame. A sudden
atmospherical change very frequently occurs, which certainly cannot
be regarded as conducive to health, but, on the contrary, must prove
highly detrimental: from the little ill-effects experienced from this
by the residents, all that can be said on the subject is, that they
probably get habituated to the frequent vicissitudes. There are two
broad paved streets,[36] filled with shops, in which every description
of manufactured articles, both after European and China patterns, can
be purchased. Here are contained a profusion of specimens of the arts,
more particularly those of ivory, tortoiseshell, and lacquered ware,[37]
tempting to the visitor, and which soon cause him to return from Canton
very deficient in the dollars he had brought with him.

In front of one of the shops was a lacquered board, upon which, in golden
letters, was the following attraction for Jack, who may be accidentally
rolling by the shop:—“The Sailor’s Coffee Shop, Chan Lung, No. 10, New
China Street, where all kinds of silks and teas are sold, and goods of
every description for seamen. Sailors! you are invited to try this
shop, where you will find honest dealing, and where you can have ready
made coffee and tea, but no samshoo.” The rooms, for this purpose, were
very neat, with small couches for honest and sober Jack to recline upon,
some pamphlets and tracts to amuse his mind as he sipped the decoction
of the Indian berry; the shop contained straw hats, various portraits,
and coarse articles of Chinese manufacture, tempting him to purchase for
his friends and acquaintances at home; and the owner appeared to be an
intelligent man. Eatables are seen carried about the streets in great
numbers, and of all descriptions. Dogs, cats, rats, living and dead; with
fowls, ducks, and other kinds of poultry, as well as living eels, carp,
&c. in buckets of water: the latter are fed and fattened in stews, and
taken out for sale when considered in a sufficiently prime state; the
fresh water fish are very insipid in taste.

Every thing living or dead, organic or inorganic, is sold by weight in
this celestial country, whether it be fruit or ballast stones, oil or
vegetables, living dogs or pigs, cats or poultry, they are all purchased
by the catty. The dogs and pussies are highly esteemed by the Chinese,
who convert them into delicious (according to their organs of taste)
bow-wow soup, and rich pussy broth. A Chinese does not appear to have
any idea of measurement, for one was asked whether we should have much
wind—“Yes, plenty catties of wind, by, by, come;” and when some gentlemen
were taking observations of the sun, the Chinese observed upon them,
that “they were weighing the sun.” Eating shops are very numerous in
the suburbs of Canton, containing an immense number of made dishes, and
decorated also with enormous fat pigs, varnished over, and pendent from
different parts of the shops, together with varnished ducks and geese;
the latter birds are also dried and pressed, and then have a curious
appearance.

One evening I visited the celebrated Fa, tee gardens, which are situated
a short distance up the river, and on the opposite side to that upon
which Canton is situated. On visiting these nursery gardens I certainly
expected to have seen a splendid collection of Chinese plants and
flowers, but I was sadly disappointed; the worst nursery garden in any
of the provincial towns in Great Britain, was far, very far beyond any
of these, both in size, extent, display of flowering plants and shrubs,
even of the boasted flowers of China themselves. In how many of the
greenhouses at home are not the _Azaleas_, _Cammelias_, _Chrysanthemum_,
_Hibiscus_, &c. seen in large and beautiful varieties, flourishing in
the highest state of perfection? Yes, and equal to (except in a few novel
varieties, which have not yet survived the voyage home) the boasted
display in these wretched places, called “flower gardens.”

A board at the entrance of one of them has the following attractive
notice painted upon it in English:—“Aching has for sale, fruit trees,
flowering plants, and seeds of all kinds: Fa, tee gardens, No. 2.” The
gardens merely contained some varieties of the Chrysanthemum, small trees
of the Finger Citron, with that curious fruit tied upon them to look as
if they were growing from the tree; and a number of dwarf orange trees of
different varieties, laden with green and ripe fruit.

The Chinese procure the dwarf orange trees, laden with fruit, by
selecting a branch of a larger tree upon which there may be a good supply
of fruit: the cuticle being detached from one part of the branch, is
plastered over with a mixture of clay and straw, until roots are given
out, when the branch is cut off, planted in a pot, and thus forms a dwarf
tree laden with fruit. Other means are adopted to give the trunk and
bark an appearance of age, and these, with the dwarf bamboos and other
trees, must certainly be regarded as the principal Chinese vegetable
curiosities. As far as gardening, or laying out a garden is concerned,
these people possess any thing but the idea of beauty or true taste,
neither being in the least degree attended to in the arrangement of their
gardens; every thing bears the semblance of being stiff, awkward, and
perfectly unnatural. To distort nature a Chinese seems to consider the
attainment of perfection.

At these gardens the different species and varieties of the tea shrub,
both in seeds and young plants, can be procured. According to Chinese
botany there exist many varieties as well as species of the tea shrub.
The quality of the tea does not only depend upon the mode in which it is
prepared, but also upon the soil where it is cultivated. They make a very
minute distinction about the hills where the tea is grown, in the same
manner as we do in regard to the vine. The Kwang Keun, fang pao, a work
on Chinese botany, in forty volumes, treats largely upon the subject, and
mentions every hill where good tea grows. Fokien province is the richest
tea territory; but it grows more or less in all the provinces, except the
northern ones. There are many species mentioned, which had never come
under the notice of Europeans, and their flavour is highly extolled.
The writer of this work largely expatiates upon the wonderful qualities
possessed by some trees, with all the vanity of a Chinese. He treats upon
the modes in which the tea shrub is cultivated, and the crop gathered;
but he possesses too much learning to be a good botanist, and quotes
continually verses and the sayings of the ancients to embellish the
subject. There is certainly, in the whole, more learning than good sense.
He also treats upon how the seed is to be sown, how the leaves of the tea
shrub ought to be prepared, and in what manner the shrub is to be pruned
in order that it should produce luxuriant foliage. He also enters upon
minute details, how the tea leaf is to be plucked, and afterwards dried
and packed. Though the subject is trivial, it would require some study to
make this work intelligible to Europeans.

The Rev. C. Gutzlaff, having looked over this botanical work in the
Chinese language, favoured me with the above brief opinion on it.

The _Cycas revoluta_ (Fung, maee, cho, of the Chinese) was planted in
pots, and from being so generally seen about the dwellings of the people,
I should consider was a favourite with them; a number of dwarf elms,
bamboos, and other trees, with a number of varieties of _Hibiscus_,
_Althæa_, were Malva, were all these _celebrated gardens_ contained.

The principal topics of conversation, as the space in front of the
factories is traversed over and over again by the foreigners, are opium,
Areka-nut, (erroneously called betel-nut,) pepper, rattans, and cotton.
The different reports that have been set in motion, (gaining as they
proceed from mouth to mouth during the day,) are discussed early in the
morning: true, or untrue, is immaterial; every body credits them, and
they serve _pour passer le temps_. If one person meets another, a cool
bow of acknowledgment is made, and he passes on his way; or he may be
doomed to run the gauntlet, if any important event has been started,
with every one he meets, at the corner of every hong, at the risk of
being scorched by the sun, or, if taken under shelter, exposed to a
chilling blast: as the day advances, he will find the tale increased
to such an extent, that the person who heard it in the morning would
hardly recognize the bantling by the evening: the three black crows is a
mere trifle to some of their inventions: one relates mutinies happening
on board an Indiaman, of the existence of which even the commander was
ignorant: a slight illness of a lady at Macao, by the time it reaches
her husband at Canton, by passing from individual to individual, becomes
a dangerous state, if not her actual decease; and at the time the
intelligence is communicated to her afflicted husband, she is probably
attending one of the gay evening conversational parties at Macao, in
which one derives exceeding enjoyment, hearing the ladies “discourse most
eloquent music,” and mildly pass over the personal defects or mental
faults of each other. One may very naturally therefore ask, “if anything
has been invented this morning?” and if accuracy is requisite, how the
news arrived, whose authority, &c.

One person happened to say casually, of a long-missing ship, “Perhaps she
has been dismasted, and put into Manilla, and that may account for her
detention:” in the evening, a report was in circulation, and believed,
that accounts had that day been received of the missing ship having
safely arrived at Manilla, but that she had lost all her masts. It is
therefore dangerous to make an observation; for should it not at first
be deemed sufficiently important, it will soon be increased, both in
intricacy and consequence, as it passes the daily course. Any person,
then, who may visit China, will show his wisdom by preserving silence as
much as possible, and he will be lauded by some for the space of a few
days; then he will rise in importance, and every body will buzz and talk
the most extraordinary things about him; he will be a mystery, and all
the residents will be delighted with him, for he will listen tranquilly,
and in much of the conversation he will hear far more than he will in any
way be inclined to believe. The trifling or casual passing observations
are usually—“What news?” “None.” “Fine weather?”—“Yes.” “Warm?” “Yes,
exceedingly sultry.” “Is opium getting up?”—“Have not heard. No
arrivals?” “None! Good morning.”

Taking rambles over the narrow streets of the suburbs of Canton, filled
with elegant shops, strictly Chinese, with the various gilded signs, I
witnessed a very novel and agreeable sight to a stranger: every thing
assumed a different appearance to that seen in any other country: the
narrow and crowded streets, hardly afford a passage for two persons
abreast, and the constant passing and repassing of porters with their
burdens, bawling out to clear the way, is annoying to passengers.
The shops are fitted up in an elegant style, and are, in many of the
streets, exceedingly spacious: the shoemakers’ shops are filled with
shoes, from those of the small-footed woman decorated in a most tasteful
and fanciful manner, to the larger ones of the long-footed race. The
shops of tailors, sign-painters, apothecaries, book and paper sellers,
glass-blowers, &c. are numerous; and eating-shops, filled with all kinds
of birds and beasts, cooked in their peculiar manner, and afterwards
varnished; and poulterers’ shops, with living and dead poultry of all
descriptions, were in some of the streets very abundant.

On arriving at the large or principal gate leading into the city,
strangers are not permitted to pass: there are also smaller wicket-gates,
leading into the city, at other parts, at which persons are stationed to
prevent foreigners from passing: several mandarins would occasionally
be seen carried in their chairs, as well as some of the superior class
of Chinese small-eyed beauties borne in a kind of sedan, upon the
shoulders of coolies. On entering any of the shops, to see the process
of manufacturing, every attention was paid us by the Chinese: one that
attracted our attention, was the melting and manufacturing the lead
into thin plates, for lining tea-caddies, chests, &c. This is effected
by throwing rapidly the molten lead between two flat stones, upon the
inner surfaces of each of which paper was placed, pasted by its edges
upon the stone: as soon as the lead was thrown in, the upper stone fell
immediately upon the lower; (the process is very simple;) the upper
stone is then taken off, and the sheet of lead removed. Their method of
glass-blowing, cotton-cleaning, and spangle-manufactory, were also seen;
and we were readily permitted to view the various processes employed
without any interruption. A walk about the streets of the suburbs I
always found full of interest, as throwing much light upon the peculiar
customs and manufactures of these extraordinary and industrious people.

It is well known that sandal-wood is esteemed by Europeans, on account
of its being a valuable article of merchandize to China: the Chinese are
particular, however, in their choice of the wood; they prefer it when
the pieces are about the diameter of the arm,[38] straight, smooth, of a
dark colour, with a faint and agreeable smell, not the rank odour that
some of the wood possesses. The yellow wood is inferior in the market;
and the very light yellow and white woods are too young, and almost, if
not totally, unsaleable. The Chinese name for it, is Tan-heong; (Taan, or
Tan, being the name given to that particular tree; and Heong, scented
wood;) and it sells from two and a half to twenty dollars the pecul,
according to the quality of the wood. The usual size of the wood, as an
article of commerce in China, is of a diameter of four or six inches, and
a length of three or four feet; from eight to twelve pieces of wood of
that size usually weighing a pecul. A piece of sandal-wood, of the size
just mentioned, is considered the most acceptable offering that a person
can carry in his hand to present to the idols in the temples: the large
pieces are the votive offering of a rich person, to burn on particular
occasions, such for instance as at the commencement of the new year;
small pieces are then abundantly sold about the streets, for the lower
class of people to purchase, for burning before the deities. “The Canton
people,” said a Chinese merchant, “do not burn so much sandal-wood as
those of the northern provinces, as in the latter superstition reigns to
a greater extent than in the former.”[39]

In the plantations of this tree, belonging to the Honourable East India
Company, upon the Coromandel coasts, it is not permitted to attain a
large size, but is cut down when of a growth and quality calculated
to render it available for the China market. The wood is rasped by the
Chinese, made into pastiles, and in that form burnt before the idols:
the oil is said to be expressed from the wood, and also to be extracted
by boiling or distillation. Sandal-wood oil is highly esteemed, by some
persons, in herpetic eruptions.

The sandal-wood tree, (_Sántalum_) is placed in the natural order
Santalàceæ, class Tetrándria, order Monogynia. There are several species,
but all have not wood possessed of fragrance. Of those from which the
scented wood is procured I am acquainted with three species: two have
been described, one the _Sántalum myrtifòlium_, found on the coast of
Coromandel; and _S. Freycinetiànum_, found at the Sandwich Islands; the
other, an undescribed species, at the New Hebrides group; the latter
appearing to have an affinity to that found on the Coromandel shores.

The native names of the sandal-wood, in some of the countries where it is
found indigenous, are as follow:—

Among the Malays, Jeendana. New Hebrides: Island of Erromanga, Nassau;
Island of Tanna, Nebissi; Island of Annatom, Narti, niat. The Marquesa
group, Bua ahi. The Island of Oparo, Turi, turi. At the Island of Tahiti
(where it has been found on the mountains, but is very scarce) and
Eimeo, Ahi. On the Malabar coast, Chandana cotte. In the Island of Timor,
Aikamenil. In the Island of Amboyna, Ayasru. At the Fidji group, Iarsé.
At the Sandwich Islands, Iliahi.

Different varieties of the sandal-wood are likewise found in India,
Eastern Archipelago, (more particularly in the islands to the eastward,)
the Marquesas, Fidji, New Hebrides groups, &c.; the Island of Juan
Fernandez; and have been occasionally found on the high mountains of
Tahiti, Eimeo, and Raivavae, or High Island. Mr. Crawford observes,
(_Indian Archipelago_, vol. i. p. 419, 420,) respecting sandal-wood, that
it is “a native of the Indian islands, and is found of three varieties,
white, yellow, and red; the two first being most esteemed. From Java
and Madura, eastward, it is scattered in small quantities throughout
the different islands, improving in quantity and quality as we move to
the east, until we reach Timor, whence the best and largest supply is
obtained.” And he observes:—“In the western countries, where it either
does not exist at all, or exists in small quantity and of bad quality;
it is universally known by the Sanscrit name of Chandana, from whence it
may be fair to infer, that its use was taught by the Hindûs when they
propagated their religion, in the ceremonies of which it is frequently
employed.”

The sandal-wood tree is most usually found in hilly districts and rocky
situations; and, when growing on low land, is of a degenerated quality.
This latter circumstance is known to the Chinese; for, at Singapore,
a Chinese merchant observed, that the sandal-wood found growing on
the rocky mountains contains the greatest quantity of oil, and is of
more value than that which grows in low situations and rich soil, as
the latter is found to have degenerated. On asking him from whence he
derived his information, he stated, “from Chinese books.” At the Friendly
Islands they use the wood for scenting their cocoa-nut oil, and a piece
of the wood is considered a valuable present by the chiefs; they procure
it occasionally from the Fidji Islands, and call it Ahi Fidji. The
tree will not thrive at Tongatabu. The species found at the island of
Erromanga (New Hebrides) has ovate, entire, smooth, petioled leaves, of a
light-green colour above, whitish and distinctly veined underneath; some
of the leaves varied by being pointed. It is a tree of irregular and slow
growth; it attains the height of about eight feet without, and thirty
feet with branches, and about two feet in diameter. I always remarked,
however, that after attaining a moderate size, it was invariably found
rotten in the heart. Sandal-wood is very heavy, sinks in water, and
the part of the tree which contains the essential oil (according to
Cartheuser, one pound of the wood will yield two drachms of the oil) on
which the agreeable odour depends, is the heart, the other portions of
the tree being destitute of any fragrance: this portion is surrounded by
a lighter wood of some thickness, denominated the sap, which is carefully
removed from the heart-wood. Sandal-wood is sold by weight, and varies in
price, according to the size and quality, from three to twenty dollars
and upwards the pecul (one hundred and thirty-three pounds.) When young,
the wood has a whitish colour, and possesses but little fragrance; as
it increases in age it becomes of a yellowish colour, and when old of a
brownish red colour, and at that period is most valued, from containing
the greatest quantity of that essential oil on which its fragrance
depends. It is considered that the wood is never attacked by insects:
this opinion is erroneous, as I have seen the nidus of some species
formed in it.

At the Sandwich Islands, the tree is named Iliahi, or Lauhala, signifying
sweet wood, (lau, wood; hala, sweet,) and when young the tree is here of
very elegant growth. At Wouhala (island of Oahu) I observed numbers of
the young trees, some of which were covered by a profusion of beautiful
flowers of a dark-red colour: the flowers, however, are often observed to
differ in colour on the same tree, and even on the same stalk; they grow
in clusters, some having the corolla externally of a dark-red colour, and
internally of a dull yellow; others having it entirely of a dark-red,
and others again have the corolla partly red and white externally; the
young leaves are of a dark-red colour, and give an elegant appearance
to the tree. This was not observed in the species found at the island
of Erromanga; indeed, the species found at the Sandwich Islands had a
more handsome appearance in its growth than that at Erromanga. At the
Sandwich Islands, two varieties of the wood are observed by the natives,
depending, however, only on the age of the tree; the young or white
wood is called lau, keo, keo; (lau, wood; keo, keo, white;) and the red
wood, lau, hula, hula; (lau, wood; hula, hula, red.) As before stated,
the wood, when taken from a young tree, is white, containing but a small
quantity of oil; as the tree increases in growth, the wood becomes
of a yellowish colour, and the oldest and best is of a brownish red
colour:[40] the different varieties of the wood depend, therefore, on the
age of the tree, and are of three kinds, white, yellow, and red, of which
the yellow and red (from containing the largest quantity of oil) are most
esteemed in the Chinese market, where the wood is principally used, the
expressed oil being mixed with pastiles, and burned before their idols in
the temples, as I have before mentioned.

Indigenous to the Sandwich Islands is a species of Myóporum, (_M.
tenuifòlium_,) the heart of which is fragrant; and, from having been
mistaken for sandal-wood, has received the name of spurious sandal-wood
from Europeans, and is called Naiho, or Naihio, by the natives. The
heart contains a quantity of essential oil; but the fragrance is not so
agreeable as that derived from the sandal-wood, and for that reason it
is not esteemed in the Chinese market; the heart is also surrounded by
a lighter wood, termed the sap, as in the sandal-wood tree. An instance
of the resemblance this bears to the sandal-wood, so as to deceive
a common observer, occurred during my visit to the island of Oahu,
(Sandwich Islands,) in December, 1829. Two large pieces of the Naiho,
deprived of the sap, were collected for me, and had been placed in the
yard of a mercantile gentleman previously to my taking them on board.
At this time there was some sandal-wood, of small size, weighing in the
yard, to be sent on board an American ship about to sail for Canton. The
supercargo, who was superintending the weighing, seeing these pieces,
mistook them for sandal-wood; and, anxious to secure two such large
pieces among the small kind which he had purchased, placed them in the
scales, and they were sent on board with the rest, the person engaged in
weighing being also ignorant of the difference. This circumstance was
not discovered until some time after the ship had sailed: engaged in
other pursuits, I had for some time forgotten my wood; but on inquiring
for it, its disappearance was accounted for, after some time, by the
cause just related. I was informed that a cargo of this wood was taken
by an American ship to Canton; and, on its arrival there, it was only
considered fit for fire-wood.

The name of a “spurious sandal-wood” is a source of alarm to those
who, engaged in purchasing sandal-wood, are not able to judge of the
difference, or have only known the “spurious kind” by name. An instance
of this occurred under my own observation. A vessel arrived from the
New Hebrides group at the Bay of Islands, (New Zealand,) in July, 1829,
having on board some sandal-wood. This was purchased by the commander of
a ship lying at that place; he had heard of the existence of a spurious
kind when at the Sandwich Islands, but never having seen it, was unable
to judge of the difference. When the sandal-wood came on board, it was
found to consist of the white, yellow, and red varieties, having been
procured from trees of different ages; that which was of a whitish
colour, and had less fragrance than the other wood, was considered
immediately to be what he had heard of as spurious wood, and was
rejected, much to the annoyance of the owner, who declared it was all
sandal-wood. This supposed spurious kind was laid aside, and was finally
delivered to the cook for fire-wood; and, when burning, it diffused a
delightful fragrance over the ship. Some of it was landed amongst the
fire-wood from the same ship, at the Sandwich Islands, much to the
surprise of some of the merchants, who thought that sandal-wood must be
very common on board when it was used as fire-wood.

The Naiho (_Myóporum tenuifòlium_) attains the height of fifteen to
twenty feet, and a circumference of three or four feet: the scented wood
differs, according to the age of the tree, from a light-yellow to a
reddish colour; the tree is branchy.




CHAPTER VI.

    Visit to the Temple of Honan—Colossal figures—The
    priesthood—Votive offerings—Mummery—Holy pigs—Their
    corpulency—The hall of the factory—Duck-boats—Alabaster—Chinese
    snake—Leave Canton and return to Macao—Visit the Lappa
    Island—Hill-pines—Mass of granite rocks—Their sonorous
    qualities—Tanka-boats—Chinese burial-grounds—Cassilhas
    Bay—Manufacture of ropes—Portuguese ladies at Macao—Origin of
    that name—Another temple near Macao.


I visited one evening the Temple of Honan, situated a short distance on
the opposite side of the river to that on which the factories are built.
Having crossed, with my companions, in a boat, we proceeded a little way
down the river, and landed at a dirty causeway near some timber-yards,
in which a quantity of fir-timber, of China, of various dimensions, was
piled with an extreme degree of regularity. The entrance to the temple
or temples, and extensive grounds about them, was close to the landing
place; and passing some miserable fruit and eating stalls adjoining, we
noticed a large, clean, open space, planted with trees, and having in
the centre a broad pavement of granite, kept very clean. The quietness
that reigned within formed a pleasing retreat from the noise and bustle
without.

This paved way brought us to the first portico; here we beheld, on huge
granite pedestals, a colossal figure on each side, placed there to guard
the entrance to the Temple of Buddha; the one on the right in entering
is the warrior Chin, ke, and on the left is Ching, Lung.[41] After
passing these terrific, colossal guards, we entered another somewhat
similar court to the first, also planted with trees, and a granite
foot-path, which led to one of the temples. At this time the priesthood
were assembled, worshipping, chanting, striking gongs, arranged in rows,
and frequently performing the _ko-tow_, in adoration of their gilded,
senseless deity, of which a number of small and colossal figures, of the
god Buddha, decorated a very handsome temple.

The priesthood performed their devotions by themselves, for there was
not a Chinese present at the worship; indeed the Chinese seem to have
but little regard for religion; they visit the temples early in the
morning to make their offerings before the idols, and perform the usual
religious ceremonies at sunset, but apparently more as a custom, than
from any sincere religious devotion. I have seen the parents visit the
temples at an early hour in the morning, bringing their family to adore
the idols with them, each carrying tapers and offerings. The ceremony
of prostration, &c. was gone through in so mechanical a manner, as to
leave but little or no doubt in the mind of the spectator, that it was
observed rather as a custom descended to them from their forefathers,
than as arising from any sense of religious feeling towards a superior
and benevolent Deity.

During a visit I made in company with Mr. Fearon to that picturesque and
beautiful temple,[42] which is a subject of so much admiration, from
its romantic situation, to all persons visiting Macao;[43] a parent
came with a lad six or seven years old, and a tottering infant, with
offerings, which being arranged in one of the small temples before the
idol, the father performed the ceremony of prostration; the lad followed
the example of his parent seemingly as a matter of course; the young,
unexpanded mind of the infant did not understand the meaning of it,
but stared at us, and then at its parent; the silence that prevailed
corresponded with the solemnity that reigned in this sacred, romantic
spot. I could not avoid reflecting at the time, that this infant would
be brought to go mechanically through the pagan worship, to gaze on the
tinsel and gaudiness of the temple and the gilded figure, before its mind
had dawned; it would awake in fetters, and follow implicitly the custom
of its forefathers, satisfied with their blind superstition and pagan
ignorance.

I must apologize for thus digressing, and return to the chanting priests
in the temple, who, with shaven crowns, and arrayed in the yellow robes
of the priests of Buddha, appeared to go through the mummery with
devotion. They had the lowering look of bigotry, which constant habit
had at last legibly written upon their countenances. The priests were
evidently, in characteristic features, a distinct race from the Chinese,
and came at the introduction of the Boodha religion into China, from some
other parts of Asia, probably the Birmah empire.

As soon as the mummery had ceased, the priests all flocked out of the
temple, adjourned to their respective rooms, divested themselves of
their official robes, and the senseless figures were left to themselves,
with some lamps burning before them; and the silence of the temple was
a type of that portentous spectre, superstition. Another large and
handsomely-adorned temple was situated beyond this, as well as numerous
others, of smaller size, within the inclosure, all kept in a very neat
and clean state.

Being soon satiated with the sight of gilded gods, and fanatical priests,
mingled with all the gaudy paraphernalia of superstition, we adjourned
to view the fat pigs which saluted us by their effluvia some time before
we attained their dwelling,—where we beheld them luxuriating in a bed
of filth, having nothing to do but undergo the laborious occupations of
eating, drinking, sleeping, and getting fat: before them were sacred
buckets, which had been probably filled with food, but were now empty.
They were enormously fat, and seven or eight in number. Some persons
informed me that they were kept until they died suffocated with fat; but
others said that they formed an annual sacrifice to the gods, during
the grand festivals. These huge, filthy creatures, are so gross as to
cause the mouths of the Chinese who behold them to water with delight,
in anticipation of the splendid dishes their carcases would afford, to
gratify their mortal appetites, exciting deep regret that they are to be
devoted as ideal feasts only for immortals.

After wandering over this extensive inclosure, in which we met with no
hindrance or molestation, I returned to Canton much gratified by the
visit.

The hall of the factory of the Honorable East India Company, as well as
the whole range of buildings, is very elegant. At one end of the large
room in the building is a magnificent portrait of his late majesty George
the Fourth, by Sir Thomas Lawrence; and opposite to it, an accurate
full-length portrait of Lord Amherst, by the same artist. On ascending to
the terrace, above the building, a beautiful panoramic view of the city
of Canton is obtained. The winding river crowded with boats; numerous
pagodas, as far as the eye could reach; a fine view of Whampoa, and some
of the shipping; the number of paddy fields in the vicinity; interspersed
with habitations and plantations, with hills in the distance,—formed a
scene both novel and interesting. I afterwards visited, in company with
my friend, Mr. Whiteman, the extensive tea hongs of Kingqua, and other
of the hong merchants, which are well worthy the notice of a stranger.

Among the Chinese novelties to be seen in the vicinity of Canton, but
more especially about Whampoa, are the _duck-boats_, used as residences
for the owners and their families, as well as for their numerous
feathered charge. The fledged bipeds inhabit the hold of the boat, and
the human bipeds, or keepers, the upper accommodations of the vessel.
These boats are most abundant about the rice-fields, near the river, soon
after the harvest has been gathered in, as at that time the broad-billed
animals glean the fields, and have a better prospect of a supply of food
than at any other period. The owner of the boat moves it about from place
to place, according to the opportunities that may be offered to him of
feeding his flock.

On the arrival of the boat at the appointed spot, or one considered
proper for feeding the quacking tribe, a signal of a whistle causes the
flock to waddle in regular order from their domicile across the board
placed for their accommodation, and then rambling about undergo the
process of feeding. When it is considered by their keeper that they
have gorged sufficiently, another signal is made for the return of the
birds: immediately upon hearing it, they congregate and re-enter the
boat. The first duck that enters is rewarded with some paddy, the last is
whipped for being dilatory; so that it is ludicrous to see the last birds
(knowing by sad experience the fate that awaits them) making efforts _en
masse_ to fly over the back of the others, to escape the chastisement
inflicted upon the ultimate duck.

A large quantity of a kind of alabaster or gypsum is brought down from
the northward in large junks to Canton; it is called in the Chinese
language _Shek, oo_, and is used by them, as well as by Europeans, in
a pulverized state, as a dentifrice: it is also employed and highly
esteemed by the Chinese as a _tisan_, for the purpose of allaying the
ardent thirst in fevers, and is considered by them _nourishing_ as well
as cooling. It is pulverized and used in the adulteration of powdered
sugar-candy, to which it bears in appearance a very close resemblance;
indeed, it is (except by the taste) not easy to distinguish one from the
other.

Dr. Cox presented me with a specimen in spirits of a very venomous snake,
which is not uncommon in China; this one had some time since bitten a
Chinese servant in the Dutch Hong, and occasioned his death in a few
hours. The head of the reptile in this specimen had been cut off by
the Chinese who first arrived to the assistance of the wounded man, who
having bruised it, had applied it as a poultice to the bitten part; from
which a query may arise, whether the poison mingled with the mashed head,
being applied to the bitten part, may not have served to hasten the fatal
termination.

This venomous reptile is called _white and black snake_, from its
colours; by the Chinese, _Pak, y, hak_, (pak signifying white, and hak,
black). The largest size it has been seen to attain, has been three feet.
The colour of the reptile is a bluish white, with black, circular, broad
rings, around the body. The head (which I had an opportunity of examining
in another and unmutilated specimen) was broad, flattened, with ten broad
scales upon the upper and lateral parts; and around the body, from one
extremity to the other, there were forty-nine circular rings. The length
of my specimen is nearly three feet.

The Chinese, just mentioned as having been bitten by this reptile, was
described to me as being a stout, robust, and healthy man. The part of
his body wounded, was on and about the little toe. He was bitten at
eleven P.M., and in the space of an hour was quite senseless. Before
this, he described the pain as ascending rapidly up the body. It appears
that when first bitten, he thought his assailant was a rat, and, kicking
the reptile, he was rebitten; and, altogether, was wounded three times:
he expired a little before four A.M. This snake is said to be used by
the Chinese as a medicine, being dried, pulverized, and administered as
an internal remedy. During floods, these reptiles are very commonly seen
about the houses, coming from the creeks up the drains into the kitchens:
they very probably inhabit marshy places, and are often brought down
during the freshes of the river, among the weeds, rushes, &c., and at
that time may be descried sporting and swimming about the multitude of
boats in the river. They are killed in numbers by the boatmen. During
the late floods which prevailed at Canton, a number of these venomous
reptiles were destroyed.[44]

I availed myself of the kind offer of Mr. Davis, and left Canton with him
at daylight of the 28th of October, in the Company’s yacht for Macao,
where, after a long, but agreeable passage, we arrived on the evening of
the next day.

During my further stay at Macao, I visited one evening, in company with
Mr. Davis, a place called the Lappa,[45] situated on the opposite side
of the peninsula, upon which the city of Macao is erected, in the inner
harbour. The lofty hills have a barren and uninteresting appearance; and
there is nothing attractive in the aspect of that part of the country,
until, on landing, a pathway leads to a delightful, picturesque, and
fertile valley, smiling with the cultivated plantations of rice, yams,
sweet potatoes, and interspersed by rural cottages, peeping through a
dense crowd of bamboo, pandanus, and plantain trees. Near the beach was a
cluster of wretched-looking huts; but the features of the country, both
in its natural state, as well as improved by art, were pleasing as we
advanced further up this pretty, sheltered valley.

The declivities of some of the hills on the inner or sheltered side
towards the valley, were covered by the Hill pines, or Shan, tchong[46]
of the Chinese, the _Pinus sinensis_ of botanists, of which I collected
a few specimens in a state of fructification. Rivulets meandering
through the valley, irrigate and fertilize the soil; and their banks
are covered with a profusion of wild plants, a number of ferns, Myrtus
tomentosa, Sida, Urtica, Melastoma quinquenervia, (or Kai, chee, neem,
of the Chinese,) and a multitude of others. From the cultivated, we
came upon a wilder, more stony, and less beautiful part of the valley,
among scattered masses of granite rocks, about which a wild and profuse
vegetation was lavished.

At one part, my attention was directed to a mass of granite rocks,
appearing as if they had been huddled together by some convulsion of
nature, and many of them were found to be moveable, when trodden upon.
Some of these were described as being sonorous; and as they were regarded
as one of the Macao _lions_, they were of course well worth seeing, if
it was only for the pleasure of relating to every one that _you had seen
them_. The first, and by far the most sonorous, was partially excavated
underneath; and by striking it upon the upper part, a deep sound like
that of a church bell was produced. The battered appearance of the stone
above, bore several proofs of how many visitors had made this _lion
roar_. Many of the other rocks were also sonorous, but not so loud as the
first; and from their situations, (although moveable when trodden upon,)
it could not be seen whether they were naturally excavated similar to the
preceding. The Lappa is a place to which the residents of Macao resort,
forming pic-nic parties for the purposes of enjoying a change of scene in
their limited place of residence, and deriving a gratification from the
natural and cultivated beauties of this pretty valley.

We returned late in a _Tanka_ boat. These boats, from their bearing
some resemblance to a section of an egg, are called egg-boats, or egg
people boats; tan signifying an egg, and ka, people: they are principally
navigated by women. The egg-boat people, both males and females, are only
permitted to intermarry among themselves. Some of the females have often
a little claim to personal beauty.

The Chinese burial-grounds are never inclosed, and are usually seen
situated on the slopes of the hills. The graves never being opened a
second time, the burial-grounds take up a large quantity of land. I
believe the handsome and extensive vaults are sometimes re-opened for
the interment of a second corpse: the graves of the poorer class have
merely a headstone, upon which Chinese characters are engraved, giving
the name, family, &c. of the individual, whose mortal clay reposes
beneath.

One of the promenades in the vicinity of Macao, is to a sandy bay, called
Cassilha’s Bay,[47] in which there was nothing to excite interest, having
merely barren hills about it, and a distant view of islands. The only
benefit derived from a visit to it, is the exercise of walking.

I remarked some Chinese one morning near Macao engaged in making some
very durable ropes from rattan: the process of manufacture was but little
different from that of hemp. The rattans were split longitudinally,
soaked, and attached to a wheel, which one person was keeping in motion,
whilst another was binding the split rattans together, adding others
to the length from a quantity he carried around his waist, until the
required length of the rope was completed.

The Portuguese ladies at Macao are, for the most part, possessed of but
few attractions. The dark-eyed, beautiful damsels, the destroyers of so
many hearts in Lisbon, are here seldom to be met with. The lower class
may be seen covered by their mantilla, walking at a funereal pace to mass
or confession; the only duties for which a Portuguese female considers
it worth while to take exercise. The higher class are carried from one
street to another by negroes, in clumsy and tawdry palankeens.

I have before observed that Macao signifies in the Portuguese language
a mallet, and the name has been given to it from the resemblance of
the peninsula to that instrument; the sandy isthmus which runs out,
connecting the elevated spot upon which Macao has been erected to the
main land, resembles the handle. At the distance of about half-way across
this sandy neck of land the Chinese barrier is erected, beyond which no
European is suffered to pass.

The morning previous to my departure from Macao, I visited another
Chinese temple, situated near the sandy isthmus. It had nothing to
recommend it for picturesque or romantic beauty; its interior was more
extensive than the one I had previously visited. Passing through the
temple, numerous granite rocks were scattered about the brow of a hill
in their natural state, and upon many of them were Chinese inscriptions,
probably moral sentences, which the Chinese are so fond of teaching,
but never trouble themselves about practising. Near the road side, and
upon the summit of the hill, on the brow of which the inscriptions on
the granite rocks just mentioned were remarked, were several small
cone-shaped buildings, resembling somewhat the eastern Linguams. For what
purpose they had been erected, I could not gain any information; there
were three a short distance apart, close to the road side, and another of
large size situated in a very conspicuous spot upon the summit of a hill.
The Linguams, if they may be so named, are rather more than five feet
high, and constructed of brick plastered over; in one the plaster had
fallen off, leaving the brick exposed, evidently showing that not much
attention was paid to them. At the base of the cone was a small square
hole. The one situated upon the lofty summit of a hill, looked like a
white conical land-mark; I did not ascend to examine it.




CHAPTER VII.

    The jesuits’ church and college of San José—The gardens—Sail
    from Macao for Singapore—Pass Pedro Blanco—Island of
    Singapore—The town—Treaty for the cession of the island
    to the British—Hills—Salubrity of the settlement—European
    burial-ground—Vicinity of the settlement—Government hill—Grand
    prospect—Commercial prosperity—New roads.


I visited also the jesuits’ church and college of San José. On entering
the gate a high flight of granite steps leads up to the church; and,
turning off to the right, on gaining the ascent, takes the visitor to the
door, which leads him into those portions of the building devoted to the
college residences of the professors, &c.; in a long room were some small
but well-executed paintings of Portuguese famed in days of yore. Among
others the poet Camoens, and Alvares, the discoverer of the Brazils,
could be recognized. The college was founded for a certain number of
Chinese students, who were to study the Latin and Portuguese languages,
so as to prepare them to proceed as missionaries into the interior
provinces. They were sent to the provinces of Quang, ton, Quang, shee,
and Fookien; this class was paid by the Macao Portuguese government; they
were limited to ten, and the expense, defrayed by government, was twelve
rupees a month to the padres, for which they were to provide the scholars
with food, raiment, and lodging. Portuguese students are now admitted
upon the foundation, the expenses being paid by the parents, which amount
to eight dollars a month, the scholars having board and lodging, but
providing themselves with clothing. The number of these is not limited;
they are instructed in Latin, Portuguese, Chinese, writing, and other
branches of education: the establishment of the church, &c. is supported
by the government.

The gardens attached to the establishment are kept in a very neat order,
but present little attraction in flowers, either for butterflies or
botanists. Among a number of vegetables under cultivation in one of the
gardens was the _Pe, tsai_, (Pe, white; tsai, vegetable,) or kind of
cabbage, used in large quantities, and held in high estimation by the
Chinese.

The gardens attached to this institution were planted upon terraces; in
them a species of _Althæa_ with blue flowers, as well as another species
bearing very large and splendid yellow blossoms; several large and
apparently old trees of the _Ficus religiosa_, and lofty _Plumeria_; that
beautiful species of _Dracæna_ with dark red foliage and stem; _Crotons_,
with variegated foliage, imparting beauty to the gardens, were all
particularly worthy of notice.

The church had nothing attractive in its internal decorations, being
fitted up in the usual tawdry style of Roman Catholic churches, without
elegance or taste.

On the 13th of November I sailed from Macao for Singapore, with fine
weather, and the wind from north-east to east-north-east. On the
19th, Cape Varella was seen at noon, bearing north-west about thirty
miles distant, and with continued breezes from the north-east and
north-north-east: saw Pulo Sapata at noon of the 20th, the bearing being
west half-south, about eighteen miles distant. On the 22nd, after squally
weather, a hawk was for several mornings seen about the ship, occasioning
the fowls to make a great noise at his presence; we were then in latitude
6° 34′ north, and longitude 106° 28′ east. On the 24th at noon, Pulo Aor
was in sight, bearing south-west half-west; Pulo Pisang, west by south;
Pulo Tinian, west half-north by compass. All these islands were elevated,
and densely wooded.

On the 26th we passed _Pedro Blanco_, a reef of rocks some distance above
the water, and situated in about the centre of the straits; a large
number of birds, apparently terns, were about them. I had much doubt
in my mind, whether the white appearance of the upper surface of these
rocks was the effect of the dung of birds, but rather conjectured, in the
absence of ocular proof, that it was of a calcareous nature. Observing
a group of rocks not far distant from the settlement of Singapore,
exhibiting the same white appearance on the surface above water as the
Pedro Blanco, I determined to visit them for the purpose of examining
their structure; on the evening of the day on which I observed it, I
went out in a boat with some friends, but a very heavy swell prevented
the attainment of my object at this time. The Malays in the boat, when
they heard what I wished to ascertain, declared it to be produced by
the first-mentioned cause; but on the following morning I succeeded
in getting upon it, when my previously formed opinion was confirmed,
by finding the upper surface calcareous, at some parts more or less
discoloured. The formation of the rock was secondary, being of a red
sandstone, and in many specimens, which I broke off, I observed a very
minute line of sandstone, running through the calcareous substance;
although other parts of this rock were also calcareous, yet they had
not a white appearance, from being covered and discoloured by marine
conferva and minute crustaceous animals, to such an extent as to entirely
lose their white appearance unless broken; and the marine animals being
constantly in the other rocks washed by the sea, which the high and white
rock was not, caused a still further increase of marine weeds, &c. upon
them. I collected some excellent specimens, showing the two different
strata very distinctly.

About ten P.M. of the 26th, we anchored in Singapore roads; and upon the
following day I landed and took up my residence, during my stay at the
settlement, with my friend Mr. Boustead.

The island of Singapore,[48] at the part on which the settlement has
been formed, has a very picturesque and beautiful appearance, when
seen from the ships at anchor in the roads; and does not prove less
attractive to the stranger on landing: the government hill, with its neat
bungalow and flag-staff, forms a prominent feature in the view; and the
undulating character of the land, with the thickly-timbered country in
the distance, imparts a pleasing variety. Who can regard this settlement,
so very recently established, yet now become a place of importance by
the enterprise of British merchants, (almost unaided by any assistance
from government,) without feeling how just the conclusion is, that
commerce can elevate the most barren and unproductive spot to a place of
high importance? Look at the magnificent private mansions, warehouses,
and the extent of commerce, showing the present and increasing wealth
of this rising settlement. The town is erected upon the banks of a
salt-water creek, more commonly named the Singapore river: one side
contains the warehouses, offices, stores, &c. of the merchants and
shopkeepers, as well as the native streets, bazaars, &c. Opposite to it
is an extensive plain, adorned by several elegant mansions; and beyond
the Kampong Glam,[49] and Malay town, with the residence of the sultan
of Johore and his followers: from him the island was purchased by the
British government, for which he still receives the annual pension which
had been stipulated at the time. Close to the creek, which has received
the more dignified appellation of the “Singapore river,” wharfs extend
from and opposite to the offices and warehouses of the merchants. The
two most extensive and splendid buildings are those recently erected
by Messrs. Armstrong and Gemmil. The Commercial Square contains some
very good buildings, used as offices, shops, and residences; the most
conspicuous of which, for elegance, is the building used as offices and
warehouses by the firm of Rawson, Holdsworth, and Co. The river, at the
lower part of the settlement, always presents an animated scene, from the
arrival and departure of native boats, with fruit, vegetables, and live
stock, as well as from the number of neat sampans plying for hire, or
attending upon the commanders of vessels, who employ them, in this sultry
climate, in preference to exposing their crews to a tropical sun: many
native boats lie waiting or delivering cargoes of the various productions
of the fertile islands in the vicinity. At night, the flickering and
brilliant lights from the numerous boats upon the river, make an animated
appearance.

Rains are frequent at Singapore throughout the year, but more especially
during the months of November, December, and January. The principal
buildings are constructed of bricks, and roofed with red tiles; but many
of the Chinese dwellings and shops are constructed of wood. The roads
in the town, and also in the vicinity of the settlement, are excellent,
being of a mixture of sand with a clay iron ore, which make very durable
roads. The markets at Singapore are well supplied with all kinds of
provision, vegetables, and fruit; and considering how little the island
in itself produces, and that the supplies are brought from Malacca and
the neighbouring islands, are sold at a very cheap rate. The population
of the settlement of Singapore consists of nearly twenty thousand,
exclusive of the troops and convicts, (the troops being about five
hundred, and the convicts eight hundred in number,) the majority of which
is formed by the Chinese.


_Comparative Statement of the Census taken on the 1st January, 1833._

  -----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------
                   |    1832.    |    1833.    |  Increase.  |  Decrease.
                   +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
                   | Mal. | Fem. | Mal. | Fem. | Mal. | Fem. | Mal. | Fem.
                   +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
  Europeans        |   83 |   22 |   91 |   28 |    8 |    6 |    — |   —
  Indo-Britons     |   67 |   27 |   56 |   40 |    — |   13 |   11 |   —
  Native Christians|  274 |  146 |  167 |  133 |    — |    — |  107 |  13
  Armenians        |   20 |    6 |   27 |    8 |    7 |    2 |    — |   —
  Jews             |    5 |    — |    2 |    — |    — |    — |    3 |   —
  Arabs            |   61 |    3 |   96 |    — |   35 |    — |    — |   3
  Malays           | 3748 | 3467 | 3763 | 3368 |   15 |    — |    — |  99
  Chinese          | 7149 |  613 | 7650 |  867 |  501 |  254 |    — |   —
  Natives of the   |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
    Coast of       |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
    Coromandel     | 1374 |   40 | 1762 |   57 |  388 |   17 |    — |   —
  Natives of       |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
    Hindostan      |  408 |  121 |  389 |  116 |    — |    — |   19 |   5
  Javanese         |  391 |  253 |  361 |  234 |    — |    — |   30 |  19
  Bugis, Balinese  |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
    &c. &c.        |  735 |  692 |  794 |  932 |   59 |  240 |    — |   —
  Caffries         |    7 |    1 |   23 |   14 |   16 |   13 |    — |   —
  Parsees          |    2 |    — |    — |    — |    — |    — |    2 |   —
                   +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
          Total    |14324 | 5391 |15181 | 5797 | 1029 |  545 |  172 | 139
        Females    | 5391 |    — | 5797 |    — |  545 |    — |  139 |   —
                   +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
  Total Inhabitants|19715 |    — |20978 |    — | 1574 |    — |  311 |   —
    Deduct decrease|      |      |      |      |  311 |      |      |
  Increase in 1833 |      |      |      |      | 1263 |      |      |
  -----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------

                                      _Singapore Chronicle, Feb. 7, 1833._

Respecting the first settlement of Singapore: “In the first agreement,”
says Crawford, “with the native chief, the arrangement amounted to
little more than a permission for the formation of a British factory and
establishment, along two miles of the northern shore, and inland to the
extent of the point-blank range of a cannon-shot. There was, in reality,
no territorial cession giving a legal right of legislation. The only
law which could have existed was the Malay code. The native chief was
considered to be the proprietor of the land, even within the bounds of
the British factory; and he was to be entitled, in perpetuity, to one
half of such duties of customs as might hereafter be levied at the port.
In the progress of the settlement, these arrangements were of course
found highly inconvenient and embarrassing, and were annulled by the
treaty I am about to describe.

“The island of Singapore belonged to the Malayan principality of Johore,
a state which probably was never of much consequence, and for the last
century had been of none at all. Sultan Mahomet, the last prince, died
about the year 1810, leaving no legitimate issue. No prince of his family
assumed the throne in immediate succession to him, and the country was
dismembered among his principal officers. The Bind hara (treasurer or
first minister) took to himself the territory of Pahang, on the eastern
coast of the Malay peninsula, and is now commonly designated rajah of
that place. The Tumangung, or chief judge, seized upon the corresponding
territory, on the western side, with the adjacent islands. This is the
person from whom we received the first grant of our factory. He informed
me,” continues Crawford, “that he had settled in Singapore for the first
time, in 1811, a few months before our expedition passed through the
harbour, on its route to the capture of Java.

“Sultan Mahomet had two illegitimate sons, who were competitors for the
throne, but the claims of neither were attended to, and they continued in
a state of vagrancy and poverty until the Dutch and English governments,
for their own purposes, thought it necessary to patronize respectively
one of the parties. One of them, now acknowledged Sultan of Johore, and
who still resides in the island, came over to it a short time after our
first occupation, and was, in due course, placed upon our pension list.
It was with this individual, and the inferior chief already named, that a
treaty for the cession of the island was concluded in August, 1824. They
received for the sovereignty and fee-simple of the island, as well as of
all the seas, straits, and islands lying within ten miles of its coasts,
the sum of sixty thousand Spanish dollars, with an annuity of twenty-four
thousand Spanish dollars during their natural lives; and it was farther
guaranteed that they or their successors should receive a donation of
thirty-five thousand Spanish dollars, should they be desirous at any time
of quitting the British territory and retiring into their own dominions.
Other articles of the treaty provided that neither party should interfere
in the domestic quarrels of the other; that their highnesses should
receive at all times an asylum and a hospitable reception at Singapore,
should they be distressed in their own dominions; and that slavery,
under whatever name or modification, should have no existence within the
British territories.

“This last subject had been a source of great annoyance, both to the
native chiefs and to the local administration. Their highnesses claimed
as slaves, not only their own retainers, but every Malay, coming from
whatever part of the state of Johore. Their followers, where every one
else was free, and labour well rewarded, were naturally impatient of
this assumption; and the disputes which arose were the frequent cause of
serious difficulties, both in maintaining the peace of the settlement,
and in the administration of justice. At present slavery is totally
unknown in the island, for the treaty emancipated even the retainers of
the native chiefs.”[50]

I have quoted the foregoing extract to serve as an explanation of
the first treaty, and to show how the possession of the island was
permanently obtained by the British, which will be interesting to the
many who may not have had an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the
circumstances.

Besides the Government-hill, which rises in picturesque beauty behind the
plain, upon which the settlement has been formed, there is an elevated
hill to the westward, known by the name of Blackan Mattee,[51] on which
there is a signal station, removed from St. John’s Island. There are
other elevated hills clothed with lofty timber trees, and rising inland,
which bestow a picturesque character upon the scenery of the coast;
many of the trees are found, on a nearer view, to be curious in their
growth, and some of them valuable for their timber; on their elevated
summits, ferns of the genera _Achrosticum_, _Asplenium_, &c., or several
parasitical _Orchideous_ plants, are seen growing in profusion.

The settlement and island of Singapore is considered very salubrious. The
small-pox, however, has lately been committing great and deadly ravages
among the native residents; of these, however, there were none upon whom
vaccination had been performed. Many have been surprised at the healthy
state of Singapore as a residence, when it is so near the equator, and
the town surrounded by swamps, and even built upon a swamp; but I have
had occasion to remark more than once, that when the swamps result from
salt-water creeks, the miasmata producing fever are not generated, as
from freshwater marshes, which usually abound in a very profuse and rank
vegetation; and Singapore may be said to be entirely destitute of rivers,
the absence of which, however, is compensated by numerous salt-water
creeks about the coasts, some of them extending inland for the distance
of several miles. There is no deficiency, however, of good fresh water,
which is procured from rivulets and springs, abundant about the island.

The European burial-ground is situated in rather a conspicuous spot, on a
part of the declivity of the Government-hill; one part, is planted with
bamboos, which have a tasteful appearance, and the gloomy nature of the
spot would be diminished if the fence of these trees was continued the
whole way round the cemetery.

On riding or driving in the vicinity of the settlement, the character
of the country and soil appears well calculated for the cultivation of
coffee, sugar,[52] cotton, pepper, and other tropical productions, as
well as of the vine. But most of the land is permitted to continue in a
state of primitive jungle, industry and cultivation having been checked
by the enormous quit-rents imposed upon the purchasers, or tenants of
land, by the government. Until this ill-judged and ill-advised measure is
changed, the cultivation of this beautiful island, now for the most part
covered by a continued forest, cannot advance.

At this season but few flowers decorated the jungles, or sides of the
roads; the one most commonly seen was the Melastoma, or Singapore rose,
it principally animated the country by its blossoms, and charmed the
eye, fatigued by continually gazing on the green foliage without variety,
although it gratified no other sense.

A pleasant evening drive, or promenade, is obtained upon the winding road
leading to the Government-hill, which passes close by what was formerly,
and even still retains the name of, the Botanic or Experimental Garden.
Many of the hedges on this road are formed by an elegant small leaved
bamboo, with its pendent branches drooping in graceful tufts, the tree
itself not attaining the elevation usual with other more useful but
less ornamental species: this bamboo forms a very beautiful, as well as
compact fence. On attaining the gentle and gradual rise of the hill, the
view that expands itself is both extensive and grand; embracing a wide
portion of this splendid island, and causing feelings of regret in the
mind of the spectator, that so much fertile land should be permitted to
lie waste. Turning our eyes in another direction from the gloomy mass
of forest scenery and undulating land, extending to the horizon, a more
animated and pleasing scene is spread before us. Neat white houses and
elegant mansions are seen on the open plain, or peeping above the dense
vegetation when constructed upon a gentle rising hill. As far as the eye
can reach over the tranquil waters, small wooded islands stud the ocean,
and more distant, land indistinctly appears. The river, or creek, is
animated by numerous native boats of all classes, passing and repassing,
engaged in various occupations, or lying tranquilly at rest, like the
sea-bird upon the waters, after its toil is over.

In the roadstead the commercial prosperity of the settlement is indicated
by the large number of ships of all classes, that there repose at anchor
upon the bosom of the green waters, conveying merchandize to supply the
wants of nations far distant. Flags of various European and eastern
nations float in the breeze. The peculiar Cochin Chinese, Siamese,
and Chinese junks, as well as the Bugis, and other prows, clustered
together, animate the waters by their presence, showing to what a state
of commercial prosperity this juvenile settlement has already attained.
Long may it remain, still increasing, nor have its bright hopes crushed
by party spirit or misgovernment, and may it one day cause the tide of
civilization to flow over the immense extent of wilderness, inhabited by
savage tribes, known to us only as the Malayan peninsula: such a day will
doubtless appear—civilization, commerce, and religion, hand in hand, will
be diffused amongst these uncultivated people, for nothing is invincible
to perseverance and industry.

Excellent roads are forming in the vicinity of the settlement, and there
is one commenced to extend directly across the island. The road-gangs
are composed of convicts from India, and the plans are under the able
superintendence of Mr. Coleman, the colonial architect.




CHAPTER VIII.

    Description of an Ungka ape—His habits—Anecdotes of him—His
    death—Dissection.


Objects of natural history are frequently brought in a great variety by
the proas from the different islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Prepared
birds of paradise, and living Loris, pink cockatoos, and occasionally the
magnificent, Crowned or Dampier’s pigeons, as well as Rhinoceros birds,
may be often purchased. An orang-utan was lately brought from Borneo
to Singapore, by a commander of a vessel, who sold it for seventy-five
dollars.

During a visit to Singapore, in 1830, I procured, through the kindness
of E. Boustead, Esq., a male specimen of the Ungka ape, (_Hylobates
syndactyla_.) The animal had been recently brought by a Malay lad, in
a proa, from the Menangkabau country, in the interior of Sumatra. The
Malays at Singapore always called the creature Ungka; but I observe, in
the Linnean Transactions, it is called by Sir Stamford Raffles, Siamang,
and the Ungka is therein described as a different animal; the same as
that under the name of Onko, in the splendid work on the Mammalia, (vols.
v. and vi.) by F. Cuvier. The natives, however, at Singapore denied this
being the Siamang, at the same time stating that the Siamang resembled it
in form, but differed in having the eyebrows and hair around the face of
a white colour.

The _Hylobates syndactyla_ is described and figured also in Dr.
Horsfield’s Zoology of Java, but the engraving does not give a correct
idea of the animal, nor have I as yet seen one that does. Three beautiful
drawings were taken for me, from the specimen I possessed, after its
death, in different positions; and having preserved the skeleton in the
skin, its general appearance was more natural than stuffed specimens
usually are; they were executed by the able pencil of Charles Landseer,
Esq.

On board the ship Sophia, during the passage to England, ample
opportunities were afforded me to study this singularly interesting
little animal. Its measurement was as follows:—From the os calcis to the
vertex of the head, two feet four inches; span of the arms, four feet;
length of the arm, from the axilla to the termination of the fore-finger,
one foot ten and a half inches; length of the leg, from the groin to the
os calcis, eleven inches; length from the xiphoid or ensiform cartilage
to the crest of the pubis, seven and a half inches.

The teeth are twelve in each jaw; four incisors, two canine, and six
molares. In the upper jaw, the canine were placed widely apart from the
last incisor, giving an appearance as if a tooth was deficient: this
circumstance did not occur in the lower jaw. The teeth were in a very
bad condition. In colour, the animal was of a beautiful jet black, being
covered with coarse hair over the whole body. The face has no hair,
except on the sides, as whiskers, and the hair stands forward from the
forehead over the eyes: there is very little beard. The skin of the face
is black; the arms are very long, the radius and ulna being of greater
length than the os humeri: the hair on the arms runs in one direction,
viz. downwards; that on the fore-arm, upwards; the hands are long and
narrow, fingers long and tapering; thumb short, not reaching farther
than the first joint of the fore-finger; the palms of the hands and
soles of the feet are bare and black; the legs are short, in proportion
to the arms and body; the feet are long, prehensile, and, when the
animal is in a sitting posture, are turned inwards, and the toes are
usually bent. The first and second toes are united (except at the last
joint) by a membrane. From this circumstance, the animal has derived
its specific name. He invariably walks in the erect posture, when on a
level surface; and then the arms either hang down, enabling him sometimes
to assist himself with his knuckles; or, what is more usual, he keeps
his arms uplifted, in nearly an erect position, with the hands pendent,
ready to seize a rope, and climb up on the approach of danger, or on the
obtrusion of strangers. He walks rather quick in the erect posture, but
with a waddling gait, and is soon run down if, whilst pursued, he has no
opportunity of escaping by climbing.

On the foot are five toes, the great toe being placed like the thumb of
the hand: the form of the foot is somewhat similar to that of the hand,
having an equal prehensile power; the great toe has a capability of
much extension outwards, which enlarges the surface of the foot when
the animal walks. The toes are short; the great toe is the longest. The
eyes are close together, with the irides of a hazel colour; the upper
eyelids have lashes, the lower have none. The nose is confluent with the
face, except at the nostrils, which are a little elevated. The mouth
large, ears small, resembling the human, except in being deficient in
the pendent lobe. He has nails on the fingers and toes, and has hard
tubercles on the tuberosities of the ischium, but is destitute of a tail
or even the rudiment of one.

His food is various: he preferred vegetable diet, as rice, plantains,
&c., and was ravenously fond of carrots, of which we had some quantity
preserved on board. Although, when at dinner, he would behave well, not
intruding his paw into our plates, having “acquired politeness,” as Jack
would say, by being on board, yet, when the carrots appeared, all his
decorum was lost, in his eager desire for them; and it required some
exertion to keep him from attacking them “with tooth and paw,” unmindful
whether we wished it or not, and against all the laws and regulations of
the table. A piece of carrot would draw him from one end of the table to
the other, over which he would walk, without disturbing a single article,
although the ship was rolling at the time; so admirably can these animals
balance themselves. This is well seen when they play about the rigging
of a ship at sea: often, when springing from rope to rope, have I
expected to see him buffeting the waves, and as often did I find that all
my fears were groundless.

He would drink tea, coffee, or chocolate, but neither wine nor spirits.
Of animal food, he prefers fowl; but a lizard having been caught on
board, it was placed before him, when he seized the reptile instantly in
his paw, and greedily devoured it. He was also very fond of sweetmeats,
such as jams, jellies, dates, &c.; and no child with the “sweetest
tooth” ever evinced more delight after “bons bons” than did this little
creature. Some manilla sweet cakes that were on board he was always eager
to procure, and would not unfrequently enter the cabin in which they were
kept, and endeavour to lift up the cover of the jar: he was not less
fond of onions, although their acridity caused him to sneeze and loll
out his tongue: when he took one, he used to put it into his mouth, and
immediately eat it with great rapidity.

The first instance I observed of his attachment to liberty, was soon
after he had been presented to me by Mr. Boustead. On entering the
yard in which he was tied up, one morning, I was not well pleased at
observing him busily engaged in removing his belt, to which the cord or
chain was fixed, (which, as I afterwards understood, had been loosened
on purpose,) at the same time whining, and uttering a peculiar squeaking
noise. As soon as he had succeeded in procuring his liberty, he walked,
in his usual erect posture, towards some Malays, who were standing near
the place; and, after hugging the legs of several of the party, without,
however, permitting them to take him in their arms, he went to a Malay
lad, who seemed to be the object of his search; for, on meeting with him,
he immediately climbed into his arms; and hugged him closely, having an
expression, in both the look and manner, of gratification at being once
again in the arms of him, who I now understood was his former master.
When this lad sold the animal to Mr. Boustead, he was tied up in the
courtyard of that gentleman’s house, and his screams to get loose used
to be a great annoyance to residents in the vicinity. Several times he
effected his escape, and would then make for the water-side, the Malay
lad being usually on board the proa, in which he had arrived from the
Sumatra. He was never re-taken until, having reached the water, he could
proceed no farther. The day previous to sailing, I sent him on board. As
the lad that originally brought him could not be found, a Malay servant
to Mr. Boustead was deputed to take charge of him. The animal was a
little troublesome at first, but afterwards became quiet in the boat.
On arriving on board, he soon managed to make his escape, rewarding his
conductor with a bite, as a parting remembrance, and ascended the rigging
with such agility as to excite the astonishment and admiration of the
crew. As the evening approached, the animal came down on the deck, and
was readily secured. We found, however, in a day or two, that he was so
docile when at liberty, and so very much irritated at being confined,
that he was permitted to range about the deck or rigging. We sailed from
Singapore for England with him, on the 18th of November 1830.

He usually, (on first coming on board,) after taking exercise about
the rigging, retired to rest at sunset, on the maintop, coming on deck
regularly at daylight. This continued until our arrival off the Cape,
when experiencing a lower temperature, he expressed an eager desire to
be taken to my arms, and to be permitted to pass the night in my cabin,
for which he evinced such a decided partiality, that, on the return of
warm weather, he would not retire to the maintop, but seemed to have a
determination to stay where he thought himself the most comfortable, and
which I, at last, after much crying and solicitation from him, permitted.

He was not able to take up small objects with facility, on account of the
disproportion of the size of the thumb to the fingers. The metacarpal
bone of the thumb has the mobility of a first joint. The form of both the
feet and hands gives a great prehensile power, fitted for the woods or
forests, the natural _habitat_ of these animals, where it must be almost
an impossibility to capture an adult of the species alive.

Under the throat is a large black pouch, a continuation of the common
integument, very thinly covered with hair, and not very visible when
undistended. It has a corrugated appearance, extending from the under
part of the chin to the throat, is attached as low down as the upper
part of the sternum, and it is also attached above to the symphysis
of the lower jaw. The use of this pouch has been a subject of much
speculation: having the animal for some time with me, sleeping in the
same apartment, I might be able to form some opinion on the subject. Its
use is certainly not well known, though it is not improbable that it
may be an appendage to the organ of voice. For often when irritated, I
have observed him inflate the pouch, uttering at the same time a hollow
barking noise,[53] for the production of which the rushing of the air
into the sac was evidently an adjunct. The inflation of the pouch was
not, however, confined to anger; for when pleased he would purse the
mouth, drive the air with an audible noise into the sac; when yawning, it
was also inflated; and in all instances, (except when excited by anger,)
he would gradually empty the sac, as if he derived a pleasure from it.
When the sac has been distended, I have often pressed on it, and forced
the air contained within it into the mouth, the animal not evincing at
the time any sign of its being an annoyance to him. When uttering the
barking noise, the pouch is not inflated to the same extent as when he
yawns. It has been stated in an American publication, that the use of
the air sac is for a swimming bladder. It may be said in refutation, (if
the assertion is not too absurd to refute,) that Ungka never evinced any
partiality for swimming, although provided with such an apparatus; but
one day, thinking that a washing would be beneficial to the beast’s
coat, I placed him in a large tub of water: he was much frightened at
his situation, and soon began to display a marked hydrophobic symptom,
but not the least attempt was made to inflate the pouch, although he was
frequently submersed. This animal is destitute of cheek pouches as a
reservoir for food.

When sleeping, he lies along, either on the side or back, resting the
head on the hands, and is always desirous of retiring to rest at sunset;
it was at this time he would approach me uncalled for, making a peculiar
begging, chirping noise; an indication that he wished to be taken into
the cabin to be put to bed. Before I admitted him into my cabin, after
having firmly stood against his piteous beseeching tones and cries, he
would go up the rigging and take up his reposing place for the night
in the maintop. He would often (I suppose from his approximation to
civilization) indulge in bed some time after sunrise, and frequently
when I awoke I have seen him lying on his back, his long arms stretched
out, and, with eyes open, appearing as if buried in deep reflection.
At sunset, when he was desirous of retiring to rest, he would approach
his friends, uttering his peculiar chirping note, a beseeching sound,
begging to be taken into their arms; his request once acceded to, he was
as adhesive as Sinbad’s old man of the sea; any attempt to remove him
being followed by violent screams. He could not endure disappointment,
and, like the human species, was always better pleased when he had his
own way; when refused or disappointed at anything, he would display the
freaks of temper of a spoiled child; lie on the deck, roll about, throw
his arms and legs in various attitudes and directions, dash every thing
aside that might be within his reach, walk hurriedly, repeat the same
scene over and over again, and utter the guttural notes of _ra, ra_; the
employment of coercive measures during the paroxysms reduced him in a
short period to a system of obedience, and the violence of his temper
by such means became in some degree checked. Often has he reminded me
of that pest to society, a spoiled child, who may justly be defined as
papa’s pride, mamma’s darling, the visitor’s terror, and an annoyance to
all the living animals, men and maid-servants, dogs, cats, &c. in the
house that it might be inhabiting.

When he came, at sunset, to be taken into my arms, and was refused, he
would fall into a paroxysm of rage; but finding that unsuccessful, and
unattended to, he would mount the rigging, and hanging over that part
of the deck on which I was walking, would suddenly drop himself into my
arms.[54]

The sounds he uttered were various: when pleased at a recognition of
his friends, he would utter a peculiar squeaking, chirping note; when
irritated, a hollow, barking noise was produced; but when very angry,
and frightened, or when chastised, the loud guttural sounds of _ra, ra,
ra_, invariably followed. When I approached him for the first time in the
morning, he greeted me with his chirping notes, advancing his face at the
same time, as if intended for the purpose of salutation; but I did not
feel desirous of trying the experiment, as I knew these animals were not
in the habit of kissing, and I well knew they were in the habit of biting.

His look was grave, and manner mild, and he was deficient in those
mischievous tricks so peculiar to the monkey tribe in general. In only
one instance did I experience any mischief from him, and that was in
his meddling with my inkstand: he seemed to have an extraordinary
penchant for the black fluid—would drink the ink, (by placing his finger
in the inkstand, and then sucking it,) and suck the pens, whenever an
opportunity offered of gratifying this morbid propensity: his black
coat did not suffer from his dabbling in ink, unlike many of the human
species, who suffer both in constitution and apparel from meddling too
much with it.

There was a degree of intelligence in the animal, beyond what is usually
termed common instinct. These little miniatures of men,[55] (as they
are satirically termed,) are said to possess more sagacity than other
animals, and to be a close connecting link between the “powerful lord of
the creation,” and creatures of an inferior genus. If it be true, as I
have heard asserted, that intelligence is written in legible characters
on the os frontis of the monkey tribe, I beg to add, that mischief and
cunning also beam in their eye.

One instance of a very close approximation to, if it may not be
considered absolutely an exercise of, the reasoning faculty, occurred
in this animal. Once or twice I lectured him on taking away my soap
continually from the washing-place, which he would remove, for his
amusement, from that place, and leave it about the cabin. One morning I
was writing, the ape being present in the cabin, when casting my eyes
towards him, I saw the little fellow taking the soap. I watched him,
without his perceiving that I did so; and he occasionally would cast a
furtive glance towards the place where I sat. I pretended to write; he
seeing me busily occupied, took the soap, and moved away with it in his
paw. When he had walked half the length of the cabin, I spoke quietly,
without frightening him. The instant he found I saw him, he walked back
again, and deposited the soap nearly in the same place from whence he
had taken it. There was certainly something more than instinct in that
action: he evidently betrayed a consciousness of having done wrong,
both by his first and last actions;—and what is reason if that is not an
exercise of it?

When he walks in the erect posture, he turns the leg and foot outwards,
which occasions him to have a waddling gait and to seem bow-legged.
He would pace the deck, being held by his long arm; and then had a
resemblance to a child just learning to step. The limbs, from their
muscular and strong prehensile power, render the animal a fit inhabitant
for the forest; enabling him to spring from tree to tree with an agility
that we have frequently witnessed him display about the rigging of the
ship: he would pass down the backstays, sometimes hanging by his hands,
at others walking down them in the erect posture, like a rope-dancer,
balancing himself by his long arms; or he would spring from one rope at a
great distance to another, or would drop from one above to another below.

Being aware of his inability to escape pursuit, when running on a level
surface, his first object, when about to make an attack, was to secure
a rope, and swing towards the object he was desirous of attacking; if
defeated, he eluded pursuit by climbing out of reach.

He has an awkward manner of drinking, by which the liquid is much wasted:
he first applies his lips to the liquid, throwing the head up, which in
some degree may be attributed to the prominency of the lower jaw: and if
the vessel in which the liquid is contained should be shallow, he dips
the paw into it, and holding it over the mouth, lets the liquid drop in.
I never observed him lap with the tongue when drinking; but when tea or
coffee was given to him, the lingual organ was carefully protruded for
the purpose of ascertaining its temperature. This display of caution was
not confined to this species of ape, as I know of several others which
will do the same, when hot tea or coffee is given to them; shaking their
sapient head violently, if they are heated by the liquid; but still,
undeterred, will wait patiently until the hot liquid becomes sufficiently
cool for bibulary purposes.

He soon knew the name of Ungka, which had been given to him, and would
readily come to those to whom he was attached when called by that
name. His mildness of disposition and playfulness of manner made him a
universal favourite with all on board.

He was playful, but preferred children to adults. He became particularly
attached to a little Papuan child (Elau, a native of Erromanga, one of
the New Hebrides group,) who was on board, and whom it is not improbable
he may have in some degree considered as having an affinity to his
species. They were often seen sitting near the capstan, the animal with
his long arm round her neck, lovingly eating biscuit together.

She would lead him about by his long arms, like an elder leading a
younger child: and it was the height of the grotesque to witness him
running round the capstan, pursued by, or pursuing, the child. He would
waddle along, in the erect posture, at a rapid pace, sometimes aiding
himself by his knuckles; but when fatigued, he would spring aside, seize
hold of the first rope he came to, and, ascending a short distance,
regard himself as safe from pursuit.

In a playful manner he would roll on deck with the child, as if in a
mock combat, pushing with his feet, (in which action he possessed great
muscular power,) entwining his long arms around her, and pretending to
bite; or, seizing a rope, he would swing towards her, and, when efforts
were made to seize him, would elude the grasp by swinging away; or he
would, by way of changing the plan of attack, drop suddenly on her from
the ropes aloft, and then engage in various playful antics. He would play
in a similar manner with adults; but finding them usually too strong and
rough for him, he preferred children, giving up his games with them, if
any adults joined in the sports at the same time.

If, however, an attempt was made by the child to play with him, when
he had no inclination, or after he had sustained some disappointment,
he usually made a slight impression with his teeth on her arm, just
sufficient to act as a warning, or a sharp hint, that no liberties were
to be taken with his person; or, as the child would say, “Ungka no like
play now.” Not unfrequently, a string being tied to his leg, the child
would amuse herself by dragging the patient animal about the deck: this
he would good-naturedly bear for some time, thinking, perhaps, it amused
his little playmate; but finding it last longer than he expected, he
became tired of that fun, in which he had no share, except in being the
sufferer; he would then make endeavours to disengage himself and retire.
If he found his efforts fruitless, he would quietly walk up to the child,
make an impression with his teeth, in a ratio of hardness according to
his treatment: that hint soon terminated the sport, and procured him his
liberty.

There were also on board the ship several small monkeys, with whom Ungka
was desirous of forming interesting conversaziones, to introduce a
social character among the race, wile away the tedious hours, which pass
but tardily in a ship, and dissipate the monotony of the voyage: to this
the little monkeys would not accede; they treated him as an outcast,
and all cordially united to repel the approaches of the “little man in
black,” by chattering, and various other hostile movements peculiar to
them.

Ungka, thus repelled in his kind endeavours to establish something like
sociality amongst them, determined in his own mind to annoy and punish
them for their impudence; so, the next time they united, as before, in
a body, on his approach, he watched the opportunity, and when one was
off his guard, seized a rope, and, swinging towards him, caught him by
the tail, and hauled away upon it, much to the annoyance of the owner,
who had no idea that such a retaliation was to take place; he continued
pulling upon it, as if determined to detach it, until the agility and
desperation of the monkey, at being so treated, obliged him to relinquish
his hold. But it not unfrequently happened that he made his way up
the rigging, dragging the monkey by the tail after him, and thus made
him follow his course most unwillingly. If in his ascent he required
both hands, he would pass the tail of his captive into the prehensile
power of his foot. It was the most grotesque scene imaginable, and
will long remain in the remembrance of those who witnessed it, and was
performed by Ungka with the most perfect gravity of countenance, whilst
the poor suffering monkey grinned, chattered, twisted about, making
the most strenuous endeavours to escape from his opponent’s grasp. His
countenance, at all times a figure of fun, now had terror added to it,
increasing the delineation of beauty; and when the poor beast had been
dragged some distance up the rigging, Ungka, tired of his labour, would
suddenly let go his hold on the tail, when it would require some skill
on the part of the monkey to seize a rope, to prevent his receiving a
compound fracture by a rapid descent on deck. Ungka, having himself
no caudal extremity, knew well that he was perfectly free from any
retaliation on the part of his opponents.

As this mode of treatment was far from being either amusing or
instructive to the monkeys, they assembled together in an _executive
council_, where it was determined, that in future the “big black
stranger,” who did not accord with them in proportions, and who demeaned
himself by walking erect, wearing no tail, and was in several other
respects guilty of unmonkey-like conduct, should be for the future
avoided and treated with contempt; and should he again think proper to
assault any of the body, they should all unite, and punish him for his
violent conduct. Ungka, when again he made any attempt to renew his
amusement of pulling tails, met with such a warm reception from all the
little creatures assembled, that he found it necessary to give up _tale
bearing_, and devote himself to other pursuits. He had, however, such
an inclination to _draw out tales_, that being obliged from “peculiar
circumstances” to relinquish those of the monkeys, he cultivated the
friendship of a little clean pig that ran about the deck, and, taking
his tail in hand, endeavoured, by frequent pulling, to reduce it from a
curled to a straight form; but all his efforts were in vain, although
piggy did not express any ill-feeling at his kind endeavours.

When dinner was announced by the steward, and the captain and officers
assembled in the cuddy, then Ungka, considering himself as also one of
the mess, would be seen bending his steps towards the cuddy, and entering
took his station, on a corner of the table, between the captain and
myself; there he remained waiting for his share of the food, considering
that we were all in duty and humanity bound to supply him with a
sufficiency of provender. When from any of his ludicrous actions at table
we all burst out in loud laughter, he would vent his indignation at being
made the subject of ridicule, by uttering his peculiar hollow barking
noise, at the same time inflating the air sac, and regarding the persons
laughing with a most serious look, until they had ceased, when he would
quietly resume his dinner.

The animal had an utter dislike to confinement, and was of such a social
disposition as always to prefer company, to being left alone: when shut
up his rage was very violent, throwing every thing about that was lying
near, or that he could move, in his place of confinement, but becoming
perfectly quiet when released. When the animal was standing with his back
towards the spectator, his being tail-less, and standing erect, gave him
the appearance of a little black hairy man; and such an object might
easily have been regarded by the superstitious as one of the infernal
imps.

When he walks, to use a nautical phrase, “he sways the body,” and
stepping at once on the whole of the under surface of the foot, occasions
a pattering noise, like that which is heard when a duck, or any aquatic
bird, walks on the deck of a ship.

When the weather is cold, he may be seen huddled together, loses all his
lively and playful manner, sleeping much during the day, and giving up
all kind of exercise. Like the Lascars, who, as long as the weather is
hot, are capable of any duty, but when they arrive in a northern climate,
exposed to the bleak winds, they sink into a state of inaction, from
which it is almost impossible to rouse them; and many perish, as much
from the want of exercise as from the effects of climate.[56] The return
of warm weather imparted life to the animal, his activity returned, his
spirits revived, and his gambols and sportive gaiety were resumed.

Although every kindness was shown to him by the officers and crew, and
sweetmeats and other niceties were given to him by them by way of bribes,
to engage his confidence and good opinion, yet he would not permit
himself to be taken in the arms, or caressed familiarly by any person
on board during the voyage, except by the commander, the third officer,
and myself; but with any of the children he would readily gambol. It was
a strange fact, that he in particular avoided all those who wore large
bushy whiskers.

It was ludicrous to behold the terrified looks of the animal, if his
finger was taken towards a cup of hot tea, as if to ascertain the
temperature; and his attempt at remonstrating on the impropriety of such
conduct, together with his half-suppressed screams, were very diverting.

Among other amusements, he would frequently hang from a rope by one arm;
and, when in a frolicsome humour, frisk about, with his eyes shut, giving
him the appearance of a person hanging, and in the agonies of death.

When we spoke a ship at sea, his curiosity seemed to be much excited by
the novel object near us, for he would invariably mount up the rigging,
at a height sufficient to command a good view of the stranger, and
sometimes take up his position on the peak haulyards, just under the
flag, a signal, difficult no doubt for the stranger to comprehend; there
he would remain gazing wistfully after the departing stranger, until
he was out of sight—“give one parting, lingering look,” and then come
down on the deck again, and resume the sports from which the stranger’s
appearance had disturbed him.

When strangers came on board he approached them with caution, and at
such a distance, as he considered consistent with his ideas of safety.
To the ladies he did not evince any partiality; we had none on board
by which we could judge whether a few days or weeks of their powerful
fascinations would have any effect on him. The only lady who had honoured
him with her notice was one who came on board from a ship we spoke at
sea; he evinced, however, no partiality to the gentle sex, and would not
permit her to caress him: whether it was the bonnet, which was of the
calibre of 1828, or other portions of the lady’s dress, that excited
his indignation, I cannot say, as the animal could not communicate his
opinions; whatever the cause might have been, he was evidently not
eager to become acquainted with her, but would show a disposition to
bite if she attempted to caress him. As she appeared at first timid of
approaching him, this show of warfare may have been occasioned by it, and
in some degree have made the cunning brute keep up the feeling. I was
acquainted with a lady in Ceylon, who, having been bitten by a cockatoo,
always evinced great terror at the approach of one which was kept by
her Ayah, or lady’s-maid, in the house: the bird appeared aware of it,
for, when he saw the lady approach, he would flap his wings, elevate his
crest, shriek out, and at the same time pretend to pursue her, at which
she ran away quite terrified.

When the poor animal lay on the bed of sickness, from dysentery,
produced by the cold, there was as much inquiry after his health, by
the officers and crew, as if he had been of “human form divine,” for
he was a universal favourite on board; and there was much regret when
he died—all his gambols and playful antics ceasing for ever. His skin,
properly stuffed and preserved in its natural erect attitude, was kept to
be consigned, on our arrival in England, to one of the glass-cases in the
British Museum, where he was eventually deposited.[57]

His death occurred as follows:—On the 19th of March, 1831, we had reached
the latitude 45° 41′ north, and longitude 24° 40′ west. The animal seemed
(although clothed in flannel, and kept in my cabin) to suffer much from
cold, and was attacked by dysentery. He would prefer going on the deck,
in the cold air, with the persons to whom he was attached, to remaining
in the warm cabin with those whom he did not regard. On the 24th he
became much worse, his appetite gone, and he had a dislike of being
moved; the discharge from the bowels was bilious, mixed with blood and
mucus, sometimes entirely of blood and mucus, with a putrescent odour.
The breath had a sickly smell, mouth clammy, eyes dull and suffused; he
drank a little water occasionally, and sometimes a little tea. I gave the
usual remedies of calomel and opium, as if I was treating dysentery in
a human being, and although I was obliged to put the medicine down his
throat myself, the animal made no resistance; and on a renewal of the
doses, did not attempt to prevent it, as if aware that it was intended
for his benefit. He generally remained with his head hanging on the
breast, and limbs huddled together; he would, however, when yawning,
inflate the pouch as usual.

On the 29th we were detained in the “chops of the channel,” by prevailing
easterly winds; and he daily sank until the 31st of March, when he died,
in latitude 48° 36′ north, longitude 9° 1′ west.

On examination of the body soon after death, the thoracic viscera
were found perfectly healthy, and differing from the orang-utan,[58]
in being subdivided on each side, the right lung having three, and the
left two lobes, as in the human subject. The lungs were perfectly free
from tubercles; the spleen was healthy, of small size, and lobulated
at one extremity; the liver was large and healthy; the difference in
size between that organ and the spleen was considerable, in comparison
with the relative proportions of those organs in the human subject. Mr.
Owen does not remark, in the dissection of the orang-utan, whether this
difference of size in the two organs exists also in that animal; the
gall-bladder contained a small quantity of dark, thick, and viscid bile;
several of the mesenteric glands were enlarged, some being of a white,
others of a dark colour.

On laying open the duodenum, it was found to contain a quantity of mucus,
slightly tinged with bile; the colon and cœcum were full of liquid
bilious fœces, mixed with mucus, and several small ulcerated patches were
seen on the inner surface, and a dark spotted appearance at other parts:
the rectum also contained similar fœces, but mixed with a curdy matter;
and there were several large patches of ulceration on the inner coat,[59]
more particularly near the termination of the gut; the kidneys were
healthy; on the right the capsula renalis was large, but none was seen on
the left; the bladder was quite empty, the inner surface scarcely moist.
The animal had been castrated, but the spermatic cord terminated in the
scrotum in two small oval substances, rather larger than small peas; the
sacrum and os coccygis were similar to those parts in the human subject.

The communication of the larynx was examined; the epiglottis was only
indicated by a slight obtuse angular rising; the sacculi laryngis were
three-eighths of an inch in the long diameter, one-eighth in the short;
their margins were well defined, continued forwards, below the body of
the os hyoides, into a membranous sac, situated beneath the external
thick one.[60] This animal has one common sac, and thus differs from the
orang-utan, which has two. The extremities of the bones of the animal
were cartilaginous.

The Angola orang (_Simia troglodytes_, Linn.) has been considered the
most perfect of animals, much more so than the Indian orang, (_Simia
satyrus_,) which has been called the orang-utan, although _both_ are
_very inferior_ to man in corporeal powers and intelligence. When the
Indian orang is compelled to take flight from pressing danger, he
immediately falls down upon all fours, showing clearly that this was the
original position of the animal.[61]

This assertion is correct according to my own observation, as far as
regards the orang-utan, and many of the Gibbons, who maintain the erect
posture only for a short period; but I found the Ungka ape of Sumatra,
(_Simia syndactyla_,) although, similar to the orang-utan, he would
occasionally aid himself by the knuckles when walking, yet would maintain
a more erect posture than I have ever observed in the latter animal,
besides his general form of body and countenance assimilating more to the
human being than the orang. I have seen the Ungka, when pursued, continue
to maintain the erect position for some time, until through fatigue, or
more probably from terror, he would fall to the ground, becoming an easy
capture; but let the ropes of a ship, or any trees, be within reach, he
would then avail himself of the powerful, prehensile, and muscular power
bestowed upon him by nature, and whether over the rigging of the ship,
or the branches of the trees, he would then have sufficient strength
and agility to defy pursuit, although he could not effect it on a level
surface.




CHAPTER IX.

    The Botanic Garden—The Croton tiglium—The true
    Camphor-tree—The Malaleuca Kayu-puteh—Excursion into the
    interior of the island—Botanical productions—Chinese farms
    and plantations—Pepper harvest—Plantain-trees—Gambir
    plantations—Boiling houses—Cultivation and preparation of
    Gambir—Dense vegetation of the Jungles—Establishment of a
    Chinese-planter.


The Botanic Garden will soon cease to exist. Of the valuable trees it
contained a few remain, liable frequently to injury from the inroads
and depredations of cattle; and I understand that its locality is to be
disposed of in lots for building. A large number of thriving nutmeg and
clove-trees laden with fruit, still remain; and a few common tea-trees
are seen flourishing, occasionally covered by blossoms, and fruit;
several _Bauhinias_, among which the _B. tomentosa_ was conspicuous
with its ornamental, delicate, white blossoms and leguminous pods, as
well as the _Gardenia_, whose fragrant flowers diffused a powerful scent
around some time before the shrub could be discerned; small plants of the
Champaca (_Michelia suaveolens_) were also seen, but had not yet attained
a sufficient elevation to gratify by the agreeable appearance and odour
of its blossoms, which are so much the delight of the Javanese women,
and other native females, who perfume and ornament themselves with its
flowers.

Among others which excite interest to those of the medical profession was
the _Croton tiglium_, at that time both in fruit and flower; from the
seeds of this shrub the well-known and powerful purgative Croton-oil is
obtained; the true camphor-tree (_Dryabalanops Camphora_ of Colebrooke)
from Sumatra, which yields the medicinal camphor[62] was also in the
garden; this valuable tree was in a very healthy and thriving condition,
and was nearly ten feet high; the _Malaleuca Kayu-puteh_, from which the
highly-valued cajeput, or, correctly speaking, Kayu-puteh oil is obtained
by distillation from the leaves, attracted my attention, and confirmed
my previously formed opinion, that a much larger quantity of this oil
might be obtained from the foliage of the Australian _Eucalypti-trees_;
more especially those which have opposite, rounded, and whitish leaves;
the oil produced by them being in considerable quantity. On taking and
rubbing the leaves of this _Malaleuca_ it would be very difficult to
distinguish it in odour from those of the _Eucalypti_, occasioned by the
oil contained in them; this valuable oil may therefore, at but little
expense, be distilled in any quantity in the colony of New South Wales;
the _genuine_ oil cannot be purchased at Singapore at a cheaper rate than
from two and a half to three dollars for a bottle, which contains about a
pint of the oil; but there is a large quantity of an adulterated article
very generally sold by the natives at this settlement. The tree, which
I felt some interest in examining, was about twelve feet high, branchy,
and was at this time both in flower and fruit; the bark was smooth and
velvety, and appeared to be deciduous, similar in character to that which
I have remarked in the _Malaleuca_ or tea-tree of New South Wales.[63]

Across the creek, at the upper part of the settlement and near the
splendid and extensive pile of buildings, the residence of E. Boustead,
Esq. is a wooden bridge, at present in a very dilapidated state, and
impassable for carriages, which is a source of great inconvenience to
ladies and others who visit across the water. It is reported that a new
bridge is in contemplation, to be erected a short distance above the
site of the old one; and it would be desirable, for the convenience of
the residents, that it should be commenced and finished as speedily as
possible.[64]

In company with Mr. Moor and Dr. Martin, I made an excursion into the
interior of the island, for the purpose of viewing the plantations of
Gambir, Pepper, &c. as well as for the purpose of investigating its
natural productions. Most of the residents, deeply engaged in mercantile
pursuits, find but little leisure or inclination to explore the island,
or ascertain its real capabilities, or the picturesque scenery and
fertile soil it contains, their rambles being merely confined to evening
drives, or walks, in the immediate vicinity of the settlement.

We went a short distance up the Singapore river in a sampan; the banks
abounded in the dark green and rank mangrove trees, behind which hills
arose, and occasional native dwellings. We did not proceed far before we
landed among some Malay houses, surrounded with numerous palm, fruit, and
flower trees; among which the lofty Jack tree, with its enormous fruit
pending from the trunk or larger branches, the feathered cocoa palm,
the erect Areka palm, a beautiful shrub of _Hibiscus rosa-chinensis_
covered by a profusion of large flowers of a delicate nankin colour, and
several large trees of the _Bixa orellana_, or arnotto of commerce, the
Cashumpa of the Malays, (some of whom occasionally used it as a dye,)
were numerous. One of these dwellings was a manufactory for the refining
of sago, and another a native foundry for small cannon; the powerful
fragrance of the tube rose (_Polianthes tuberosa_) was diffused around
at the very curly hour of the morning we arrived, when the sparkling
dew-drops had not yet forsaken the herbage, the sun not having yet the
power to cause their glistening and refreshing decorations to vanish.

From this picturesque little spot we proceeded through a jungle of lofty
grasses and shrubs, with elevated trees rising from the dense mass; a
sedge grass bearing a beautiful silvery inflorescence, the _Flemingea_,
_Melastoma_, different species of _Nauclea_, and numerous ferns were
seen; of the latter, among other elegant species, was the widely-spread
_Gleichenia Hermanni_, attaining the elevation amid the wilderness of six
and eight feet, and _Blechnum_, _Polypodium_, _Lycopodium_, were mingled
with others, adding to the denseness of the vegetation. As the sun rose
and diffused its rays around, a great number of butterflies, beetles,
and other insects passed away in enjoyment their short fleeting lives,
and revelled upon the sweets the flowers contained. A lofty species of
_Pandanus_, named by the Malays Ninpuan, was very abundant in moist
situations; it rose with its long foliage bending at the extremities, and
as the tree increased in elevation it bore a closer resemblance to the
growth of the palm tree, and attained the height of forty and fifty feet.
The leaves of this tree bleaching about the Malay houses, I found were
used by them for a variety of purposes, as coverings for their dwellings,
and the manufacture of coarse mats.

We often emerged from the pathways leading through a wild country, upon
neat cottages, surrounded by plantations, inhabited and cultivated by
that industrious class of people, the Chinese. A primary object of
cultivation, I observed, was the Gambir-shrub,[65] and the pepper-vine:
the former was cultivated and exported to a much greater extent, until
the Dutch government, by heavy duties, prohibited its introduction
into Java, in order to encourage the cultivation and exportation of it
from their own settlement at Rhio. Vegetables of different kinds, the
sugar-cane, &c. are also cultivated for the supply of the Singapore
market.

The situations selected by the Chinese in this undulating country, for
their farms and plantations were upon, or close to the sloping hills;
and these places are selected for the Gambir and pepper plantations, the
lower land proving too swampy. The pepper harvest had commenced, and the
vines had the appearance of being very productive this season, being
covered with a profusion of clusters of the pepper-berries, large, and
of fine quality.[66] Some had even attained maturity, having changed from
a dark-green to a vivid red. From the latter, the berry being in a ripe
state, the white pepper is made; some of very excellent quality was shown
us by a Chinese planter who had prepared it.

Instead of the usual and tedious process of drying the pepper in the sun
after it has been gathered, I observed the planters, after collecting
a large quantity together, steam it; by which, the drying process is
expedited, without, it is said, the pepper losing any of its flavour by
the operation. At the various plantations I visited, this process was
found most generally adopted, although a small quantity was in a few
instances laid out upon mats in the sun to dry. The steaming process is
almost invariably adopted when the immediate demand for the article is
very great, as it was at this time, pepper being in considerable demand
at Singapore, for the English market. It was stated to me, that three
thousand pepper-vines will produce fifty peculs of pepper annually.

The pepper vines are planted in rows, a short distance apart one from the
other, and were, in this instance, trailed up split pieces of dead wood,
which served as a prop to the vines; some were tied to their support; but
generally they naturally attached themselves, by giving out fasciculi of
roots from the joints, at certain distances.

Plantain trees were occasionally seen in the pepper plantations, probably
for the certain degree of shade and moisture they may have afforded. It
is said, that a pepper plantation will not thrive unless it be near one
of the Gambir shrubs, or rather upon an estate where the Gambir extract
is prepared. This was considered to result from the refuse leaves of the
Gambir, after boiling, being requisite as manure for the vines. From my
own observation, I ascertained this not to be the precise reason of the
pepper-vines thriving better where Gambir-boiling houses and plantations
existed, but from the Gambir leaves, after they had undergone the boiling
process in the manufacture of the extract from them, being strewn thickly
over the surface of the ground between the vines, for the purpose of
preserving it in a cool and moist state. This was the principal reason
of its being used, and, of course, the soil was finally improved by it,
as well as it would be by any other dead vegetable matter. I did not
observe in even a solitary instance that it was used about the roots of
the vines, but, on the contrary, it was kept cleared from them, the roots
of the vines having the earth hoed up about them, leaving a circular
space around, and ashes were occasionally mingled with the earth about
them, as a manure.

The Gambir plantations were very numerous, as well as those of pepper;
and it surprises me, that from the great and general demand for the
latter production, both in the China and European markets, it is not an
article of more general cultivation. Some persons have asserted that the
soil of Singapore is not calculated for the production of pepper; but if
in the numerous plantations I have seen, large clusters of fine berries,
excellent both in appearance and flavour, is a sufficient denial of
the assertion, I can readily make it, and hope its cultivation will be
encouraged. Two or three thousand peculs of pepper are collected annually
at Singapore.

I had fortunately an opportunity of observing at several of the Gambir
boiling-houses, the process of manufacturing that extract, from
the collecting of the prunings, the stripping of the leaves, to the
completion. The shrubs were from five to seven feet high, with rather
drooping branches; the time of collecting, is when the shrubs require
pruning, which is usually every six months; and the trees would be
injured, if not destroyed in value, were they not regularly pruned. It is
stated, that one shrub will exist and produce the extract for twenty-five
or thirty years, if properly and regularly attended to: every care is
taken to keep the plantations free from weeds.

I have observed, that the time of collecting the leaves for the
manufacture of the extract, was at the time the shrubs required
pruning. This, on passing through a plantation, I had an opportunity of
witnessing. The too luxuriant branches were cut off with a pruning knife,
collected into baskets, and then conveyed to the boiling-house, which is
erected in the midst of Gambir plantations, the whole of which, at the
period of my visiting them, were in full operation; the leaves are then
stripped from the pruned branches in the boiling-house, and afterwards
placed into the Qualie or cauldron; (which is made of bark, with an iron
bottom;) under this is an enormous fire, which consumes a very large
quantity of wood; the leaves were frequently stirred, and such additions
of them made, as were required by their diminution during the boiling
process, until the cauldron being entirely full they are suffered to boil
for some length of time together. After thus remaining for several hours,
the leaves are removed from the cauldron, and placed upon a large bark
shoot near it; and the drainings from them return into the vessel.

The leaves are usually boiled twice, and, after being well washed
upon the shoot, the washings are thrown into the cauldron, so that
none of the extract may be lost. The leaves are then consigned to
their final destination, that of being strewn over the soil of the
pepper plantations. The liquor remaining in the cauldron, as well as
the drainings, is reboiled, and inspissated until it arrives at the
consistence of a very thick extract: it is then placed into oblong
moulds. At this time, it resembles very much a very light yellowish-brown
clay. After remaining some time in the mould, it is taken out, divided
with a knife into pieces, subdivided into small squares, and placed upon
a raised platform in the sun to dry. It becomes, when hard and dry, of a
very dark-brown colour, displaying in the interior, on being fractured,
a light-yellowish brown.[67]

From my own observation, as well as from the assertions of all the
Chinese manufacturers of this extract, whose boiling-houses were visited,
no sago was used in the preparation, although it has been asserted by
many writers, that the sago is required to give consistence to the
extract; but a good extract ought certainly to have sufficient density in
itself without the addition of any other substance.[68]

The flavour of the extract is very pleasant, having at first the
agreeable sweetish taste of the liquorice-root, and afterwards a not
unpleasant astringent bitter flavour. The largest quantity of this
extract is consumed in Java; being used by the Javanese in coarse dyes,
as well as a masticatory. The Dutch government encourage, to a great
extent, the cultivation of Gambir, at their settlement of Rhio, on the
Island of Bintang, as they derive a large revenue from its importation
and extensive consumption in Java: a prohibitory duty being also placed
upon all Gambir produced in foreign settlements, has still further
caused the increase, and still increasing, preparation of it at Rhio. I
am indebted to the kindness of a mercantile gentleman at Singapore, who
visited and resided for some time at Rhio, for the following observations
upon the cultivation and preparation of the Gambir at that settlement,
together with the quantity annually exported.

The island of Bintang contains about six thousand Gambir plantations,
the larger ones consisting each of from eighty to a hundred thousand
trees; the smaller plantations, or, as named by the Malays, gardens,
contain from three to four thousand. The shrubs are in full bearing, and
covered with foliage, ten months in the year; but during December and
January, the leaves change to a yellow colour, and consequently are then
in an unfit state for producing the extract. Of course, at some parts of
the year, the Gambir manufacturers have nothing to do, the shrubs not
being in a fit state for pruning; but if the demand for the extract is
very great, the rack-renters will, even at the risk of destroying the
plantation, cut off the branches, and convert both them and the leaves
into extract. There are at present upwards of eight hundred plantations
in Rhio, completely ruined by this system, which took place in the month
of April last, at which time Gambir extract was in very great demand. One
boiling-house, or manufactory, is usually attached to about every forty
Gambir plantations. It may be observed, that during the rainy season the
extract produced is of an inferior quality to that which is made during
hot, dry weather, although the foliage being in greater proportion, more
extract is yielded by them.

During the wet season, vegetation is very rapid in its progress on the
shrubs: if stripped entirely of their foliage, it is not an uncommon
circumstance, in the space of five days, to see them renewed, and covered
with verdure. The production of Gambir, during the year 1829, amounted to
thirty-one thousand peculs; in 1830, it amounted to thirty-five thousand
peculs; in 1831, to forty-seven thousand peculs; in 1832, to sixty-three
thousand peculs; and for the present year, 1833, will amount to full
seventy thousand peculs; and each pecul, of one hundred and thirty-three
pounds, pays to the Dutch government the sum of eight rupees, which, at
seventy thousand peculs, brings to them the large annual revenue of five
hundred and sixty thousand rupees.

It is surprising that no place has yet been found in the Eastern
Archipelago from whence Gambir can be procured that can at all compete
in quality with that produced at Rhio. The island of Lingin produces
a quality next to that of Rhio; and it is worthy of remark, that Rhio
owes its good name to Lingin, as the Gambir, the produce of that island,
was not held in any estimation, until Rhio planters (Chinese) went to
Lingin to acquire the art of manufacturing it; and they also brought with
them the Gambir plants from that place to Rhio, where it was found to
thrive and produce a better extract than at Lingin. A Gambir plantation,
after it has attained three years’ growth, may be considered capable of
yielding good extract, and will continue to do so, if properly attended
to, for the space of nine or ten years.

The Chinese, possessing plantations of Gambir at Singapore, informed me,
that twenty thousand peculs were manufactured annually upon the island;
and some quantity of it was taken away by the Borneo and other native
vessels. There are one hundred and fifty Gambir plantations upon the
island, not including a number of plantations of young trees not yet
producing the extract: there are also about one hundred and seventy
plantations of the pepper-vine upon the island.

At Rhio, as well as in Gambir manufactories generally, the whole of
the leaves, (and sometimes even the stalks,) without any regard to
their selection, are used. It appears, also, that when the qualie, or
cauldron, is new, the extract prepared in it becomes very dark, and is
sold only as a second quality at Rhio, and is almost unsaleable in the
Java market: after the cauldron, however, has been in use for one or two
years, the extract manufactured in it becomes of a much lighter colour.
As the cauldrons are made principally of bark, it must be some colouring
matter in it that is bestowed upon the extract; from this circumstance
the old cauldrons are held more in estimation than the new. It appears
that the white kind made at Rhio, by the women in their own houses, is
not a regular article of commerce; but is preferred by a few for its
refined appearance: it is prepared and brought into a white state, by the
extract being re-dissolved, and passed through several washings, until
the sediment has become of a white colour, when it is taken out, formed
into cakes, and dried in the sun. It is rarely used in comparison with
the other kinds of the Gambir extract.

As we left the plantations, and entered the jungles, a dense vegetation
surrounded us on every side, except the small pathway which led through
it: the pathway, overshadowed by trees and entwining plants, made our
walk during the heat of noon-day, in these situations, delightfully cool
and refreshing. The _Sukun utan_, or wild bread-fruit trees, were very
numerous in the jungle; the forest trees, towering to a great elevation,
without a branch except at the summit, gave them much the character of
those of Australia, but unlike them, in not having their foliage dull
and arid. Many birds were shot, of the fly-catcher tribe, of handsome
plumage; a beautiful small black falcon, not more than four or five
inches in length, and some other small birds; but the feathered tribe
were far from numerous: the swallow (not differing from our European
species) was abundant about the settlement of Singapore; but I did not
observe any in the interior of the island.

About eight A.M. we arrived at the extensive Gambir and pepper
plantations, garden, orangery, and neat habitation of a Chinese, who
informed us that he had been ten years upon the island. We breakfasted
at this place, a servant having been previously sent on with provisions;
but we always found the Chinese planters eager to provide us with any
provisions they had. He supplied our table, however, with some excellent
oranges from his garden: he has upwards of two hundred orange trees,
(which had been originally brought from China,) of large size and in full
bearing, which brought him in a good annual income, from the sale of the
fruit in the Singapore market. He said he had expended fifteen thousand
dollars upon the cultivation and improvement of his farm.

Many Chinese are settled in the interior of this island, upon land for
which no quit-rent having been paid, they render themselves liable to
lose the ground they have cleared and cultivated, unless they pay the
heavy sum demanded by the government as quit-rent. However, I am not
aware of any such oppressive measures having yet been resorted to by the
government, and hope the tax on the industry and general cultivation of
the land will be removed altogether; and by bestowing small grants upon
the settlers, render the island a garden instead of a jungle—productive,
instead of barren.

Although I devoted much attention to the subject of quit-rents, and
collected much information on the question, I do not consider that I can
do better than insert the following intelligent remarks, which have been
published in the Singapore Chronicles of January 24th, and February
7th, 1833. The subject is one immediately connected with the welfare of
the island; and should the tax be rescinded, which would encourage both
emigration and cultivation, we may expect to see the dense forest give
place to houses and plantations, smiling with the animation such scenery
would occasion, encouraging industry, and adding to the wealth of the
settlement.

“We have already noticed, on one or two previous occasions, the great
prohibitions which exist to the cultivation and consequent improvement of
this island, in the excessive quit-rents which are required by government
on all grants of land, whether within the limits of the town, or beyond
it. The terms of this impost we have already noticed, but we think the
subject will not suffer by our mentioning them again.

“Persons desirous of clearing and cultivating waste and forest land, must
make application to the superintendent of lands, stating the district
and place where the land is situated; also the description of land,
whether hill or level land, and also its extent. After due survey, the
superintendent will report the application to the chief civil authority,
who, if no objection exists, will grant a permit to clear the land,
which must be effected within such time as may be determined. The land
being cleared, the holder of the permit shall be entitled to a lease,
subject to the following limitation and provisions:—that the rate of rent
shall not exceed one dollar per acre, on the first lease given, fifteen
years being the duration;—that the lease so granted shall be, at its
expiration exchanged, for a second lease for a future term of fifteen
years, at such rate as shall be determined on, not exceeding three
dollars per acre;—that on the expiration of the second lease, a third,
for fifteen years, shall be granted, at a rate not exceeding six dollars
per acre;—that on the expiration of the third lease, a fourth shall be
granted, at a rate not exceeding ten dollars per acre.

“It shall be optional with the government, in the event of the
leaseholder refusing to accept a lease at, or under the rates above
specified, to eject the holder and resume the land with all buildings
thereon. The rate of ten dollars per acre, being declared to be the
maximum of rent demandable for lands occupied for cultivation, and beyond
the limits of the town of Singapore, or any other town that may be
hereafter established, it shall be optional with leaseholders to demand a
permanent lease of nine hundred and ninety-nine years at the rate of ten
dollars per acre, per annum.

“The foregoing rules, however, are applicable only to lands beyond
the limits of the town, and occupied for agricultural purposes; those
respecting ground occupied within the limits of the town, for the
erection of buildings, being different. For such ground, the rate
of quit-rent has been fixed, on regular leases for nine hundred and
ninety-nine years, at one dollar for nine hundred and sixty-six feet, or
in the proportion of forty five dollars per acre.

“Such are the terms on which land is held at this settlement, and
which we declare to be prohibitions to an extended cultivation and the
general improvement of the island. In the first place, with regard to
land beyond the limits of the town, the rent, even on the first lease,
cannot be considered moderate, at a dollar an acre, as the leaseholder
must necessarily incur considerable expense, at the commencement, in
clearing the land, which, for the most part, is overgrown with jungle
and forest. To repay himself for this expenditure, and to render the
speculation worthy of his time and attention, the ground must be made to
yield productions calculated to realize some profit. Those most likely to
do so, on this island, (from its hilly nature,) are spices, and certain
descriptions of fruit. But many years must elapse before the trees
will bear, during which the leaseholder is involved in a necessary and
unavoidable expense, which his undertaking may finally be unable to repay.

“The case may not be so applicable to lands suitable for the cultivation
of grain or vegetables, which are speedily raised, and require but small
outlay, yet even these could not, from their cheapness, realize a profit
whenever the land should become chargeable with a rent of ten dollars an
acre.

“The periodical leases, renewable after fifteen years, seem to be
considered by most as of little value; they afford no security for
fixed property in the soil, as a grant on one of these leases is liable
to be resumed by government, ‘with all buildings thereon,’ should the
leaseholder or his heirs not choose to comply with the terms of the new
lease. A permanent lease, on the contrary, establishes the property in
the leaseholder’s family, and he is induced, through a certainty of
security for the future, to invest and risk more means in endeavouring to
render his land productive, than he could prudently do, when the lease
is only periodical. But the excessive rate of the present rent acts as
a formidable prohibition to many, who would, were the rent reduced, be
well disposed to invest property in agricultural speculations on this
island.

“The injurious effects of the present system are but too apparent in
the neglected and uncultivated condition of that very great portion
of the island which is beyond the immediate influence of the town and
suburbs, and where deep solitude and wild nature reign paramount. The
island of Singapore measures about fifty miles in circumference, we
believe; and yet a very small portion of it is under cultivation, owing,
in a great degree, to the high rents required for grants of land. The
great depreciation of the value of landed property is another palpably
injurious effect arising from the present system. We could point out
instances where landed property has been sacrificed, at a great loss to
the owners, merely for the sake of getting rid of the heavy burden of
the quit-rent with which the land is chargeable. One case to the point
will exhibit the matter in a still stronger light. We know of a lot of
twenty acres, mostly hill, well situated, contiguous to the town, and
under cultivation; there is likewise a substantial dwelling-house, in
a commanding situation, which, from its original cost, could not be
rented under forty dollars a month, at least: this sum, in twelve months,
amounts to four hundred and eighty dollars; but the quit-rent, if a
permanent lease be taken out, would be two hundred dollars a year, which
leaves two hundred and eighty dollars only to pay the interest of the
money originally spent on the property, exclusive of other charges. This
property is, however, to be disposed of, at a sum amounting to about
one-half of what the owner expended in building on it; yet, with such a
reduction, and although the ground is so eligibly situated, no purchasers
can be found, solely because the prospect of paying two hundred dollars a
year quit-rent, deters those who are willing to purchase, while it makes
the owner anxious to part with the property at a great sacrifice.

“We believe the local government is fully sensible of the impolicy and
ruinous consequences of the present rate of rents; and we understand
that the present governor, Mr. Ibbetson, even recommended a reduction,
substituting sicca rupees for dollars; but that the Court of Directors
would not hear of such a thing, and insisted on a strict observance of
all Mr. Fullerton’s regulations, and an adoption of his principles. We
need scarcely add, the land-regulations, now under review, were framed by
the latter gentleman.

“It seems to us, that this refusal to accede to a most reasonable
and wise measure, was dictated more by infatuation than by any other
visible cause. Probably the directors imagine this island contains an
_El Dorado_, somewhere in its unknown parts, from which they or their
successors in governing will derive, at some future time, incalculable
wealth, arising from hidden mines of gold or tin. We wish them success in
this prospect; but we can assure them, notwithstanding, they will find
hereafter that the best and most valuable treasure is to be obtained
by allowing the island to be freely cultivated, under a liberal system
of encouragement to those who are inclined to commence agricultural
pursuits. If such were adopted, population would soon increase _in
reality_, and with it, private wealth and public revenue; the latter
derived, both from an extended cultivation of land, held under very
moderate rents, and from an extension of the revenue-farms, which must
naturally rise in value with an increase of population.

“The daily and common articles of food, for which we are at present
indebted to the neighbouring states and islands, by becoming naturalized,
would be much cheaper than at present. To the shipping this would prove
a very great advantage, as, at some seasons, the charge for supplying
ships is enormous; at all times, indeed, it is much higher than at most
other ports in India. The plantations of cloves, nutmegs, pepper, coffee,
sugar, and rice, which could then be raised throughout the island with
advantage, would moreover render it a far greater acquisition to the
British government than it is at present.

“We have hitherto treated this important subject on grounds of justice
to the settlement itself, and advantage to the government. We shall now
argue by analogy. Our neighbours at Rhio, profiting by the unwise and
illiberal system adopted here with regard to lands, have rendered the
island of _Bintang_ (which we believe is double the size of Singapore) a
very valuable and fertile possession. We have been given to understand
that no less than sixty thousand peculs of pepper are annually raised on
that island; nearly the whole of which is under cultivation by Chinese.
Besides these productions, raw dammer, wood oil, bark, and timber, are
obtained. The gambir is mostly exported to Java, and the pepper to this
port. From these articles the Rhio government derive a moderate revenue
by means of farms.

“Here is an example set by a neighbouring settlement, generally
considered inferior to this, which is well worthy of imitation; and
if our worthy rulers would only forego their anti-colonization, and
anti-improvement notions, even before the present rapid strides of a
reforming age compel them to do so, they would do well to cause this
island to rival, or rather excel, _Bintang_ in its productions.”[69]




CHAPTER X.

    Excursion further inland—Dense forest—An extensive
    swamp—Parasitical plants—Fungi—The pitcher plant—Return to
    Singapore—The wild Pine-apple—Use of that plant—Manufactory
    of Pearl Sago—Visit to the Rajah of Johore—Interview
    with his Highness—Excursion to St. John’s Island—Pulo
    Panjang—Impenetrable jungle—New Harbour—Agar-agar.


After breakfast we continued our excursion much further inland, passing
through several extensive cleared spots, embellished by Gambir and Pepper
plantations; the residence of the proprietor, or a Gambir boiling-house,
appeared amidst a thicket of plantain, jack, and other trees. The grounds
near the residences of the planters were decorated by the crimson flowers
of the _Hibiscus rosa chinensis_,[70] the simple but delicate _Vinca
rosea_, or the perfumed jasmine distributed its agreeable fragrance
through the ambient air, all of which seemed favourites with the
expatriated Chinese. Around these cleared spots, a dense forest appeared
mingled with a profusion of rich vegetation, and a small, narrow pathway
would occasionally permit us to penetrate into its recesses. Trees and
shrubs, of infinite variety, gave a rich and beautiful appearance to
the wilderness, and enabled me to enrich my botanical collection with
numerous valuable specimens.

Occasionally, the noisy and mischievous monkeys would be seen gambolling
and springing from tree to tree, keeping up a continual chattering on
our approach; a gun fired at them produced great consternation among
this ludicrous, but active race; they bounded away (although none
had received injury) with great rapidity, screaming dreadfully, and
overwhelmed with horror and dismay, as if they had instinctive knowledge
of our destructive powers. One unfortunate monkey, the nearest to us,
and the one at whom the gun had been levelled, was so frightened, (and
certainly with good cause,) although he had not received any injury, that
in springing away to a tree, at some distance, he nearly missed it, and
hung for a few minutes by one arm, in an exposed and insecure situation,
upon a small twig, screaming most dreadfully. The branches crashed as the
monkey rapidly made his retreat, as his companions had just done before;
and his screams were heard for some time after he had buried himself in
the thick forest.

Upon many of the trees beautiful ferns of the genera _Achrosticum_,
_Pteris_, _Polypodium_, _Scolopendrium_, &c., abounded, mingled with
various curious and elegant parasitical plants; and upon the prostrate
trunks of the dead trees, which often lay across the forest, levelled by
the tempest or axe, differing varieties of fungi, glowing in red, golden,
or other colours, were mingled with lichens.

On our arrival at an extensive swamp, in which, however, the denseness
and beauty of the forest scenery had not in the slightest degree
diminished, the lofty trees and profuse tropical vegetation, afforded, by
their umbrageous coverings, a cool and agreeable shelter from the fervour
of a noon-day tropical sun, and rendered the excursion particularly
pleasant. The only passage over these swamps (which were occasioned by
numerous springs of very excellent fresh water) was by the trunks of
trees laid prostrate on a cleared but very narrow space, which would,
perhaps, be called a pathway, and extended for the distance of probably a
mile. Walking over these slippery, and often unsteady bridges, rendered
us often liable to some immersion of our lower extremities.

About these swamps, partially immersed in the crystal water, and
partially entwining to some height the slender trees in the vicinity,
a species of _Nepenthes_, or Pitcher plant, the Moniet, manko, or
Monkey-cup, of the Malays, (because they suppose those creatures to use
them as drinking cups,) abounded; a large cluster of small and colourless
cups surrounded the roots, as well as at certain parts of the stem. The
plant rose far above the stream, and entwined itself around the trees in
its vicinity, even to the height of twelve feet. The termination of the
leaves had the cup-like appendages of various sizes, filled with water,
in which several insects were immersed, the cups were ornamented over
their surface with striæ, and dots of a dark red colour; sometimes those
around the stems would be colourless, but varied occasionally, by being
greenish and small, and also covered like those at the extremity of the
leaf, with dark-red spots. I collected numerous specimens of this curious
and interesting plant.

The country had generally an undulating character, and our peregrinations
extended into dense forests, in which, among the larger productions of
the vegetable kingdom, small, delicate ferns were often abundantly seen,
enjoying the luxury of shade and moisture. Upon extensive cleared tracts,
covered by Gambir, Pepper, and other plantations, the neat habitations of
the planters, surrounded by fruit-trees and flowering shrubs, formed a
pleasing variety, from the grand and magnificent wildness of nature, to
the more cultivated improvements of art—beautiful in contrast.

Although the weather had been remarkably fine during the first part
of the day, we experienced a heavy shower of rain, which the Malays
accounted for by my having gathered and carried in my hand a large
quantity of the _Nepenthes_, or Pitcher plants, which, they said had
occasioned the rain to fall.[71]

There are said to be about two thousand Chinese inhabiting and
cultivating the soil in the interior of the island. They have
neatly-constructed, although not well-furnished habitations. They offered
us tea, (and it was poured out in the usual Lilliputian cups,) fruits,
rice cakes, and more substantial articles of diet; indeed they always
appeared ready to give us the best they had. After taking a rustic
dinner, we returned to the sampan by the same route we came. On the road
we observed a Malay lad collecting some plants, as he informed us, for
medicine: those I examined consisted merely of several grasses. He said
it was for a patient suffering under small-pox. The plants were to be
boiled, mixed with rice, and employed as an external application to the
body.

We rejoined our sampan at the Singapore creek, and arrived at the town
early in the evening.

Early one morning I visited a plantation of a Chinese, (in company with
Mr. Lorrain and the Rev. Mr. Darrah,) situated in the vicinity of the
settlement, for the purpose of witnessing the preparation of the fibres
from the leaves of the Ananas, or wild pine apple, which fibres, after
being prepared by a very simple process, are exported to China, and used
in the manufacture of linens, &c. The Chinese, who prepared the leaves
before us, said, he got one rupee and a half the catty for the fibre; it
was in texture, when manufactured, very similar to the New Zealand flax,
of a fine quality, and there is also some similarity in the manner in
which it is wrought. The leaves recently gathered (and the longest and
oldest are those which appear to be selected for the purpose) are laid
upon a board, and the epidermis is removed by a broad knife, not unlike
in form to a shoemaker’s paring knife; upon its removal from the upper
surface of the leaf, the long and beautiful fibres were seen lying upon
the lower and denser epidermis, running in a longitudinal direction; the
fasciculi of fibres were then readily detached either by the hand or by
being raised with the broad knife.

Some quantity of this material is annually exported to China, and at
Manilla a very delicate and beautiful fabric is made from the fibres
of this plant. The aloes likewise yield a fine fibre applicable for
various manufactures.[72] I am surprised that the New Zealand flax,
the fibres from the foliage of the pine-apple plant, and others, are
not used in our manufacturing kingdom, where, there is no doubt, they
would form a valuable addition to our raw materials for use in various
novel manufactures, either by themselves or in conjunction with other
materials. The first appearance of the pine-apple fibre would not cause
one to suppose it to be so remarkably fine as it really is; but, by
taking one coarse fibre, it is found to be capable of being subdivided
into threads of such delicacy as to be barely perceptible, and yet
sufficiently strong for any purposes.[73] This plantation abounded in
pepper plantations, as well as a great number of various kinds of fruit
trees.

Singapore is the principal, if not the only place in the East, where the
refining or manufacturing of the pearl sago is carried on; the process
is said to be a recent one, and the invention of the Chinese. According
to Crawford, it was first practised in Malacca about twenty years ago,
and was only introduced into Singapore in 1824. I availed myself of the
establishment of many of the manufactories of this article, in and about
the settlement, to visit one,[74] in which I found a number of Chinese,
all of whom were busily occupied in different stages of the operation.
The sago, or sagu, is imported in large quantities into Singapore from
Sumatra in native boats, who bring it at all seasons of the year; and a
few days since eighteen proas of different sizes arrived in the creek,
laden with this article alone in its raw state. The tree from which the
raw material is produced is named _Rumbiya_ by the Malays, and has been
too often described to render an account necessary here.[75]

The raw sago is imported in cone-shaped packages, each probably weighing
about twenty pounds; the mass is of rather soft consistence, and of a
dirty white colour, occasioned by being mingled with several impurities,
and the whole is enveloped in the leaves of the _Pandanus_ tree.[76] It
first undergoes several different washings in large wooden tubs, being
also strained, after washing, through cloth-strainers. When the raw
material has undergone sufficient ablutions, the masses which remain at
the bottoms of the vessels are collected, broken into pieces, and placed
upon platforms in the sun to dry; being broken into still smaller pieces
as the drying proceeds.

As soon as the pieces are sufficiently, although still not always
thoroughly, dry, they are pounded and sifted upon long benches, through
sieves made of the midrib of the leaves of the cocoa-nut palm, and
placed at certain distances in a longitudinal direction, so as to
cause the pulverised or rather broken masses of sago to pass through
it only of the required size. Having been passed through the sieve,
a certain quantity at each time is taken, placed into a large cloth,
tied to cross sticks, in the form of a bag, hanging by a cord from the
roof of the building; a Chinese is then employed in shaking the bag
backwards and forwards, by aid of one of the longest crossed sticks to
which it is attached, occasionally shaking up the sago powder; this is
continued constantly for about the space of ten minutes, when it is
turned out granulated. It is then placed in small wooden hand tubs,
looking beautifully and delicately white, but still so soft as to break
instantly, with the slightest pressure, under the fingers, and carried
to several Chinese, whose occupation is to make it undergo the drying
process in large iron pans over a fire. They are constantly stirring it
about when in the iron pan with a wooden instrument; it is then resifted
at another bench and rebaked, after which it is considered prepared. It
is then of a fine pure white colour, and being spread thinly over a long
and large bin, in the course of time it becomes both harder and of a
darker colour.

At this establishment there appeared to be about fifteen or sixteen
Chinese employed, and they said six or seven peculs could be manufactured
in one day. The pearl, or refined sago, is exported in large quantities
to Europe, our Indian empire, the Cape, &c. in wooden boxes, each
containing rather more than a pecul; ten boxes containing nearly fifteen
peculs. It is sold at two and a half to three dollars the pecul, which
includes the expense of boxes. A piggery is attached to this sago
establishment, the inhabitants of which must fare very well upon the
refuse of the sago washings.

One evening, accompanied by several gentlemen resident in the settlement,
I went to pay a visit to the rajah of Johore. During a former visit to
this settlement, in 1830, I had an interview with this exalted personage,
of whom at that time I penned the following description:—“Being near the
village of Kampong Glam, I observed a poor-looking bungalow, surrounded
by high walls, exhibiting effects of age and climate. Over the large
gateway which opened into the inclosure surrounding this dwelling were
watch-towers. On inquiry, I found this was the residence of the rajah of
Johore, who formerly included Singapore in his dominions. The island was
purchased of him by the British government, who now allow him an annual
pension. He is considered to have been formerly a leader of pirates; and
when we saw a brig he was building, it naturally occurred to our minds
whether he was about to resort to his old practices. We proposed visiting
this personage; and, on arriving at the gateway, were met by a peon,
who, after delivering our message to the rajah, requested us to wait a
few minutes, until his _Highness_ was ready. We did not wait long, for
the rajah soon appeared, and took his seat, in lieu of a throne, upon
the highest step of those which led to his dwelling. His appearance was
remarkable: he appeared a man of about forty years of age—teeth perfect,
but quite black, from the custom of chewing the betel constantly.
His head was large; and his shaven cranium afforded an interesting
phrenological treat. He was deformed; not more than five feet in height,
of large body, and short, thick, and deformed legs, scarcely able to
support the ponderous trunk. His neck was thick and short, and his head
habitually stooped; his face bloated, with the lower lip projecting, and
large eyes protruding, one of them having a cataractal appearance. He was
dressed in a short pair of cotton drawers, a sarong of cotton cloth came
across the shoulders in the form of a scarf, and tarnished, embroidered
slippers, and handkerchief around the head, (having the upper part
exposed,) after the Malay fashion, completed the attire of this singular
creature.

“As much grace and dignity was displayed in our reception as such a
figure could show, and chairs were placed by the attendants for our
accommodation. He waddled a short distance, and, notwithstanding the
exertion was so extraordinary as to cause large drops of perspiration
to roll down his face, conferred a great honour upon us by personally
accompanying us to see a tank he had just formed for fish, and with a
flight of steps, for the convenience of bathing. After viewing this, he
returned to his former station, when he reseated himself, with a dignity
of look and manner surpassing all description; and we took our departure,
after a brief common-place conversation.

“I remarked, that, on his approach, the natives squatted down, as a
mark of respect: a custom similar to which prevails in several of the
Polynesian islands.”

The buildings of his highness and followers were now in some degree
improved, being surrounded by a neat chunamed wall, and the entrance was
by a gateway of brick, which had been only recently completed. Since
my last visit his highness had caused a house to be constructed after
the style of the European residents at Singapore, and it was situated
exterior to the old boundary of his domain. We were ushered into the new
house, the rooms of which were furnished after the English style, with
wall-lamps, bookcase, (minus books,) tables, chairs, &c.; ascending to
the upper room, chairs were placed for our accommodation, and the punka
was caused to be moved to cool our frames. When we were all seated, a
yellow painted armed-chair was placed at the head of the room, as a regal
seat for his highness; his prime minister came to us, and, as we thought,
seemed puzzled for what so large a party of Europeans could require an
audience.

At last a messenger entered the room, and, squatting down near the
minister, whispered something to him, which it seemed was a desire that
we should adjourn from this to the old thatched residence of the Tuan
rajah. We adjourned, therefore; and, on arriving at the old residence,
the rajah, one of the greatest curiosities of the human race perhaps
ever seen, waddled, bending with infirmities, and seated his carcase in
the aforesaid yellow chair, which had been brought from the other house,
and placed in a suitable situation; and there, with his corpulent body
completely jammed between the arms of the chair, received us in a most
gracious and condescending manner, if such a figure really could look
gracious or condescending.

The creature was tame, and both mentally and physically more debilitated
than when I last saw him, in 1830: he appeared not even to possess the
intelligence of an orang-utan; he was attired in a dirty sarong around
his waist, and a loose baju, or jacket, exposing the corpulency of his
_delicate_ form. A Moorman’s cap ornamented a small portion of his
cranium; his look was listless, and without any expression: he appeared
every moment to be in danger of an attack of apoplexy. The gentlemen who
spoke the Malay language, on addressing him, received a grunt, or his
language was so unintelligible that his minister was obliged to repeat
the answers. All the attendants sat down upon their haunches in his
presence, out of respect.

On asking him his age, he replied (or rather his minister for him) by
demanding how old we thought he was; we certainly thought he had not
yet attained the age of reason. We were afterwards told his age was
not exactly known, but it was supposed the creature was fifty. As but
little could be made out of this pitiable object of humanity, we released
him from what certainly must have been to him a misery, by taking our
leave. On viewing the edifices in his enclosure, previous to departing,
we found the creature amused himself with building. Besides the new
residence and wall, he was erecting a residence and wall for himself,
neat and extensive in construction, and in something of a Chinese style
of architecture. This building was certainly wanting, for the old
thatched palace near it seemed ready to fall about his ears.

Society at Singapore is extremely agreeable to a visitor—for only as
one can I judge of it. Whether in intercourse among themselves they
are divided into the mechanical and aristocratical party, I cannot
say, having only heard a whisper to that effect. I have found, during
two visits to the little settlement, unbounded hospitality, and every
attention to my scientific inquiries, of course some taking more interest
in my researches than others.

At daylight one morning I set off, accompanied by the Rev. Mr. Darrah,
in a large sailing-boat, belonging to my friend Mr. Boustead, on an
excursion to visit St. John’s Island, or Pulo Sijang of the Malays, New
Harbour, &c.; we had but little wind, but contrived, with a numerous
Malay crew, to pull out soon to the first island, and landed on a fine
sandy beach. The only inhabitant was an old Malay, whose small thatched
habitation was surrounded by cocoa-nut, orange, guava, plantain, and
other tropical fruit-trees; and the beach was strewed with the plants and
bell-shaped purplish flowers of the _Ipomœa soladenella_, or sea-side
convolvulus, which grew in very great profusion.

The _Morinda citrifolia_ was here abundant, as also among the islands
forming the eastern Archipelago, where it is used as props for the
pepper-vines, or planted as a shade for the coffee-plants, and is named
by the natives Mangkudu.[77] The roots of this species are only mentioned
as being used as a dyeing material in the eastern Archipelago. The
Morinda is indigenous also to the Philippine Islands, where it is named
in the Tagalo Tambungaso. The natives of these islands, when a limb
is fractured, use the leaves of this shrub, anointed with oil, to lay
over the surface of the fractured limb; and it is considered by them of
benefit in allaying the inflammatory action.

This shrub attains the height of ten or twelve feet. At Tahiti, and most
of the Polynesian Islands, where it is also found indigenous, the inner
bark of the root is used for dyeing the native cloth of a fine yellow
colour: this is done by infusing the bark in water, into which the cloth
intended to be dyed is afterwards placed, and being suffered to remain
for some hours, is taken out and dried in the sun. At Tahiti the shrub
is called Nono, or Aari; at the Sandwich Islands it is called Noni. The
fruit is eaten at some of the Polynesian Islands in seasons of scarcity.

The island, which is elevated, was profusely covered with various
kinds of fruit-trees, growing in wild luxuriance, mingled with several
pretty flowering shrubs and plants, but spreading about in almost every
direction. The pine-apple plants, at this time in fruit, at different
stages of advancement towards maturity, and some decked with their
delicate blue flowers, were seen sometimes mixed with rich vegetation,
and at others kept cleared.

On the summit of the island, the old signal post, formed from the trunk
of a tree, remained, but the signal station had been removed to a more
elevated and convenient site upon the hill, called Blackan Mattee. The
view from the summit of this elevated island, was both extensive and
beautiful; the small islands near us were either covered by a wilderness
of wood, or else the jungle was cleared away. The pine-apple plants,
which grew in natural profusion, formed extensive plantations, and many
of the poorer class of Malays obtained a decent livelihood by taking them
in sampan loads, when ripe, for sale to Singapore. The distant verdant
islands also added to the beauty of the landscape, and small boats,
gliding with a gentle zephyr over the glassy surface of the water, or a
thatched habitation, nearly buried in a dense tropical vegetation, gave
an additional charm to the scene.

Having collected a few fine ripe pines, we resumed our little voyage
to Pulo Panjong, or Long Island, on which the elevated mount, called
Blackan Mattee is situated; we refreshed ourselves with some pines, but
our Malays, I observed, did not eat the pines until they had dipped them
previously in salt-water, by which they considered the fruit was rendered
more wholesome. I did not relish following their example, nor did I feel
any ill-effects, from what many have called my imprudence. The pines we
gathered contained a quantity of small brown flat seeds.

We landed on Pulo Panjong, among some neat Malay houses, near a sandy
beach. The thatched houses, towering cocoa-palms, plantain trees, with
rude plantations of sugar-canes, yams, &c., reminded me of many of the
islands forming the Polynesian Archipelago; and the appearance of the
half-naked Malays did not tend in any degree to dissipate the reality
of the comparison, but rather tended to confirm it. A kind of millet,
called Sukue, (_Pennisetum italicum_, Brown,) was also cultivated in
small patches by the Malays, and several magnificent trees of the _Bombax
pentandrium_, or silk cotton-tree, rose in towering beauty, mingled with
the cocoa-palm above, the dwellings. Only a very small portion of this
island was cleared, the remainder forming an almost impenetrable jungle,
a refuge only for monkeys and wild hogs. We found it very difficult to
penetrate the luxuriant and entangled branches of the pine-apple plant,
as we walked from one part of the island to another to join the boat, at
a very short distance.

Having rejoined our boat, we passed through the beautifully picturesque
strait, commonly named the New Harbour, one side of which is formed by
Pulo Panjong, or Long Island. The land about this harbour possesses
many sites eminently calculated for beautiful European residences, and
plantations, where one could gaze with delight, in peaceful retirement,
upon the tranquil scenes of nature, enjoying the refreshing sea breezes,
and be, at the same time, only a short distance from the bustle of a
commercial town. This place would not be advisable as a resort for
shipping, the present roadstead being by far preferable, as a ship would
be delayed entering this harbour or strait, by waiting for a fair wind,
and her departure also retarded by a similar cause. We entering on one
side, and taking our departure from the other, passed entirely through,
having an excellent view of the picturesque scenery of this lovely and
pleasing spot. We did not, from the extended length of our excursion,
return to Singapore until about noon.

There is a plant very abundant about some parts of Singapore, the _Cassia
alata_, which may be seen in profusion by the road-side, often glowing
with golden flowers; it is called G’ling gang, or Pako, g’ling, glang,
(Pako signifying a tree,) by the Malays, who state that they use it in
several diseases of the skin by rubbing the leaves of the plant upon the
diseased surface. Mr. Oxley (civil-surgeon at this settlement,) informs
me that he has used it with excellent effect in that troublesome herpetic
disease called “ring-worm;” and his method of application is by bruising
the leaves, mixing them with salt and lime-juice, and then using them as
an external application.[78]

A kind of white sea-weed, called _Agar, agar_, is found on the reefs
about Singapore, but the best is procured from Malacca, where it is
obtained in great abundance about the “Water islands,” in the vicinity of
that settlement; and after being collected it is picked and washed. It
is also brought to Singapore from Billiton, Bouton, &c.; the weed from
the former place sells at three dollars and a-half the pecul, and from
the latter at three dollars the pecul. This article is exported in large
quantities to China, where it is used for various purposes—as stiffening
linen, size for paper, &c. At Malacca and Singapore the finer kind makes
a beautiful transparent jelly, which is of course perfectly tasteless,
unless mixed with rose-water, sugar, and lime-juice, which render it an
excellent preserve, as well as an ornament for the dinner-table. There
is some trouble in refining it, as it requires frequent boilings before
it attains the requisite transparency.

At Singapore I observed some filaments from a plant, which was described
as growing abundantly at Malacca. These filaments display much
irritability on the application of warmth, and will twist and turn about
for a long period afterwards. They are named _Naga-pusing_ by the Malays,
which signifies “to turn or twist round.” Each filament is covered with a
very minute pubescence. They appear to be the awns probably of a species
of Anthistiria. They are used by the natives, in form of decoction, as an
external remedy in eruptive diseases.

On the 24th of November, (Sunday,) three shocks of an earthquake were
experienced at the island of Singapore; the first shock lasted three
minutes, and occasioned the lamps to swing, chairs to rock, &c.,
commencing at twenty minutes after eight, P.M. A slight shock was again
experienced at three A.M.; and another very slight shock at five A.M. of
the following morning.

An earthquake, it seems, was felt in India, at Ghazeepore, an account of
which I copy from the Bengal Hurkaru, of November 6th, 1833, extracted
from the Calcutta Courier:—

“_Ghazeepore, August 27th, 1833._—On the evening of the 26th of August,
two distinct shocks of an earthquake were sensibly felt here; the first
at eleven o’clock, the second at half-past eleven. The former lasted
about a minute, the latter about two minutes, and was so serious that
the furniture in the houses began to rock, and the doors to shake, as if
done by some strong man attempting to force them. The thermometer had
risen a good deal through the day, which was closer and more sultry than
usual. The natives say there has been nothing of the kind since 1820. It
is worth remarking that, in that year, an epidemic raged among the stud
horses, and carried off a great many. This year (June 1833) the dreadful
disease again broke out among them, and carried off about fifty noble
steeds. The obituary also for Europeans fills a much larger space than
usual, particularly as regards the children; and of cholera cases not a
few.”

In another paragraph in the same paper, is another extract. “A letter
from Monghyr reports that, on the 26th ult. a smart shock of an
earthquake was felt a little before nine o’clock; and that in the night
of the following day a large flight of locusts passed over the station:
the direction whence they came is not mentioned. We understand that a
flight of locusts was seen at Jubalpore about a fortnight before.”




CHAPTER XI.

    Sail for England—Crowned Pigeons—Straits of Dryan—Banca
    Straits—Zutphen Islands—Escape and re-capture of a crowned
    pigeon—Death of one of those birds—Dissection—Pass the
    Cape of Good Hope—Fine weather—The trumpet weed—Volcanic
    rocks—St. Helena—Buttermilk Point—James’s Town—Ficus
    Religiosa—Over-population of James’s Town—Visit to the late
    residence of Napoleon.


On the 15th of December, I sailed from Singapore for England, having
on board three of those magnificent birds, the Crowned or Dampier’s
pigeons, the _Columba coronata_ of Linnæus, which I took under my care
for my friend, T. Rawson, Esq., of Dulwich. The bird is nearly as large
as a turkey; the body is of a leaden hue; scapulars ferruginous, with a
white band on each wing: the head is adorned with a crest of delicate
and beautiful feathers, expanded in a crescentic form, which, although
always erect, the bird has the power of still further elevating and
bringing down to the base of the bill: the irides are bright red; feet
and legs speckled with black.

These birds inhabit the Eastern Archipelago, and the present specimens
had been brought from the island of Ternate. I saw at Batavia two living
specimens, which had been just brought in a vessel from Amboyna; but they
were regarded as a very delicate bird, and difficult to keep alive; yet I
observed, in a newspaper, (April 15th, 1832,) that a pair of these birds
had been landed in England from the _Kingsdown_: they had been brought
from New Guinea. “It was the mournful notes of this bird,” as therein
stated, “that greatly alarmed the crew of the _Bougainville_, on landing
at some of the Molucca Islands, which they took to be the cries of
distress of the human species.” It was further stated, that they had been
presented to the _Surrey Zoological Gardens_, by Captain Underwood.

“At Tomoguy,” says Captain Forrest, “I bought three of the large crowned
pigeons, very well represented by Dampier. The Molucca people call them
_Múlutu_, and the Papuas _Manipi_. My pigeons grew tame, and eat Indian
corn called _Jaggon_. They strike hard with their wings, on which is a
kind of horn. One of the three escaped at Dory Harbour; (New Guinea;)
the other two I carried to Mindanao, where they died.”[79]

We passed through the Straits of Dryan, with a fine breeze from the
north-east. On the morning of the 20th, we spoke the Honourable Company’s
ship, Marquis of Huntley, about the entrance of the Banca Straits, from
China, bound to the Cape, and England. We passed the Banca Straits, and
Lucepara Shoals, and entered the Java Sea on the 22nd, having experienced
much rain during our passage from Singapore.

On the 26th, we passed the beautifully picturesque and umbrageous
_Zutphen Islands_; the adjacent coast of Sumatra had also a rich wooded
appearance: the grand and majestic peaked mountain of Rajah Bassa rose
from the forest land, towering to the clouds, and clothed in verdure,
but was sometimes concealed by the fleecy mists which passed over it,
as well as over the lower land, discharging themselves in occasional
light and refreshing showers. The moisture of the atmosphere occasioned
a delightful fragrance to visit us from the shore. The island of
_Thwart-the-way_ was passed about eight A.M.; and in the afternoon we
were becalmed off the lofty-peaked _Crokatoa Island_, which was densely
wooded from the base to the summit; and, from the very close view we had,
displayed a rich and beautiful appearance.

On the 30th of December, we had the commencement of the south-east trade,
being then in lat. 8° 49′ south, and long. 101° 20′ east. On the 31st of
December, I nearly lost one of the _Crowned pigeons_, from some of the
bamboos of the cage in which they were confined having been broken. This
accident was not perceived at the time it occurred: it was even fortunate
that the bird was seen to escape, and the cause discovered, previously
to the whole of them coming out. The bird, now at liberty, got upon
one of the quarter-boats; and from the motion of the ship throwing it
occasionally nearly off its balance, I was fearful every moment of seeing
it meet with a watery grave. As it stood upon the edge of the boat,
surveying the expansive ocean before it, the bird seemed, as the vessel
gave an occasional lurch, to be in danger of falling into the waves; or
by mistaking the _field of sea_ for a large plain, might have plunged
itself, unconsciously, into destruction: fortunately, however, the second
officer of the ship succeeded in capturing and returning it to the cage
it had forsaken. As the bird stood upon the boat, it had a very graceful
and elegant appearance, gazing upon the wide view before it, with its
beautiful bright-red eyes, and delicate crest; uttering at the same time,
whilst gently bending its head, the usual humming, mournful sounds, which
resembled those of a person suffering bodily torture.

The birds have a very healthy appearance, and feed well upon paddy; and
on some maize being given to them some time afterwards, they refused it,
preferring the former grain. After this accident occurring to their cage,
to prevent a recurrence, they were removed into an empty and spacious
turkey-coop, which, from its construction, shelter them very well from
the weather.

On the 15th of January, I had the misfortune to lose one of the birds:
they had all the semblance of being in excellent health on the evening
previously; but when the decks were washing, one was seen to run about
the cage two or three times, and then fell dead. This bird, I had
observed when it first came on board, had a film over one of the eyes,
(which diseased eye has been preserved in spirits,) but it did not appear
at all to affect its general health.[80]

From the very sudden death of the bird, I felt some degree of interest,
in examining the body, to ascertain the cause of so sudden a mortality;
fearing that the other birds might be affected in a similar manner, and
thus all my hopes of taking them to England in a living state would be
frustrated.

On taking the dead bird from the cage, a quantity of gruelly liquid was
discharged gradually from the bill: there were no external appearances
to account for the death of the creature: the plumage was rubbed in some
places; the wing and tail feathers were broken, but not more than may
be expected from birds in a state of confinement, although they had an
abundance of space in their coop to roam about.

On examining the interior of the bird, the appearances of disease that
presented themselves were sufficiently clear to account for its death:
the skin, considering the size of the body, was very thin; but this I
believe to be invariably the case in the pigeon tribe: the bird was
very muscular; but the pectoral more particularly, as well as also the
other muscles, were extremely pallid, and could be readily torn asunder,
having a closer resemblance to the muscles of a fish than to those of the
feathered tribe. On examining the crop, I observed that it was, both in
its external as well as its internal appearance, very vascular: it was
nearly empty of food, having only a few grains of paddy mingled with some
quantity of mucus; some scattered grains of paddy were also seen in the
mouth and gullet, so it appears the bird had died whilst in the act of
feeding. There was much yellowish fat about the crop, as well as other
portions of the body.

Between the skull and the integuments, there was much secretion of a
serous fluid; but I could observe no muscular apparatus for raising or
depressing the crest. But underneath the crest, between the skull and the
integuments, was much fat; a thickening, as if of cellular membrane; and
glands secreting the elegant and delicate feathers forming the crest.

The eyes and corresponding orbits were very large; indeed, I may say
remarkably so, considering the size of the skull, the posterior portion
of which was very thick, and the brain of a small size, in proportion to
what would have been expected from the external appearance of the cranium.

The lungs were soft and readily broken, as well as the liver, although
neither of them had an unhealthy colour in their external appearance.
Upon the under surface of the latter organ, there was a small and nearly
oval body, in some degree resembling a clotted piece of blood.

On tracing down the alimentary canal, no disease or obstruction could be
met with, until, on arriving at the second stomach or gizzard, I found
it distended to the utmost with food, and for rather more than an inch
above the cardiac orifice, the alimentary canal was also distended, as
if some cause prevented the natural passage of the food; the intestines
below the gizzard (except at a very short distance from the pyloric
orifice, which was also distended with food) were empty. Here, then, I
was led to expect some explanation of the cause of obstruction, which had
no doubt occasioned the death of the bird. I laid open, with my scalpel,
the slightly-distended intestine just below or about the pyloric orifice.
The cause of the obstruction was made evident, by the appearance of a
_polypus_, which came out, being situated just below the part which was
distended, evidently forming the cause of obstruction to the passage of
the digested food. This _polypus_ measured, in length, two inches and
six-eighths; and in its greatest breadth, three-eighths of an inch. It
was rounded at one end; tapering almost to a point at the other. Part was
of a bright vermillion, and the remainder of a dirty or yellowish white.

Upon a further examination of the interior of this portion of the
intestine, there was a thickening of the villous coat, with much
secretion of mucus, and also of coagulable lymph. The whole of
the remainder of the alimentary canal had its external coats very
vascular.[81]

The specimen was a female, and, from the similarity of plumage, the
others must also be females. The plumage accords with the description
given in our works of natural history of this bird. Some bird-fanciers
observe, that they can distinguish _male_ from _female_ birds by the
sub-scapular feathers near the base; the male birds having always an
odd number—as five, seven, nine, eleven; and the females always an
even number—as six, eight, twelve, &c., according to the species. But,
examining, on a subsequent occasion, a male specimen of this bird, I
found no difference of plumage, so as to form a sexual distinction.

The two other birds are perfectly healthy in appearance; but as the dead
one was so in its external appearance, it is difficult to judge of their
health, if suffering from an obstruction similar to that just described.

We lost the south-east trade in south latitude 29°, and east longitude
39° 40′ east.

On the 4th of February, in the afternoon, the high land about Cape
Delgado was seen, bearing north-north-east by compass about forty miles
distant. We sounded on the bank in seventy-three fathoms, with a bottom
of sand and broken shells: the latitude, at noon, being 34° 57′ south,
and longitude 22° 42′ east. On the 6th, at six P.M., Cape L’Agulhas was
seen bearing north-north-west by compass, distant about ten miles; and
at noon, of the 7th, the Cape of Good Hope was seen, bearing north-east,
about forty miles distant. We passed the Cape, with a fine south-east
wind, having experienced remarkably fine weather during the whole of this
portion of our homeward voyage.

We had a continuation of fine weather and strong south-east winds, which
led us to hope that it would carry us at once into the trade-wind, and,
by that means, expedite the passage; but in this we were disappointed:
for although it carried us until the 14th, on that day in latitude 24°
56′ south, and longitude 4° 00′ east, we had light and variable winds
and calms; wind varying from south-east to north-west, very light. This
continued until the evening of the 18th, when, in latitude 21° 57′ south,
and longitude 1° 5′ east, we had a fresh trade-breeze.

About nine A.M., when in latitude 23° 45′ south, and longitude 2° 50′
east, on the 16th of February, having fine weather and calms, and light
airs from south-west, a large piece of the _Laminaria buccinalis_, or
trumpet-weed of the Cape, measuring, probably, twelve or fourteen feet
in length, floated by the ship. It is one of that species of the marine
flora, which may justly be considered as giants. This specimen appeared,
covered with various kinds of crustacea, which made me regret I could not
procure it. The long, tuberous stalk was nearly stripped (I suppose by
the action of the waves) of its long, flat, and expansive fronds. This
is in favour of the current, which is stated to set to the north-west,
between the Cape and St. Helena. We, however, have not experienced any
since the first day we left the Cape, when we had on that day sixteen
miles of current during the twenty-four hours.

On the following day, (17th,) another piece of the same kind of weed
was seen at a short distance from the ship; and this was the last we
discerned, having seen two specimens, one in the morning, the other in
the afternoon of the previous day. On the 17th, we were in latitude 22°
58′ south, and longitude 1° 56′ east. We saw no more of the weed after
this day.

From the 18th we experienced a very light trade wind, so that we did
not make the island of St. Helena until the 23d at noon, when it was
seen bearing north-west-by-west by compass, and distant about thirty
miles. We drifted a short distance to leeward during the night; we
however soon beat up, passed high, rugged, volcanic rocks, towering and
gloomy, descending in abrupt precipices to the water’s edge; and passed
_Buttermilk Point_, about which every ledge either was fortified by small
batteries, or by a solitary gun, on the sides of mountains of a towering
height. After opening this point, the anchorage and town appears to the
view; and by 8 A.M. we had anchored off James’s Town (February 24.)

The first approach to this island is far from being attractive to the
visitor, consisting of lofty, sterile precipices, without a speck of
verdure to relieve the eye. The summits of the highest around the
island are occupied by signal stations, and are almost in constant
requisition, from the number of vessels continually arriving at this
“Rock.” Small batteries, mounting several guns, occupy every ledge of
rock where defence seems to be required; and in some places a solitary
gun is perched; so that the island is rendered perfectly impregnable
both by nature and art. On advancing toward the anchorage, the barren
cliffs, which before alone met the eye, are both varied and contrasted
by mountains covered with verdure, rising from the inland part of the
island, about which a few white houses are also seen scattered.

The castellated building, called High Knowle, has a pretty and
picturesque effect, perched on the summit of a very high eminence,
and reminding one of the castles in similar situations seen on the
picturesque banks of the Rhine.

James’s Town is a small, neat town, built in a vale, or glen, which
gradually recedes as it proceeds inland; and the town is confined on each
side by volcanic cliffs of a great elevation, and of the most barren
aspect. The neat church is readily distinguished by its tower; and the
green foliage of vegetation in the gardens adjoining the houses charms
the eye by the agreeable contrast.

We landed, without inconvenience, at the steps near the watering-place,
on the left of the anchorage; but it often happens that the surf and
eddy renders a landing extremely inconvenient, and even dangerous. A
broad causeway led to James’s battery, heavily mounted with cannon, and
situated in front of the town. Here I observed a grove of trees, the
_Ficus religiosa_, whose presence afforded an agreeable shade: it is a
tree usually seen planted in India about the Hindoo temples, and held
in veneration by the natives. Passing through a gate, we entered the
esplanade, in which the government-house and garden and the church are
situated. The principal streets and shops of the town, and some very neat
houses in the English style, attract the attention of the visitor.

The extent of the town (from being built in a narrow, receding valley)
cannot be seen until the ascent of the Longwood road is gained, when it
gradually opens,—and the barracks, hospital, and houses, surrounded by
neat gardens, in the villa style of architecture, have a very pleasing
effect, more particularly by contrast, as the towering, rugged rocks, on
each side, are destitute of any verdure.

Although buildings, language, manners, customs, &c., are all English, yet
the number of black and tawny people gives a foreign appearance to the
place; nor was our surprise lessened, by walking in the evening about the
town, to observe the incredible number of children, of all the variety of
tints between white and black, playing about. It would excite Malthus,
after viewing the comparative sterility of the island, and seeing its
incapability of providing for a surplus population, to rail against such
an astonishing increase of the human race.

Over-population is not the only complaint in the town. The streets are
not so well paved, and the rugged stones impede the pleasure which the
stranger would derive from a walk, after he had been for some time
confined in the limited space afforded by a ship. Of fruit, some large
pears, peaches, grapes, and figs, were abundant, and could be purchased
at very reasonable prices. Excellent vegetables, consisting of carrots,
turnips, French-beans, cabbage, water-cresses, and cucumbers, were to
be readily procured, forming refreshment to visitors after a protracted
voyage, and excellent stock for shipping.

The great object of attraction, however, to the visitor, and the
interest, both on the first appearance, and on landing, is naturally
directed towards _him_ who was an exile on this barren rock—the hero of a

                “——thousand thrones,
    Who strew’d our earth with hostile bones.”

Formerly the ruler of kings, he died and reposes in the place of his
exile, affording a lesson to posterity of the uncertainty which hangs
over human affairs;

                  “——it will teach
      To after warriors more
    Than high philosophy can preach,
      And vainly preached before.”

The whole island may be viewed as the gigantic mausoleum of him, whose
ambition raised him from a humble station to a palace, and, at last
consigned him to a miserable rock, laved by the boisterous waves of the
Atlantic, and which now contains all that remains of his former splendour
and greatness.

    “The desolator desolate!
      The victor overthrown!
    The arbiter of others’ fate
      A suppliant for his own.”

The number of French vessels that arrive every year at this island,
almost solely for the purpose of visiting and weeping over the grave of
him who formerly ruled France, and at one time almost held the destiny
of the world in his grasp, is considerable. At this period of our
visit, several French vessels, consisting of a brig of war, and others,
were lying in the anchorage; and on the road to Longwood, parties of
the crews of the several vessels were seen, and vehicles and horses
of all descriptions were in requisition to convey the male, female,
and infantile arrivals of that nation, to visit the reposing place of
all that is mortal of “Le Grand Napoléon,” and to see the residence,
or rather the prison, of the late emperor. To view this place, in its
present degraded state, used as stables and barns, ought to cause an
Englishman to blush at the want both of the finer feelings and generosity
of his nation towards the departed greatness of the ex-emperor, whose
terror terminated with his death. And who would not feel for the visitors
of a nation who idolize his memory, when they view a spot, so sacred to
them, so degraded by us? What their sentiments are at the time, none but
those who feel like them can imagine.

I cannot refrain from quoting an American author, who makes the following
observation when on a visit to St. Helena. “Who has not admired the
power of genius that raised him to his glory? Who did not feel some
sympathy, at least, in the depth of his fall? Who did not commiserate
him in the distance and desolateness of his exile? And who, with the
vivid impressions of the wretchedness and discomfort of his captivity,
forced upon them by the scene in the midst of which we now were, would
not be disposed to believe every charge of unkindness and oppression
that has been preferred against his keepers? However different the state
of the establishment might have been when inhabited by Napoleon, all the
associations of a visitor, with his situation during the time, take their
colour from what is seen; and the rooms should have been preserved in the
condition in which they were left, or the whole should have been razed to
the ground.”




CHAPTER XII.

    Tomb of Napoleon—The willows—Contrasted feelings of the French
    and English visitors to Buonaparte’s grave—Fish—Sail from St.
    Helena—Island of Ascension—Frigate birds—Shark sucking a Pilot
    Fish—The Sargasso weed—Condition of the Crowned pigeons—A
    swallow captured during migration—Temperature—Arrival at
    Gravesend.


The day of our arrival we visited the place of repose of the mortal
remains of Napoleon. The rising road towards Longwood was cut on the
surface of a lofty, barren hill, gradually ascending as we advanced,
which afforded a sterile view, varied by a few scattered shrubs of
Cactus, Furze-bushes, and Frocoides, bestowing some animation by their
blossoms to the arid soil, which barely seemed capable of affording them
nourishment. The varying view of the town and shipping on the ascent,
formed a picturesque scene, and gave some interest to the monotonous
character of the country. On advancing, the distant view of a cascade,
which falls into a small stream over a fresh-looking green sward, and
which supplies the shipping with that necessary article of life, is a
pleasing sight, the water being conveyed to the landing-place at the town
by means of iron pipes.

The Briars is passed on the right, but much altered in appearance since
it was honoured by being the temporary residence of the Corsican. There
are some plantations of mulberry-trees at this place, for the purpose of
introducing the cultivation of silk on the island; but which, I should
suppose, will never succeed to any extent.

Before reaching the grave, the eye is charmed by the deep glens,
plantations, and neat houses. The furze-bushes with their yellow
blossoms, the bramble, and other European plants, reminded the voyager of
home and all its endearing charms. The hedges of the aloe, with its high
stem surmounted by clusters of flowers, together with the carolling of
the numerous birds from all countries, which had been introduced and set
at liberty on the island, increased the delight which had been already
experienced.[82] The pheasant and partridge have also been introduced,
and thrive well. At last, on arriving at a more level road, the beautiful
fertile vale was seen, descending from Huyt’s Gate, but becoming, as it
advances towards the sea, a series of deep, rugged and romantic ravines,
destitute of any vegetation, and varied by the different tints afforded
by the volcanic strata.

The grave of Napoleon, when descried from the height above, has a
pleasing aspect, and the view of it from that situation is very
picturesque. A pathway leads to the place; and by a gradual descent the
visitor arrives at the tomb of Napoleon, overshadowed by the weeping
willows. About the spot are gay hedges, brilliant with the blossoms of
the scarlet geraniums, the flowers of a pretty _Althæa_, of a straw
colour, and others. The green-sward around the tomb gives a freshness and
beauty to this spot, consecrated by the late ruler of thousands, who now
reposes in the solemn stillness of death, under the shade of his chosen,
mournful, but fast-perishing trees.

The willows show evident symptoms of age. They seem to be getting more
and more thin of branches. Since a visit I made to this spot, in
February, 1831, another of the trees has perished, although the trunk
still remains erect in its place. Thus, of five trees (the original
number) only three now remain: their age is about thirty-five years;
they were planted by Mr. Tarbut, a resident at St. Helena, and former
possessor of the spot we were now visiting. A number of slips from the
old trees have been planted on the opposite side of the grave, and being
in a flourishing condition[83] on the death of the old trees, the stock
will be perpetuated by the young ones. There are also several cypresses
planted in the inclosure, with every appearance of becoming handsome
trees.

On entering a wicket-gate, a short path leads to a paling, inclosing
a green lawn, in which, surrounded by a plain cast-iron railing, is
the vault in which the body of Napoleon, arrayed in full uniform, is
deposited, inclosed in four coffins. The vault is extensive, and covered
by three plain Portland stones taken from the kitchen of the new house
at Longwood,[84] and cemented together. An order from the town-major
enables strangers to enter the inclosure, procure slips of the willow,
and, one of the cast-iron railings surrounding the vault being broken,
either accidentally or on purpose, the attendant will permit visitors to
enter and tread over him now dead, who, when living, trod on the necks of
monarchs.

Should there be visitors of both the French and English nations at the
sepulchre of Napoleon, it is interesting to observe the feelings produced
in the minds of both: the first regarding the spot as both sacred and
classic, by the presence of the mortal remains of one, the former ruler
of their nation, and who, under the revolutionary flag, had gained so
many laurels, which it was his fate to lose at Waterloo, against an
allied army. He then found himself a voluntary prisoner, on board one of
those British ships of war, which had, under the proud banner of Britain,
cleared the ocean of his ships, and he at last died an exile on the
rock of St. Helena. This affords a fine lesson to posterity, of a great
genius, who having elevated himself to be the ruler of a powerful nation,
fell, and died in captivity, through his over-ambition. The French shed
tears on visiting the grave of their beloved emperor; and the album, kept
at the tomb for the reception of the names and tributary effusions of
the visitors gives ample evidence of the feelings which a visit to this
spot produces in their minds, and displays the characteristic fervor of
the nation.[85]

Such may be the feelings of the former; but the majority of the English
display a recklessness of manner, or mere feelings of common curiosity,
on visiting a place so interesting. No one ought to visit this spot
without reflecting on the life of him, whose sceptre fell from his grasp,
and left him to live and die an exile, attended only by a faithful
few,—all they asked was

                            ——“To divide
      Every peril he must brave;
    Sharing by the hero’s side
      His fall, his exile, and his grave.”

Close to the grave is the clear spring whence the water for his use
was procured, and on once visiting the spot, he selected it as his
resting-place, should he die upon the island; a foreboding realized not
a very long time after.

On returning from our visit to the tomb, and dining, we took a walk
about the town, and entered the small garden, kept in very neat order,
dignified by the name of Botanic Garden; it affords a cool and agreeable
promenade, but contains nothing to excite the attention of any one who
had previously visited India.[86]

News having arrived at the island, of its having been changed from the
Honourable the East India Company’s to the King’s government, much
speculation has been excited in consequence both among the Company’s
officers and residents. As may be expected, on such a subject, there is a
great variety of opinions: the inhabitants enjoy their own notions, none
of which will probably ever be realized. They are daily in expectation of
news from England on the subject, to relieve them from suspense.

Fish is very abundant, and not confined, as I formerly supposed, to
albicore, mackarel, boneto, and flying-fish; but they have a great number
of species, (it has been stated amounting to even so many as a hundred
and twenty,) consisting of bream, perch, &c.; and many I tasted, were of
very excellent and delicate flavour.

On the afternoon of the following day, (25th,) we sailed from St. Helena,
and experienced between that island and Ascension a light trade-wind,
which would occasionally freshen for a short period. Early on the
morning of the 4th of March, the _Island of Ascension_ was seen, bearing
north-west-half-west, by compass distant about twenty-five miles.[87] Our
course was steered, so as to pass close to the settlement. The appearance
of the island is sterile in the extreme, seeming only calculated for
the habitation of the numerous oceanic birds which hovered about the
ship in great numbers. Volcanic rocks, in rugged and mis-shapen masses,
terminating in abrupt precipices, or shelving declivities, form the
principal feature of the island. And when the clouds which enveloped
the Green Mountain passed away, its verdant character contrasted in a
very beautiful manner with the sterile rocks and mountains, red with the
_tufa_, or volcanic ash, beneath. Some little white habitations, perched
on the ledge of one part of the lofty eminence, and distinctly seen from
the ship, had a very pretty and pleasing effect, as a bright sun diffused
its rays over the scene, which for some time remained clear from even a
passing cloud.

A number of gannets were busily engaged in fishing, and, from the shoals
of flying-fish about, must have enjoyed excellent sport. The frigate
birds, (_Trachypetes aquila_, Vieill.) on the contrary, hovered over the
vessel, viewing with curiosity the expanded sails and progressive motion
of the ship, “walking the waters like a thing of life,” regarding it,
with their usual indolence and aristocracy of manner, instead of fishing
like the other industrious birds about them. From all the frigate-birds
having white abdomens, and being deficient in the red pouch, I presume
they were females. The bills of the whole of those about the ship were
of a dirty white colour, although described in several works of natural
history as red.

On a former voyage, a female of the man-of-war hawk (_Trachypetes
aquila_) was shot off this island from the deck of the ship, from the
numbers which hovered over the vessel. The bird, when struck by the shot,
made for the land; but soon after, as if feeling that it would be unable
to reach it, returned, with a wavering flight, towards the ship, and
we felt confident that she would come on board; approaching the ship,
her flight became lower and more unsteady, until she fell dead into the
water, quite close to the ship, near the mizen chains, just as we were in
expectation that she would have fallen upon the poop.

Numerous sea-swallows (_Sterna hirundo_, Linn.) and brown boobies flew
about the ship as we approached nearer the land; the former fishing
in groups. After the toil of the day, they return in small flocks to
the island, usually about the close of the evening, (as well as the
gannets and other birds that do not wander far from the land,) reposing
and breeding among the ledges of the huge masses of sterile volcanic
rocks.[88]

The frigate birds, (or sea-hawks, as they are also named,) are seldom
or never seen far distant from land: the male birds are black, and have
a red pouch; the females have a white breast, and are destitute of the
pouch. In procuring fish for their food, these birds prefer seizing it
from the boobies and gannets, instead of catching it themselves. To
attain this object, the sea-hawk hovers above the gannet, (which is
the bird most usually selected for attack,) and, darting rapidly down,
strikes him on the back of the head, causing him to disgorge his prey,
which is seized by the hawk with an inconceivable rapidity before it
reaches the water, and afterwards soars aloft to look out for another
object of attack. It is not an uncommon circumstance to observe a single
gannet selected from a flock, and come out to be the subject of attack,
as if he had been called by the hawk in preference to the others. The
gannet, however, manœuvres to avoid the blow, by darting about, lowering
himself from his elevation in the air at every dart, and, raising his
beak in a perpendicular direction; by these means it eludes the blow
of the hawk from behind, and they frequently both fall into the water
together; the hawk only having the advantage over the gannet when
hovering in the air, the latter escapes. At the Island of Ascension,
where these birds are common, I was informed by Lieutenant M’Arthur,
(Marine Artillery,) that the method practised by the hawks to oblige
the gannet to disgorge their prey, was tried by a gentleman who lately
visited the island: he had seen the attack of the hawk on the gannet, and
the successful result. When he visited the part of the island named “The
Fair,” where these birds congregate in great numbers, he struck some of
them with a cane on the back of the head, and the disgorgement of the
fish they had swallowed immediately took place.

By three P.M. we were off the settlement, in the roadstead of which an
American ship, and several British men-of-war, were lying at anchor.
We did not enter the roadstead, but, hoisting our ensign and number,
proceeded on our voyage, and by the evening left the island far in the
distance.

Having on a former voyage, in 1831, visited and landed upon this island,
I perhaps may be excused for introducing the following account, from
observations made at that period:—

About noon (of the 10th of February, 1831) we were off the settlement
situated on the north-west side of the island, and several
neatly-constructed houses appeared enlivening a little the barren scene
around. A transport (St. Croix) was at anchor in the roads, having just
arrived with stores; a boat came off from the settlement, with a book,
in which the ship’s name, &c. was inserted. I accompanied the commander
on a visit to the shore: the landing is sometimes dangerous, on account
of the surf; at this time it was very easily effected. The landing-place
was on a flight of steps, at the extremity of a wharf; a small crane
was near, to assist boats in approaching, and persons in landing. A
delightful trade breeze rendered the air cool, which would otherwise have
been intolerable, on account of the reflection of the sun from the sand
and lava. The residences of the garrison, store-houses, &c., were neat
constructions, and had been lately completed: many other buildings were
in progress. The island has now been fortified at every part considered
accessible; these points being few, however, not many batteries were
required. The establishment consists of marines and marine artillery,
(about four hundred,) under a commandant, Captain Bates. The privates
are masons, carpenters, quarrymen, &c.; the houses are constructed by
them, and, in fact, they undertake all the laborious work. This island
is considered of great importance, being directly in the track of our
homeward-bound shipping from the East Indies, &c., and would, in the
event of a war, have afforded a rendezvous for the enemy’s cruizers.

I was informed that excellent soil was found under the lava, at a depth
of two feet: cultivation of vegetables, &c. is at present confined to the
green mountain; the present object of fortifying and erecting buildings
on the island being completed, cultivation will be more attended to.
The beach, at first thought to be composed of sand, was found to consist
of very small fragments of shells: in some places they had become (from
some cause not readily accounted for) firmly compacted together. These
slabs were formed of several layers, of which the size of the fragments
differs in each layer: they are used for tomb-stones, steps of doors,
and are broken and burned for lime. Of the vegetable kingdom, a species
of Euphorbia only was growing, distributed in small tufts, but not very
abundantly, about the rugged lava; it was at this time in flower: this
simple plant was, indeed, a beautiful object amidst such barren scenes.
There are three species of butterflies on the island, of handsome colours.

A great acquisition to the island has been a good supply of water: a
shaft had just been sunk upon one of the mountains, and several tons
of water had been raised daily. The only inconvenience is their being
obliged to bring the water down by casks in carts; but iron pipes, from
England, are now being laid down, to convey the water to the wharf, and
the shipping will be supplied by means of hoses. Moorings are laid down
in the roadstead. The turtle-ponds were well stocked with turtles of
large size, varying from two to eight hundred weight each: the price
fixed, was fifty shillings each. We were politely invited, and dined
with the officers at their mess. At a place called “The Fair,” the birds
named sea-swallows, as well as numerous other aquatic birds, congregate;
and the eggs of the sea-swallows, which are of a dirty white, with dark
red spots, and about the size of crows’ eggs, are there collected at
certain seasons of the year, in thousands: several of these were given
to us, and found delicate and excellent eating. It was dark before we
went off to the ship, and a heavy surf rendered the embarkation very
dangerous: no boats should attempt going off after dark. A marine, named
James, who was a little intoxicated, fell into the water, and, being
overpowered by the violence of the surf and the eddy, perished. After
some difficulty, we all re-embarked, and, getting safely on board,
resumed our voyage.

The island is considered generally healthy, dysentery being the only
disease experienced; and the temperature of the air pleasant, being
seldom higher in the shade than 83°, the constant trade-breeze tending to
keep the atmosphere temperate. Merchant-ships, in distress for supplies,
may here obtain them, the only extra charge made by the government being
the freight from England. Fish can be procured in some quantity, and a
kind of conger eel, procured at this island, had, when brought to the
table, the bones of a lilac colour.

We experienced a very light south-east trade-wind for almost its whole
limit, and lost it in lat. 00° 36′ north, and lon. 20° 40′ west. We
afterwards experienced calms and light airs, with but little rain. On the
13th of March, in lat. 1° 23′ north, and lon. 22° 15′ west, several sail
were in sight, steering to the southward; and about two P.M. we spoke
the barque, Lord of the Isles, last from Falmouth, bound to Calcutta:
she left Falmouth the 7th of February. A boat was sent from the barque,
bringing letters for conveyance to England, and newspapers of December
and January, which afforded us some knowledge of how the world was going
on.

Sharks, accompanied by pilot-fish, and having several of the Remora, or
sucking-fish, attached to them, were occasionally about the ship during
the calm weather.

Sharks are formidable from their muscular strength and the numerous
rows of teeth with which their expansive and powerful jaws are armed:
they may be considered as the most destructive and voracious of all the
inhabitants of the deep. Their stomachs, which are of enormous capacity,
are generally found filled with a mixed collection of substances, some of
which seem calculated to try the strength of their digestive powers. It
does not appear that their sense of smell always guides them in procuring
food, as paper, canvas, or indeed any thing thrown overboard which they
are capable of swallowing, is greedily devoured by them. To decide
correctly on the _habitat_, or extent of range, taken by any particular
species, is difficult, and requires a numerous collection of facts.
Frequent mistakes are made in this respect; as in the instance of the
_Squalus cornubicus_, or porbeagle shark, whose _habitat_ was supposed to
be confined to the British coasts, but which I have since discovered has
been found, although rarely, inhabiting the coasts of New Zealand.

The teeth of sharks vary in different species. Blumenbach observes,
that “in most of the sharks the mouth is furnished with very numerous
teeth, for the supply of such as may be lost. The white shark has more
than two hundred, lying on each other in rows, almost like the leaves of
an artichoke. Those only which form the front row have a perpendicular
direction, and are completely uncovered. Those of the subsequent rows
are, on the contrary, smaller, have their points turned backwards, and
are covered by a kind of gum. These come through the covering substance,
and pass forward, when any teeth of the front row are lost. It will be
understood, from this description, that the teeth in question cannot have
any fangs.”[89]

The shark, no doubt, sheds its teeth at certain periods, and the
posterior rows are to supply, in succession, the places of those so lost,
as, in a number of jaws that I have examined of different species, the
second row may frequently be seen in a perpendicular direction, advancing
to supply the place of the first. With respect to such teeth having
fangs, those of most species have merely rudiments of them, excepting
the squalus cornubicus, or porbeagle shark, which has two distinct fangs
to every tooth, and they may be seen in the second and third, as well
as in the first rows. The posterior rows having their points turned
backwards, prevent their prey, when seized, from escaping. The teeth of
the shark are used by the Polynesian natives, fixed in rows, as knives.
They are attached also to their spears, are used for cutting themselves
on occasions of joy or grief, and were employed, previously to the
introduction of European knives, for the ornamental carving of their
weapons, domestic utensils, &c.

There is a species of shark at New Zealand which I have heard named, by
seamen, the _ground shark_: the teeth procured from this species differ
from all others that I have seen; they are long, rather curved inwards,
flattened anteriorly, sharp pointed, _unserrated at the edges_, and have
_two rather long fangs_. They are considered rare at New Zealand, and the
teeth are highly valued by the natives, who wear them, with a hole bored
through them, as appendages to their ears; they carve their green jasper
stone also in the form of these teeth, and wear them in a similar manner:
these teeth were so highly prized by the natives, that to procure one
was a matter of difficulty. I for some time, since my return to England,
endeavoured to ascertain the species to which these teeth belonged, but I
was unsuccessful, until lately examining the jaws of the various species
of sharks in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, in London, I
found it to be the _Squalus cornubicus_, or porbeagle shark, which is
thus noticed in the published catalogue of the college:—

“No. 1832.—The skull, and part of the spine, of a small Porbeagle shark.
Squalus cornubicus. Fig. Borlase’s History of Cornwall. Habitat. The
British seas.”

This species, from its magnitude when full grown, has sometimes been
confounded with the squalus carcharias, or white shark.—Presented by Dr.
Leach, 1820.

The fore-teeth, near the symphysis, accorded in every respect with the
New Zealand specimens; more posterior they became equilateral, but were
all unserrated at their edges.

The capture of one of these voracious animals frequently beguiles a
tedious hour during a long voyage. Its struggles, when brought on deck,
are very great, but a few severe blows on the nose soon disable it from
further exertion. When seizing any object, the animal turns on the
side, not (as is generally supposed) on the back. The shark, judging
by an European palate, is not good eating: the fins and tail are very
glutinous, and are the portions most relished by the seamen; when dried,
they form an article of commerce to China, where they are used in soups,
and considered as an excellent aphrodisiac. I have seen several sharks
and bonitos about the ship at the same time, but I never observed the
former attempt to molest the latter. The shark is eaten eagerly by the
natives of the Polynesian Islands, and I have often seen them feasting
on it in a raw state, when they gorge themselves to such an excess as to
occasion vomiting. It is not an unfrequent source of illness among these
islanders, and they suffer so much in consequence, as to lead them to
suppose that their dissolution is nigh; but they cannot be persuaded that
the eating of raw fish is the cause. An emetic soon removes the symptoms,
by removing the cause; and the sufferer considers the cure as almost
miraculous.

Attending the shark, is seen that beautiful little fish, the
_Gasterosteus ductor_, or _pilot-fish_; which first approaching the
bait, returns as if to give notice, when, immediately after, the shark
approaches and seizes it.[90] It is a curious circumstance that this
elegant little fish is seen in attendance only upon the shark. After
the shark is hooked, the pilot-fish still swim about, and for some time
after he has been hauled on deck; they then swim very near the surface
of the water, and at that time I have seen them taken by a basket from
the chains of the ship. When the shark has been hooked and afterwards
escapes, he generally returns, and renews the attack with increased
ferocity, irritated perhaps by the wound he has received.

On the 18th of March, 1831, during my former voyage, in lat. 44° 56′
north, and long. 25° 10′ west; in the evening, two sharks of a very
large size were seen at a short distance from the ship. A high dorsal
fin, projecting from the water, was at first only discernible, and had
a resemblance to a rock.[91] It was at first stationary, but soon began
to move steadily along, and then occasionally the tail could be seen
partially above the water. I know not to what species to refer it; one
of the crew on board, who had been in a whaler, said that it was what
they named a “_bone shark_” which is seen in numbers alongside the ships
when they are cutting up a whale. He said, also, that he had seen them as
large as a _twenty-barrel whale_; that “the mouth resembled the gill of
a fish, and they are spotted over the back.” Whether the latter part of
this account accorded with the actual appearance of the fish, I was not
sufficiently near to ascertain, but it appeared correct with respect to
its large size.

The natives of the Polynesian islands have such a dread of sharks as
to worship some of them as gods; not from any respect or love towards
them, but from fear. Ellis states, that, “although they would not only
kill, but eat certain kinds of shark, the large blue sharks (_Squalus
glaucus_) were deified by them; and, rather than attempt to destroy them,
they would endeavour to propitiate their favour by prayers and offerings.
Temples were erected, in which priests officiated, and offerings were
presented to the deified monsters; while fishermen, and others who were
much at sea, sought their favour. Many ludicrous legends were formerly
in circulation among the people, relative to the regard paid by the
sharks at sea to priests of their temples, whom they were always said
to recognize, and never to injure. The principal motive, however, by
which the people appear to have been influenced in their homage of
these creatures, was the same that operated on their minds in reference
to other acts of idolatry: it was the principle of fear, and a desire
to avoid destruction in the event of being exposed to their anger at
sea.”[92]

In olden times sharks were considered to be allied to the Leviathans
of the deep, and afforded then, as at the present day, amusement to
passengers traversing the ocean. The following account of the capture of
one of these voracious animals, from Dr. Fryer’s “New Account of India
and Persia,” published in 1698, is amusing:—

“Two of the _lesser offspring of the great Leviathan_ (the weather being
calm, these sort of them else not visible, being of no swift motion)
came sailing after us; our men, as eager of them as they of their prey,
hastened their engines for to take them; which no sooner in the water
but each of them, guided by some half-a-dozen delicately-coloured little
fishes, which, for their own safeguard, perform the office of pilots,
(they never offering to satisfy their hunger on them,) who lead them to
the baits; when they, turning their bellies up, seize upon them on their
backs, hook themselves in the toils, beating the sea into a breach, and
not without a great many hands are drawn over the sides of the ship;
which seen by the poor silly little fishes, (as conscious of their
error,) they swim to and again, and hardly forsake the ship; but being
within board, the ship’s company, armed with hatchets, presently divide
the spoil. They are not scaly, and therefore imagined to be a kind of
whale, being finned like them, with a great fin on their backs, near
their tails, (which dried, is used instead of a slate,) of a darkish-grey
colour on their backs, lighter on their sides, and white under their
bellies; their snout on the same plain with their mouths, but their mouth
within that a great way; the cause why they turn their bellies when they
take their prey. The mouth of one of them extended, is two spans wide,
armed within with three tier of sharp-pointed teeth on both jaws, so
piercing that needles exceed them not, and of such strength that a leg or
an arm, bone and all, is but an easy morsel; wherefore called _sharks_
by the seamen, on whom they are bold enough to fasten and dismember, if
not shunned, when they wash themselves. They are of a rank smell, and
not good to eat but by stout stomachs; of length they are ten, sometimes
fourteen feet.”

I shall now make a few observations on muscular irritability, as
exemplified by the shark. That which is termed muscular irritability,
and which is met with to a great degree in all cold-blooded animals, is
well exemplified in the shark, which perhaps possesses it to a greater
degree than other kinds of fish. I have seen a shark transfixed with a
harpoon after it had been hooked, so as to cause the viscera to protrude;
it was hoisted on deck, when, after a quarter of an hour had elapsed, the
lower part was separated from the upper; (which detached lower portion
for a long time displayed great powers of vitality;) the head and upper
portion were afterwards thrown into the water, when the pectoral fins
were moved as in the action of swimming. How long this irritability
continued I cannot say, (but from other instances that I had seen, I
should consider for a long period,) as it soon went astern of the ship. I
have frequently seen the animal hauled on deck, the whole of the viscera
extracted, and the body otherwise mangled when thrown overboard, swim for
some distance in this mutilated state. Again, a shark has been hung up
with the abdomen ripped open, the whole of the viscera extracted, and the
head detached; yet symptoms of vitality, or rather muscular irritability,
remained for three hours from the time of its removal from the water; and
this frequently occasions the spectators to consider that the animal is
in a state of suffering. It is only in the cold-blooded animals that we
meet with it to such an extent; in the warm-blooded animals it occurs,
but in a very slight degree.

Blumenbach, in his Manual of Natural History, thus mentions the
reproductive power and independent vitality with reference to the
Amphibia:—“The extraordinary strength of the reproductive power in
several Amphibia, and the astonishing facility with which the process is
carried on, depend, if I mistake not, on the great magnitude of their
nerves and the diminutive proportion of their brain. The former parts
are, in consequence, less dependent on the latter; hence the whole
machine has less powers of motion, and displays less sympathy; the mode
of existence is more simple, and approaches more nearly to that of the
vegetable world than in the warm-blooded classes; but, on the contrary,
the parts possess a greater individual independent vitality. Since, in
consequence of this latter endowment, stimuli which operate on one part,
or one system, do not immediately affect the whole frame by sympathy, as
in warm-blooded animals, we are enabled to explain the peculiar tenacity
of life which is displayed under various circumstances in this class—viz.
frogs still continue to jump about after their heart has been torn out,
and turtles have lived for months after the removal of the whole brain
from the cranium. The long-continued power of motion in parts which
have been cut off from the body, as in the tail of the water-newt and
blind-worm, may be explained upon the same principles.”

The length of time that this irritability exists in snakes, has given
rise to the opinion of the vulgar, that “if a snake is killed in the
morning, it will not die before sunset.” Among numerous instances of
irritability in the warm-blooded class, shortly after death the heart may
be stimulated to perform its natural action, by being punctured; and in a
limb after amputation, the muscles are excited to contract by a scalpel
being plunged into them.

The sucking-fish is commonly found adhering to the body of the
shark. It is placed, by Cuvier, among the third order of fishes, or
the _Malacoptérygiens subbrachiens_, which is characterized “Par
des ventrales attachées sous les pectorales, et dont le bassin est
immédiatement suspendu aux os de l’épaule.” Its generic character is as
follows:—Head furnished above with a flat, ovate, transversely sulcated
shield. Gill membrane six-rayed. Body without scales.

When first removed from the water, the colour of the fish of the
common species was an uniform grey or lavender, which soon changed to
a brownish colour; the tail was forked, or rather crescent-shaped. The
sucking-plate, of an oval form, was situated on the upper part of the
head, and was composed of seventeen transverse moveable cartilaginous
plates, (but they vary in number, according to the size of the fish,)
each armed with minute teeth directed backwards; from which cause it was
difficult to detach the animal in a direction perpendicular or backwards,
but it was removed with facility when drawn off in the direction of the
head.

On inspecting the mouth I observed two rows of teeth situated on the
margin of each jaw, one internal to the other, the outer row being larger
and stronger than the inner; and it is probable that the inner row is
intended, as in the shark, to replace the front row, when lost from
time or accident. On the palate were also placed two rows of very fine
teeth, and the other parts of the mouth were rough. I made several dried
preparations of the head of this fish, which well displayed the form of
the disk; and, by keeping the mouth distended, the rows of teeth could be
distinctly seen and examined.

The fins are, two pectoral, two ventral, one dorsal, and one anal; the
whole of which are of small size, in proportion to the body of the fish,
as well as the tail. The disproportion of the size of the head, and the
diminutive size of the fins and tail, must consequently prevent its
swimming to any distance, for when swimming its motion is very tardy, and
apparently laborious. Nature has, therefore, provided it with a means of
attaching itself to rocks, the bottoms of ships, &c.

I have seen them attached more commonly to the body of the _Squalus
carcharias_, or white shark, than to any other species: whether it
is that this species of shark is the most usually met with, I cannot
determine; but on a blue shark, although accompanied by pilot-fish, I
never, in the few instances I have met with, saw a Remora attached,
although, in the other species, I have always seen some attached: if
this, on further observation, is found to be the fact, it may be probably
accounted for by the _Squalus carcharias_ more frequently approaching
the land. The sucking-fish not being able to swim any distance, must
generally remain attached to rocks, &c., and from them removes itself to
the shark as he approaches.

The sucking-plate enables these fish to change their locality, by
attaching themselves to the stronger inhabitants of the deep, and
precludes, as on the rocks, the danger of their being driven by tempests
remote from their usual food and rest. This fish is also destitute of an
air-bladder.

The Remora was supposed, by the ancients, to have the power of arresting
the progress of a ship under full sail; and, by others, their nourishment
was supposed to be derived from the body of the shark, or from any
substance to which it adhered: all these chimeras have, however, been
long since dispersed. Their food has been found (from the examination
of the contents of the stomachs of the specimens captured) to be minute
marine insects, &c.

I have seen the Remora of a very large size. During a visit to the island
of Tongatabu, one of the Friendly group, on August 1st, 1829, several
were brought on board for sale, by the natives, which measured three feet
and upwards in length. They had taken them with a hook and line. They
were cooked, and found delicate and well-tasted. During also our passage
through the straits of St. Bernardin to Manilla, several, of a large
size, were seen swimming about the ship, but their movements were slow
and heavy.

The most usual size taken from the body of a shark, is from six to twelve
inches. The Indian Remora is said to be found of the length of two or
three feet; and even, according to a description quoted by Dr. Bloch, to
extend to seven feet. The usual number of divisions on its shield is from
twenty-two to twenty-four.

The power of adhesion is retained for a long time, by this fish,
after decapitation. I detached one of them from the body of a shark,
decapitated it, and then applying the sucking-plate to a smooth surface,
found the power of adhesion remained, and it continued for the space of
nearly twenty minutes. The body of the animal, after the removal of the
head, displayed much muscular irritability on being touched, and the
pectoral and ventral fins moved for a long time afterwards.

The pilot-fish, as I have before observed, (_Gasterosteus ductor_,) is
usually seen in company with the shark, and with no other voracious
fish; it is of a beautiful azure colour, girded around the body by broad
bands of a very dark blue. I have seldom seen them larger than a foot in
length, but in breadth some exceed others. They have never been taken
when in company with the shark, but, on the capture of that voracious
animal, they hover about him as long as he remains in the water; and a
very short time after he has been hauled on board, they can sometimes
be taken by a basket from the chains, as they swim at that time very
superficially, and sometimes have been known (but rarely) to take bait.

On the 18th, in latitude 2° 20′ north, and longitude 25° 26′ west, we
got the north-east trade, far to the northward, being north-north-east,
moderate and fresh breezes,[93] and on the 7th of April, we lost the
north-east trade in about 30° 31′ north, and longitude 44° 20′ west.

On the 1st of April, in latitude 23° 17′ north, and longitude 42° 50′
west, several tropic birds (_Phaeton oethereus_) were seen hovering
over the ship; this was considered a very unusual circumstance, from
the distance we then were from land. The longest distance these birds
have been seen from land, has been stated to be three hundred miles,
but by the observations at noon we were distant full one thousand miles
from land; the nearest being the northernmost island of the Cape de Verd
group. The distance at which birds supposed not to wander far from land,
are sometimes seen, is surprising. Penguins have occasionally been met
with several hundred miles from land, although they are commonly supposed
not to wander from it any considerable distance. An intelligent lady
informed me, that, during a voyage from England to Batavia, in the ship
Orynthia, between the Cape and the latter place, a Penguin was shot,
being rather more than a foot in length, and of a smooth slate colour
over the body, with a white breast, (as well as can be recollected at a
distant period,) the ship being then at a distance of eight hundred miles
from the Marion or Crozette islands, with fine weather, nearly calm at
the time. This occurred on the 22nd of October, 1831.

Captain Beechey also states, (Voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait,
8vo. vol. i. p. 16,) which tends to confirm the above fact, that, “as we
approached the Falkland Islands from Rio Janeiro, some Penguins were seen
upon the water in latitude 47° south, at a distance of three hundred and
forty miles from the nearest land; a fact which either proves the common
opinion that this species never stray far from land to be in error, or
that some unknown land exists in the vicinity.”

On the 31st of March, in latitude 22° north, and longitude 41° west,
the Sargasso weed was first seen, a few pieces occasionally floating by
the ship. That these plants are produced within the tropics, there can
hardly be a question; but at what depth they vegetate is still involved
in obscurity: neither is it clearly ascertained why the banks of weed
should always occur in the same places. The supposition that they proceed
with the Gulf Stream from the Gulf of Mexico—whence the original name
of gulf weed—is now exploded. This weed is considered to extend between
the eighteenth and twenty-second parallels of north latitude, and the
twenty-fifth and fortieth meridians of west longitude.

Mr. Neill justly observes, that “the gulf stream would convey them rather
to the banks of Newfoundland than to the latitudes in which they usually
occur; and it could not in any case accumulate them to the south of the
Azores.”[94]

Horsburgh, in his Directory, mentions the range of the weed, as being
first seen in latitude 24° or 25° north, and extending as far as latitude
40° or 42° north, but I regard the limits of its range as depending much
on the prevailing winds blowing strong for some time in a particular
direction. On the 3rd of March, 1831, I first saw the weed in latitude
20° 12′ north, longitude 35° 39′ west. In latitude 24° 16′ north, and
longitude 36° 55′ west, large quantities of it were passed, and in
latitude 37° 53′ north, and longitude 35° 32′ west, we left it.

During this voyage it was first observed, as I have previously mentioned,
on the 31st of March, in latitude 22° north, and 41° west longitude; and
was seen in large quantities nearly the whole distance. From the trade
wind being much to the northward, we were driven as far to the westward
as 44° 7′, still continuing to have a quantity of weed about the ship;
indeed it rather increased than diminished, for large masses were seen
even thus far beyond the usual limit assigned to it; on the 12th of
April extending to 38° 32′ north latitude, and 34° 30′ west longitude.
The utmost western limit I had an opportunity of observing it in being
44° 7′, and the range of the temperature of the atmosphere in its limits
being maximum 76°, medium 70°, minimum 59°.

Of the genus _Sargassum_[95] there are numerous species distributed over
the globe; but the _S. vulgare_, or _Fucus natans_, and other species,
are also described as having their _habitat_ in the particular range
I have before mentioned; but I have not been able to find more than
one species, some sprigs of which exhibit anomalies, but not specific
differences; for although apparently differing in having the leaves
broader, and not so serrated at the edges, yet many of these were growing
from plants which had not such distinctions. According to Greville, this
genus, the most extensive of the FUCOIDEÆ, comprising above seventy
species, is nearly confined to the two tropics, and examples rarely occur
beyond the forty-second degree in either hemisphere:—

    “Flung from the rock on ocean’s foam to sail,
    Where’er the surge may sweep, the tempests breath prevail;”

will only now be partly applicable to this weed, as it is tolerably well
ascertained to vegetate floating on the water, each sprig becoming, as
detached by the violence of the waves, the contact of ships, or other
causes, a perfect and large plant.[96]

This species of the _Sargassum_, found in such immense quantities,
floating upon the surface of the ocean, is of a fine yellow colour,
lighter or deeper in tint, being when very young of a greenish yellow
colour; it is very buoyant, occasioned both by its lightness of structure
and body of water to support it, as well as by the number of air vesicles
with which it is profusely covered; it has a handsome appearance when
seen spread out and swimming on the surface, or when just taken out of
the water. On drying, it first retains the yellow, or greenish yellow,
afterwards becoming of a reddish brown colour, but turning black, if
exposed to the atmosphere when drying. The leaves are long, narrow,
scattered, serrated at the edges in an irregular manner; the stems
are studded with numerous air-vesicles in different stages of growth,
spherical, and attached by a short pedicle to the stem. In many instances
a young leaf would be seen emerging from the air-vesicle, and in others
many of the leaves would have the air-vesicle (instead of being, as
usual, on the stems) at the summit, forming a rounded termination to
the leaf; some of the vesicles would have a longer and broader pedicle
than usual, which assumed the character of an embryo leaf just forming,
similar to what has been just mentioned as occurring.[97] All the
weed was more or less profusely covered with parasitical _confervæ_,
displaying much delicacy and beauty.

I succeeded in capturing with the weed numerous specimens of small
crabs, and some even of large size, small nereis, together with various
specimens of fish, the _Syngnathus_, or pipe-fish, &c. The _Scyllea
pelagica_ was also abundant, clinging to the plants; and also numerous
small sepiæ of a beautiful purplish colour.

In support of the opinion that the attachment of the fuci to rocks is
not absolutely necessary for their nourishment, it has been observed of
the fucus nodosus, that “this and some other fuci have no dependence on
their root for nourishment, and therefore, instead of being ramified,
it is merely a disc or button, by the adhesion of which, assisted,
perhaps, by atmospherical pressure, the weed keeps an uncommonly firm
hold of the rock to which it is attached.” The air vesicles on a plant
of course render it more buoyant than those destitute of them. I have
found, that detaching the air vesicles from a plant, and placing it in
shallow water, it sunk, but where the depth of water was great, the bulk
of water was in itself sufficient to keep the weed afloat; the use of
the air vesicles is most probably intended for the purpose of bringing
some portion of the plant in contact with atmospheric air, or by keeping
the plant to the surface of the water, to receive a greater benefit
from air and light, or to prevent the young shoots or other parts of
the plant being injured by the violent action of the waves. We find in
the fucus buccinalis, or trumpet weed of the Cape, that stem is hollow,
accommodating itself in length to the depth of water in which it grows;
is attached to the ground by ramified roots; the stem terminating in a
crown of broad leaves expanded on the surface of the water, and kept in
that situation by a broad air bladder, in which the stem terminates under
the crown; it may aid the plant also in maintaining itself against the
force of the waves in the exposed situations in which it is usually found.

Air-bladders are not confined to sea weeds; several plants growing in
fresh water are similarly provided. Of these, the _Jussiæa tenella_,
found in the rivers of Amboyna, is a remarkable example. Along its
stalk are many large oval tubercles, full of air, and each of these
is compounded of many others, so that the injury which the plant
might sustain from foreign bodies striking against it and breaking the
bladders, is obviated.[98]

On the 8th of April we were in latitude 31° 34′ north, longitude 41° 27′
west. It has been remarked, during the time the Crowned pigeons have been
on board the ship, that they do not eat for five days, or a week, and
then recommence eating so much, that the man attending on the poultry can
hardly supply them with sufficient: they continue thus to eat for the
space of a fortnight, or more, and then cease for a certain period, as
I have just before observed. At first this was supposed very naturally
to proceed from illness; subsequent observation, however, decided that
it did not originate in such a cause. They have not now eaten for three
days, the paddy placed in their trough still remaining untouched. The
birds have a healthy appearance in plumage and general looks, and are in
as excellent, if not better condition, than when they first came on board
the ship at Singapore. Paddy is the only food given them, as they prefer
it to all other kinds of grain that have been tried.

I am not aware of the differences of plumage in the males and females of
these birds, but am inclined to consider these male and female birds,
from one running after the other in sportive wooing, and the mournful,
cooing noise, proceeding from only one of them. They are shy and timid,
fluttering about very much when any one comes near, or attempts to touch
them; they even show this shyness towards the man who is accustomed daily
to supply them with food.

_April 16th._—During the late prevailing strong breezes and gales, with
damp and rainy weather, the birds have appeared well, only occasionally
fluttering by the heavy lurches of the vessel: that has been prevented,
for the most part, by bagging being placed underneath their feet. The
range of temperature has not been lower than 55°; medium 60°, and maximum
64°.

_April 18th._—The pigeons, although they have their feathers ruffled, and
mope, from the change of temperature and wet weather, do not appear to
suffer in health: they move often about the coop, and eat as usual.

_April 23rd._—In latitude 49° 35′ north, longitude 14° 8′ west:
thermometer 53° to 55°. I had the misfortune to lose another of the
Crowned pigeons. Yesterday the bird seemed healthy, the eyes brilliant,
and plumage unruffled; but this morning it was found dead; so sudden
does death occur, without any previous indication being given, among the
feathered tribe.

From the 8th to the 16th of April we had strong westerly winds and gales,
coming on at first, from north-north-west, veering to south-west and
south. On the 16th of April, we were in latitude 44° 34′ north, longitude
25° 00′ west.

Early on the morning of the 28th, a swallow (_Hirundo rustica_, Linn.)
was seen flying about the ship; and, having entered one of the stern
cabin windows, was readily taken. It appeared quite exhausted, and made
no efforts to escape, until, having been confined for a short period
of time in one of the cabins, it flew out again on the door being
opened, but was soon recaptured. It is probably the straggler of a flock
migrating to the northward, as they are usually considered to arrive in
England in April or May, earlier or later, according to the mildness of
the season.

This bird may be considered to be detained on its passage by easterly
winds, similarly to ourselves. It was in an excellent plump condition,
although now, no doubt, tired and hungry. The little traveller is
preserved alive, and permitted to fly about one of the cabins. It became
in a short time after its capture, very tame, perching on the head of
the person in whose cabin it had taken refuge, eating food also from the
mouth. The following morning, however, it flew away.

In the evening several of the common swallow, (_Hirundo rustica_, Linn.)
and also, from a specimen which I caught and examined, the martin
(_Hirundo urbica_, Linn.) were flying about the ship, occasionally
seeking refuge in the cuddy: they appeared strong on the wing, in
excellent plumage, and plump condition. They no doubt formed part of
a flock migrating to the British shores, where the latter are said to
arrive about the 16th of April; but the computation of the time of their
arrival cannot be mentioned with any degree of certainty. Now their
passage has probably been retarded by the long prevalence of easterly
winds; and the cold, rainy weather, may have caused the little emigrants
to seek refuge on board the ship. From calculation at noon, we were in
north latitude 50° 14′; north and west longitude 12° 40′.

The swallow is found an inhabitant of the tropical regions of the globe,
visits the northern climates during the warm months of the year, and
is regarded as the harbinger of summer; emigrating, however, with its
young, to a more congenial climate on the approach of winter. It is then
that they are met with at sea, perching, in an exhausted condition, on
the rigging and decks of ships. Being interrupted by adverse winds, they
waver in their course, spent with famine and fatigue, until the ship
affords them a temporary resting-place; from which, refreshed by a few
hours’ rest, they renew their flight. They are said to arrive in Africa
about the commencement of October, having performed their fatiguing
journey in the space of seven days.

During a passage from England to New South Wales, on the 27th of
September, 1828, several of these birds alighted in an exhausted
condition on the rigging and deck of the ship, and were readily captured.
We were at that time in latitude 13° 40′ north, and longitude 23° 20′
west. They were the _Hirundo rustica_ of Linnæus.

These birds emigrate from one tropical country to another; and during a
passage from Manilla to Singapore, through the China sea, on the 20th of
October, 1830, for several days a number of these birds were flying about
the ship; and I am inclined to suppose, derived at that period sustenance
from the flies which infested the ship, as soon afterwards but few of
those insects remained. In the evening they would roost on the rigging;
and some even took refuge for the night in the chief officer’s cabin,
which opened upon the deck, and were again set at liberty in the morning.
They became after a few days exhausted; several were found dead, and
others became so tame from fatigue and hunger, as to be easily caught,
and would afterwards remain perched on the hand, without making any
effort to regain their liberty. These were also of the species _Hirundo
rustica_ of Linnæus, which is widely distributed over the globe. We first
observed them in latitude 15° 29′ north, and longitude 117° 40′ east; and
we lost them, most having perished, in latitude 9° 30′ north, longitude
110° 45′ east, having been about the ship for thirteen days.

The question that arises is, whether in the latter instances they were
emigrating, or had been blown off the land by the westerly gales we had
experienced since leaving Manilla Bay. It may be mentioned, that as we
had at the same time numerous other land birds about the ship, the latter
supposition is not improbable.

After having been detained for several days by easterly winds, on the
29th of April we had fair breezes,—the swallows then departed, perhaps
as glad as ourselves at having some chance of terminating a long voyage.
We made the Scilly Islands on the 30th, and arrived at Gravesend on the
5th of May, 1834.




APPENDIX.




THE COCOA-NUT TREE.

(_See Page 405_, Vol. i.)


                  “The Indian’s nut alone
    Is clothing, meat and trencher, drink and can,
    Boat, cable, sail, and needle, all in one.”

Of all the trees, beautiful either in form, height, or the splendid
colour of their flowers, so profusely scattered over the face of nature
in tropical climes, perhaps none has excited more interest, both for its
elegant and majestic growth, as well as for its utility, than this palm,
producing fruit, shade, utensils, and numerous other articles, to supply
the wants of mankind. These palms impart a grandeur to the tropical
landscape; their stems, towering to a great elevation, are crowned
at the summit by elegant fronds of gigantic character; they overtop
the more diminutive trees, and excite the admiration of the traveller
by their elegant and novel appearance, decorating the sea-coasts of
large continents, and waving their dark plumes over the insignificant
coral-reefs. The cylindrical rough trunk[99] towers to an elevation of
one hundred feet, and the terminating crown of feathered fronds gives to
them an elegant appearance, more so when seen loaded with fruit in all
its different stages, from the first bursting of the spathe displaying
the delicate white fruit and minute flowers, to the huge, fully mature
nut, in bunches of from twenty to thirty, or more, the ponderous burthen
appearing to be suspended on a very fragile stalk.

The fecundity of the palms is surprising; a single spathe of the date is
said to contain about twelve thousand male flowers; _Alfonsia amygdalina_
has been computed to have two hundred and seven thousand in a spathe,
or six hundred thousand upon a single individual, while every bunch of
the Seje-palm of the Orinoco bears eight thousand fruit.[100] On the
cocoa-palm, frequently two or three hundred nuts may be seen at one
time, yielding an inexhaustible supply for the use of man at all seasons
of the year.

This palm delights in, and grows with the greatest luxuriance in the
vicinity of the sea, and is found in great perfection on the south and
west coasts of Ceylon; (giving a beautiful appearance to those coasts;)
those of Malabar and Coromandel, on the Maldive and Laccadive Islands;
those of Polynesia, where it adorns the small coral islands, as well
as those of magnitude, glowing in all the brilliancy and beauty of
tropical scenery. At Penang and Singapore I remarked these palms to be
comparatively unproductive, and they are rarely seen cultivated to any
extent.

The Singalese have a curious tradition regarding the original discovery
of the cocoa-nut tree, by a prince of the interior of the island of
Ceylon. About half-a-mile from Belligam, (a fishing hamlet on the
southern coast of Ceylon, situated between the towns of Point de Galle
and Matura, in about 80° 20′ east longitude, and 5° 30′ north latitude,)
completely concealed from view, whether approached by land or sea, by
the density of the cocoa-nut groves, is a large rock of granite, to
the left-hand on the road to Galle, which at that particular spot is
completely overshadowed by umbrageous _Jack_,[101] _Kettule_,[102] and
cocoa-nut trees, and which displays the gigantic representation of a
former prince of the interior, called “Kottah Rajah,” to the attention of
the traveller.

The figure, about sixteen or eighteen feet in height, is sculptured in
the solid rock; and, according to the Singalese tradition, the original
discovery of the cocoa-nut tree is attributed to a vision, which first
communicated to this highly-favoured rajah a knowledge of that principal
of all vegetable productions, which omnipotent wisdom and munificence has
so liberally bestowed upon the sable portion of mankind.

A Singalese king, or sovereign prince, as the term “rajah” implies, of
devout conduct and character, became suddenly afflicted with a cutaneous
disease, which covered him with a white scaly substance from head to
foot, to so great a degree as almost to deprive him of human appearance:
so very rapidly did the loathsome distemper extend its malignant
influence over the rajah’s person, that sacrifices were resorted to by
his people, in the hope of thereby appeasing the anger of the supposed
author of the rajah’s sufferings, the Maha Yaka, or great demon.

The Kottah rajah (the _image_ itself is now so styled) objected to assist
in person at any such diabolical sacrifices, and however prejudiced
his people were in the belief of their eventual efficacy, he himself
preferred humbly to submit to the decrees of that superior power from
whom alone the Maha Yaka could have derived dominion, if he really
possessed any, over the destinies of mankind. At this period, the
cocoa-nut tree was not known in the interior of Ceylon; and to this day
its scarcity is remarked by every traveller who visits the interior of
the late Kandyan territory.

The resigned, but suffering rajah, having, with all due humility, paid
his accustomed devotions, and offered sweet-smelling flowers, according
to the Budhoo religion,[103] and repeated the Budha-Sarana,[104] fell
into a sound sleep, which lasted for several days. During his trance,
he beheld a large expanse of water, which he tasted, and found it both
salt and nauseous, although of a fine green[105] colour near, and blue
in the distance; having on its margin immense groves of trees of a rare
kind, such as he had never before seen; for, instead of branches in
various directions, as other trees had in his country, a tuft of large
leaves, as they then appeared to him to be, crowned the lofty summit of
each individual tree, which, to an immense height, was totally divested
of branches or foliage.—This tradition is believed by many eminent
Tirinanses, or high priests, of Budhoo, who attach to it great antiquity.

The Kottah rajah, having awakened from his trance, felt his mind deeply
impressed with the unusual nature of his dreams; but, in the natural
excitement which the hope of his recovery encouraged, he renewed his
oblations and prayers, believing that a display of omnipotent mercy would
be the result. A Cobra de capello, the Naya of the Singalese, (_Coluber
naja_, Linn.) and sacred snake of the Budhists, shortly afterwards
approached, and, having expanded its spectacle-marked hood, raised its
head a cubit above the ground, and observed the rajah steadily for some
moments; after which, the animal, extending its blue forked tongue, and
thrice bowing its head, lapped water from the leaf in which it had been
reserved for the rajah’s particular use. Having thrice repeated the
draught, the animal, still keeping its eyes fixed on the rajah, gradually
retired to the jungle. This was conviction itself of Budhoo’s[106] favour.

Again the prince felt his eyelids grow weary; but, in his then state
of disease, he had determined to occupy no place of shelter save that
which the shady Bogaha, (_Ficus religiosa_,) the tree under which he
reposed, afforded him. No sooner had sleep a second time exerted its
magic influence, than his former vision recurred, with the additional
appearance of an aged man, whose face bore the appearance of the moon
in all its splendour. It was _Maha Sudona_, the father of the god
Budhoo,[107] who stood before the astounded rajah, and thus accosted him:—

“From ignorance of the sacredness of the ground over which the god’s
favourite tree casts its honoured shade, thou once didst omit the usual
respect due to it from all created beings. Its deeply-pointed leaf
distinguishes it above all other trees as sacred to Budhoo; and, under
another tree of the same heavenly character thou now liest a mass of
sores and ulcers, which the impurity of the red water within the large
and small rivers of thy body, has, at the great deity’s command, brought
upon thee externally. But since the snake, the kind snake, the shelterer
of the god Budhoo, when on earth, has thrice partaken of thy drink, thou
wilt derive health and long life by obeying the commands which I now bear
thee. In that direction (pointing towards the south) lies thy remedy.
One hundred hours’ journey will bring thee to those trees, which thou
shalt see in reality, and taste their fruits to thy benefit. But as on
the top only it is produced, by fire it must be obtained. The inside,
partly of transparent liquid, partly of innocent food, must be thy _sole_
diet, till thrice the Great Moon (Maha Handah) has given and refused her
light. Disease will, at the expiration of that time, leave thee; thou
wilt be clean again; but forget not, with the restoration of thy health,
(the Singalese language renders it, ‘the skin of thy flesh, renewed by
the fountains of thy life, being made red again,’) sacrifices of sweet
flowers and fruits, with much thanksgiving, to that great Brahma of
all Brahmas,[108] to whom all other gods, and even demons, pay homage,
through whose mercy and forgiveness of thy neglect and transgressions
thy bodily vigour will have been restored, and the days of thy enjoyment
in the splendour of the mighty and flaming chief ruler[109] of the moon
prolonged.”

A sound, as of ten thousand tom-toms,[110] struck at once seemed to
the delighted rajah a manifestation of the messenger’s authority. It
reverberated on his ear for hours together, after he had awakened from
his second trance; and, impressed with a belief that the invisible
powers had thus intimated a disposition to take him under their especial
protection, and that, consequently, it was his bounden duty to obey
commands so mysteriously conveyed, the rajah, placing the palms of his
hands across his forehead, and bending to the ground, prayed for strength
to act in obedience to the Ossah Pollah Dewyo, the ruler and creator of
all gods and demons, and of the flat world itself.

Having summoned his immediate followers from the various resting-places,
which they had constructed with the branches and leaves of the
neighbouring trees, by way of temporary shelter, the rajah repeated
to them the prophetic words of the divine messenger; and, having gone
through the ceremony of making a propitiatory offering under the
Bogaha-tree, of fruits, Betel-leaves, (_Piper-betel_,) and flowers of
sweet perfume, he, attended by his retinue, proceeded in a direct course
through rivers and forests, and over mountains immense, to the southward,
as directed by the Maha Sudona.

The one hundred hours’ journey having been miraculously performed without
any perceptible fatigue, either to himself or attendants, the anxiously
anticipated view of that boundless expanse of blue water, which, in his
dream, had appeared to him so beautiful, yet nauseous to the taste, and
on its margin immense groves of trees, with tufts of leaves, (for the
first time plainly perceived to be large branches,) as his visions had
foretold, gratified his astonished, but delighted sight. Beneath the
branches, sheltered from the vertical sun, hung large clusters of fruit,
much larger than he had ever seen in his own country of the interior, of
green, yellow, and red[111] colours, and others apparently black.

There were no human beings on the coast; but wild beasts, such as
leopards, bears, sloths, and elephants innumerable. To climb the
cocoa-nut tree, (the promised source of health,) was then unknown, and
considered beyond the power of mortal man; but, as fire had been pointed
out as the means of obtaining its fruit, the rajah’s followers procured
two dry sticks, which having prepared, by pointing the end of one, and
making a small hole in the middle of the other, for the reception of the
pointed stick, friction produced fire, which was immediately increased,
by the application of dried leaves to the emitted flame.

Scarcely had an hour elapsed, after the fire had been kindled that was to
fell the pride of the coast and the most valuable boon of nature to the
Indian world, ere, with a tremendous crash, it became prostrate upon the
earth, whence, from its capacious and verdant crest, crept out creatures
innumerable: large blue scorpions, brown and yellow centipedes, snakes
of various hues, from the Polonga to the less dreadful rat-snake; blue,
black, green, and yellow beetles; tarantulas, and other spiders, of all
sorts and sizes and colours; whilst, running from branch to branch, the
detested rat seemed to imitate the motions and equal in agility the
beautiful tri-striped squirrel, or lena of this paradise, (as the glad
rajah and his suite at that time considered it,) of the universe.

The novel fruit was, at first with some difficulty, opened; but the
rajah’s superstitions were more powerful than even the effects of hunger
itself. With awe, he approached the beach, over which wave followed wave
in quick succession; whilst the surf beat with violence against the roots
of those stately trees, which seemed to thrive best where no other tree
of any utility whatever could survive even a temporary sprinkling from
the briny spray.

Mute with astonishment at the vast expanse of ocean, which he then for
the first time approached, the rajah bent to taste the liquid aliment.
It was as his vision prognosticated. Again his wonder was increased;
but his faith had kept pace with it, in the full belief, that “ere the
great moon had thrice given and refused her light,” he would be cleansed
from his foul distemper; and his disrespectful demeanor under the sacred
Bogaha, which had originally drawn down upon him the anger of the
“All-seeing,”[112] be forgiven.

Having once commenced, the rajah and his followers continued to live on
the prescribed diet. The former, in obedience to the commands of Budhoo,
by the Maha Sudona; and the latter, from necessity, there being none of
their accustomed fruits, rice, or roots to be met with so near the ocean.
They found the water[113] within the nuts sweet and delicious, and pure
as crystal itself, (of which mineral their country produced abundant
varieties,) whilst the fleshy part of it was a cooling and satisfying
food.

The prescribed time rolled on; and day after day convinced the delighted
followers of their suffering prince, that truth came from above. The
rajah gradually lost the white and scaly skin, which had enveloped him
like the armour of the great ant-eater of the interior;[114] whilst the
glow of heat which pervaded his extremities, convinced him of the near
approach of his promised recovery. Thankful to his great preserver, he
omitted not to perform the duties which in his visions had been dictated
to him; and on the first stone, which appeared durable and beyond the
reach of the sea, in token of his gratitude, he, with the assistance of
his followers, carved on the granite rock (“which you now see,” is added
by the narrator) a gigantic statue of himself; remarking, that its great
height would show the wonderful recovery he had experienced, being a very
little man in stature; “for he had risen, by the blessing of the god of
all gods, to an undeserved height of happiness and bodily vigour; the
memorial of which would thus be handed down to millions yet unborn.”

Numerous families, from the high[115] country of the interior, soon
afterwards emigrated to the sea coast; for it had become an imperious
duty on the part of the rajah, on whom a miraculous cure had been
so unexpectedly wrought by the fruit of the cocoa-nut tree, to give
publicity to the circumstances which originally introduced to him and
his followers a knowledge of that splendid production; whilst the
conviction of its transcendent utility pointed out its propagation as a
never-failing source of individual advantage and of progressive national
prosperity.

This useful tree is of the Monoecious class, order Hexandria, and is the
Cocos[116] nucifera of Linnæus: it is called Haari by the Tahitans,
Polgaha by the Singalese. The varieties of the cocoa-nut are numerous
at Tahiti, (one of the Society Islands.) I am acquainted with six, each
having a distinct appellation by the natives. At Ceylon, five varieties
are indigenous; but are seldom, if ever, found in the same plantation,
except it be in the vicinity of a Budhoo temple of some importance. The
first, or King cocoa-nut may be well known to those who have resided in
Ceylon: its bright orange colour, and somewhat oval shape, cannot fail to
attract notice, and is usually presented to respectable Europeans, by the
Modeliars, or by the priests, as a compliment to those whose curiosity
may have induced a visit to the shrine of Budhoo. This variety is the
Tembili of the Singalese, and they have of it three sub-varieties. The
second is of a similar colour to the preceding, but of a more spherical
shape. The third is of a pale yellow, and rather heart-shaped: it is
the _Nawasi_, or edible husk, and has the peculiar quality, that after
the epidermis has been removed, the inner rind turns to a pale red, and
is edible. The fourth is the common cocoa-nut, which is in general use,
and the one most known. The fifth is a species of Maldivia, or dwarf
cocoa-nut, about the size of a turkey’s egg, which being rare, is more
esteemed as a curiosity than for any peculiar good quality it possesses.

The elevation[117] this tree attains is from sixty to one hundred feet,
and a diameter of one or two feet; its cylindrical stem, crowned on the
summit with numerous waving, plumy branches, has a splendid effect, and
forms an elegant object of intertropical scenery: it is seen on the arid,
sandy shores, with its roots laved by the surges, as well as in the rich
valleys, overshadowing the huts of the natives; but when this valuable
tree is found growing inland, they are inferior in size to those on
the sea-shore and about the dwellings of natives. The Singalese have a
saying, that cocoa-nut trees do not thrive unless “you walk amongst them,
and talk amongst them.”[118]

The cocoa-nuts intended for planting are fully ripe, and being taken
down, are laid aside for several days: they are then taken, and being
partially covered with earth, they are left for two or three months; in
which time a white, spongy, sweet substance forms in the interior of
the nut; after which the white shoot (the rudiment of the future tree)
emerges from one of the three holes, (which are seen at one end of the
nut, wisely provided by nature for this purpose,) pierces the nut, and
rising to the height of a few inches, the foliaceous rudiments are
distinctly to be perceived;[119] the radicles emerge from the other two
orifices, in a direction opposite to the shoot, and penetrate the ground.
In the course of four or five months, the plant will have attained the
height of sixteen or eighteen inches, and have thrown out three or four
foliaceous branches. The Singalese plant their _topes_,[120] or groves,
with great regularity, the distance observed between the plants being
twelve or eighteen feet. The cocoa-nuts are never planted until they
have sprouted, and the young plant even attained the elevation of three
feet or more; the natives, therefore, usually keep the nuts intended for
planting about their houses, until they are considered to be of growth
sufficient to plant. At the Island of Rótuma, South Pacific Ocean, I
have seen them ranged along in great numbers before the huts, the young
plants growing luxuriantly from the nuts, but as yet unplanted. At this
island the cocoa-nut tree is planted abundantly, and covers the island
profusely, from the margin of the beach to the summits of the hills,
giving a beautiful appearance to this small but fertile island. In time
of sickness the natives often make use of the young cocoa-nut trees as
offerings to the supposed offended spirits.

For the first three or four years, the young plants are fenced, to
protect them from the depredations of hogs, &c. to whom the young,
delicate leaves would form a tempting morsel. In five or six years,
(if the tree is planted in a healthy situation,) the tree will have
attained an elevation, probably, of eight feet; and at that time the
enormous size of its fronds are more conspicuous than when the tree has
obtained its full elevation: it then usually commences to bear fruit,
and continues for sixty years to yield it in abundance; but beyond that
period, the produce begins decreasing, until it ceases altogether.

The wood of this tree is used for various purposes: among the Polynesians
it is used for spears, rafters for their huts, fences &c.; and it also
makes excellent charcoal. When the tree has ceased to bear, it is most
valuable, and is imported into the European markets under the name of
_porcupine wood_. Among the Singalese it is used for rafters, laths,
shingles, chairs, ladies’ work-boxes, &c.; but during the period of its
most abundant bearing, (considered to be between ten and thirty-five
years’ growth,) the heart is of so soft and spongy a nature, that it is
merely used for fences, water-pipes, &c.

The fronds are from eighteen to twenty feet long, and composed of a
strong, tough stalk, diminishing from the base, and has a number of
narrow leaflets[121] ranged on each side. The Singalese split the
fronds in halves, and plait the leaflets neatly, so as to make excellent
baskets; and, under the denomination of cadjans, form the usual covering
of their huts, as well as the European bungalows. Many of the natives’
huts are constructed there, as well as in Polynesia, almost entirely of
materials derived from the cocoa-nut tree.

The Tahitans also plait the branches (_niau_) for screens, or a covering
for the floors; for similar purposes, and also as a thatch for the huts,
it is also used by the natives of the islands of Rótuma, Tongatabu,[122]
and other of the Polynesian islands. The Tahitans call these screens
_paua_, and they also manufacture neat baskets, one kind of which is
called _arairi_, and another kind of basket called _oini_; a shade for
their eyes, called _tapo niau_, is made of the plaited leaves, and
placed by the natives over the eyes to protect them from the unpleasant
solar reflection from their sandy roads and beaches; the yellow leaves
(_rau-para_) are preferred for the purpose, their colour being much
admired. The leaves were used in many of the religious ceremonies of
the Tahitans, and was also an emblem of authority; it was sent by the
chief to his dependents when any requisition was made: through the
cocoa-nut leaf, tied to the sacrifice, the god was supposed to enter;
and by the same road the evil spirits, who, it was imagined, tormented
those affected with diseases, were driven out. Bunches or strings of the
leaflets were also suspended in the temple on certain occasions, and
answered the same purpose as beads in Roman Catholic worship, reminding
the priest, or the worshipper, of the order of his prayers.[123]

The heart, or very young foliaceous fronds of this tree, is called the
cabbage, which is an excellent vegetable, either cooked or dressed, in
stews, hashes, or ragouts.[124] The Singalese use the dried fronds as
torches, both for themselves during the dark nights, or to carry before
the carriages and palanquins of Europeans; they also use the spathe for a
similar purpose, as well as for fuel; and at Rótuma and other Polynesian
islands it is also adopted for a like purpose. At Tongatabu (one of
the Friendly Islands) combs are made by the women of the midrib of the
leaflets of the cocoa-nut tree, the upper part being beautifully worked
with the fibre of the husk of the cocoa-nut, or Bulu; these combs, from
their neat and ornamental appearance, were in great requisition during
the time I visited that interesting island, and all the women were busily
employed during the stay of the ship in making these combs, which they
readily exchanged with the Papalangi[125] (foreign) officers and crew for
trifling articles. The combs were stained by the bark of the Koka-tree,
of a dark reddish colour, intended as a rude imitation of tortoiseshell.

There is one portion of this valuable tree which attracts much the
attention of the observer,—it is a kind of net-work; when very young
it is delicate, beautifully white, and transparent, and is seen at
the bases of the young fronds; but as the frond attains maturity, this
natural matting becomes coarser and tough, and changes to a brown
colour;[126] it may be stripped off the tree in large pieces, which are
used in Ceylon as strainers, particularly for the toddy, which is usually
full of impurities when recently taken from the tree, as its sweetness
attracts insects innumerable. In most countries which I have visited,
where this valuable tree is produced, this portion of it is used for a
similar purpose. At the island of Tahiti (Otaheite) it is called _Aa_;
and besides being used as sieves for straining arrow-root, cocoa-nut
oil, &c., the natives, when engaged in such occupations as digging,
fishing, &c., in order to save their bark cloth, would join several
portions of this net-work together, and having a hole in the centre, in
a manner similar to their mat-garment, called Tiabuta, wear it as an
article of apparel, merely for the time in which they may be engaged in
those occupations. It is certainly a garment, neither to be admired for
its flexibility or firmness, but better calculated for fishermen, or
those occupied in the water, as it will not be destroyed by wet, whereas
their bark cloth would be utterly destroyed in the water, its substance
resembling paper, both in strength and appearance.[127]

This fibrous net-work must also act as a security to the huge fronds,
against the violence of the winds; and a valuable precaution, by which
the sudden fall of the branch is prevented, which otherwise might
endanger the lives of those passing under the trees; it is not uncommon
to see the dead branches hanging from the trees perfectly dry, attached
to the trunk only by this tenacious substance, and even then it requires
no little muscular exertion to bring them down.

When a large bunch of the fruit is seen pending from, apparently, so
fragile a stalk, it seems as if it were an impossibility that it could
support such a cluster; from twelve to twenty large nuts, besides
several small, unproductive nuts, may be seen on each bunch, and in good
situations the tree will admit of the fruit being gathered four or five
times in the course of the year. The state in which the fruit is most
used as an article of food, both meat and drink, is the green or young
cocoa-nut, (Oua of the Tahitans, Koroomba of the Singalese,) at which
time it yields an abundance of a delicious, cooling beverage, to which,
sometimes, Madeira wine, brandy, &c. is added. The water, beautifully
clear, has a sweetness, with a slight degree of astringency which renders
it very agreeable; this liquid has been erroneously considered by most
persons as injurious, producing a predisposition to dropsical complaints,
and has been considered among the Tahitans one of the exciting causes of
that prevalent disease amongst them termed _féfé_ or _elephantiasis_; but
I have recommended and adopted this cooling beverage during my frequent
and long visits to intertropical countries, and have always found it
the most cooling and refreshing beverage during my botanical and other
excursions; but when an immoderate quantity is drunk, I have known a
slight degree of strangury produced by it. The ladies, however, who may
fear taking it internally, are informed that to the water of the green
cocoa-nut is ascribed that inestimable property, to them, of clearing the
face of all wrinkles and imperfections whatever, and imparting to it the
rosy tints of youthful days!

In Ceylon, house-plasterers use the water of the green cocoa-nut, to
which they attribute an adhesive quality in their white and other washes,
in which Chunam[128] forms a chief ingredient for the walls of houses,
&c. &c.; and the shells of the green cocoa-nut,[129] fixed on stakes, are
used as illumination lamps for roads, trees, &c. The pulp in the interior
of the young nut is very delicate, easily removed from the shell with
a spoon, and may very well be named a vegetable _blanc mange_; in this
state it is called _niaa_ by the Tahitans, who use it as well as the
natives of other of the Polynesian Islands, in several made dishes. After
the fruit is suffered to remain a short time longer, and the pulp becomes
firmer, the Tahitans change the name to _Omato_, and the fully ripe nut
is called _Opaa_; in this state it is sometimes but seldom eaten, being
used principally for making oil, and contains a small quantity of oily
milk; it is in this state the nuts are seen and sold in England. In
Ceylon, when the nut is fully ripe, it is denominated by the Singalese
_Pol_, or _Curry cocoa-nut_, the kernel of which is reduced to a very
small size by an instrument called _Hiromane_; (a circle of notched iron
fastened to the raised end of a piece of wood;) the kernel thus reduced
is placed in a cloth, and water being poured on it, a white juice, which
may with propriety be termed “cocoa-nut milk,” is extracted by pressure,
and used invariably, either with or without the grated kernel, in their
various curries and mulligatawnies.

I have never met with the water contained in a cocoa-nut of a brackish
taste, as has been asserted, although the tree from which it had
been produced had its roots laved by the sprays of the ocean. Mr.
Finlayson[130] says, respecting some plantations of cocoa-nut trees,
which surrounded a village situated on Pulo Condore, at the extremity of
a plain, that “although they grow in great abundance, they are rather
stunted in the stem, and their fruit, as well as the fluid it contains,
has a peculiar and rather bitter taste.”

The shells of the cocoa-nut, when fully ripe, are of a tolerable
thickness, and great hardness; they are cut transversely, scraped,
polished, and mounted on silver, being edged also with the same metal,
and are preserved as goblets, more for curiosity than utility; but the
shell is also used for cups, (elegantly carved,) lamps, ladles, skimmers,
spoons, &c.; they are used by the Polynesians, as well as other natives,
entire, for containing their water, having two holes on the summit. The
interior of the nut is extracted without breaking the shell, by filling
it with salt-water, after which it is buried for some time in the sand,
when the inside pulp becomes decayed, and the shell is then well washed
out. The largest nuts are chosen for the purpose, and are often seen
highly polished, and of a fine black colour. The cups of the natives are
usually made of sections of the cocoa-nut in that stage of ripeness,
when they are denominated by the Tahitans _Omutu_; they are then scraped
so thin as to be nearly transparent, and are of a light-brown colour.
The shells will make good lamp-black, and, reduced to charcoal and
pulverized, also an excellent dentifrice.

The flowers are insignificant when the magnitude of the tree is
considered, and are inclosed in a thick, tough spathe, which, when either
opened artificially, or when seen just expanding naturally, have a
beautiful milk-white appearance. The Tahitans call the flower _Tiari_,
a name applied generally to all flowers; and the spathe is denominated
_Pa tiari_; _Pa_ signifying a shell or any thing hard, sometimes applied
to the shell of the cocoa-nut; and the spathe is thus considered the
shell of the flowers. The first appearance of these flowers on a tree of
moderate elevation (when they are well seen) has an elegant effect—the
cluster erect, drooping, and delicately white. The taste of the flowers
is most powerfully astringent, and in Ceylon is used medicinally in
various debilitating diseases, more particularly that distressing malady
in tropical climates—gonorrhœa. The mode in which it is administered
is the expressed juice of the flower mixed with new milk, and taken in
small quantities not exceeding a wine-glass full, but at regular periods,
affords almost immediate temporary relief, and, if persevered in,
effectual cure. It is from these flower spathes, before the flowers have
yet expanded, that the delicious beverage, known to Europeans as toddy
or palm-wine is made;[131] it is called by the Singalese _Ra_, and the
Hindoo Portuguese _Soura_, but is unknown to the natives of Polynesia,
although at some of the islands Europeans, who have visited those parts
of India where they had seen the process of collecting it, had commenced
instructing the natives, who were delighted to have a beverage possessing
the stimulus of their favourite rum.

To procure the toddy[132] the spathe is tied with stripes of the
milk-white leaves of the very young branches, (which are much tougher and
stronger than the old ones,) to prevent its expansion; it is cut a little
transversely from the top, and beaten either with the handle of the
toddy knife or a small piece of ebony or iron wood; this process having
been continued morning and evening (at dawn of day, and just as the sun
declines below the horizon) for five or six successive days, the under
part of the spathe is taken off, so as to permit of its being gradually
bent, when the Chandos or toddy-drawers, for the purpose of keeping
it in that position, attach it to some neighbouring branch. After a
farther period of five days an earthen chatty or calabash is hung to the
spathe, so as to receive the toddy that exudes, which is collected every
morning and evening, and the spathe cut a little every day: the quantity
collected varies much.

The toddy should be drunk at sunrise, when it is a most delicious drink,
having a slightly stimulating effect, and acting as a gentle aperient, a
remedy admirably adapted for constipated habits, particularly in those of
delicate constitutions. The Singalese prefer it after fermentation has
taken place, and with it they often intoxicate themselves. Fermentation
takes place in a few hours after the toddy has been collected, and is
used by the bakers as yeast, the bread made with it being remarkably
light. Toddy is seldom or never used by Europeans during the rainy
season, being then regarded highly unwholesome. I have often found the
toddy in Ceylon, and a refreshing bath before or just on the eve of
sunrise, cooling, and it braces one up to go through the heat of the day
in that sultry, debilitating climate.

The spirit known in India by the name of _arrack_, or _rack_, is in
several parts distilled from rice; but in Ceylon, where this spirit is
named Pol, wakéré, it is distilled from toddy after it has undergone
fermentation and become quite sour. One hundred gallons of toddy, it is
stated, will produce, by distillation, twenty-five of arrack. Like all
other spirits, when new, it is regarded injurious to the constitution,
but when old, very wholesome. It is a favourite spirit among the drinkers
of that far-famed English beverage, named punch.

Toddy, besides the foregoing uses, makes excellent vinegar,[133] &c. The
toddy-drawers are a separate caste in Ceylon, called Chandos: almost all
the families of this class reside in the neighbourhood of the sea-coast,
where the trees grow in the greatest luxuriance and abundance, the
whole line of coast between Point de Galle and Colombo being thickly
planted with them; and the topes or groves are let at a stipulated sum
of rix-dollars by the month; and it is also not uncommon for one or
two families or more to have a share in a single tree, affording them
sufficient for their favourite and universal food, the currie.

Besides vinegar, arrack, &c., the toddy yields abundance of jaggery or
sugar. The toddy, being collected in a calabash, as before mentioned,
in which a few pieces of the bark of the Allghas (_Hellenia Allughas_,
Linn.) had been placed, a supply of sweet toddy is procured mornings and
evenings; but particular care is required that the vessels be regularly
changed, and that none are employed unless they have been well cleaned
and dried. Eight gallons of sweet toddy, boiled over a slow fire, yield
two gallons of a very luscious liquid, called Penni, or honey, or
jaggery, or sugar-water; which quantity, being again boiled, a species
of coarse brown sugar, called jaggery, which is formed into round
cakes, and dried in the smoke of the huts; and, in order to preserve it
free from humidity, each cake of jaggery is tied up in pieces of dried
banana leaves, separately, and kept in smoky places, unless required for
family use or the market. Jaggery is exported from Ceylon to various
parts of India. In the interior a jaggery is drawn from the Kittul
tree, the _Caryota urens_ of Linnæus, and is considered to possess more
saccharine properties than that produced from the _Cocos nucifera_. The
jaggery-makers are called in Ceylon _Hakuroos_, and are one of the
subdivisions of the second in rank of the Singalese castes.

The rind or husk of the cocoa-nut[134] is very fibrous, and, when ripe,
is the Koya or Koir of commerce. It is prepared by being soaked for some
months in water, washed, beaten to pieces, and then laid in the sun to
dry. This being effected, it is again well beaten until the fibres are
so separated as to allow of their being worked up like hemp, similar to
which it is made up in ropes of any size from the smallest cord to the
largest cable, but will not receive tar; it is rough to handle, and has
not so neat an appearance about the rigging of shipping as that made
from hemp, but surpasses the latter in lightness and elasticity, and
even, it is said, durability; more so if wetted frequently by salt-water.
From its elasticity it is valuable for cables, enabling a ship to ride
easier than with a hemp or even chain cable. I was once on board a ship,
in a severe gale, when chain and hemp cables gave way; and we, at last,
most unexpectedly rode the gale out with a small coir-cable. Among the
Polynesian islands, where this valuable tree rears its elegant crest,
the coir is used in the manufacture of “sinnet,” some of which is
beautifully braided, and used by the natives for a variety of useful
purposes, and at Tahiti is called Napé. At Tonga, (one of the Friendly
Islands,) the natives dye the “sinnet,” called _Kafa_, of various
colours, using it in tying the rafters of the huts, &c. and it has a very
ornamental appearance. The rope for their canvas is all manufactured from
this substance. The husk, from which the fibrous substance has not been
separated, is used in Ceylon in lieu of scrubbing-brushes for the floor;
and also brooms, mats, and bags are manufactured from it. A quantity of
coir cordage, such as cables, hawsers, &c., is exported annually from
Ceylon to various parts of the globe. At the Pulowat Islands, (Carolina
Group, South Pacific Ocean,) we purchased an abundance of cordage, an
inch and one and a half inch in diameter, for merely pieces of iron
hoop.[135]

From the trunk of the cocoa-nut tree the Tahitans extract a gummy
substance, called by them Pia, pia; it possesses no fragrant property,
but is used by the native females to spread over their hair, in the same
manner that they are accustomed to use the viscid gum of the bread-fruit
tree.

Mariner mentions the charm at the Tonga islands of _Ta Niu_, which
consists in spinning a cocoa-nut with the husk on, and judging, by
the direction of the upper part when again at rest, of the object of
inquiry, which is chiefly whether a sick person will recover: for this
purpose, the nut being placed on the ground, a relation of the sick
person determines that if the nut, when again at rest, points to such a
quarter—the east for example—the sick man will recover; he then prays
aloud to the patron god of the family, that he will be pleased to direct
the nut, so that it may indicate the truth. The nut being next spun, the
result is attended to with confidence, at least with a full conviction
that it will truly declare the intentions of the gods at the time.

The other occasions on which the spinning of a cocoa-nut is used, are
chiefly for amusement, and then no prayer is made, and no degree of
credit is attached to the result. The women often spin a cocoa-nut to
decide some dispute at a game.

Another valuable production of the cocoa-nut is the oil, which is a
valuable article of exportation from Ceylon, and other parts of India,
Polynesia, &c. It is used in various articles of domestic economy,
besides being an excellent burning oil, (for which it is much admired,
giving out neither smoke nor smell when burning, and having a clear
bright flame,) it has since had an additional value, and more extended
use at home, by the discovery of its capability of being manufactured
into candles, rivalling wax or spermaceti, at the same time without
being much higher in price than those of tallow. Soap has also been
manufactured from it; and it is lavished by the Asiatics, Polynesians,
and other intertropical natives, over their persons, and at Tongatabu,
and other of the Polynesian islands, is used scented with sandal-wood and
odoriferous flowers, giving a delightful fragrance to the flowing tresses
and elegant persons of the dark beauties of those fascinating islands. In
cold weather, (similar to most of the vegetable oils,) this oil becomes
very hard, and requires to be melted before it can be used for burning.

The singular method of making the oil is very simple. The nut having been
removed from the shell, is boiled in water for a short period; it is then
pounded in a large mortar, taken out, and pressed. The _milk_, as it is
called, is then boiled over a slow fire, when the oil floats on the top,
which being skimmed off, and afterwards boiled by itself, two quarts of
oil may be procured from fourteen or fifteen cocoa-nuts. When fresh,
the oil is used in cookery, and has an excellent flavour; the Singalese
anoint their bodies with it after bathing, and invariably use it for the
sake of giving a glossy and smooth appearance to the hair, and it is in
great requisition by both sexes.

The remains of the cocoa-nut, from which the oil has been extracted,
is called by the Singalese _Poonak_, and the best _Poonak_ is obtained
when the oil is extracted by pressure; it is an excellent food for pigs,
poultry, &c. This substance is termed by the Tahitans _Ota_, and by the
natives of Tongatabu _Efeniu_, and they use it also for fattening their
pigs, poultry, &c. as also at the other Polynesian islands.

At Tahiti they procure the _Morii_, or oil from the nuts, by first
grating the kernel, then depositing it in the hollow trunk of a tree, or
some kind of hollow vessel, which is exposed to the sun during the day.
After a few days have elapsed, the grated nut is heaped up in the trough
or vessel, leaving a space between the heaps, the oil exuding drains into
the hollow spaces, from whence it is collected by the natives into large
bamboo canes; (containing each a gallon, or more;) in this way it is sold
for shipping, or rather exchanged for axes, cotton, cloth, or rum; but
the indolence of the natives prevents its being so important an article
of traffic as it might be in the South Seas.

Sometimes the Tahitans, after the oil ceases to collect in the vessel,
put the kernel into a bag, and submit it to the action of pressure by a
rude lever press; but the oil thus obtained is considered inferior to
that procured by the heat of the sun.

The Malabar method of extracting oil, is, by dividing the kernel into two
equal parts, which are ranged on shelves made of laths of the Areka palm,
or split bamboo, spaces being left between each lath of half an inch in
width; under them a charcoal fire is then made, and kept up for about two
or three days, in order to dry them. After this process they are exposed
to the sun on mats, and when thoroughly dried (then called Koppera) are
placed in an oil press, or Siccoor. The Malabars have a caste of oil
pressers, called the Waany caste.

At Colombo (island of Ceylon) there is a government steam-engine, which
was erected in 1815, for the purpose of extracting the oil from the nut
in much larger quantities, and with greater facility than before. Ceylon
furnishes an abundance of cocoa-nut oil, much is used in the colony, and
a large quantity is also exported to Europe. In Ceylon the average price
is from thirteen to fifteen pence per gallon.

There are medicinal properties attributed to different parts of the
cocoa-nut tree in Ceylon; the root (the Tumu Haari of the natives of
Tahiti) is used by the native doctors, small pieces of it being boiled
with dried ginger and jaggery, and the decoction given at stated
regular periods, and is considered highly efficacious in remittent and
intermittent fevers. When this decoction is used as a gargle, it is mixed
with the fresh oil of the nut, and generally affords considerable relief
to the patient; and has good effect, it is said, in cases where pustules
have formed in the mouth or tonsils. The expressed juice of the leaves,
mixed with the fresh oil of the nut, is considered a sovereign remedy
in hemorrhoids. The expressed juice of the nut, used as an external
application, mixed with new milk, is regarded by the Singalese as a good
remedy for ophthalmic complaints.

It has been asserted, I believe by Lord Valentia, that cocoa-nut trees
were injurious to the air in the places where they grew. Dr. Davy
notices this in his excellent work on Ceylon, and says, “Respecting the
good effect of the wind from the sea, there can be no doubt; and almost
as little can be entertained respecting the ameliorating effect of
cultivation, and the benefit derived from the shade of cultivated trees.
Unfortunate would it be for the island, were the notions of a noble
traveller on this subject correct, or were his suggestions, founded on
these notions, carried into execution; who, supposing cocoa-nut trees
to be injurious to the air, has recommended the destruction of those
fine groves in the neighbourhood of Galle, with the idea of improving
the wholesomeness of a place already remarkably wholesome. It was from
notions similar to this, not long after we had possession of Trincomalie,
that the majority of the cocoa-nut trees at that place were cut down,
to the great detriment of the inhabitants, and to the deterioration
rather than the improvement of the air. It is well established, and ought
never to be forgotten, that it is not shade that is prejudicial in a hot
climate; that it is not vigorous healthy vegetation that is noxious;
but the accumulation of dead vegetable matter and its putrefaction;
and that whilst every means are taken to prevent the latter, too much
encouragement cannot be given to promote the former.”

It is interesting to see the natives ascend this lofty palm, to gather
its fruit: they simply fasten a piece of bark round their feet, leaving
between them a space of a few inches; they then clasp the tree, and
ascend with great agility. In throwing down the nuts, a whirling motion
is usually given to prevent their falling on the side, by which they may
be burst.

The natives of the island of Tahiti, in one of their traditions, ascribe
the origin of the cocoa-nut to its having grown from the head of a man:
they have similar traditions for the origin of the bread-fruit, yams, &c.
&c.

There are other species of the cocoas. The _C. butyracea_, a native of
South America, the _C. guiniensis_, _aculeata_, _nypa_, &c. &c. all of
which yield a fixed oil in use for various purposes.

Lionel Wafer, (1685,) when at the Island Cocoas, southern Pacific
Ocean, (latitude 5° 15′ north,) attributes injurious effects to an
indiscriminate use of the water of the cocoa-nut by some of his crew, by
which that beverage was found unfit for a _jollification_; for he says,
“Nor did we spare the cocoa-nuts, eating what we would, and drinking the
milk; carried several hundreds of them on board. Some or other of our
men went ashore every day; and one day, among the rest, being minded
to make themselves very merry, they went ashore, and cut down a great
many cocoa-trees, from which they gathered the fruit, and drew about
twenty gallons of milk. Then they all sat down, and drank healths to the
king, queen, &c. They drank an excessive quantity; yet it did not end
in drunkenness. But, however, that sort of liquor had so chilled and
benumbed their nerves, that they could neither go nor stand; nor could
they return on board the ship, without the help of those who had not been
partakers in the frolic; nor did they recover it under four or five days’
time.”

The continued use of the water contained in the young or green
cocoa-nuts, is one of the causes attributed, (although I am inclined to
consider it an erroneous opinion,) to produce the scrotal enlargements,
&c. so often seen among natives of intertropical regions, more
particularly those resident on the coast.

In a letter published in the Sydney Herald, of January 14th 1833, it is
said, “The natives of Tahiti alone, make forty or fifty tons of cocoa-nut
oil in the year, and all the other islands of the groups make an equal
proportion. They sell it for calico, that costs about twopence-halfpenny
per yard in England, and receive a fathom for four or five gallons. But
the owners of vessels from this colony, (New South Wales,) find something
more lucrative for their shipping than sending them to the islands, and
the natives are discouraged at having no trade. The indigenous arrow-root
remains undug, and the cocoa-nuts fall to the ground, and rot.” That the
quantity of oil mentioned in the foregoing extract could be made, and
even a much larger quantity, I do not doubt; but that it would pay a
vessel to proceed from Sydney to the islands, I have my doubts: indeed it
has been tried, and found a losing speculation,—native indolence causing
much delay to the vessel; as, at one time they have a quantity of oil
ready, at other times they are too indolent to manufacture any. Sending
a vessel down, therefore, to the islands, is a risk, and as such it is
well known to several of the Sydney merchants, although now and then
good cargoes have been returned. With industry, however, those valuable
and beautiful islands could produce abundance of cocoa-nut oil, sugar,
arrow-root, and other articles of equal value; but, under the present
state of things, I have not very sanguine hopes.

    _The names of the Cocoa-nut, and portions of the trees in
    different countries, where it is found indigenous._

    Cocoa-nut—Niu—Society, Friendly, and Fidge Sandwich Islands,
    Rótuma, Annatom, Tanna, and Immer, (New Hebrides group.)
    Society Islands Tumu haari, root of the cocoa-nut tree; leaf
    of the cocoa-palm, Niau; stalk in the centre of the leaflet,
    Niu. (This part tied up in bundles, forms excellent brooms
    for ships’ decks.) The fallen unripe fruit, Poniu; cocoa-nut,
    nearly ripe, Omato; unctuous part of the kernel, Haro;
    coagulated, or old milk of the nut, Utu; outward covering of
    the nut, Iri Haari; the hard shell, Abu Haari. At the Tonga
    Islands:—The plaited fronds, for thatching houses, &c., Baula;
    husk of the cocoa-nut, Bulu; a shell, husk, &c., Gnedji;
    cocoa-nut shells, Gnedji niu; a kind of cocoa-nut, the husk of
    which is eaten, Gnono-gnóno; a very young cocoa-nut, Gnonu;
    large cocoa-nut shells, for water, Hohoni; a cup, or cocoa-nut
    shell for drinking out of, Ibu; the oil, emulsion of the
    cocoa-nut, Loloi.

This palm is widely spread over tropical regions; even a small islet just
appearing above the surface of the “great waters,” is usually decorated
by several, although yet uninhabited; the tough, thick covering of the
nut protects the germ whilst it floats on the briny wave, borne by
the currents to a barren spot, on which it germinates, and, its fruit
falling, again springs up, until a magnificent grove decorates the
before-barren islet, delighting the eye, and affording refreshment to the
wearied navigator. Ifelue Island, and numerous others in the southern
Pacific Ocean, are instances of this wonderful provision of nature.

At the Marquesas and Washington Islands, “the _Tahunas_, or priests,
have a distinctive dress, consisting of a cap, formed from a cocoa-nut
leaf. A part of the stem, six or eight inches in length, is placed
perpendicularly over the forehead, and the leaflets still attached to it,
are passed round the head, on each side, and neatly fastened together
behind.

“Besides this article on the head, they wear a cape of the same material.
In this the stem is split till within an inch or two of one of the ends:
it is then passed round the neck, so that the extremities rest on each
shoulder, and the separated ends are tied together. The ribs running
through the leaflets being taken out, they hang over the chest and back.

“These articles are usually worn by them on ordinary occasions,
and always when in discharge of the services connected with their
office.”[136]

At the same islands, one of their traditions gives an account of the
introduction of the cocoa-nut tree. It is, “that a god, on a visit to
them from an island which they call _Oatamaaua_, finding them destitute
of this important tree, fetched it to them in a stone canoe: the
whole transaction being described in a minute and equally incredible
manner.”[137]

Among the articles brought off to the ships for barter at the Island of
Tongatabu, were small calabashes, (fruit of _Melodinus scandens_,) filled
with cocoa-nut oil perfumed by the sandal-wood, or various sweet-scented
flowers, indigenous to the island. With this oil both the males and
females anoint the upper parts of the body very profusely, giving a
softness and glossiness to their dark-brown skins, and preventing the
fervid rays of the sun from having any effect upon them, exposed as their
naked bodies are to its influence.

The Papuas of New Guinea “in general wear a thin stuff that comes from
the cocoa-nut tree, and resembles a coarse kind of cloth, tied forward
round the middle, and up behind between the thighs.”[138]

The outer coarse fibres of the husk of the cocoa-nut, is made into a kind
of rope, called Talie, api, or fire-rope, by the Javanese: it retains the
fire for a long time, and is used in Batavia for lighting cigars.

The sinnet, made from the inner fibre of the husk of the cocoa-nut, can
be procured in abundance at the island of Tongatabu, and other islands
in the Polynesian Archipelago, where it is used for canoes, binding the
rafters of their houses, and a variety of other purposes, both ornamental
and useful.




REMARKS ON THE MORBID APPETITE OF BREEDING EWES, IN SEVERAL PARTS OF
THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, MORE PARTICULARLY OBSERVED ABOUT THE
MURRUMBIDGEE COUNTRY, OCCASIONED BY EATING EARTH IMPREGNATED WITH SOME
ALKALINE SALTS.

(_See Page 220_, Vol. i.)


On account of the morbid appetite existing in the sheep, which I am about
to relate, their natural innocent dispositions are changed; they become
carnivorous and savage; and it is difficult to drive them away from the
pits in which earth impregnated with alkaline salts may be situated;
although, when taken to a _fresh run_, they proceed feeding as usual,
until this salt earth is again discovered, when they became addicted to
the unnatural custom of devouring their lambs. On discovering one of the
pits, they rush to it with the activity of deer, licking and gnawing the
earth with avidity.

Among breeding-ewes, eating the earth was followed by their devouring
the progeny of the other ewes, when brought forth; and, on the shepherds
endeavouring to save the lambs just born from their voracity, they would
rush upon them, biting their trowsers, and making strenuous efforts to
seize the lambs in the arms of the men.

The different places about the Murrumbidgee country, where this took
place, was shown me during my visit to that part of the colony. One place
was a black bog earth, on which marks of the tongues of the animals, at
those places where they had been licking, could be distinctly seen; the
second place was similar to the first, and two others consisted of a
reddish clay.

The situations were about limestone ranges; and it has been remarked,
that the water holes, as they are termed, (which when dry, are the
places frequented by the sheep, for the purpose of licking and gnawing
the earth,) after standing for three or four days, acquire a peculiar
sickly, sweetish taste: and it is in these pools, after the evaporation
of the water, that the earth is situated, so eagerly devoured by the
breeding-ewes. When driven away, they are seen licking their mouths, as
if enjoying the delicious treat of which they had just partaken, making
every endeavour to return: and men were required to be kept constantly
on the watch, to prevent them; but with every exertion it was almost
impossible to keep them off, for one flock advanced as another was driven
away, and the people are soon tired out.[139]

After eating the earth, they do not feed on the herbage in any regular
manner; they are restless, picking a bit of grass here and there,
according to the statement of the shepherds, until, on the approach of
evening, they feed in a more regular manner.

Sometimes six or eight ewes may be seen running to a particular spot on
the pasturage, about the roots of clumps of grass, and sometimes those of
fallen trees, licking and gnawing about the spot, as if it had a similar
earth to that found in the _water holes_. They will burrow underneath the
bank, to get the saline earth, at those places where it may be most moist.

This quality of the ground is supposed by the shepherds to be more
prevalent about _limestone ranges_ than any other geological formation;
but I cannot consider this as satisfactorily proved. Although it has
prevailed, for the most part, in places at which the limestone has formed
the principal geological character, yet there are other parts of the
country, where sheep have manifested a similar morbid appetite, when no
limestone has existed. An ewe being missing about some limestone ranges,
was seen coming out of a small cavern, in which she seemed to have found
some of the saline earth, as she had a quantity of earth about the mouth;
and the place was afterwards much frequented by other ewes, until they
were removed from the spot.

The sufferers in the loss of lambs and ewes from this morbid appetite of
the latter, are principally Messrs. Dutton, O’Brien, Warby, Hume, Manton,
&c., all having sheep-runs about the Murrumbidgee country.

Mr. Dutton addressed a letter to the government on the subject, with the
intention of getting his grant of land, if possible, changed to some
other part of the country. The following is an extract from his letter,
which clearly points out the destructive effects produced among the
flocks, the most valuable stock of the settler in this colony, and on
which his prosperity greatly depends.

“The disadvantages which I have thus to detail to you, arise from the
novel disease with which the sheep are affected. It appeared after the
first lambing, and within four months from the time of my occupation of
the land in question. Its unaccountable and destructive nature renders
my selection utterly useless. The nature of the disease, as far as I
have yet remarked, is as follows:—The sheep, in the first place, devour
the earth ravenously, the pasture being at the same time luxuriant,
principally rib-grass, and other succulent herbs; they become speedily
emaciated, from this unnatural diet, more particularly as the lambing
season advances, and when lambing commences: the other ewes surround the
one lambing, and devour the young as they emerge from the mother. The
lambs saved through the care of the shepherds become poverty stricken,
from the low condition of the mothers, and generally die before they
become a month old. Thus, instead of having twelve hundred lambs this
season, as my regular increase, I do not count four hundred; besides
a very great decrease from mortality in the maiden sheep, originally
purchased at high prices. The number of shepherds required being at the
same time thrice beyond the proportion usual in the colony.”—November
1832.

The result was, that as the regulations of the government could not
permit the grant to be changed, Mr. D. was obliged to sell it as a
cattle-station, and purchase land in a more favourable part of the colony
for his flocks.

In December he removed them, as a temporary measure, to Yas Plains; some
of the ewes lambed after they had been removed, but the morbid appetite
had ceased with the exciting cause, and the lambs were not attacked by
the other ewes.

At the Murrumbidgee country I saw one of the little lambs, which had just
been saved from the ravenous ewes, and had its tail bitten off before it
was rescued. The circumstance was as follows, which shows the mode of
attack:—The ewe was lambing, when six or eight others rushed towards her,
but were prevented from coming near by the shepherds; they would not,
however, go away, but kept following; and as soon as the ewe dropped her
lamb (the shepherds having been engaged for the moment in driving away
another party from another lambing ewe) it was attacked, the tail was
bitten, but they were prevented from proceeding further by the immediate
return of the shepherds.

They also evince as much eagerness to devour the “_cleanings_,” or
after-birth, if not prevented; but if the little animal has been licked
clean by the mother, and is dry, it may be placed in the hurdles amongst
the other ewes, without their being attacked or injured. Thus showing
that the salt nature of the _liquor amnii_, which at that time covers
the young one, is the principal exciting cause for this extraordinary
propensity to destroy, that appetite being excited by having previously
eaten the saline earth from the “water holes.”

At the places where this destruction to the hopes of the wool-grower
takes place, the pasturage is luxuriant; and the situations would be
selected, by a person ignorant of the before-mentioned circumstances, as
some of the finest sheep-runs in the colony.

The mother will not devour her own progeny, but will sometimes (which is
not unfrequent in maiden ewes) not take to the lambs, but forsake them;
until the shepherds hurdling the mother and young one together, the
mother at last acknowledges her young.

It is not uncommon, however, for them to follow other ewes, attack and
devour the lambs brought forth by them, in as ravenous a manner as the
others would have devoured their young.

The ewes will not even wait until the young lamb is born, but when they
see an ewe yearning, will rush upon her, devour the young one as it
proceeds from the mother, and thus sometimes half the lamb is devoured
before it is wholly born. Although the shepherds, by attention, endeavour
to avert the evil as much as possible, yet when many ewes are lambing,
the number of shepherds attached to the flocks are too small to enable
them to attend to every individual case.

It may be asked, Does not the usual impulse of natural feeling induce the
mother to prevent the destruction of her offspring? In reply, it may be
said, That the poor, helpless, timid creature bleats, but makes no effort
to defend her young one from the furious attacks of the “mob.”

The poorest and leanest ewes are those remarked as being most eager to
devour the lambs of others; they have been brought into that miserable
state, from having previously been fine fat ewes, merely from the custom
of devouring the saline earth.

The head shepherd of Mr. Dutton’s flocks told me that there was not
a finer flock of sheep in the country than those, previous to their
devouring the salt clay and earth; after which they “fell off in
condition,” until they became in the miserable state in which I now saw
them.

The following is another, among too many instances of their voracity.
An ewe had just commenced lambing, was in labour, but no portion of the
young one had yet been born, when from fifteen to twenty ewes were seen
running towards her; the shepherds perceiving this, rescued the ewe, and
remained near her until she had done lambing; the other ewes kept at a
short distance, occasionally advancing to make an attack upon the young
one. The lamb was brought forth, and when perfectly cleaned and dry, was
placed in the sheep-fold, in the evening with the mother, as usual, but
the other ewes then took no notice either of the mother or young one.

Although the breeding ewes suffer both in health, and acquire this morbid
appetite of devouring the progeny of others, and their own cleanings,
yet rams, wethers, and ewes, _not breeding_, fatten to an astonishing
degree upon the same pasturage, where breeding ewes had become miserably
lean, and died in numbers from being in so low a condition. On one of
these spots, I saw a wether killed from a flock, which was so fat as to
render the meat almost uneatable; and Mr. Manton, who, from the cause
before-mentioned, had been obliged to remove all his breeding ewes from
his pastures about the Murrumbidgee, would, nevertheless, send his rams
and wethers on the luxuriant pasturage, as the best place to fatten
them; indeed, all concurred that rams, wethers, and even the ewes, if
not breeding, thrive and fatten upon that pasturage land about the
Murrumbidgee country, which proves so destructive to breeding-ewes and
their lambs.

Mr. Manton had sheep on the limestone ranges, near the banks of the
Murrumbidgee river; they became impoverished, and acquired the morbid
appetite for devouring the young lambs; but when he removed them to a
granite soil, in the vicinity of Yas Plains, they speedily recovered
their former good condition, and the morbid appetite left them, more
probably from there being no “water holes” containing saline earth about
the place, than from the change of strata; however, they never returned
to the unnatural practices, as was so frequent on the sheep-runs at the
former place.

At Jugiong, Mr. O’Brien suffered in the loss of lambs from the same
cause; but by occasionally changing the pasturage, it was checked in some
degree; and although lambs were sometimes lost, yet the destruction was
much lessened.

Even when the lambs are not devoured or destroyed by the other ewes,
yet from the miserable condition of the mothers, the shepherds have been
obliged to remove the young from their care, from inability to support
them, when they endeavour to rear them by hand as “pet lambs.” If this
were not done, the ewe would be more weakened by having to nourish her
offspring, so that (as is known from experience) both ewe and lamb would
be lost.

In rearing lambs away from the mothers many perish; and besides, the
shepherds object to raising pet lambs, if it could be avoided, because
they are seldom good sheep; when turned out in the pasturage they become
_poverty stricken_, still looking for the fostering hand that reared them.

At _Narangullen_ a sheep-station, in the Murrumbidgee country, near
_Guadarigby_, before the sheep discovered the spots in which the saline
earth was situated, they brought forth the young in the usual manner, and
the cleansings (if the delivery happened during the night) were found
in the fold, and given as usual to the dogs; but when the earth was
discovered, the lambs were attacked at birth, and the “cleansings” were
devoured, if not timely removed by the shepherds.

At Darbylara (also situated on the banks of the Murrumbidgee river) Mr.
Warby, who has a fine farm at that place, suffered such losses among his
flocks from this cause, that he was obliged to sell those that remained;
yet at _Brungul_, a station about eight miles distant, near the Tumat
river, there was a small flock of sheep which had not shown any of this
morbid appetite, and were in excellent condition.

On visiting Mr. Warby’s farm, the whole had the appearance of being
excellent pasturage, and affording excellent sheep-runs; but about the
pastures there were several pools of brackish water, to which the sheep
resorted, and from which it was found at last impossible to keep them.

At this place again, although so destructive to breeding-ewes, rams,
wethers, and ewes, not breeding, would fatten, and become in the finest
condition, upon the same pasturage.

The sheep at these places eagerly devour the _Azolla pinnata_, which
grows abundantly in the whole of the ponds and rivulets.

At _Guadarigby_ I remarked that the cattle, after they had been turned
out of the stock-yard, invariably came licking the ground about the huts.
After some doubt as to the cause, it was found that the water in which
salt-meat had been boiled, was thrown away about that place; and this it
was that attracted the cattle: they would even attack one another to get
at some places, which had been more impregnated with salt than another.
This inclination of animals for salt is by no means adduced as any thing
novel; it is not confined to those domesticated among the herbaceous, but
also among the wild in that class of animals; for at _Blowrin Flat_, in
the Tumat country, a water hole, nearly dry in some parts, and at others
perfectly so, and similar to those I had before seen frequented by sheep,
abounded in the tracks of the kangaroo; and, on a closer examination,
the earth (which glittered in the sun, as if impregnated with saline
particles) was licked and gnawed, as was done by sheep in other parts of
the country; but it would be difficult to know whether similar results
occurred with the breeding females of the kangaroos.

At _Lomebraes_, (about thirty miles from Goulburn Plains, on the road
to Yas Plains,) the farm of Mr. John Hume, I was also informed that
lambs and ewes had been lost, from similar causes to those I have been
relating. The water of the river which runs through his farm in the
summer season, when the stream is low, is _hard_, even so much so as to
curdle the soap, and prevent any washing with it; but in the winter
season, when the stream is increased, it becomes softer.

It is curious that Mr. Warby mentioned that a number of his cows had
“slipped their calves,” or miscarried, and thought it proceeded from
some poisonous herb they had eaten; but Mr. Hume mentioned that his
cows, which are accustomed when breeding to devour the earth impregnated
with saline particles, “slip their calves,” and he could attribute it
to no other cause. This occurred also at the farms of _Gonnong_, _Mut,
mut, billy_; and at all places where the same propensity of licking and
gnawing the saline earth, and devouring the lambs, occurred among the
ewes, “slipping the calves” occurred among the cows; but I heard nothing
of their devouring the young.




THE ALBATROSS.

(_See_ page 45, vol. i.)


The Albatrosses are the largest of the oceanic birds, and their generic
character (Diomedea) is thus defined:—Bill, very long, stout, edged,
compressed; upper mandible channelled on the sides, and much hooked at
the point; lower mandible smooth and truncated at the extremity; nostrils
lateral, like short rolls and open in front; feet short, with only three
very long toes, entirely webbed, but without any spur or toe behind, not
even the little nail that is seen in the Petrel tribe; wings very long
and narrow, with the primary quills short, and the secondaries long.

The known species are D. exulans, D. spadicea, D. chlororynchus,
D. fuliginosa; and Cuvier also enumerates D. brachyura, Temm., D.
melanophris, Temm.: for the two last species I have not had an
opportunity of referring either to drawings or descriptions. There is a
species found in Bass’s Straits, of which the description is as follows,
copied from my journal at the time: it was captured, during a voyage from
England to New South Wales:—

August 21st, 1832. Fine weather, wind from north to north-east, fresh
breezes. About one o’clock, P.M., land (King’s Island, at the entrance of
Bass’s Strait) was announced from the mast-head, and at the same time an
Albatross was captured with a hook and line from the stern; immediately
on seizing and swallowing the bait, it again rose into the air, and by
hauling on the line, it was safely brought down (as a boy would a kite)
on the deck. Several seized the bait, and flew up with it in a similar
manner, but this one alone was caught; the hook slipping from the
others, and the ship’s way being too great from the stormy state of the
weather, to allow them much line to enable them to hook themselves better
or swallow the bait. This one was the only specimen of the species we
captured.

I placed this specimen in one of the hen coops; it fed heartily on large
pieces of fat salt-pork, beef, &c., but seemed to prefer the fattest and
most oily food. A great number of the same species of Albatross were
about the ship at the same time, and when on the wing were mistaken
for the species _spadicea_ or the _chlororynchus_. On being placed in
the hen-coop the bird did not scream, make any noise, or flutter about
to regain its liberty, but quietly settled itself, occasionally pecking
with the sharp crooked point of the upper mandible against the rails of
the coop, but did not continue this for any length of time. It remained
during the whole time of its confinement always sitting down, excepting
once or twice (the first time it was placed in the coop) walking the
length of its prison, and had a perfectly contented appearance. The first
two or three days, the bird refused any meat that was given it, but that
being lean fresh meat, I do not think it was relished, for soon after
giving it a fine fat lump of salt-pork it was eagerly devoured. In three
days it was very quiet and tame, pecked its feathers, and seemed to be
in good health, having a lively, bright, and beautiful eye; it uttered
no cry when caught, nor has it done so during its confinement. After
entering the Straits, these, and almost the whole of the oceanic birds
which had before been following the ship, had forsaken us. I arrived
with it safe at Sydney, on the 25th; it survived until the 29th, when it
was found dead in the coop in the afternoon, although it fed well in
the morning. The dimensions of the specimen (which was a male) were as
follows:—

                                                           Feet. In.
    Length from base of bill to the extremity of the tail    2    6
    Length of the bill                                            4½
    Depth of the base of the bill                                 1⅞
    Length of the tail                                            9
    Length of ditto, exserted from feathers of the urupigium      5
    Length of the thigh                                           6½
    Length of the tarsus                                          3
    Length of the middle phalanges                                5⅛
    Breadth of the wings expanded                            7    0
    Breadth between the wings from the first joint                4
    Length of the first joint of the wing                        10
    Length of the second joint of the wing                       10⅛
    Length of the third joint of the wing                         4
    Length of the fourth, or pen-feathers                    1    4
    Length of inner angle of eye to base of beak                  1⅔
    Breadth of the foot when expanded                             5
    First pen-feather the longest.

The following is the general description of this species:—The head, neck,
breast, and urupigium of a snowy white colour; back, dark lead colour,
shaded off to a lighter tint towards the neck; wing coverts, and upper
part of the wings and pen-feathers, brownish black; under surface of the
wings of a white colour, intermingled with light brown, (forming a white
streak, extending the whole length on the under surface,) except the
pen-feathers which are the same colour above as beneath; tail, dark lead
colour, of a lighter tint on the under surface; irides, light brown; a
black mark on the upper and inner part around the eye, lightly shaded off
towards the base of the bill; eyelids black; bill yellow, with the tips
of the mandibles, especially the upper one, of a reddish colour, shaded
with black; a black narrow membrane extends around the base of the bill,
forming a distinguishing character in this species; feet bluish, with the
web of a bluish brown colour.

The dissection of this specimen was as follows:—The pleura and peritoneum
(similar to all the other specimens examined) were found inflated;
muscles attached to the air-cells; liver large; right lobe in length
three inches and two eighths, left two inches and three-eighths, soft,
and easily torn; gall bladder in length three inches, and attached
the whole of its length to the stomach, and part of the duodenum, and
was filled with bile of a bright grass-green colour; length of the
first stomach three inches and a half, longitudinal folds of the inner
coat throughout its whole length; a line of demarcation marking the
termination of the œsophagus and commencement of the first stomach;
length of the second stomach or gizzard one inch, in which were found
some small beaks of a sepia; length of the intestines, commencing from
the second stomach and terminating at the rectum, six feet; the lower
part of the rectum was distended with fœces, white, and of a calcareous
deposition in appearance, some of which was concreted, but readily broke
like a soft calculus; renal veins much distended; pancreas in length
three inches and two-eighths, very narrow at the upper part, and attached
by a cellular membrane at that part to the gall bladder, and a portion of
the duodenum; it became larger in the middle, and narrower (but not so
narrow as at the first part) at the termination; about four inches and
a half before the termination of the rectum are two projections, one on
each side; in the upper part of the rectum the fœces were dark-coloured,
but at intervals were formed into hard lumps. The bird, in its general
internal appearance, had not the healthy appearance of those recently
killed, which must be attributed to its having been kept in a state of
confinement.

The larger species of albatross arrives at the length of three feet,
and the wings, from point to point, have a spread of from eight to
fourteen feet. I have heard it asserted that specimens have been shot,
and the wings, from point to point, found measuring twenty feet, the
plumage of those birds being entirely white; but I have never myself
seen the spread of the wings greater than fourteen feet. The bill is in
the larger species (the type of the genus) of a pale, dirty yellow, the
legs and feet flesh colour. The ladies on board generally request the
down of these birds for tippets, &c.; and among the New Zealand _ladies_
it is used in small tufts for adorning the ears, being placed in the
lobes, which are perforated for the purpose of receiving these or other
adornments to satisfy their vanity, or command, if it be possible, public
admiration. In New Zealand the bones of the same birds are frequently
seen pending from the lobes of the ears and round their necks in the form
of whistles and other ornaments. The Kamtschatdales are said to capture
these birds chiefly for the sake of their bones, particularly those of
the wing, which they convert to various uses.

During a former voyage, on the 1st of January, 1829, I had an opportunity
of examining a specimen of the _Diomedea fuliginosa_, Sooty Albatross,
or quaker-bird, which was captured (by a hook and line, and a piece of
salt pork by way of bait,) in latitude 39° 40′ south, and longitude 101°
5′ east. The wings, when expanded, measured six feet eleven inches from
point to point. This was called _Pio_ by some of the sailors on board.
The bill was of a beautiful shining black, with a distinct white membrane
passing about two-thirds down the lower mandible; the legs were naked,
and, as well as the feet, of a flesh colour; irides brown, and a circle
of white feathers surrounded the orbit; the head, neck, throat, and back,
were of a sooty colour; breast and abdomen greyish; wing coverts of a
light grey; the pen-feathers of a light black; the tail feathers above of
a sooty, inferiorly of a light grey colour; the feet had each three toes,
united by a web, slightly serrated at the edges; the first toe had five,
the second four, and the third three phalanges.

On the 3rd of January another specimen was caught in latitude 40° 34′
south, and longitude 107° 18′ east, which differed in plumage from the
preceding by having the sooty feathers on the head and back intermixed
with white, which difference in plumage may have depended on age, as the
sex of both birds was the same, being both males.

I have subsequently had opportunities of examining numerous specimens,
in many of which there were slight differences of plumage, but none
particularly marking the sex, that I could discover.

On the 5th of January, 1829, a specimen of the species named _Mollymawk_
by our sailors, the mountain Albatross of the Americans, was captured in
latitude 40° 6′ south, and longitude 111° 49′ east. This I suspect only
to be a young specimen of the large wandering Albatross. The bill was
of a pale, dirty yellow; the head, neck, breast, and abdomen, were of a
delicate and beautiful snowy whiteness; the back black, intermixed with
brown, changing to snowy whiteness near the tail; tail feathers above
black, underneath white; vent white; irides brown; orbits surrounded by
a naked skin of a light bluish colour; black feathers at the inner angle
of the eye; legs and feet of a flesh colour. The wings, when expanded,
measured five feet from point to point.

“And is that the Albatross? the bird mentioned of such an extraordinary
size? Well, I thought it a much larger bird; but having so often heard
that travellers’ accounts are exaggerated, I ought not to wonder at my
disappointment.”—These remarks are often made by persons who make a
voyage to sea for the first time in their lives, and who have in their
ideas conjectured that flying fishes, dolphins, albatrosses, &c. so
far surpassed all other objects of the creation, that I have scarcely
known an instance when such voyagers have not been disappointed at the
reality, and considered all that has been related of them as marvellously
incorrect. It was during my first voyage I watched eagerly from the stern
of the vessel, for the first time, the majestic sailing of the huge
Albatross in the air, seemingly enjoying the stormy winds which were at
that time pouring their wrath upon our swift craft. It occasionally would
sweep the rising billows, washing itself with the spray which broke from
the conflicting waves, seemed to delight in the tempest, and looked to
the superstitious seamen as if it was hovering over the devoted ship,
regarding it, as the foaming billows dashed over its decks, as nigh
destruction, and the inmates soon doomed to become its prey. It is a
most interesting sight to see these birds during stormy weather flying
with and against the wind, and approaching so close to the ship, as if
they were about to alight, and seem “gayest of the gay” in the midst of
foaming waves and howling winds.

One of my amusements on board was _fishing_ for albatrosses, Cape
petrels, or pigeons as they are commonly termed, (from the supposed
resemblance of their flight and bill to that of a pigeon,) with a hook
and line, and a piece of fat pork as a bait, and a quantity of spare
line to let out when the bird attacked my bait, so as to allow for the
sailing of the ship, and give him time to hook himself as comfortably as
possible, or as securely as desired. Many a laugh, and sapient gaze, and
passing remark, have I had from my fellow-passengers, at the nonsense
and folly of “_fishing_” for birds: I recollect having a crowd of eager,
idle gazers looking on to see what success would attend this novel method
of sporting among the feathered creation: the wind was light; and after
some time spent in expectation, as is customary with that humane body,
the fishers, fortune favoured me, for a huge Albatross greedily seized my
bait, and hauling the ponderous bird for some distance through the water,
at last I _landed_ him safely on deck: the strain of the line was very
great, (with the ship not going above two or three knots an hour through
the water,) and I was momentarily expecting it to give way. On this
gigantic bird arriving on deck, its enormous size, and elegant, sleek
plumage, was exposed to the close gaze of all the before disbelieving
passengers, who flocked from cabin and steerage to view the splendid
prize, which excited both their surprise and admiration, as it lay on
the deck, with expanded wings, and half drowned from having been dragged
some distance through the water. Nothing more was afterwards heard of the
size of the bird being exaggerated; and it proved for a long time after
a subject of conversation, all uniting in pronouncing it an enormous and
splendid production of the feathered creation. A second specimen was
caught soon after: the first measured fourteen feet from the extremity
of one wing to that of the other; and the second, ten feet four inches.
There was a slight difference of plumage in the two birds; one having the
upper part of the head and back of a beautiful pencilled white; while
the upper part of the head and back of the other was black. The skin, on
dissecting the birds, was found to contain a very large quantity of oil,
as is usual with the oceanic birds. A cluster of cartilaginous tumors was
found attached to the web of the foot of one of the birds. The pharynx
and œsophagus are capable of being distended to a very large size, which
enables the bird to swallow large pieces of food entire.

At certain seasons of the year they retire to breed on rocky islands,
as the Crozettes, Marion Islands, Tristan d’Acunha, &c. Captain
Carmichael[140] describes their manner of breeding, as seen by himself on
the Island of Tristan d’Acunha:—“As we walked down the mountain on our
return,” he observes, “we passed among flocks of Albatrosses, engaged in
the process of incubation, or tending their young. There are four species
of them that breed on the island, none of which hatches more than one
egg at a time;—the _Diomedea spadicea_, _exulans_, _chlororynchus_, and
_fuliginosa_. The two former give themselves no trouble in constructing
their nest, merely choosing a dry spot of ground, and giving it a slight
concavity, to prevent the egg from rolling out of its place. The egg is
white, very large, and of a peculiar shape, being uncommonly long in
proportion to its diameter, and equally thick, or nearly so, at both ends.

“The black Albatrosses (_D. fuliginosa_) are at this season (January)
gregarious, building their nests close to each other. In the area of
half an acre I reckoned upwards of a hundred. They are constructed of
mud, raised five or six inches, and slightly depressed at the top. At
the time we passed, the young birds were more than half grown, and
covered with a whitish down. There was something extremely grotesque in
the appearance of these birds, standing, on their respective hillocks,
motionless like so many statues, until we approached close to them, when
they set up the strangest clattering with their beaks, and if we touched
them, squirted on us a deluge of fetid oily fluid from the stomach.

“The _D. chlororynchus_ builds its solitary nest in some sheltered
corner, selecting, in particular, the small drains that draw the water
off the land into the ravines. There it runs up its nest to the height of
ten or twelve inches, of a cylindrical form, with a small ditch around
the base. A curious circumstance with regard to this bird is, that when
irritated, the feathers of its cheeks are separated, so as to display a
beautiful stripe of naked orange skin, running from the corners of the
mouth towards the back of the head. All these birds nourish their young
by disgorging the contents of their stomach. They are never observed
to carry any article of food in their bill: those matters indeed, from
which they derive the chief part of their sustenance, the blubber of dead
whales, seals, and sea lions, would melt away if carried in the bill to
any distance. We could not help admiring the utter unconsciousness of
danger displayed by them on our approach: they never showed the least
disposition to move out of our way: even when kicked, or pulled off
their nests, they made not the smallest show of resistance; but quietly
returned to their post, or stood still until we passed on.

“Their plumage is of the finest order, copious, and without the slightest
stain. They find great difficulty in getting on wing, and must run twenty
or thirty yards along the ground with expanded wings, before they can
get fairly under way. We had the curiosity to take one of them by the
point of the wings and fling it over the rock; yet, though it had several
hundred feet of a clear fall, it never recovered itself, but dropped down
like a stone. On this account, when not engaged with their young, they
usually rest upon the edge of the precipice, from which they can launch
at once into the air; and on entering again upon that difficult part of
our route, we had to kick upwards of a dozen of them to the right and
left of us before we could get on.”

It is almost incredible the distance these birds will fly: this has
been repeatedly ascertained by marking birds that had been captured,
and then suffering them again to be at liberty, watching how long they
remain constant about the ship: they follow the vessels for the sake of
the offal, which is daily thrown overboard. Eight or ten days before
the pairing season, the male Albatrosses come to the land, fix on a
spot, which they scrape clear, where the intention is to form the nest;
this being completed, they fly away again to sea, and return a few days
afterwards, in company with the females.

When the wind falls light, the Albatross fishers are on the alert; it is
then that all the hooks and lines that can be procured on board are put
into requisition, and the steward receives frequent solicitations for
pieces of fat pork for bait; some of these birds when hooked, before they
can be brought on board either manage to detach themselves from the hook,
or escape by its breaking. It is laughable to see, when one is hooked,
with what eagerness he is followed by the others, (while dragged through
the water by his capturers,) all eager to seize the bait, they consider
he is monopolizing; they pounce down upon it, and look surprised to find
themselves quietly perched on the waves while the other poor hooked bird,
bait and all, is before them in rapid progress towards being taken on
board.[141] Numerous eager gazers are all ready assembled on the poop of
the vessel to receive the stranger; where, on its arrival, it remains the
patient, stupid-looking subject of a hundred passing remarks: the ladies
give their due share of praise to its large bright eyes, fine sleek and
clean plumage; the expansion of wings is duly measured, the bird, during
the time remaining sitting in a quiet manner, appearing very sulky, and
apparently unmindful of all around, until a few practical jokes keep
its bright eyes on the alert against all personal attacks. After having
been admired and pitied (as much as its situation may be considered to
require) by the fair sex, and having satisfied the curiosity of both
sexes, it is consigned either to the anatomist to be dissected and
stuffed for the benefit of science, or to form a skeleton to grace some
of the museums in England; or sometimes regains its liberty, with a piece
of ribbon tied around the neck, by which it may be readily recognised
should it continue to follow the ship, which it usually does for a long
time after. Sometimes the passengers on board will amuse themselves
by firing with ball at the poor bird as it follows the bait; one I saw
struck by the deadly shot, turned on its back, dead, and, as the ship
passed it, we could see its companions fall upon it eager to make it
their prey. We were inclined to consider this wanton act a useless
destruction of bird-life; but his companions seemed to regard it only in
the light of a fine, fat, oily prize.

These birds are sometimes very ravenous, and even when foiled in several
attempts to seize the bait, by the passage of the ship through the water
being too rapid for them, they will persevere as long as they seem to
think there is any chance of success.

In 1828, when dissecting the head of the Albatross, I observed, imbedded
in a bony cavity, situated immediately over the orbit, a gland, which
was covered above by a dense fascia. The cavity to which the gland
corresponded was of a semilunar form, and situated over each orbit: at
the anterior part of this cavity or depression a small portion was left
membranous, excepting a minute orifice, permitting the passage of what
seemed to me to be an excretory duct, but the course of which I lost
soon after it had penetrated this membrane. The floor of the cavity was
perforated by numerous minute foramina, probably for the passage of
nutritient vessels to the substance of the gland. This gland is found in
most, if not in all, the aquatic birds, but varies in them, both with
respect to exact situation or extent. On the dissection of the common
duck, I found it, not imbedded in a bony cavity, but situated on a dense
fascia, slightly projecting over the superior and posterior margins of
the orbit. It is similarly situated in the boobies and others. In the
Cape petrel (_Procellaria Capensis_) this gland is situated partly in
a narrow semilunar depression over the orbit, and partly on a dense
membrane, continuous from the margin of this bony cavity, extending from
two orbital processes, serving to complete the superior part of the orbit
on which the gland rested. A dense fascia covers the glands, which fascia
is not continuous over the other part of the head, but binds the glands
firmly down in their situation.

In the gull tribe (_Larus_) it is situated in a bony depression over
the orbit, but more superficial than in the Albatross, and extends over
the cranium, so as nearly, if not actually, to touch the gland on the
opposite side, and both extending so as to cover the anterior part of the
cranium.

It is difficult to conjecture the use of this gland, as those possessing
it have also a lacrymal gland in the usual situation. I could not observe
at this time, either in the Albatross, or any other oceanic or aquatic
bird, any excretory duct. Cuvier, in his _Comparative Anatomy_, (vol.
ii. p. 440,) thus alludes to it: “Les oiseaux du genre des canards, et
d’autres oiseaux d’eaux et de rivage, ont un corps glanduleux, dur,
grenu, qui occupe toute la partie supérieure de l’orbite et se contourne
en arrière pour suivre la courbure de l’œil. Dans le morillon (_Anas
fuligula_) il est si large qu’il touche son correspondant par dessus le
crâne. Ce corps paroît tenir lieu de la glande lacrymale: _je n’en ai
cependant pas encore vu le canal excréteur_.”

In July, 1832, during a passage to New South Wales, a capture of an
Albatross afforded me an opportunity of again dissecting this gland,
with the view of ascertaining, if possible, whether an excretory duct
actually existed. I found the gland of a hard granulated substance and
pale colour, consisting of numerous, distinct, minute oval bodies, and
on being cut it is found to be abundantly nourished by blood-vessels;
the nerves supplying it came from the minute foramina seen on the floor
of the cavity, and are distributed in and about the substance of the
gland. These glandular bodies are placed in two rather semicircular
depressions, (one over each orbit,) to which the form of the gland
corresponds, accurately filling up those cavities, and bound down firmly
by a strong and dense fascia: the distance between these cavities, or
depressions, (in the specimen now under examination) was three-eighths
of an inch; the external margin of this cavity is very narrow, partly
cartilaginous, partly bony; the gland does not project over the outer
margin, a distance of one-eighth of an inch being left beyond it. Not
finding any duct when I came to the anterior portion of the gland, which
was visible, I commenced a further research, by laying open the bony
plate which covered the olfactory part of the upper mandible, continuing
the destruction of this portion of the bill, on one side, to the nostril.
I then found that the gland was continued for a short distance further,
under the bone, towards the nostril, situated rather above and anterior
to the nasal portion of the orbit. On pursuing my dissection further, I
found a nerve (a branch of the fifth pair?) passing down the thin bony
plate, at the interior part of the upper mandible; this I traced until
it entered the skull, and thus found it had no connexion with the gland,
as its first appearance led me to suspect; but close to and under it was
another appearance, which could be distinctly traced, emerging from the
gland; it was about a line, or rather more, in thickness, and, tracing
its course, I found it proceeded in a straight direction, and then had
an almost imperceptible inclination upwards, until I lost it among the
cellular substance of the upper mandible, (to which it was attached
partially, if not entirely,) rather more than an inch from the base of
the bill; the length of the duct, as far as traced, was one inch and
seven-eighths. I made a drawing of the preparation.

An interesting subject next for inquiry is, what this gland secretes, and
what is its use in that situation? which at present cannot be answered.

Some of these birds, when brought on board, will throw up a quantity
of fœtid oily fluid and undigested food, becoming “sea-sick,” as it is
usually termed; such, however, is not invariably the case, as numbers are
brought on board who are not guilty of such indecorous conduct, but it
always happens when any of the petrel tribe are captured.

Although accustomed to dissect several of the oceanic birds which were
captured on board, still I cannot refrain from making some remarks on the
cruelty of those who pass away a leisure hour on board, by firing at
them as they fly about the ship. These little “indefatigables,” as some
are pleased to term them, are too often doomed to become the subjects of
this murderous sport. Often and often, with broken wings, they are left
to linger on the wide expanse of waters, unable to procure any food but
that which may accidentally pass them; buffetted about by the waves, and
helpless in themselves, they linger out a miserable existence, until
death puts a period to their misery. It is revolting to the feelings to
see these beautiful and perfectly innocent birds destroyed, solely to
gratify the inclination to destroy.

In latitude 36° 25′ south, longitude 5° 18′ west, in July, 1832, the _D.
fuliginosa_, or Sooty Albatross, was first seen flying about the ship;
these breed in great numbers on the island of Tristan d’Acunha. The
greatest number I ever saw of this species about the ship, was during
strong breezes on the 30th of July, which were attributed to the vicinity
of St. Paul’s and Amsterdam Islands, about which islands I have always
remarked this species of Albatross to predominate: there were a few
resembling Chlororynchus amongst them. We had seen the _fuliginosa_ very
rarely since we had arrived at the eastward of the Cape, four or five at
the utmost only being visible; the last two or three days they have been
more numerous, the large white species having disappeared for some time;
but on approaching the islands before mentioned, their numbers increased,
although we did not see the islands. As we approached towards King’s
Island, at the entrance of Bass’s Straits, this species had forsaken us.
These birds, as well as all the Albatross genus, Cape Petrels, and other
birds, follow the ship during the whole of the night, reposing for a
short period on the water, in which position they have been passed close
by ships, riding like a duck on the water, but they seldom remain long on
the waves, usually alighting for food, and soon resume their flight.

I directed my attention to observe whether these birds followed the ship
during the night, and the result of those observations was a decision in
the affirmative, as marked birds have been seen about the ship for days
together, when the strong gales have carried the vessel at a daily rapid
rate through the water. I have seen, occasionally, the Cape Petrels and
Albatrosses flying near the stern of the vessel as late as midnight;
and it is not unusual to hear the twittering note of the Stormy Petrel
(_Procellaria pelagica_,) under the stern during the night.

Captain Beechey gives the following instance of the Sooty Albatrosses
confining their flight within certain limits, and considers it may add
weight to the opinion, provided it were not accidental, which future
navigators might probably ascertain.

“Off the River Plate, we fell in with the Dusky Albatross, (_Diomedia
fuliginosa_,) and as we proceeded southward they became very numerous;
but on reaching the latitude of 51° south, they all quitted us. We
rounded the Cape, and on regaining the same parallel of 51° south on the
opposite side, they again came round us, and accompanied the ship up the
Chili coast.”—_Voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait_, vol. i. p. 17.

The Albatross delights in food of an oily nature when it can be procured;
and on the islands where they breed are often seen in flocks about the
carcase of a whale, sea-lion, seals, &c., which have been thrown dead on
the rocks, and there they seem to fatten and luxuriate on their luscious
repast; but when at sea, their food consists of the Sepiæ, or cuttle-fish
tribe, Aplysiæ, or sea-hares, the spawn of fish, and numerous other
species of the Mollusca animals, as Vellela, Salpa, Medusa, &c., and they
follow ships for the purpose of procuring the remains of food which may
be thrown from them.

The gall-bladder in the Albatross is usually found full of bile, of a
fine grass-green colour, which dries of a greenish-yellow colour, and is
perfectly applicable for water-colour drawing, where such a tint may be
required.

The usual size of the large white or Wandering Albatross, (_Diomedea
exulans_,) is as follows:—

                           Feet. In.
    The expanded wings      14   0
    Length of the body       3   0
    Length of the bill       0   7
    Foot, when expanded      0   6

On the 18th of July 1832, in latitude 40° 12′ south, and longitude 27°
52′ east, the species of Albatross called _spadicea_, was taken. The
description and measurement of this specimen, was as follows:—It was
called _Nelly_ by our sailors. The head, neck, and urupigum, white;
back, wing-coverts, pen-feathers and tail, brownish black; under parts
of the wings and tail, lighter colour; the brownish black of the back
is shaded off towards the hinder part of the neck, and becomes a
plumbo-atro or lead-coloured black; the first pen-feather is the longest,
which differs from the usual character in this genus; the pen-feathers
decrease _gradatim_ from the first; irides brownish; a black mark
from half an inch before the inner and upper part of the eyes, behind
and above the outer angle of the eyes; eyelids black; the base of the
upper mandible black, as well as the termination of both mandibles; the
remainder of the mandibles of an olive green, with delicate black tints;
wings same length, when closed, as the extremes of the tail; quills of
the pen-feathers white; skin dark-coloured; a quantity of fine down
between the skin and the feathers; base of the feathers white; feet
flesh-coloured, with bluish tints; the circulation of the venous and
arterial system is beautifully seen ramifying over the web; nails of the
toes short, and slightly covered outwards in one, and inwards in the
opposite foot; the cuticle of the feet is readily abraded when it is
placed on a hard surface, even for a short period of time; the web of the
foot thick, and it is usual for sailors to make _purses_, as they term
them, by extracting the phalanges, without injuring the web, leaving the
claws at the extremities.

The measurement of the specimen (which was a male) was as follows:—

                                                                Feet. In.
    Length of the body, from base of bill to extremity of tail    2   4
    Length of the bill                                            0   4
    Depth of the base of the bill                                 0   1⅝
    Length of the tail                                            0   8¼
    Length of ditto, exserted from the feathers of the urupigum   0   3⅜
    Length of the thigh                                           0   3¾
    Length of the tarsus                                          0   3⅛
    Length of the middle phalanges                                0   5⅛
    Breadth of wings expanded                                     7   4
    Breadth between the wings from the 1st joint                  0   4½
    Length of the 1st joint of the wing                           0  10¼
    Length of the 2nd joint                                       0  10½
    Length of the 3rd joint                                       0   4
    Length of the 4th, or pen-feathers[142]                       1   3
    Length of the inner angle of the eye to the base of the beak  0   1⅛

The structure of the mandible is much thinner in this than in the large
white species, and the nostrils are not so elevated and twisted.

The dissection exhibited the following appearances. The pleura and
peritoneum were found inflated; the abdominal viscera, except the
liver, were seen behind the latter; liver large; right lobe longer and
larger than the left; gall-bladder two and one-eighth inches in length,
narrow, attached to the liver only by the biliary ducts; stomach
covered externally with much fat; the interior consisted of numerous
rather tortuous longitudinal folds, and numerous papillæ covered the
internal surface, from which, on pressure, a small quantity of a thick
substance exuded, leaving a gaping opening: the first stomach was empty;
the second stomach was lined with a greenish substance, and contained
only an undigested beak of a cuttle fish; heart covered with much fat;
gall-bladder full of bile of a grass-green colour; kidneys four-lobed,
on one of the lobes was a small diseased spot, of the size of a pin’s
head, from which some inky fluid could be expressed. This lobe was easily
broken, and evidently diseased: it was the first lobe of the right
kidney; ureters long, terminating in the cloaca.

The bill in this species differs from others of the genus, in being more
slender and delicate in formation, more particularly when compared with
that enormous type of the genus the _D. exulans_.

The interior of the mouth is of a white colour, excepting near the edges
of the mandibles, which have a delicate pink tinge.

From the length of the bill in these birds their bite is not severe,
except when they seize or strike with the hooked mandible, when the
impression is strong, but not so great as would be expected from so large
a bird.

On the 24th of July, 1832, in latitude 40° 32′ south, longitude 50°
45′ east, we captured the species called _chlororynchus_.[143] It was
taken by getting its wing entangled in the line, (which was out with
a bait attached to it,) as it flew under the stern; it was too old a
bird to take bait, but not so wise as to escape the line, and avoid
being entangled in it. On being hauled on board, it became unusually
vociferous, and screamed for liberty in loud, hoarse, discordant cries.
When, in the gentlest manner imaginable, we commenced measuring him, he
vehemently exclaimed against it, and was declared by all on board a very
noisy bird; he was, probably, an old stager, perfectly well aware of the
fate that awaited him. He received the usual share of commiseration from
the ladies when they understood he was to be dissected, accompanied by a
request for the down.

I now proceed to describe this specimen, commencing with the dimensions,
which may be regarded as the usual size of this species. This bird
is doubtless the _D. chlororynchus_ of Gmelin, allowing the slight
difference in the plumage to be the result of age. Gmelin thus describes
it:—

“D. alba, rostro nigro, carina mandibulæ superioris basique inferioris
flava, capite grisco, _cenia_, macula supra oculos caudaque obscuris,
dorso, alis maculaque inter rostrum et oculos nigris. Irides fuscæ;
nucha et uropygium alba; pedes pallide ochroleuci, anterius cum membranâ
digitos connectente obscuri.”

                                                                 Feet. In.
    Length of the body from the tip of the bill to extremity of
      the tail                                                     2    5½
    Length of the bill                                             0    4
    Depth of the base of the bill                                  0    1¾
    Length of the tail                                             0    8½
    Length of the tail, exserted from feathers of the urupigium    0    3¾
    Length of the thigh                                            0    6
    Length of the tarsus                                           0    3
    Length of the middle phalanges                                 0    4⅜
    Breadth of wings expanded                                      6    4
    Breadth between the wings from the first scapular joint        0    5
    Length of the first joint                                      0    9
    Length of the second joint                                     0    9¾
    Length of the third joint                                      0    3¾
    Length of the fourth joint, or pen-feathers                    1    3
    Length from the inner angle of the eye to the base of the beak 0    1
    Breadth of the foot when expanded                              0    5½

The plumage was clean, delicate, and very handsome, particularly about
the head. From this bird I procured a small parasitical animal, probably
a _Ricinus_, which was found rather numerous about its feathers, it is
prettily marked on each side, with a silvery appearance on the back, when
viewed through a microscope.

The upper surface of the wings, scapulars, and back in this bird, was
a brownish black; the urupigium, white; the head, chin, and neck, of a
delicate grey, or blue grey. The back is shaded off towards the neck,
which becomes of a soft and beautiful leaden colour, of more light
and delicate tints as it proceeds around the front part of the neck,
extending towards the breast; eyelids black: the upper surface of the
tail was of a light black; shaded with white in a very delicate and
beautiful manner. At first, this appearance was supposed only to be the
result of the different lights in which the bird was occasionally placed;
but subsequent observations confirmed its being the marked colour. On
examining one of the tail-feathers plucked from the bird, it was found
delicately tinted; the shaft diminishing gradually as it proceeded from
the quill to the extremity, until it terminated in a very fine filament,
projecting one-eighth of an inch from the plume; this was observed in
the whole of the upper and large tail-feathers. The plume as it came off
on each side from the base, terminated in a beautiful downy appearance;
tail-feathers underneath of a lighter colour—vent (crissum) white, which
gives a light delicate appearance to the edge of the feather.

The breast and abdomen are of a snow-white; under surface of the wings,
upper line along the wing-bones, and a little below, brownish-black;
middle white, (excepting a few brown feathers near the axilla,) forming
a continuous broad white line the whole length of the under surface of
the wings; lower feathers base white, tips black, under surface of the
pen-feathers black; shafts white.

At the inferior part of the external angle of the eye, around the margin
of the lid, a narrow white mark extends for the length of seven-eighths
of an inch. A diffused black-mark was situated over, and extended to
the inner angle of the eye, terminating near the base of the bill in
lighter shades of the same colour, forming an agreeable contrast with the
delicate leaden hue extending over the head and neck.

Bill blackish; upper surface horny, (shaded with light black at some
parts,) extending, of a similar appearance, to the hooked process of the
upper mandible. At the lower part of the inferior mandible, this horny
appearance also extends to within an inch of the tip. Irides brown; the
first pen-feather the longest; feet and legs marbled, the web marbled
blue, more at the anterior edges, and between the second and third toes;
claws of the toes turned outwards, (to the right.)

There is a very minute tubercle at the posterior, and lower part of the
tarsus, which is considered by some as a rudiment of thumb, and I suppose
to be that alluded to by Lesson, when he says of this genus, “pouce sans
ongles.”

The fœces of this specimen were of a reddish purple colour, as if
occasioned by his swallowing some Aplysiæ; but the skeleton of a Loligo
was solely found in his stomach, the interior of which, as well as the
whole length of the intestinal canal, was seen on dissection to be tinged
of a similar colour; but no remains of Aplysiæ were to be found: could
the colour, then, have been produced by the Loligo? The second stomach
contained one perfect and one imperfect beak of a sepia, both of small
size. The gizzard or second stomach is small in proportion to the size of
the bird.

The specimen was a female; the cluster of ovaries of a yellowish
colour, and situated just above the superior lobes of the kidneys, were
distinctly seen.

This animal attacked furiously every thing that was placed before it,
screaming with its trumpet-like voice at the same time. It always made
some impression with its beak when the hooked end of the mandible came in
contact with the object attacked, but not without.

This bird, on being placed on the skylight of the poop, tied by the leg,
made one attempt to regain its liberty; finding that attempt fruitless,
it never renewed it, but remained with folded wings, apparently content,
but appearing to watch the approach of intruders with its large brilliant
eyes. When left alone, the bird remained seated, perfectly quiet, pecking
its feathers, and looking as content and unconscious of danger as when I
have seen them resting tranquilly on the water, undisturbed by the ship,
as it has passed quite close to them. I cannot, however, consider its
sight very acute, as, although watching me, I found no difficulty at
any time in seizing him by the neck. Indeed these, unlike the man-of-war
bird, gannet, &c., do not require great acuteness of vision, as their
food is principally the sluggish mollusca, not fish, as has been often
asserted as serving them for prey, this bird being regarded also, but I
consider erroneously, as one of the enemies of the flying fish.

The Albatross does not require that acuteness of vision requisite in the
_Tachypetes aquila_, or man-of-war hawk, which hovers to a great height
in the air, and then darts with rapidity on its finny prey. The flight
of the Albatross, on the contrary, is low, and it frequently skims the
surface of the water, watching for the objects which serve it for food,
or the sepiæ, as they leap from, or swim tardily near, the surface of the
ocean.

Sometimes the Albatrosses form a sea-dish, and are eaten by the crew; but
it is seldom they are used for this purpose in the present day, although
formerly they were caught and esteemed for that purpose, as a change to
the miserable salt junk. Captain Cook mentions, in his first voyage, the
method used to prepare the birds before cooking them, and passes much
commendation on the dish. “The Albatrosses,” he observes, “we skinned,
and, having soaked them in salt water until the morning, we parboiled
them, then, throwing away the liquor, stewed them in a very little fresh
water till they were tender, and had them served up with savoury sauce:
thus dressed, the dish was universally commended, and we ate of it very
heartily, even when there was fresh pork upon the table.”

I was not aware, until I perused the entertaining “Fragments of Voyages
and Travels,” by Captain Hall, that the Albatross was ever found so near
the equator. “On the 24th of May,” he writes, “the day before crossing
the equator, a number of those huge birds, the Albatrosses, were seen
soaring over the face of the waters, and the flying fish, when rising
into the air to avoid their natural enemies, the dolphin and bonito,
were frequently caught by these poaching birds, to the very reasonable
disappointment of the sporting fish below, on whose manor they were
trespassing. These intruders proceeded not altogether with impunity,
however, for we hooked several of them, who, confident in their own
sagacity and strength of wing, swooped eagerly at the baited hooks, towed
far astern of the ship, and were thus drawn on board, screaming and
flapping their wings in a very ridiculous plight.”

On the 23d of July, 1832, in latitude 40° 16′ south, longitude 46°
45′ east, an Albatross was hooked; and when about to haul it in, the
line (which was out its whole length) accidentally slipped; the bird
consequently swallowed hook, bait, and a portion of the line; the
remainder hung out from his bill. He was seen about the ship in the
afternoon with a long portion of the line pending from the beak. This
morning he was seen following the ship, but the length of line which
hung from his beak was now reduced to very short dimensions: he had,
probably by gradually swallowing, thus reduced it. From this bird being
thus marked, we have ascertained that he has followed the ship for two
days; and as we have been sailing at the rate of two hundred miles per
day, (from the irregular flight of this bird, their actual flight may be
correctly quadrupled,) it has followed us in a direct line four hundred
miles. How long previously it had been about the ship, or subsequently
followed it, we had no means of ascertaining, as the following day none
of the Albatrosses had a string pending from the beak: our friend, no
doubt, having swallowed the whole of it.

Sometimes the bait would attract an Albatross, cause him to alight, and
shake it with his beak; but, “putting on a knowing look,” he eyed it
again, perhaps suspicious of its appearance, would refuse it, and fly
off. Perhaps he had had a good feast of cuttle-fish, and therefore, being
in a dainty mood, did not like the bit of skinny pork that was offered
for his acceptance.

These birds are the greatest part of their existence on the wing; but
there are other of the oceanic birds which merely seek their food during
the day, returning to the land to roost at night; but, from sometimes
being blown away by heavy gales, they are obliged to bear away for the
nearest port, and take refuge, much exhausted, on the rigging of ships.
The booby is one of these; and from the circumstance of being easily
captured at night on the rigging, has received its common name, whereas
it is as much gifted with sense as any of the oceanic tribe of birds,
which, at the best, is not an overplus; but Nature, no doubt, has given
them as much as they require for their existence in this world.

So marked is the form of the superorbital depression in aquatic birds,
that I have no doubt, judging from my limited series of observations, the
genus may be determined by it alone. So marked is it in the Albatross
genus, that from it the skull of that bird may be easily recognized. The
Petrel tribe have it only half bony, the membranous portion projecting
from the outer edge of the bone, which membranous portion is usually
found wanting in the prepared skulls of those birds. In the Larus or
gull tribe, the flatness of the cavities, and their extending over the
anterior part of the skull, so as nearly, if not actually, to touch,
seems a distinguishing mark in that genus. In the booby, duck, and some
others, there is no depression, although the gland exists, being situated
over the orbit, merely on a membranous projection.

My brother, Mr. F. D. Bennett, exhibited, at the meeting of the
Zoological Society, on the 25th of June, 1833, a dried preparation of the
upper larynx and adjoining parts of the Albatross, (_Diomedea exulans_,
Linn.) for the purpose of demonstrating the existence in that bird of
an epiglottis; and observed, “that the _rima glottidis_ is bounded by
two elevated fleshy lips, which consist of mucous membrane and some few
muscular fibres, and are armed with retroflexed spiculæ. These lips are
in perfect contact at the hinder part of the glottis when it is closed,
but diverge near their anterior part, so as to leave a triangular open
space of about the size of a pea, the edges of which are incapable of
being approximated to each other. In front of this triangular aperture,
and at some distance behind the tongue, (to which it is connected by
mucous membrane and muscular fibres,) is an elevated substance of a
soft leathery texture, resembling that of the epiglottis of _Mammalia_:
its form is triangular, the apex being inferior, and connected with the
tongue, and the base being elevated, and terminating in three convex
portions or lobes. The middle one of these lobes is the largest; it is
free, and rests immediately over the triangular orifice of the larynx
just described, which, when depressed, it is in size adapted to cover.
In a line continuous with the floor of the upper larynx and penetrating
beneath the epiglottis, is a cavity or sac lined with mucous membrane.”

Having demonstrated these parts on the preparation exhibited by him, he
added that as it had been the opinion of naturalists in all ages that
no bird possesses an epiglottis, the structure which he had brought
under the notice of the Society appeared to him highly interesting. So
fixed was the opinion to which he had adverted, that when Warren showed
the existence in the ostrich (_Struthio Camelus_, Linn.) of a structure
which he regarded as an epiglottis, the denomination was generally
rejected, even in this anomalous bird, and the part was considered as a
mere elevation at the base of the tongue, a rudiment, but without the
function, of the organ. In the Albatross, however, the function is that
of an epiglottis; and the size, though small, is sufficient for the
protection of that portion of the rima glottidis which cannot be closed
in the manner usual in birds by the apposition of its margins. With a
peculiar structure of the glottis there exists an apparatus equally
peculiar in the class, as a provision against the inconvenience which
might otherwise result from the deviation from the normal structure.[144]




NOTES ON THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA TREES.

(_See_ page 385, vol. i.)


If we regard the immense varieties of the vegetable kingdom, their
peculiar forms, large and minute flowers of splendid tints, and
delicious fruits,—we find them all conduce to the happiness and luxury
of man—affording him raiment, food, and adding to the comforts of his
existence.

When we contemplate the vegetable productions of nature, we find that
they impart a tranquillity to the mind, which the animal kingdom, ever
slaves to conflicting passions, can never produce;—when suffering from
violent emotions, an indescribable degree of repose is felt while viewing
the tranquil but beautiful scene of a well-furnished garden, or the more
magnificent grandeur of forest scenery. A calmness is produced, which,
counteracting our more violent passions, leads us back to our sober
reason, and to reflection.

Among the splendid, varied, and profuse vegetation, with which tropical
countries abound in so infinite a degree, the magnificent, herbaceous
plant, the Plantain tree, usually attracts particular notice; and,
together with the cocoa and other palms, are the productions of the
vegetable kingdom which adorn the picture of the artist, when depicting
the scenery of the tropics. The broad leaves overhang gracefully the
succulent and huge stem of this plant; whilst, just at their bases,
huge clusters of fruit, of yellow, red, and other colours, contrast
harmoniously with the shining, dark-green foliage.

The size this splendid plant usually attains is eight feet; but I have
seen them at the elevation of twelve, and even fifteen feet, with a
diameter of stalk from one foot to two feet. The stem is formed partly
from the united petioles of the leaves; and they are said to contain such
a quantity of spiral vessels, that they are capable of being pulled out
by handfuls, and are actually collected, in the West Indies, and sold as
tinder: or, according to the quotation from “Decandolle’s Organographie
Végétale,” tom. i. p. 38, “the top of the Plantain tree appears to be
composed almost entirely of spiral vessels, when cut across; and so
abundant are they, as to be collected in handfuls, in the Antilles, and
form a kind of tinder.”

The number of threads capable of being drawn from each convolution of
these spiral vessels, is from seven, as M. de la Chesnay has calculated
even to twenty-two. (Idem, p. 37.) The young shoots of the Banana trees
make an excellent edible.

The threads procured from the stalks of some species of this family
are used for very fine and delicate-textured linen and muslin. At
Manilla there is an extensive manufacture of muslins and sinamaya, or
grass cloth, from the coarsest to the finest texture it is possible to
manufacture, and, sometimes it has been stated, “made of fibres so fine,
that they require to be manufactured under water, because, if exposed
to the sun and air, they become too fragile to work.”[145] The coarsest
fibres of the same plant form the Avaca, or Manilla hemp of commerce,
used in the manufacture of cordage. The species of Musa is called _M.
textilis_; but I do not consider it at all accurately known: it forms
plantations at Manilla, but I could never see it during my visit to that
country.

Finlayson gives the following interesting information respecting the
wild Plantain tree, found on the island of Pulo Ubi, off the southern
extremity of Cambodia.

“We had,” he says, “the good fortune to find that splendid herbaceous
plant in flower: unlike, however, to that luscious and most delicious
fruit raised by the hand of man, the fruit of the wild Plantain contains
scarce any pulp whatever. Its leathery sheath incloses numerous series of
large black seeds, attached to a pithy, central stem, and immersed in a
gummy substance resembling birdlime.

“It appeared, by our systematic works, that the seeds of this most useful
plant have been but rarely seen by botanists; hence doubts had been
expressed upon the subject. In none of the cultivated varieties are there
any seeds discoverable; though, at times, we may observe minute black
points in the pulp, disposed in longitudinal rows. These are, probably,
the feeble traces of seeds not yet quite extinguished by cultivation, the
black perisperm being the last to disappear. The seeds were numerous,
covered with a thick, black, brittle shell, and as large as those of the
custard apple, but of a more irregular shape.

“There is no necessity to refer, as Willdenow does, the origin of all the
cultivated varieties, and of all the species enumerated by botanists,
to the _Musa troglodytarum_, a native of the Molucca Islands, as the
parent stock. Our specimens accorded with the descriptions given of
_Musa sapientum_. The seeds were in all respects perfect, and apparently
capable of propagating the plant. Indeed, its existence on these islands,
so rarely frequented by man, and altogether unfit for cultivation, can be
accounted for on no other principle than the fertility of the seeds.”[146]

It is, however, curious (and whether it depends on the fertility of the
soil, I will leave for the decision of others) that the _Fehi_, or _Wild
Plantain tree_, (_Musa Fehi_,) which is found growing so luxuriantly
about the declivities of the mountains, has no seeds in its fruit.
Sometimes a few straggling plants are found in the romantic valleys
of the beautiful island of Tahiti, (and also others of the Polynesian
Islands,) propagating themselves by suckers: so dense at some places have
I seen them, that they appear almost united into one mass. The fruit
produced from this species is large, full, of a dark orange colour,
(which contrasts harmoniously with the very dark green colour of the
foliage,) containing a bright yellow pulp; and although in a perfectly
wild state, does not contain any seeds: its taste, when perfectly ripe,
is sweetish, but with a roughness or astringency of flavour, so that they
are usually preferred roasted, by which their flavour is evidently very
much improved. This species also yields, from the trunk, a quantity of a
dark, purplish juice, which I did not find was used by the natives for
any purpose, but it may, probably, be applicable as a dye.

At the Society Islands, the natives dry and press the ripe fruit of the
Banana, which forms in that state an excellent sweetmeat, and might be
probably a profitable export to Sydney, (N. S. Wales,) where it is now
occasionally seen when sent as a present to some resident at that town.

It is related in Cook’s First Voyage, whilst in Endeavour River, that a
“party returned about noon, with a few palm cabbages, and a bunch or two
of wild plantains; the plantains were the smallest I had ever seen, and
the pulp, although it was well-tasted, was full of small stones.”[147]

Captain King stated to me that he attempted to find this tree during his
stay at Endeavour River, when he surveyed the Australian coasts, but his
researches were unsuccessful. In another part of the same volume,[148]
it is stated of the Bananas, at Batavia—“There is one which deserves the
particular notice of the botanist, because, contrary to the nature of its
tribe, it is full of seeds, and is therefore called _Pisang batu_, or
_Pisang bidgie_; it has, however, no excellence to recommend it to the
taste, but the Malays use it as a remedy for the flux.”

Where grass or hay cannot be procured, voyagers will find the succulent
stem and leaves of this plant, as well as the leaves of the _Dracæna
terminalis_, an excellent substitute, for feeding goats and other
animals.




THE INHABITANT OF THE NAUTILUS POMPILIUS.

(_See_ page 399, vol. i.)


It was on the 24th of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather, thermometer
at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was lying at anchor in
_Marakini Bay_, on the south-west side of the island of Erromanga, one of
the New Hebrides Group, Southern Pacific Ocean, that something was seen
floating on the surface of the water, at some distance from the ship;
to many it appeared like a small dead tortoiseshell cat, which would
have been such an unusual object to be seen in this part of the world,
that the boat which was alongside the ship at the time, was sent for the
purpose of ascertaining the nature of the floating object.

On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly
known by the name of the Pearly Nautilus; (_Nautilus pompilius_;) it
was captured and brought on board, but the shell was shattered from
having been struck with the boat-hook in capturing it, as the animal was
sinking, when the boat approached, and had it not been so damaged would
have escaped.

I extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was firmly attached to
each side of the upper cavity of the shell. On being brought on board, I
observed it retract the tentacula still closer than before, and this was
the only sensation of vitality it gave after being caught; I preserved
the soft parts immediately in spirits, after making a rude pen and ink
sketch of its form.

On breaking the lower part of the shell, the chambers, or cavities, were
found filled with water.

The _hood_ has been stated by Dr. Shaw (Lectures, vol. ii. p. 165)
“as being of a pale reddish purple colour, with deeper spots and
variegations;” the colour, however, as it appeared in this recent
specimen, was of a dark reddish brown, in fact, resembling the colour
produced by the _Koka_ on the stained cloth of the Tongatabu natives,
intermingled with white.

We had fine weather—light winds and calms, a day or two previous to this
animal being caught.

The representations of the animal in Dr. Shaw’s works are not at all
correct; that by _Rumphius_ is correct, as far as regards the description
of the external parts of the animal.

This species of Nautilus is stated to be called _Kika, lapia_, and _Krang
modang_, by the natives of Amboyna; and _Bia papeda_, _Bia cojin_, by the
Malays.

This animal has, for a number of years, been a _desideratum_ of science;
but some doubt existed whether it might not have been captured with the
shell; and the collectors, not valuing the animal, or being unaware of
the value attached to it by naturalists, may have extracted and thrown it
away.

The two following accounts confirm this supposition; I place dependence
upon the statements, because at the time both persons were ignorant of
the form of the fish, and were also unaware of its value: they knew it
more from the beautiful colours of its shell, than from any other part
connected with it.

An officer of his Majesty’s ship Ariadne informed me that he caught the
shell with the animal within it, on a reef at the _island of Pemba_,
near _Zanzibar_, on the _eastern coast of Africa_, at the time himself
and several others, belonging to the ship, were seeking for shells.
(This occurred in the year 1824.) The animal was not floating upon the
water, but was in a hole on the reef; he does not recollect which part of
the shell was uppermost. The mantle of the fish, like a thin membrane,
covered the shell, which was drawn in as soon as it was touched, and the
elegant shell was then displayed. “I and others,” observed my informant,
“when it was first seen, did not notice it, regarding the animal, as the
membrane enveloped the shell, merely as a piece of blubber; but having
touched it by accident, the membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon
secured our beautiful prize.”

“The fish,” he further observed, “was a large mass attached to the shell,
which we soon extracted and threw away, as we only wanted to _collect
shells_.”

The mantle was compared to what he had subsequently seen covering the
shells of the _Harps_ and _Cowries_.

These animals were not numerous, for this was the only one collected
during the time they remained there, or on subsequent visits.

A section of the shell was afterwards made on board, but none of the
appearances, or whether air or water was contained within, could be
recollected.

A mate of a whaler, who had been shipwrecked upon, and resided among the
Fidgi group of islands in the Southern Pacific, for nearly three years,
says he has seen the shell of the _Pearly Nautilus_, containing the
living animal, floating on the water, near one of the islands. He had
only seen two, as they are not commonly seen _with the fish in them_,
although the empty shells were very numerous among that group of islands.

He stated, the first time he saw one, was when in a canoe with some other
shipwrecked Europeans; it was then floating upon the surface of the
water, the mouth of the shell uppermost. It was enveloped in the mantle,
which extended some distance upwards, and over the whole of the shell; it
had such an appearance as to cause one of the men in the canoe to say,
“There is a large piece of blubber upon the water:” on approaching it the
animal retracting the mantle, displayed the beautiful striped shell, and
sank before they could capture it.

At Manilla, the shells of this species of Nautilus are in great
abundance; they are neatly carved, the whole of the coloured part of the
shell being removed, and the portion exposed appearing of a beautiful
nacre, or mother-of-pearl, with the raised white carved figures upon it,
which have a pretty effect. I could not procure any with the soft parts,
but was told by a gentleman that he had seen them with the fish, but it
was always taken out and thrown away, and the shell alone preserved.

One of the shells cut, and the aperture turned downwards, forms the base;
the keel of the shell, with the aperture uppermost, is placed upon it,
forming a pretty vase of antique form, and highly esteemed in Europe as
ornaments for the mantel-piece; they are sold at Manilla for a few reals
the pair.

The inhabitant of this beautiful shell, which I brought safely to
England, has been described and dissected by my esteemed friend, R. Owen,
Esq., and published, with splendid engravings, by the Curators of the
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.




ON THE HABITS OF THE VIVERRA MUSSUNGA, OR JAVA CAT.

(_See_ page 438, vol. i.)


On the 14th of May 1833, I purchased one of these animals from a native
canoe, which came off to the ship on the coast of Java: it is commonly
known among Europeans by the name of the _Java-cat_, and is a native of
Java, Sumatra, and perhaps others of the eastern islands. This specimen
was young, and appeared very tame. The native from whom I procured it,
had it inclosed in a bamboo cage, in which I also kept it for a short
time.

The colour of the back is blackish, intermingled with shorter hairs, of
a dirty-white; the forehead and most of the face whitish, intermingled
with black; neck and abdomen of a yellowish colour; the eyes are full
and large, of a yellowish-brown colour; pupil perpendicular, becoming
dilated at night. It resembles the cat, in being more of a night than day
animal.

It feeds on plantains and other fruit, and also fowls’ bones. When busily
engaged in picking the wing-bone of a fowl, it growls most savagely if
disturbed in its repast; which well shows the nature of the beast. “He
eats only plantain,” said the Javanese, from whom I purchased it; but
could the animal have spoken for himself, he would have probably hinted
that “portions of the animals composing the feathery kingdom” would also
be acceptable, by way of variety. It is tame and playful, like a kitten,
throwing itself on the back, playing with a bit of string, making, at the
same time, a low, whining noise.

It utters a sharp, quick, squeaking noise, as well as a low moaning, more
particularly at night, or when in want of food, or some water to quench
its thirst. The specimen is a male: it was very playful, and climbed up
my arm, by aid of its claws, like a cat. When it drinks, it laps like the
dog or cat.

May 17th. This morning, the animal had broken through and escaped from
its cage during the night, and was about some part of the ship.

May 18th. The whole of yesterday, the creature was reported as “absent
without leave;” but early this morning he was found in the cabin of the
second officer, asleep upon a jacket. He appears sufficiently tame to
be left at liberty, so I did not immure him in a cage again, but kept a
piece of long string attached to one of the hind legs, so as to limit his
extent of range, when I found it necessary.

Whilst writing in my cabin, the animal was either lying down quietly
asleep, or else came to see what I was about, thrusting its little sharp
snout among my papers, and amusing himself by playing with my pens and
pencils.

The animal is called _Mussong_, at Java, and I found it was also known by
the same name among the natives on the north-east coast of Sumatra: it
licks and cleans its furry coat with the tongue like the cat, especially
after it has been much handled; and seems also to possess the _caution_
and _secretiveness_ of that tribe. It growls savagely when disturbed or
teazed. It lapped some coffee one morning, but became sick soon after.

It seems to be a fretful, impatient, little creature, and when it does
not get its wants gratified, becomes “terribly out of temper,” or
rather gets into a temper which is of a bad description. It then snaps
ferociously at the finger placed near it, but its young teeth can make
but little impression; it is in downright earnest, however, for it
bristles up and advances its long whiskers, uttering a series of peevish
cries and growls.

It was lying upon the pillow of my bed one morning, when I took the
creature off, and placed it upon as soft a place which had been made up
in the cabin on purpose for it; but this would not do; it did not like
the removal, and there was no termination to its peevish, fretful cries,
until it was removed back to the old place, where being deposited, after
licking itself about those parts of its furred coat that had been ruffled
by handling, it stretched itself, and laid down quite contented.

The squeaking, discontented noise of the creature during the night, when
it is tied up, is very annoying. I suppose the desire of making nocturnal
rambles, as is the nature of the tribe, was the cause to which the cries
were to be attributed.

At last I used to give it fowl bones at night to amuse itself, and being
occupied in _crunching_ them, I was no more annoyed by its nocturnal
cries.

When fighting it uses the fore-paws, with extended claws, biting at the
same time, retreating and advancing quickly, snapping, bristling up its
long whiskers, and appearing a fierce object for one of the small animals
of the creation. It does not spring at the object of attack like the cat,
but jumps forward; it uses the claws of the fore-feet more than those of
the hind, which, being both longer and sharper, are more calculated for
the purpose of defence, as well as in climbing. It regards the object
well previously to attack, exercising the three prominent organs in the
feline race of _caution_, _secretiveness_, and _destruction_; and then,
with its little angular mouth expanded, it pounces upon, and firmly
grasps its prey.

The little beast has a very morose looking countenance, what some people
skilled in physiognomy would call a “_sour, forbidding countenance_;”
and, judging from what I have seen of this tamed and young specimen, it
must be, in the wild state, a very savage animal.

Unlike the cat, when drinking it does not care about wetting its feet,
for it often places the fore-paws in the water at the time.

It often plays with its long tail, as well as with any thing that may be
in the way, similar to what we observe in kittens; and often scratches
against objects, growling at the same time, as if practising for future
defence.

It eats fowl readily, but not other kinds of meat so well; it ate some
pine-apple with much avidity.

It will carry away a bone given to it into a dark corner, growling and
snapping at any one that may attempt to take it away.

Sometimes, when left to itself, it utters such loud squeaking cries, as
to be heard all over the ship. One day, at dinner time, (when the animal
was first on board,) a noise was heard, from whence it proceeded, or from
what, we could not tell, until the mystery was explained by the steward,
who said it was “the foreign cat.”

Like all animals, whether of the genus _Homo_, or lower in the scale
of creation, the Java Cat does not like to be disturbed at meals. This
little ill-humoured quadruped is particularly savage at that time, but,
like the human race in all its numerous varieties, when “feeding time” is
over, and it has had a sufficiency of provender, it will remain quiet,
and be usually in a tolerable good-humour; but when hungry, there is
nothing but growling, whining, screeching, grumbling, crying, until the
appetite is satisfied.

I gave the animal one morning a dead cockroach, but after turning and
twisting about, and licking it for some time—perhaps it was not hungry,
it would not eat it.

When the creature is excessively annoyed, it retires into some dark hole
or corner, making a spitting noise, and is very furious against any one
that may attempt to dislodge it from that place, thus formed into a
refuge for the ill-tempered.

When first set at liberty he was missing for one or two days, having gone
on a tour by way of change of scene; he soon, however, returned to his
old quarters, ran about the cabins, and when sleepy during the day would
take to the warmest and most comfortable situation the cabins afforded;
it was as fully domesticated as a cat.

The _Mussong_ runs about quite domesticated, and climbs well,
occasionally aiding itself by the tail having a prehensile power.

He also runs about, particularly at night, and in the morning is usually
found quietly asleep upon the softest bundle of clothes he can meet with,
in the cabin into which he has introduced himself: he dislikes much to be
handled, or petted, or crammed, (unless he crams himself, which he very
often does,) and, therefore, he is not to be recommended to that variety
of the human species called a “maiden lady, of a certain age.”

At last I let the creature ramble about where it pleased in the after
part of the ship; it reposed in the cabins, or any other place it liked.
It used to wander about like a cat, and come at meal time for food, until
the 14th of June, when it was missing, and search being made about its
usual haunts, the animal was discovered dead among some oakum in one of
the cabins.

When at Pedir, on the north-east coast of Sumatra, I procured another
young but larger specimen than the preceding; it was purchased for half a
rupee. Although wild with strangers, with the native from whom the animal
was purchased it was exceedingly domesticated. I have seen it follow him
like a cat along the pathway for some distance, when he placed it out of
his arms upon the ground; the natives gave it the same name here as at
Java, _Mussong_.

These animals attain the size of our domestic cats, living in their wild
state upon the summits of trees, eating the fruit, and also birds, when
they have caught them.

They eat sugar-cane, plantain, rice, and also those troublesome insects
the cockroaches.

When I placed this animal in my cabin it remained very quiet, not making
so much noise as the last; but, a few days after, it became so very
vicious, not suffering any one to approach or touch it, without spitting,
growling, and fighting so furiously, that I at last was obliged to
destroy it, preserving the skin in a dried state for stuffing, and the
body in spirits for a future dissection.




LUMINOSITY OF THE OCEAN.

(_See_ page 35, vol. i.)


Mr. F. D. Bennett, exhibited, at a meeting of the Zoological Society,
on the 25th of June, 1833, several specimens of a species of Pyrosoma,
captured by him, on the 6th of September, 1832, at sea, in latitude 1°
41′ north, longitude 11° 56′ west. Between 2 and 4 A.M. the sea, having
been two hours before less luminous than usual, presented one mass of
bright phosphoric light, extending to a considerable distance around the
vessel. The extensive field of bright luminous matter emitted so powerful
a light as to illuminate the sails, and to permit a book of small print
to be read with facility near the windows of the stern cabins. Above this
luminous field numerous sea fowl were hovering in search of their prey.
The light appeared to be entirely owing to the Pyrosomata.

Specimens taken from the sea and placed in a vessel containing sea
water, ceased altogether to emit light, or emitted it but sparingly while
they remained at rest. On the water, however, being agitated, or when
one of the masses of animals was taken into the hand, the whole became
instantly illuminated by myriads of bright dots, much resembling in hue
the points on the elytra of a diamond beetle (_Curculio imperialis_, Fab.)

The Pyrosoma, thus enveloped throughout its whole extent in a flame of
bright phosphorescent light gleaming with its peculiar hue, presented a
most splendid spectacle; the light shed by it was sufficient to render
objects distinctly visible in every part of an otherwise dark room. If
long retained in the hand, or returned to a quiescent state in the water,
the luminous spots gradually faded, and no light was visible until the
animal was again disturbed, when the illumination instantly returned with
all its vivid splendour. After death it emitted no light.

The mass of Pyrosoma, of the usual cylindrical form and gelatinous
substance, was about four inches in length and one and a half in
circumference. The tube, passing along its middle, is described as being
open at both ends; the orifice at the broader extremity being much better
defined in its circular form, larger, and more distinct than that of
the opposite end. The surface of the mass appeared to be studded with
numerous prominent, rigid, and pearly tubercles intermingled with small
specks of a brown or red colour. In these latter the power of emitting
light appeared chiefly to be seated, these being frequently bright, while
the remainder of the body exhibited only its natural white or yellowish
white hue; a hue which changed after death into a red tinge. The brown
specks, when removed from the body, did not emit light.[149]




TREATY BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND ACHEENESE GOVERNMENTS.

(_See_ page 2, vol. ii.)


Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Honourable English East
India Company and the kingdom of Acheen, concluded by the Honourable
Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Knight, and Captain John Monckton Combs,
agents to the governor-general, in the name and on the behalf of the Most
Noble Francis Marquis of Hastings, Knight of the most noble order of the
Garter, one of his Britannic Majesty’s most honourable Privy Council,
Governor-general in Council of the British possessions in India, on the
one part, and his highness Sri, Sultan Alla Iddeen Jowhara, Allum, Shah,
king of Acheen, for himself, his heirs, and successors, on the other.

In consideration of the long and uninterrupted peace, amity, and good
understanding, which has subsisted between the Honourable English East
India Company and his highness’s ancestors, the kings of Acheen, and in
order to perpetuate and improve their friendship, to the advantage and
prosperity of their mutual states and subjects. It is hereby agreed and
determined.

ARTICLE I.—There shall be a perpetual peace, friendship and defensive
alliance, between the states, dominions, and subjects of the high
contracting parties, neither of whom shall give any aid or assistance to
the enemies of the other.

ARTICLE II.—At the request of his highness, the British government
engages to require and to use its influence to effect the removal of
Syfful Allum from his highness’s territories, and the British government
further engage to prohibit him or any of his family, as far as they may
be subject to their authority, from doing or committing in future any act
or acts, tending to prevent or impede the full re-establishment of his
highness’s authority. His highness the king engaging himself to place at
the disposal of the supreme government of British India, such pension or
annuity, as it may, in its wisdom, deem meet to recommend for the said
Syfful Allum, on the condition of his retiring to Penang, and engaging to
relinquish all claims to the sovereignty of Acheen, within three months
from the date hereof.

ARTICLE III.—His highness the king grants to the British government the
free trade of all his ports, and engages that the duties on merchandise,
levied at those ports, shall be fixed and declared, and shall also be
paid by the resident merchant. His highness likewise engages not to
grant or authorize a monopoly of the produce of his states by any person
whatever.

ARTICLE IV.—His highness engages, whenever the British Government may
desire it, to receive and protect an accredited agent of the British
government, with a suitable establishment, who shall be permitted to
reside at his highness’s court, for the purpose of conducting the affairs
of the Honourable Company.

ARTICLE V.—In consideration of the injury which might result to the
British trade from its exclusion from the ports of his highness’s
states, not at present subject to his authority,—his highness agrees and
consents that the ships and vessels of Great Britain shall continue their
commercial intercourse with the ports of Acheen and Tullasamoy, in the
same manner as heretofore, unless a temporary blockade of these ports, or
either of them, shall at any time be established by and with the consent
of the British government, or resident authority.

It is clearly understood, however, by the contracting parties, that no
warlike stores or arms of any kind shall be furnished, given, or sold, to
any of his highness’s rebellious subjects, by the vessels so trading to
the aforesaid ports, under penalty of confiscation of ship and cargo.

ARTICLE VI.—His highness Sri, Sultan, Alla, Iddeen, Jowhara, Allum,
Shah, agrees, promises, and engages himself, his heirs, and successors,
to exclude the subjects of every other European power, and likewise
all Americans, from a fixed habitation or residence in his dominions;
he also engages not to enter into any negotiations, or to conclude any
treaty, with any power, prince, or potentate whatsoever, unless with the
knowledge and consent of the British government.

ARTICLE VII.—His highness engages not to permit the residence, in his
dominions, of any British subject to whom the resident agent shall offer
any objections.

ARTICLE VIII.—The British government agrees to give and furnish to
his highness, without delay, all the arms and military stores which
are detailed in the paper appended to this treaty, and signed by his
highness. (Arms and military stores; gunpowder, forty barrels; four
hundred muskets; grape and round shot; four hundred musket balls, &c.
&c.; cash, Spanish dollars, fifty thousand.) The British government
agrees to advance to his highness the sum of money, therein mentioned, as
a temporary loan to be repaid by his highness at his earliest convenience.

ARTICLE IX.—This treaty, consisting of nine Articles, has this day been
concluded, subject to the ratification of the governor-general, within
six months from the date hereof; but it is to be understood that the
several provisions herein contained may be carried into immediate effect,
without awaiting the said ratification.

Done at Sirduli, near Pedir, in the country of Acheen, on the 22nd day of
April, in the year of our Lord, 1819; corresponding with the year of the
Hegira, 1234, and the 26th day of Jemadil Akir.

(Company’s seal.)

                                 Signed,

                                              T. S. RAFFLES. (Seal.)
                                              JOHN MONCKTON COMBS. (Seal.)




FOOTNOTES


[1] See Appendix A, at the end of the volume.

[2] One of the merchants, a Moorman, named _Mahomet Monsour_, engaged,
if a ship was brought next season to Sawang, (a village further to the
eastward) to deliver on board six thousand peculs of the Areka-nut in the
space of eight days.

[3] Pungarang is the title of prince.

[4] I understand that no arms or warlike stores are permitted to be
exported for Penang, or any other of our settlements for this coast; if
the Acheenese king requires any, he sends a requisition to the government
of Penang, who supplies him at fifteen per cent. above the cost price, to
cover the expenses of freight, &c.

[5] Most of the country vessels that visit the coast have native
supercargoes, as they effect much better bargains with the native
merchants upon the coast than Europeans.

[6] I have before stated, that the heat generated by a cargo of the
Areka-nut is excessive. I recollect the carpenter of a ship, when
desirous of bending some wood, placing it under the main hatch, among
the nuts; in a few minutes it was sufficiently steamed for its intended
purpose; after a fortnight or three weeks the heat is materially
moderated.

[7] A number of vessels from Penang come for the nut at this season, to
take it to that settlement in time for the Indiamen, who purchase it for
the China market.

[8] Abel’s China, 4to. p. 59.

[9] Abel’s China, 4to. pp. 60, 61.

[10] The definition of this harbour in the Chinese language is as
follows:—

    Kum,       Sing,      Moon,
    Gold,      Star,      Gate.

“Gold Star” among the Chinese is the planet Mars, so that this place is
named _Margate_.

[11] White porpoises, slightly tinged with pink, are frequently seen
tumbling about in the “moons” and sea in the vicinity.

[12] At one time, during a rebellion in China, the emperor’s troops lost
courage, (which to us must appear a wonderful event among Chinese,) and
would not proceed against the rebels: this called forth from the emperor
the following public rebuke:—“The emperor rebukes very sharply all the
governors of the Chih-sang provinces, from which authority emanates, on
account of their negligence in attending to the state of the military
under their jurisdiction. He makes particular mention of the prevalent
use of opium among the Canton military, and of the misconduct of the Ho,
nan troops on their road to Fuh, keen.”—_Canton Register_, No. 13, 14,
16th Sept 1833.

[13] No individuals, except Portuguese, or naturalized Portuguese, are
permitted to be owners of houses at Macao.

[14] The name _Kaki_ is said to be Japanese; this fruit is not so named
by the Chinese.

[15] I had models of the two kinds just mentioned, executed with great
accuracy by a Chinese. The imitations of the fruit were modelled from
clay, and accurately coloured afterwards according to nature.

[16] It is curious that Linnæus, by bestowing upon this bird the specific
name of _Apoda_, or without feet, should have credited the assertion that
it was so.

[17] Made from the milky juice yielded by the trunk of the Sukun, or
bread-fruit tree.

[18] Forrest’s Voyage to New Guinea, &c., pp. 134-137.

[19] It has been stated, that during flight they cry like starlings.

[20] Pigafetta says, in his relation of Magellan’s voyage round the
world, that in the island of Bachian, (one of the Molucca islands,) a
species of bird, of exquisite beauty, was found, which the natives called
“the bird of God,” saying it came from Paradise.

[21] Kai usually expresses any birds of the gallinaceous tribe.

[22] In the common Canton dialect, Kum signifies gold; but in the
Mandarin dialect, Kin is the name for gold; so that this bird is named
both Kum, kai, and Kin, kai.

[23] The brilliancy of the Chinese colours for painting, &c. has often
been very highly extolled as being superior to the European. What
surprise must it create, then, when we are informed that the colours used
are of English manufacture, and the Chinese artists are eager for, and
anxiously inquire after, them. This reminds me of the gross ignorance
frequently displayed by our countrymen in foreign countries,—purchasing
English articles abroad at a high price as foreign manufacture, and as
unattainable in their native land. It was mentioned as a fact, that a
person purchased an elegant London clock in a shop at Canton, at a high
price, to take to England as a specimen of China manufacture. Do not we
see these follies committed by our countrymen almost every day at Paris?

[24] In Griffiths’ _Animal Kingdom_, vol. viii. p. 275. Aves, this bird
is mentioned as being “distinguished by its brilliant plumage; but it
wants the elegant shape which distinguishes the true Columbæ. It remains
by preference _generally on the ground_. It runs with great celerity,
_and constructs its nest like a partridge_. _It never perches, except to
pass the night._ Its cooing is hoarse and dull.”

[25] Sweet potatoes are recommended as a good sea-stock for the purpose
of feeding pigeons, birds of paradise, parrots, &c., as a variety of
food on board a ship, as those birds often require fruit as a change of
diet, which it is found impossible to keep on board during a long voyage;
this root, therefore, given to them, either in a raw or boiled state,
perfectly serves as a substitute.

[26] Mr. Beale assured me that for four years he has been endeavouring to
get specimens of this shrub to England, but as yet without success, they
having all perished on the passage.

[27] There were also some splendid large varieties of the _Hibiscus rosa
chinensis_, of different tints; and the beautiful _Hibiscus mutabilis_
changes its blossoms, after their expansion, from a white to a beautiful
rose colour. The celebrated Mou-tan, or Peony, of China, I was told was
merely a very large and splendid variety of the _Hibiscus rosa chinensis_.

[28] Besides the unequalled living collection of birds, &c., in the
possession of this gentleman, his portfolios are stocked with a large and
valuable collection of beautiful and correct drawings by Chinese artists,
from nature, of birds, fish, plants, &c. indigenous to China and the
eastern islands.

[29] The specimen to which I allude is named by the Spaniards _Triste de
Corazon_, or Sorrow of the Heart; when dried and kept in that state for
any length of time, and afterwards placed in water, (even after several
years have elapsed,) its foliage expands, and reassumes a partial verdant
appearance.

[30] Abel’s China, 4to. pp. 121, 122.

[31] I have several specimens of the pith, and one specimen I saw, nearly
an inch in diameter, was hollow in the centre.

[32] Mr. Beale is making great efforts to procure both seeds and young
plants, of the above-mentioned plants, and there is some expectation of
success.

[33] Chu, signifying pig; long, basket; and tzo, grass.

[34] We passed close to Tiger Island, with its lofty and rounded summits
of hills. There is a heavily-mounted stone fort upon this island, but not
in a commanding situation. There is no appearance of cultivation upon
the island; but it is verdant from a quantity of fern-brake and numerous
stunted shrubs, &c. scattered about, which serve to give some animation
to it.

[35] Several pagodas are seen erected upon elevated situations at certain
distances up the river to Canton, and even beyond. Looking from the
terrace of the Honourable East India Company’s factory, it was observed,
that they formed a line of watch-towers, and signals of lights from
them could pass with rapidity from one to the other, forming excellent
means of telegraphic communication, and, from their extending at certain
distances up the river as far as the eye could reach, they are no doubt
intended for that purpose.

[36] Named Old and New China Streets.

[37] There is another place much frequented by European visitors, called
“Carpenter Square,” which is confined for the most part to upholsterers,
trunkmakers, &c. Here the camphor wood trunks are purchased, the majority
of which, sold to strangers as such, are merely made from common wood,
rubbed over with camphorated oil.

[38] If larger, but not rotten, in the heart, and also of good quality,
it will be cut into pieces of the above-mentioned size, and rounded.

[39] The sandal-wood brought from the Bonin Islands, I am informed, is of
a very excellent quality.

[40] The wood is frequently buried, and the sap allowed to rot off; and
this is considered to improve its quality.

[41] See Notices concerning China, published at Malacca in 1823, p. 10.

[42] It was in the rooms of the chief priest at this temple that Lord
Amherst’s embassy was lodged.

[43] The situation of this temple is near the inner harbour of Macao,
and of a romantic and highly beautiful character. An image of a lion
decorates each side of the granite steps, carved out of the same kind
of stone, having a ball carved in their mouths, every attempt to take
out, which is found to be in vain, puzzling many; (like the curious and
elegant ivory balls, carved one within the other;) there are also several
groups of figures beautifully carved in granite in basso relievo. On
entering, neat winding, and tastefully-executed granite steps, lead from
little temples to other recesses for idol worship, amongst natural groups
of granite rocks, piled one upon the other, as if by the fabled giants
of old during their warfare; huge trees, bending in various fantastic
forms, overhang the temples, and cast a silence and gloom over this place
devoted to pagan worship,—a place, however, well calculated to produce
awe in the human mind, and to bind either still closer the fetters of
bigotry, or, if it had been selected as the place of a truer worship,
to cause the mind in this retired spot to commune more closely with its
Creator. This spot, so beautiful, so delightful to behold, would form
an elegant and valuable embellishment for one of our English annuals. I
saw an accurate and delightful sketch of this religious spot taken by
Chinnery, and a painting, half-finished, from that sketch, which even
in that state reminded me of the original. I hope that talented artist
will complete and send it home, so that an engraving may recall it to the
memory of those who have seen, but may be now remote from its beauties.

[44] In September 1833, the floods of the river were so great, as to
cause a considerable loss of lives and property. All business at Canton
was transacted in boats, and the poorer class of people suffered much
distress through a great part of China in consequence.

[45] “The Lappa, in Chinese, Tuy, meen, shan, is a small island opposite
to Macao, forming the western side of the inner harbour. It affords room
for a pleasant variety in walk and scene occasionally.”—_Morrisons Comp.
to Angl. Chin. Kalendar_, 1832.

[46] Shan signifies hill; and tchong the pine tree.

[47] So named by the Portuguese, after a picturesque spot of the same
name, near the city of Lisbon.

[48] This island is of an elliptical form, and is said to be about
twenty-seven miles in its greatest length, and containing an estimated
area of about two hundred and seventy square miles. The latitude of
Singapore flag-staff is in 1° 17′ 22″ north, and longitude 103° 51′ 45″
east.

Singapoor is derived from Sing-gah, signifying to call or touch at, bait,
stop by the way, and Poor, a village, (generally fortified,) a town,
&c. (Marsden’s Malay Dictionary.) It is considered at this island, or
rather at this part of the island where the town is now situated, (the
name, however, has been given by Europeans to the whole island,) there
was formerly a village, inhabited principally by fishermen. The Malays,
who traded from the eastward to Malacca, and other of the ports to the
westward, touched at this place. Singa also signifies a lion, (known by
name only in the Malay countries,) from which the name of the island has
been (no doubt erroneously) supposed to be derived.

[49] Kampong Glam, near Singapore, has its name derived, it is said, from
Kampong, signifying a village, and Glam, the name of a particular kind of
tree.

[50] Crawford’s Embassy to Siam and Cochin China, 4to. pp. 565 to 567.

[51] Blackan Mattee is derived from the Malay word “Blackan,” behind; and
Mattee, dead or lost: it was supposed to be so named, because the hill,
when this place was resorted to by pirates, concealed them from the view
of the settlement or village—the present town. The explanation, however,
of the name is not very satisfactory.

[52] The sugar-cane is cultivated to a very limited extent, and the canes
I inspected were of very fine size and quality; they are only used,
however, for edible purposes, no sugar being as yet manufactured from
them.

[53] When the barking noise was made, the lips were pursed out, and the
air driven into the sac, at the same time that the sound was uttered, the
lower jaw was also a little protruded.

[54] The account of the orang-utan, given by Dr. Abel, in the _Narrative
of a Journey in the Interior of China_, accords with the habits of this
animal, and the comparison is very interesting.

[55] “Hanno sailed from Sierra Leone southerly to the equinox, where
he discovered an island, not far from the African coast, inhabited by
a rough and hairy people, to take one of whom, he used all possible
means, but could not: only two _women_, being encompassed by soldiers,
were taken and carried aboard; but being very savage, and barbarously
wild, could not be tamed, or brought to any complacency; so they killed
them, and carried their stuffed-up skins to Carthage, where they were a
long time gazed upon with _great admiration_. This island, which Hanno
then found, can be no other but that which we call St. Thomas; and
the hairy people which he makes mention of were babeons, or baboons,
which Africa, in this place, breeds large, to the amazement of the
beholders.”—_Ogilby’s America_, p. 20.

[56] I have heard that the natives of Terra del Fuego, who were lately
brought to England, when they arrived in the hot latitudes, would lie
down and roll about the decks of the ship which conveyed them from their
native land, exclaiming, “Why they had been brought into this fiery
country?”

[57] The ape and monkey tribe, although approaching so near the human
race in external appearance, as well as in its omnivorous habits of
diet, still differs materially in not being able to sustain a change of
climate; nor is it readily inured to a cold climate, if a native of the
tropical regions.

[58] The lungs in the orang-utan are entire on each side, and not divided
into lobes. See my friend Mr. Owen’s Dissection of the Orang-utan, in No.
I. of the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London_.

[59] A portion of the ulcerated intestine has been deposited in the
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.

[60] The larynx and appendages have been deposited in the Museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons in London.

[61] Lyell’s Principles of Geology, vol. ii. p. 15.

[62] The other Camphor-trees are principally of the genus _Laurus_.

[63] See my observations on the Kayu-puteh-oil, vol. i. p. 166.

[64] Ladies visiting their friends on the opposite side of the creek are
obliged to stop the carriage on one side of the bridge and walk across,
at the risk of deranging their curls by the breezes, or injuring the
fairness of their complexions by the fervent rays of a tropical sun. And
besides, they must have a conveyance in waiting on the opposite side to
take them to the place they may be desirous of visiting. When so much—in
splendid mansions and other improvements to the settlement—has been done
by private merchants, it is to be regretted that a new bridge for the
convenience of the settlement has been so long deferred by the government.

[65] The Gambir extract has been sent to England to be tried as a mordant
for dying, or to be used in the tanning of leather, the extract having
been found to contain a very large proportion of tannin. I know not what
may have been the result of the experiment.

[66] There are some, but very few pepper plantations upon the island,
without a Gambir boiling-house being near them; but although those
without the benefit of having the boiled Gambir-leaves strewed over the
soil, look well, still the planters say, that the pepper produced by the
vines, is neither prolific, nor of so fine a quality.

[67] As, on a former occasion, I had some doubt whether the shrub
was monoecious or dioecious, I took another opportunity of making my
examinations; the result of which was, that although a great many of the
shrubs had male and female flowers on separate trees, yet a few had both
male and female on the same tree.

[68] One Chinese proprietor of a Gambir manufactory said, he could make
half a pecul of the extract daily. The baskets for packing the Gambir
when ready for sale, are made from a common kind of rattan, found in the
jungle.

[69] Since the above was in the hands of the printer, I understand that
the Calcutta government have taken into consideration the subject of
quit-rents, and that more judicious regulations have been instituted;
so it may be hoped that the rising prosperity of the settlement will no
longer be impeded.

[70] The Malays at Singapore, in the employ of Europeans, often use
the flowers of this shrub for cleansing shoes, by rubbing them with
the petals of the flowers, which contain a quantity of purplish black
astringent juice. After rubbing them over the shoes, they polish the
latter by aid of a brush; it certainly prevents the white dresses,
usually worn in eastern climates, from being sullied by the shoes, which
often happens when blacking has been used; this is probably the cause of
its being called the _shoe-flower_ by Europeans.

[71] Rumphius says that the natives of Amboyna were unwilling to bring
him specimens of the plants from the mountains, from the full persuasion,
that if the appendages were gathered and emptied of water, heavy rain
would overtake them before their return. In conformity with the same
belief, when suffering from a long drought, they pour the water from
all the appendages they can find, satisfied that the ceremony will be
followed by a change of weather. Such belief is curiously contrasted
with their notions of the medicinal properties of the water contained
in them, which they believe an infallible specific for incontinence of
urine.—_Rumph. cit. in Abel’s China_, pp. 340, 341.

[72] “At Amboyna,” says Labillardiere, “the natives contrive to procure
threads from the bastard aloe, called _Agave vivipara_: the master of the
house went and cut a branch of this plant, and resting it on its thigh
in order to scrape it with his large knife, and take off its pulp, he
obtained from it a fascicle of threads as long as the leaf, and as strong
as those of our best hemp.”

[73] From the expense attending labour, as well as its scarcity in this
settlement, the pine-apple fibre could not be prepared at present under
thirty-eight or forty dollars the pecul; but in Penang, or other places,
where labour is cheap, and, as in the preparation of this article, women
and children may be employed, the expense attending it would hardly
exceed ten dollars per pecul.

[74] Situated at Teluk-ayer, (teluk, bay; and ayer, water).

[75] There is a very coarse granulated sago in large grains, and of a
dirty greyish colour, which is imported by the native boats from Borneo,
and is used at this settlement during a scarcity of rice by the poorer
class of people.

[76] In the list of imports published in the Singapore Chronicle, the
raw sago is usually designated as sago tamping, (tamping signifying a
package, from the raw sago, being always imported wrapt in the leaves
of the Pandanus tree;) it is imported in this country by fleets of ten
boats, or even more, having to the amount of twenty thousand tampings or
packages on board; the packages vary in weight, some weighing more and
some less to the pecul.

[77] “In the language of the western countries of the Archipelago, the
tree is named according to the idiom of the pronunciation of the people,
Mangkudu, Bangkudu, or Wangkudu; the three initial consonants in these
cases being commutable and very arbitrarily used.”—_Crawford’s Indian
Archipelago._

[78] Sandal-wood oil is also regarded as a never-failing specific for
this very troublesome eruptive disease.—I am inclined to consider that
more efficacy is stated to be possessed by the _Cassia alata_ than can be
justified by actual experience, with regard to the ring-worm; for I have,
since writing the above, been informed that it had often been tried upon
cases at Singapore for nearly a month, without any decidedly good effect
resulting from its use, although the disease had been evidently mitigated
by its application: it might certainly be more efficacious if used simply
bruised, without the addition of lime-juice and salt, which latter is the
mode of application adopted; but the addition of the latter articles is
regarded as tending to increase its efficacy in the disease.

[79] Forrest’s New Guinea, p. 74. 4to. 1780.

[80] At noon of the day the bird died, we were in lat. 22° 58′ south,
long. 67° 0′ east.

[81] I have preserved the whole of the alimentary canal from the
œsophagus to the rectum, (including the distended gizzard left unopened,)
in an entire state in spirits. The liver, ovaries, and trachea, I have
also preserved in a similar manner, and presented to the Royal College of
Surgeons, in London.

[82] Some of the fir-trees in the plantations we passed had a very
peculiar appearance, from the trunk and branches being covered by a
dark-red lichen, which gave them the appearance of being painted.

[83] As the willows require much moisture, they are carefully watered
every morning and evening by the soldier who attends and has charge of
the place.

[84] Which is at present occupied by the governor, the former residence,
Plantation-house, being found in a very unhealthy situation.

[85] After the revolution at Paris, in 1830, and the tri-coloured banner
had again waved over the towers of France, when the first French ship
arrived at St. Helena, with that revolutionary standard at her gaff, her
commander and crew visiting the tomb, placed a tri-coloured cockade upon
it, glorying in “restoring to him his colours, under which he had so
often led the French nation to victory, and which ensign was again the
emblem of liberty to France.”

[86] The want of rain for the plantations appears to be much needed; but
next month heavy rain is expected to fall.

[87] A large gannet was seen flying about the ship on the afternoon of
the previous day, indicating a near approach to land: we were at that
time about ninety miles distant from the island.

[88] Three lazy frigate-birds, too indolent to fish for themselves, were
seen, pursuing an unfortunate sea-swallow, which had probably succeeded
in capturing a fish. It is usual for these birds to pursue the gannets,
and others, when returning from their fishing excursions, compelling them
to disgorge their fish.

[89] Blumenbach’s Comparative Anatomy, by Lawrence and Coulson, page 76.

[90] The shark is more wary of taking the bait when unaccompanied by
the pilot-fish; it will then approach, and retire, several times before
it ventures to seize it; but when the little pilot is in company it
will first approach the bait, (the shark waiting at some distance,) and
return, as if to report; when the shark advances and seizes the bait
without hesitation: this I have remarked in numerous instances.

[91] Being at first stationary, and of a dark colour, a ship passing it
rapidly might have considered it as one, and reported accordingly, and
such a circumstance has no doubt caused many rocks to be laid down in the
charts which have actually no existence.

[92] In one of the fabulous legends of the natives of the Island of
Tahiti, their island is represented “as having been a shark, originally
from Raitea. Matarafau, in the east, was the head; and a place near Faaa,
on the west, was the tail; the large lake Vaihiria was the ventricles
or gills; while the lofty Orehena, the highest mountain in the island,
probably six or seven thousand feet above the sea, was regarded as
its dorsal fin; and its ventral fin was Matavai.”—_Ellis’s Polynesian
Researches_, vol. i. page 167.

[93] I am informed by Mr. William Holderness, that in the month of
October, 1828, when on a voyage from Guayaquil and Lima, in the brig
Bolivar, E. Bransfield, R. N., commander, having heard rumours of war
in Europe, they touched at Pernambuco, to ascertain its correctness,
and left the next day, carrying the south-east trade to about 12° north
latitude. After a few days calm, they got fine breezes from south-west,
which carried them across the usual limits of the north-east trade, and
then had nothing but light north-east winds until they reached Gibraltar.

[94] Greville’s Algæ Britannicæ, 8vo.—The figure of the _Sargassum
vulgare_ in this work is coloured far too dark, and does not seem to have
been done from a recent specimen.

[95] The generic name is derived from _Sargaço_, or _Sargazo_, the
Spanish name for the masses of sea-weed found floating on the surface of
the ocean.

[96] Greville’s Algæ Britannicæ, 8vo. 1830. Introd. p. xii.

[97] Osbeck mentions, that, if prepared with vinegar, it furnishes an
excellent pickle; and Rumphius, according to Mr. Turner, relates, that,
in the East, salads are made of it, as well as other Algæ. It is also
eaten in Chili.—_Greville’s Algæ Britannicæ_, 8vo. 1830, p. 2.

[98] Vide Labillardiere’s Voyages, vol. i. p. 334.

[99] The fronds of the palms every year throw off those of the year
preceding, and it is the bases of the old fronds that form the rough bark.

[100] Lindley’s Nat. Syst. of Botany.

[101] Artocarpus integrifolia, Linn.

[102] Caryota urens.

[103] Generally of Bignonia indica, Tabernæmontana, Jasminum odoratum,
and zeylanicum and luteum; Polyanthes tuberosa, Nyctanthes arbor tristis,
Michelia champaca, Nerium odoratissimum, Mimosa arabica, and Lawsonia
inermis.

[104] In worship of Budhoo, and acknowledgment of his being the
Omniscient.

[105] A liberty is here taken with the tradition, blue and green being
synonymous in Singalese, (Nil-pata.)

[106] Supposed to be derived from a Tamul word, _bodhi_, which signifies
_wisdom_. The present object of Singalese worship is the fourth Budhoo,
called Goutama Budha Arkabandoo, or descendant from the sun.

[107] Considered by many learned Indians an incarnation of Vishnu, and
his religion to be founded on that of Brahma.

[108] Brahmata-Brahma, a name of Budhoo.

[109] Anadewara, also a name of Budhoo.

[110] Native drums; of which there are four kinds, generally made of
jack-wood, and covered with deer-skin, from which the hair has been
previously removed. It is laid on in a wet state, and dried in the sun.

[111] The Singalese language has no signification for brown, reddish,
orange-coloured, scarlet, or pink, which are all expressed by the
monosyllable “rat,” red.

[112] “Samanta-chacksa,” covered with eyes.

[113] The green cocoa-nut, called in Singalese, Koroomba.

[114] Probably the Manis, commonly called Negombo Devil.

[115] “Kandi,” high, lofty, mountainous.

[116] The Cocos is a name said to be taken from the Portuguese coco, or
coquin, the three holes at the end of the cocoa-nut shell, giving it some
resemblance to a monkey’s head.

[117] This palm is rarely, or never, seen growing straight; it has
usually, when full, or nearly full, grown, an inclination in one
direction or another.

[118] “The cocoa-nut tree, on the sea-shore, is certainly larger and more
productive than in the interior of Ceylon. In the former situation it
frequently grows to the height of one hundred feet. Its flourishing most
in this situation, and close to the dwellings of the natives, is probably
connected with the circumstance, that its leaves, in a healthy state,
contain a very large portion of saline matter. The Singalese are well
aware of this: the washermen burn its leaves for the sake of its alkaline
ashes; and it is a common practice, in planting a cocoa-nut, to put a
little salt into the pit.”—_Davy’s Ceylon_, 4to. p. 355.

[119] The natives of Tonga give the cocoa-nut, when in the act of
germinating, the same appellation as the brain—“Uto.”

[120] A ludicrous mistake, I recollect, once occurred respecting this
word in one of the missionary letters sent to England; it was mentioned
that they preached to the natives in _topes_ of cocoa-nut trees:
this, when it appeared in one of the missionary journals, was printed
thus:—“they preached to the natives _on tops_ of cocoa-nut trees!!”

[121] The midribs of the leaves, tied together, form good brooms for the
decks of ships.

Formerly it was not unusual for the Tahitan females to produce abortion,
by using a midrib of the cocoa-nut leaflets as an instrument for the
purpose; but this crime is now, I am happy to say, very rare indeed, if
practised at all, in the present state of that splendid island.

[122] Baula, branches of cocoa-nut tree plaited, with which the houses
are thatched; they will last two or three years. The matting for the
floors, of similar plaited fronds, is called _Takapau_, or rather a
coarse kind of matting made from the young leaves, only used for covering
the floors of the houses; and the screens _Tatau_, at Tonga Islands.

[123] Ellis, vol. i. p. 52.

[124] The Singalese used the white young leaves in forming ornaments, in
a tasteful and elegant manner peculiar to themselves, on the occasion of
any festival, decorating arches, &c., in various picturesque forms of
crowns, flowers, &c. &c.

[125] Papalangi was applied to any thing foreign; we were Papalangis; our
cloth was Gnatoo papalangi; our rum Kava papalangi, &c.

[126] There is a kind of seam along the centre, exactly under the stem
of the leaf, from both sides of which long and tough fibres, about the
size of a bristle, regularly diverge in an oblique direction; sometimes
there appear to be two layers of fibres, which cross each other, and the
whole is cemented with a still finer, fibrous, and adhesive substance.
The length and evenness of the threads, or fibres, the regular manner in
which they cross each other at oblique angles, the extent of surface,
and the thickness of the piece, corresponding with that of coarse cotton
cloth, the singular manner in which the fibres are attached to each
other, cause this curious substance, woven in the loom of nature, to
present to the eye a remarkable resemblance to cloth spun and woven by
human ingenuity.—_Ellis_, vol. i. p. 53.

[127] This substance is also used for small bags.

[128] Lime prepared from burnt shells and coral.

[129] The shell of the Oua, or young cocoa-nut, is said to be used
medicinally by the Tahitans.

[130] Mission to Siam, page 290.

[131] The palm wine of Africa is procured in a similar manner, but I
believe from other species of palms.

[132] Formerly the toddy was supposed to be the sap of the tree drawn
from the branches. “The wine issues from the top of the tree, and
is procured thus:—They cut a _branch_, binding it hard, and hang
an earthen pot under the cut end, which they empty every morning
and evening.”—_Fitch’s Journey to India Overland, in 1583._ (Kerr’s
Collection of Voyages, vol. vii. p. 476.)

[133] The vinegar is thus prepared:—The toddy is collected in dry
weather, put into jars, and well covered. After a month the contents are
strained, and replaced in the same jars, with the addition of a little
Chili pepper, (_Capsicum frutescens_,) commonly called bird-pepper; a
small piece of Ghorkah, (fruit of the gamboge tree,) the red sort of
which is to be preferred, being most acid; and the pod of the horseradish
tree (_Hyperanthera moringa_). At the expiration of a month or five weeks
it becomes very excellent vinegar.

[134] From one inch to two inches in thickness.

[135] The Tahitans do not use the coir in the manufacture of large ropes;
for that purpose they use the bark of the _Hibiscus tiliaceus_, or Purau.

[136] Stewart’s South Seas, 1829, 1830, p. 175.

[137] Stewart’s South Seas, 1829, 1830, p. 177.

[138] Forrest’s Voyage to New Guinea, 4to. 1780, p. 96.

[139] It is said, if sheep have not bitter herbs in their pasturage, they
will not thrive.

[140] Description of the Island of Tristan d’Acunha, and its Natural
Productions.—_Linnean Trans._ vol. xii. 1818.

[141] These birds, when brought on board, seldom utter any sound, and
that which sometimes proceeds from them is a raucous but not a loud
sound. None of the oceanic birds seem to have a very loud note, that
of the tropic bird seems the most shrill; the Storm Petrel, or “Mother
Carey’s chicken,” has a pleasing twittering note.

[142] The wing has four joints, of which the second is the longest.

[143] It is difficult, indeed I should say impossible, to state correctly
the species of Albatross seen during flight, particularly by the plumage,
as, at one time, in a certain position, the appearance is different from
that which it assumes, almost immediately afterwards, in another.

[144] Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, June 25th, 1833.

[145] Abel’s Narrative of a Journey in China, &c. &c. 4to. p. 251.

[146] Finlayson’s Journal of a Mission to Siam, &c. pp. 86, 87.

[147] Vol. i. p. 143. 8vo. Edit.

[148] Vol. i. page 309, 8vo. edition.

[149] See published proceedings of the Zoological Society, No. 6, June
25th, 1833.


THE END.

                                 LONDON:
           IBOTSON AND PALMER, PRINTERS, SAVOY-STREET, STRAND.






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