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Title: Profitable poultry
        Their management in health and disease

Author: W. B. Tegetmeier

Illustrator: Harrison Weir

Release date: December 11, 2024 [eBook #74875]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Darton and Co

Credits: Carol Brown and The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PROFITABLE POULTRY ***


[Illustration: BLACK SPANISH.]




                         PROFITABLE POULTRY;

                          THEIR MANAGEMENT

                                 IN

                         HEALTH AND DISEASE.


                        BY W. B. TEGETMEIER,
     AUTHOR OF A SERIES OF PAPERS ON THE DISEASES OF POULTRY, IN
             “THE COTTAGE GARDENER,” “THE POULTRY BOOK,”
                              &c., &c.

                WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY HARRISON WEIR.

                    NEW EDITION GREATLY ENLARGED.

                               LONDON:
                    DARTON AND CO., HOLBORN HILL.

                                1854.




                              PREFACE.


In issuing this edition the Author begs leave to tender his sincere
thanks, firstly, to the public whose rapid purchase of an unusually
large impression has enabled him to issue the present greatly
enlarged, and, he hopes he may add, improved edition; secondly, to
his brother amateurs to whom he is indebted for so many suggestions
and so much valuable assistance; thirdly, to his reviewers, all
of whom have spoken so favourably of his efforts to impart sound
practical common sense, in place of the gross absurdities, which,
it is not too much to say, previously disfigured all the low-priced
poultry works; to the distinguished naturalist who did him the honour
to give a lengthened review of the work in Fraser’s Magazine (Dec.
1853), he gladly takes this opportunity of expressing his thanks, as
he is personally unknown. The present is distinguished from the last
edition by the extension of such parts as were previously meagre; a
table of the constituents of food has been added, which it is hoped
may prove useful; a longer account of several varieties has been
given, and the chapter on diseases has been considerably enlarged,
and several new remedies indicated.

_Willesden, Midsummer, 1854._

       *       *       *       *       *

                    PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

The object of this little work is purely practical; its aim is to
place in the hands of persons who may not have had much experience,
a book which should contain all that is most essential to be known
respecting the housing, feeding, breeding, and treatment of fowls;
and to this has been added such information as the experience of
the author has enabled him to give respecting the most profitable
varieties viewed as agricultural stock.

_August, 1853._




                         PROFITABLE POULTRY,

                               &c. &c.




                           THE FOWL HOUSE.


The singular fact that our common domestic fowls are destitute of any
particular English name, points at once to their foreign origin; and,
although in the course of many generations, they have become greatly
inured to the rigors of our climate, they still retain so far their
original constitution as to require the protection of habitation
during, at least, a great part of the year.

One of the most important requisites in a fowl house is absolute
dryness, nothing being more fatal to poultry than damp; on clayey
soil, or in moist situations, dryness must be secured, either by
drainage or by raising the floor several inches above the surface of
the ground; in cold situations especially, the aspect of the house
is also of some importance; if practicable, the windows and other
openings should face the south, as this secures a greater degree of
warmth during the winter, an advantage which is also obtained by
having the roof ceiled.

The perches on which the fowls roost should be low, especially
for the larger varieties, as otherwise the violence with which
they descend causes lameness, and not unfrequently fracture of
the breast bone; in order to prevent the breast bones becoming
crooked (a circumstance which greatly injures their appearance,
and consequently their value as table birds), the perches should be
much larger than ordinary; a split fir pole, three inches across
on the flat side, which should be turned downwards, will be found
advantageous, and a height of not more than three or four feet is
desirable, as it enables the fowls to be readily caught after they
have gone to roost, and prevents lameness; for Cochins it is even
necessary that the perches should be much lower; their height should
certainly not exceed one foot from the ground, otherwise, from the
imperfect powers of flight possessed by these birds, the evils
alluded to are very apt to occur. Heavy birds of this variety are
sometimes subject to inflammatory tenderness of the feet; to prevent
as much as possible the tendency to this disease, it is advantageous
in these cases to lay some straight straw lengthway along the top of
the perches, binding it in its place with string.

The ground below the perches should be strewed with sand, gravel,
or ashes, to a considerable depth, so that the dung may be removed
without soiling the floor. This should be done every morning early,
and the house thrown open during the day, so as to be thoroughly
purified. It seldom happens that fowl houses are so built, as to
require any distinct contrivance for ventilation; in cases, however,
where the door and window are air-tight, means should be afforded
for a proper supply of fresh air; there should be an opening at or
near the bottom, and another at the top, these should be covered with
pieces of perforated zinc, to prevent any direct draught of cold air,
which is very injurious. Cleanliness is also a consideration of the
highest importance in a fowl house; if ashes or sand are used, as
recommended, and the dung removed daily, this is readily secured; and
in order to prevent as far as possible the annoyance of vermin, the
house should be lime-washed once or twice a year, and the birds also
be provided with a box full of dry dust or ashes to _bathe_ in.

The difference between the health of fowls thus cleanly and warmly
housed, and that of those compelled to roost in a dark, damp, dirty
habitation is very great; these latter never becoming in good
condition. So injurious is damp and cold, that I have known instances
in which all the inhabitants of a poultry house have been attacked
with violent catarrh terminating in roup, from an east window
having been left open on a cold wet night; and it has been found
by experiment, that scrofula may always be produced in chickens by
confining them in damp, cold, and dark habitations.

I have found that exceedingly economical and efficient poultry-houses
may be built against any wall that is conveniently situated, the
sides and front being boarded, and the roof formed of inch deal
boards, laid closely edge to edge, up and down the slope, and
projecting over the sides and front so as to throw off the rain; the
top should be covered with thin cheap calico tightly strained, and,
by brushing this over with a good coating of coal-tar, it is cemented
to the roof, which is thus rendered water-tight.

The patent Asphalte felt forms a cheap and warm roofing, but it also
requires to be tarred over, in order to resist the weather. If the
poultry-house is tiled, the downward current of cold air in winter,
may be prevented by lining the roof with straw supported by laths
nailed to the rafters; and in other cases I have found that stout
brown paper, oiled or painted, and tacked smoothly to the under side
of the rafters, has been very efficient in increasing the warmth of
the house, and consequently the production of eggs in winter.




                              FEEDING.


There is, perhaps, no subject on which a greater diversity of opinion
exists among poultry keepers, than respecting the relative value of
the different substances used as food. This difference of opinion
arises from the general ignorance that prevails with regard to the
true principles of feeding. It cannot be too strongly impressed
on all feeders of stock that the food eaten has to serve several
distinct purposes when taken into the body. One portion is consumed
in supporting the natural warmth of the animal; another set of
substances supplies the nourishment required for the growth of the
body, and replaces the daily wasting that occurs; a third yields the
materials from which the bones are formed; and a fourth supplies the
fat which is stored up in the bodies of animals; we may, therefore,
speak of the following classes of foods:--

1st. _Warmth-giving Food._--As starch, which forms almost the entire
bulk of rice, and the solid portion of potatoes; gum, sugar, &c.

2nd. _Flesh-forming Food._--As gluten, &c., which exists in large
proportion in wheat, oatmeal, peas, beans, middlings and sharps, and
in somewhat smaller quantity in barley, Indian corn, &c.

3rd. _Bone-making Food._--Which is found in larger proportion in the
bran, or outer part of the grain, than in the inner parts.

4th. _Fat-forming Food._--Consisting of fatty or oily substances;
these occur, to a considerable extent, in Indian corn (the yellow
variety), oatmeal, middlings, bran, &c.

All experiments that have been made tend to prove that each of
these kinds of food is unable to serve the purposes of the others;
thus, to give an example, neither warmth-giving nor fat-forming
substances are capable of adding to the flesh of a growing animal,
nor can flesh-forming food increase the quantity of fat. In a mere
elementary work, like the present, it is impossible to go into this
subject at any great length. Those who desire the facts on which
these statements are grounded are referred to the works of Johnston,
Liebig, and other eminent agriculturists and agricultural chemists.
We must take the principles as granted, and apply them to an
examination of the different substances usually employed in poultry
feeding.

GRAIN forms the staple food of poultry, the varieties used being
generally either barley, oats, wheat, Indian corn, or rice.

_Barley_ is perhaps more frequently used than any other grain;
it is better relished by fowls than oats, and its first cost is
considerably below that of wheat. It contains from ten to eleven
pounds of flesh-forming, sixty of starchy substances, and two to
three of oil or fat in every hundred.

_Oats_ are not taken so freely as barley, which is apparently owing
to the large proportion of husk they contain, which lessens their
value as poultry food; but when used in the form of grits or oatmeal
they are eaten with great avidity, and in this state furnish one
of the most wholesome and nutritious varieties of food, containing
eighteen of flesh-forming, sixty-three of starchy substances, and
six pounds of fatty materials in every hundred. No grain contains a
larger proportion of flesh-forming substances than oatmeal--it is,
therefore, the one best adapted to growing animals, and I have found
that chicken make much more rapid progress when it forms the chief
portion of their food than when fed on any other substances. Cochin,
and Spanish chicken especially, show its good effects by the rapidity
with which they feather when fed with it.

_Wheat_, contrary to the popular opinion, is not more nutritious than
oatmeal; it contains about twelve pounds of flesh-forming nutriment,
seventy of starchy, and two to four of oil, in every hundred. Its
cost operates considerably against its employment, although it is
extensively used by some breeders of choice poultry, with whom
expense of feeding is a secondary consideration.

_Indian Corn_ is remarkable for the large proportion of oil contained
in the yellow varieties, which averages eight pounds in every
hundred; its capability of putting on flesh is not greater than that
of barley, as it contains only eleven per cent. of flesh-giving food,
and sixty-six of starchy matters. Cochins seem remarkably fond of it,
but I have found that it is refused by Dorkings and Spanish, when
they are able to obtain other grain.

_Rice_ is the least nutritious of all grains, and therefore the worst
that can be given to growing animals. In the husked state in which
it is usually found in this country, it contains scarcely any fat,
or bone-making materials, and only seven per cent. of flesh-forming
food, (less than half the quantity contained in oatmeal,) being
almost entirely composed of starch. Boiled rice is a useful variation
in the food of fowls, and is much relished, but as the main support
of growing chicken it is very objectionable.

_Buckwheat Flour_ is about equal in nutritive properties to that
of wheat, but the large proportion of husk that the unground seeds
contain, must be taken into account in estimating its money value; it
is commonly supposed to cause a greatly increased production of eggs,
but its chemical composition does not shew any superiority over many
other varieties of food.

_Dhoora_, or Indian millet, a small grain largely cultivated in
the east, is employed by some poultry keepers; it is much relished
by fowls; the nutritious properties of the flour are very similar
to those of wheat, and as it contains very little husk, it may be
regarded as a valuable addition to the poultry dietary.

_Malt Dust_, _Malt Culm_, _and Cummins_, are names given to the small
sprouts of the barley which are broken off in the process of malting,
and form a coarse fibrous powder. Malt dust contains from two to
three times as large a proportion of flesh-forming food as wheat,
and in this respect far surpasses any of the substances ordinarily
used as poultry food; its value not being generally known, it is
frequently used as manure; mixed with soft food, it is much relished
by fowls, and as it may be obtained at a remarkably cheap rate, its
employment is very advantageous.

_Bran_, _Pollard or Randan_, _and Middlings or Sharps_, particularly
the latter, I regard as most valuable additions to the food of
poultry. In the first place they are economical--and they contain
a very high proportion (eighteen per cent.) of flesh-forming
substances, and a very considerable quantity of oil (six per cent.)
Another circumstance which adapts them to the use of chicken is the
large proportion of bone-making materials they contain.

Many poultry feeders are in the habit of preparing the grain before
use; some simply soak the barley or other corn, by placing it in
water the previous evening, this lessens the time it has to remain
in the crop, before passing on into the gizzard; others boil their
corn, a proceeding which has the advantage of rendering it more
digestible, as it effects an important change in the starchy part
of the grain. Rice, especially, should always be boiled before
use, and it should be cooked in such a mode as to allow the grains
to remain separate, which may be easily managed by boiling it in
a large quantity of water, to which a small piece of fat, as lard
or dripping, has previously been added. The experience of all
experimental agriculturists is in favour of cooked food for live
stock of all descriptions: from the change effected in the starch
it is more nutritious, and is more rapidly digested; hence, there
is less work for the stomach and digestive organs to perform, and
therefore they are less liable to become diseased. From considerable
experience in its employment, I can strongly recommend the following
cooked food, as being exceedingly well adapted to supply all the
substances requisite to support a healthy and vigorous existence. A
quantity of middlings, with or without half its bulk of barley-meal,
or a corresponding proportion of malt-dust, is placed in a coarse red
ware pan, and baked for about an hour in a side oven, or until the
mixture is thoroughly heated throughout; water is then poured in, and
the whole stirred together until it becomes a crumbly mass; if too
much water is added, the mixture becomes cloggy, a defect which is
easily remedied by stirring in a little dry meal. The advantage of
this method is that the food is prepared with scarcely any trouble,
and there is no fear of its being burnt as in boiling. Sometimes the
barley meal is omitted, and the baked middlings mixed with rice which
has been previously boiled. This mixture forms the stock food of my
old fowls, a liberal supply of grain being given during the day. I
have found that since its adoption they cost less in food, and that
they are in equally good or even in better condition than when fed on
an unlimited supply of grain alone. Should the convenience for baking
not exist, it will be found more desirable to scald the middlings and
meal with boiling water than to mix them with cold.

If grain of any kind is broken or crushed, it should only be done
shortly before use, unless it is thoroughly kiln dried; for when this
is not done, the grain, from the moisture it contains, soon becomes
musty, sour, and unwholesome. Inferior samples of grain contain
so large a proportion of husk that they are not desirable, and if
regarded with reference to their nutritious properties the best will
be found the cheapest.

_Potatoes_, when plentiful and free from disease, may be
advantageously substituted for rice, which they closely resemble, in
containing a large amount of starch; there is less waste in their
use, if steamed, than when boiled.

_Peas_, _Beans_, _and Lentils_, either whole or ground, are much
used by many feeders; they contain a larger amount of flesh-forming
food than grain--on the average about twenty-four per cent., whilst
the quantity of fat is very small, not usually more than two in every
hundred; but they are not easily digested, and are too stimulating to
be regarded as a wholesome diet. I have traced many cases of disease,
such as white comb in Cochins, inflammation of the stomach and egg
passage, &c., &c., to their employment.

_Hemp Seed_ is frequently given to cause the increased production
of eggs, an effect which it can only produce at the sacrifice of
the health of the fowls. Hemp is used in India as a most powerful
medicine; the evil effects of the seeds on caged birds are known to
all bird keepers. I regard it as one of the most injurious substances
given to fowls.

_Fresh Green Vegetables_ form an indispensable addition to the
food of poultry. Those having a free range in the country supply
themselves with this kind of food; when they are kept in other
situations they should be supplied daily with turf, cabbage, lettuce,
or turnip leaves, and in the absence of these substances, as on
shipboard, a little moistened corn, allowed to sprout, will be found
very advantageous.

_Cooked Vegetables_, such as parsnips, carrots, turnips, &c., are
much relished, particularly the former; they form an useful and
wholesome variation in the diet.

_Animal Food._--The most advantageous animal food for fowls, and on
which they make the most rapid and healthy progress, consists in the
worms, snails and insects that they obtain naturally when unconfined;
I do not think that there is any other kind of food which conduces
so much to their healthy condition; where it cannot be obtained, a
small quantity of fresh meat (either raw or cooked) may be chopped
small and given to them; it is, however, but a poor substitute for
the natural insect food. The maggots of the flesh fly, obtained by
hanging up some meat to putrefy, are often employed, but I doubt very
much, whether, in wholesomeness, they are at all equal to worms, and
the plan is objectionable from the offensive odour of the putrefying
meat; if it is thought desirable to employ maggots the best mode is
to allow the animal substance to remain exposed to the air until
thoroughly fly-blown, if it is then buried eighteen inches deep,
the maggots remain under ground until they attain their full size,
when they work their way towards the surface, before changing into
the perfect insects; the fowls soon discover their approach, and by
scratching obtain a plentiful supply; the maggots by working their
way through the soil are cleansed from any adhering putridity, and
the search for the gradual supply affords amusement for the fowls;
even employed in this way, however, I do not think flesh maggots so
desirable as worms.

_Tallow Chandler’s Greaves_, which are left on melting the fat from
the stale scraps of the butchers, and the putrid accumulation of
the marine store shop, are strongly recommended by some persons as
causing an increased quantity of eggs. Animal substances which have
once been in a state of putrefaction cannot by any subsequent process
be formed into healthy food, and I can state from experience that
greaves are exceedingly injurious to laying hens. Even dogs, when fed
upon greaves, become offensive, mangy, and out of condition; their
effect upon fowls cannot be less injurious.

It will not, I trust, be thought that the subject of food has been
treated at an undue length, for I am confident that by far the
greater number of diseases that occur in fowls arise from improper
feeding. I have, therefore, arranged the following Table, in order
to render the comparison of the relative value of the different
substances more easily made.


                                TABLE

    Showing the number of pounds of different substances contained
                 in every 100lbs. of grain, &c., &c.

  [When a (--) is used it signifies that the quantity has not been exactly
                              ascertained.]

  Column Key
  B - Water.
  C - Flesh-forming Food (Gluten, &c.)
  D - Fat or Oil.
  E - Warmth-giving Food (Starch, &c.)
  F - Husk and Fibre.
  G - Bonemaking Substances. &c., &c.

  +-------------------------+------+-----+-------+------+-----+-------+
  |    Every 100 lbs. of    |  B   |  C  |   D   |   E  |  F  |   G   |
  +-------------------------+------+-----+-------+------+-----+-------+
  |                         | lb.  | lb. |  lb.  |  lb. | lb. |  lb.  |
  |Wheat            contains| 12   | 12  |   3   |  70  |   1 |   2   |
  |Bran, Middlings, &c. ”   | 14   | 18  |   6   |  53  | --  |   5   |
  |Oats, with husk      ”   |  9½  | 15  |   6   |  47  |  20 |   2   |
  |Oatmeal              ”   |  9   | 18  |   6   |  63  |   2 |   2   |
  |Barley               ”   | 11   | 11  |   2   |  60  |  14 |   2   |
  |Malt Dust            ”   |  6   | 30  |   --  |  --  |  -- |   8   |
  |Indian Corn          ”   | 10   | 11  |   8   |  66  |   5 |   1   |
  |Rice, husked         ”   | --   |  7  |   --  |  80  |  -- |a trace|
  |Dhoors               ”   | 12   | 11  |   --  |  70  |   4 |   2   |
  |Buckwheat            ”   | --   | 11  |   --  |  --  |  -- |  --   |
  |Peas, &c.          }     |      |     |       |      |     |       |
  |Beans              } ”   | 15   | 25  |   2   |  48  |   8 |   2   |
  |Tares              }     |      |     |       |      |     |       |
  |Lentils            }     |      |     |       |      |     |       |
  |Potato               ”   | 75   |  2  |a trace|  19  |   3 |    ¾  |
  +-------------------------+------+-----+-------+------+-----+-------+


My position in connection with the _Cottage Gardener_, has given
me the opportunity of examining more dead and diseased fowls than
perhaps ever fell to the lot of one individual; and, as the most
certain result of my experience, I can state that more than one half
the cases that come under my care, or that are examined by me after
death, are caused by errors in feeding.

Inflammation of the digestive stomach (which is situated between the
crop and the gizzard), caused by the use of peas, beans, hemp seed,
or by the endeavour to force fowls forward for exhibition, or to make
them up for the sale room, is a most frequent result. Apoplexy from
over-feeding, especially in laying hens, and paralysis from the same
cause, are frequent. Inflammation of the egg passage is a common,
and unless timely treated, another fatal complaint, generally taking
its rise in over-stimulating food; and leg weakness, from the weight
increasing faster than the strength, is common in Cochins.

[Illustration]

_Water._--A daily supply of fresh clean water is indispensable to
the health of fowls. Many diseases are caused by their drinking from
stagnant ditches and the impure and filthy drainings of manure heaps,
&c. A cheap fountain, the best that I have ever seen, inasmuch as
it is capable of being cleansed internally, may be made out of any
wide-mouth earthenware jar and common glazed flower-pot saucer; by
boring a small hole in the jar, an inch or an inch and a half from
the edge, then filling it with water, putting the saucer on the top,
bottom upwards, and quickly turning them both together upside down,
when the water will be found to flow into the saucer to the height of
the hole in the jar.




                              BREEDING.


Much variety of opinion prevails respecting the best mode of
constructing the nests for laying and sitting hens. In this, as in
all other cases, the nearer we can imitate nature the better; I
object to the rows of pigeon-holes so frequently employed, as the
close crowding of the fowls harbours vermin, and renders it difficult
to thoroughly clean the nests after the eggs are hatched, and believe
it will be found more conducive to health and comfort if the nests
are quite distinct from each other, and are so formed that they can
be entirely removed after the chicken are hatched. The plan that I
have found to answer best is to use shallow baskets or boxes, which
can be partially filled with sifted coal ashes, road drift, sand, or
any similar material; on this a little short straw is placed, and the
hen hollows out a slight concavity, which prevents the eggs rolling
from under her, and in this way a very good imitation of a natural
nest is obtained. The ashes do not harbour vermin, and I have found
that eggs hatch much better than in those nests made solely of straw.
Care should be taken so nearly to fill the basket or box that the hen
can leave without having to spring up from the eggs, and can return
without jumping down upon them, otherwise there is great risk of
their being broken. Should the hen be particularly fearful, a board
placed in a slanting position over the basket with the upper end
leaning against the wall, will afford all the privacy required.

It is desirable that hens should be allowed to sit where they have
been previously laying, as there is usually much trouble, except in
the case of Cochins, in inducing a hen to sit steadily in a new nest.
Hens evince a strong desire to lay where there are other eggs, hence
nest eggs are usually employed; they are frequently made of chalk,
but from the hardness of the material they are apt to break the new
laid egg; soft white wood, turned into the required shape, makes
the best that I have seen, as it does not break the eggs or lose its
shape, and is capable of being easily washed, if soiled. Natural eggs
are not desirable for nest eggs, as they are very apt to break when
they become stale, and so render the nest exceedingly foul.

When a hen becomes broody, which is shewn by her remaining on the
nest a longer time than usual, and by the peculiar _clucking_ noise
she makes, it is desirable to give her three or four nest eggs to sit
on, to test her steadiness for a day or two, and if she is found to
sit well the eggs for hatching may be placed in the nest, either when
she leaves it to feed, or by lifting her off in the evening; if a
broody hen is removed from the nest during the day she usually flies
back, at the great risk of breaking the eggs, whereas, if lifted off
after dark, she generally remains quietly on the ground and allows
the requisite number of eggs to be put into the nest, when she may be
lifted back again.

The fresher the eggs that are used for hatching the better. If
practicable, it is desirable that they should not have been laid
more than a fortnight; although they will hatch after a much longer
time, if carefully protected from the drying influence of the air and
light, and from too high or too low a temperature, in bran or some
similar material.

Eggs intended for hatching, should be kept with the large end
upwards, otherwise they should be moved occasionally to prevent the
yolk adhering to the upper side; the lid of the box containing them
should be closed, in order to protect them from the light, and from
the rapid changes of temperature, and the whole should, especially in
summer, be kept in a cool place. When sittings of eggs are forwarded
by railway or other public conveyance, it is customary to pack them
tightly in bran, with considerable spaces between them, others
recommend oats to be used; my own experience is most decidedly in
favour of hay, or soft straw, which, by its elasticity prevents all
shaking, and enables the eggs to be forwarded any distance without
injury.

This season, I forwarded two sittings of eggs to the far north of
England, one packed most carefully in bran, the other in hay; of the
first not one egg hatched, whilst every one of the second produced a
chick; and a sitting that I received this season, which was similarly
packed, every egg was fertile, although the basket had travelled from
the north by coach, rail, and carrier.

The number of eggs placed under a hen usually varies from ten to
fifteen; no fixed rule can be given--so much depends on the season of
the year, the size of the eggs, and that of the hen. If the eggs are
cooled during the sitting, which necessarily happens if they are so
numerous that the outer ones are covered merely by the feathers, and
not by the body of the hen, the chicken will be weakly or deformed;
and as the hen constantly shifts their position by pulling those
outside into the centre, and so forcing out the others, all become
chilled in their turn, and a weakly brood is the result. A hen when
sitting, separates the feathers to so great an extent, that the eggs,
if they are not in too great number, are in contact with the naked
skin of the breast, and such a quantity should only be given, as can
be covered in that manner.

I am quite confident that a larger number of chicken can be ensured
by sitting a moderate than a large number of eggs, and as to their
health and vigour there is no comparison.

In those varieties which lay large eggs, such as Dorkings, I never
give a hen more than thirteen eggs, and usually a smaller number; in
winter, I would not exceed eight or nine. In the case of Cochins,
where the eggs are small and the hens large, a greater number may be
given.

With regard to the age of the parents, I believe that it is not so
desirable to breed from hens in their first as in the second or third
years; the chicken of first year fowls, are more leggy, smaller, and
less hardy and vigorous than those that are produced by more mature
parents. When young birds are employed, it is desirable to mate
pullets with cocks two or three years old, and cockerels with old
hens.

Some persons even carry their objection so far, as not to allow young
birds to hatch the eggs of older birds, being under the impression
they do not sit with sufficient steadiness. This is certainly not
true as regards Dorkings and Cochins, for I have found pullets of
eight months age, exemplary sitters and nurses; and at the time of
writing this in July, I have two Dorkings of fourteen months age,
which are running about with their third broods, having hatched in
January, May, and July.

To ensure healthy and large-sized chicken it is absolutely necessary
that there should not be any relationship between the parents;
breeding “in and in,” as it is termed, is well known by all rearers
of stock to produce diseased and weakly offspring, hence it is
indispensable that there should be an introduction of fresh male
birds every two or three years. In farm-yards where there are large
numbers of poultry, it will be found by far the most desirable plan
to keep separately a cock with from four to six of the best hens,
and to hatch their eggs alone. By this means the chicken are all
certain of coming from the best birds, and a much smaller number of
cocks may be kept with the main stock of hens than would otherwise
be desirable. The practice of allowing the hens to run with several
cocks is calculated to deteriorate the breed materially, should
therefore a larger number of eggs be required for hatching, than
furnished by a cock and four or six hens, another set should be
separated.

In all cases, over crowding must be carefully guarded against,
especially where poultry are kept in a confined situation, for if
the ground becomes tainted, the inevitable result is that disease
breaks out, and that the chicken, being less able to withstand its
influence than older birds, die off rapidly, in spite of good food,
warm housing, and every attention that can possibly be paid to them.

Many persons are in the habit of lifting off the sitting hens in
order to feed them, I believe that all such interference is uncalled
for and injurious; the less a hen is disturbed whilst hatching the
better--when hungry and thirsty she will leave the nest, and should
be then fed most liberally. Whole corn I think the best for hatching
hens, as it remains longer in the crop and so satisfies hunger for a
greater length of time. In addition to food and water the hens should
always be provided with a heap of dry ashes, to roll in, to enable
them to free themselves from vermin.

On the twentieth day some of the chicken usually begin to chip
the shell, and, generally speaking, they are all hatched on the
twenty-first, that is on the same day three weeks that the eggs are
placed under the hen. The practice of removing the first hatched and
placing them in flannel by the fire side, is followed by many, but
I do not see any possible advantage that can arise from so doing;
it is impossible to give the exact temperature of the mother, and a
degree of heat higher or lower must necessarily be disadvantageous;
the only interference that I think desirable, is to remove, if it can
be readily accomplished, the empty shells, otherwise the unhatched
eggs are apt to slip into them, and the chicken, although furnished
with power to break through one shell are unable to force their way
through two. The addled eggs (which are readily distinguished by
giving them the slightest possible shake, when the moving of the
liquid contents is felt) may also be removed so as to give more room
to the live birds.

I am aware that these recommendations to leave natural operations to
nature are contrary to what are frequently found in books, but I am
merely writing the results of my own experience, and I have always
found the more the hatching hens are meddled with, the worse the
result. It is a notorious fact that when a hen steals a nest in some
copse or place where she can remain unmolested, she almost invariably
brings forth a more numerous and stronger brood than when she sits in
the hen-house.

The chicken require neither food nor drink on the day on which they
are hatched; in fact, _both are injurious_, as they interfere with
the natural digestion of the yolk, which is absorbed into the bowels
at the period of hatching, and constitutes the first food. If grits,
oatmeal, &c., are spread before the hen on the twenty-first day, she
is induced to leave the nest, and the last hatched chicken, which
are not perhaps yet dried, are unable to follow, and being weakly,
perish; or unhatched eggs may be left.

If undisturbed, the hen seldom leaves the nest on the twenty-first
day, and on the twenty-second the chicken will be found strong enough
to follow her, and any unhatched eggs may be destroyed, for those
chicken that are not then able to follow her will seldom be found to
repay the trouble that may be taken with them. The plan of cramming
peppercorns and other spices down the throats of chicken is cruel
in the extreme, and moreover, exceedingly injurious. I have found
the best food to be two-thirds sweet coarse oatmeal and one-third
barley meal, mixed into a crumbly paste with water; this is very much
relished, and the chicken make surprising progress upon it, they are
also very fond of a little cold oatmeal porridge, and, by way of
variety, I sometimes give them a few scalded grits dusted over with a
little barley meal to cause them to separate.

Milk is frequently used to mix the barley or oatmeal, but from the
extent to which it is then exposed to the air it soon becomes sour
in summer, and is decidedly injurious if employed in that state; no
more food, therefore, should be mixed with milk than can be eaten in
a couple of hours. Sopped bread is by no means desirable, the chicken
become weakly and affected with diarrhœa from its use, in fact it
has not that degree of solidity which is requisite to afford an
opportunity for the exercise of the natural grinding action of the
gizzard. A little chopped onion, or, still better, some finely shred
green onion tops mixed with the food is highly advantageous, and, in
the opinion of many persons, lessens very much the susceptibility to
roup.

With regard to animal food there is none equal to the natural supply
of worms and insects obtained by the hen; small worms, or a barrow
full of mould, containing an ant’s nest, may be given if the chicken
are in a confined situation, and will be found far superior to boiled
egg, chopped meat, or any more artificial substitute. Curds are
frequently used, and, I believe, furnish the best substitute for the
natural insect food, but I have had no experience in their use, as
I have never kept, nor even think it desirable to keep fowls, or at
all events to rear chicken, in situations where their natural food
is unattainable. It is requisite that chicken should either have a
constant supply of food or be fed at very short intervals--even every
hour is not too often, if practicable.

Cooping, which is so frequently employed to restrain the wandering
of hens with chicken, I regard as exceedingly objectionable. In many
cases I admit it to be a necessary evil, but not the less an evil;
a hen when cooped has no power of scratching for insects and worms
(the best of all possible food), the chicken are therefore confined
strictly to the artificial diet with which they are supplied.
Whatever also may be the difference in the temperature of the day or
change of weather, she cannot alter her position, or seek shelter
from cold, wind, or wet; the ground under the coop becomes foul
unless the latter is moved frequently, and the hen does not so soon
recover the effects of her confinement in sitting as when she is
allowed her liberty and obtains green food to peck at.

It is frequently said that when hens are not cooped they roam so far
that the chicken become fagged, and that oftentimes they are left
behind by the hen. I believe that if the hen and chicken are well
fed, and at short intervals, this will not occur; but should giving
them their entire liberty be objectionable, the plan of enclosing a
small run with laths, wire-work, or netting, may be had recourse to.
These contrivances may be either moveable or fixed; in the latter
case the ground in the run may be turned up with the spade or fork
occasionally, so as to give the hens fresh soil to scratch in. Many
persons say they cannot confine their fowls in this manner, as they
fly over; a little attention to the habits of the birds would enable
them to prevent this inconvenience. Fowls never fly _over_ any
boundary, but always _on to_ it, preparatory to descending on the
other side, and if the top is constructed in such a manner that they
cannot rest upon it, they evince a great disinclination to attempt
the passage. The plan I adopt is to have five or six feet laths of a
greater or less degree of stoutness as required, nailed three inches
apart to two horizontal rails, the lower near the ground, the upper
being eight inches below the tops of the laths, which are pointed.

I have found that this fence is sufficient to confine Dorking,
Spanish, and even Hamburghs, but then the fowls have always an
unlimited supply of every variety of food; and when I receive a bird
I usually lighten one wing by running the scissors down each side
of the ten primary quill feathers, which is a much better plan than
cutting the shafts across, as in the latter case the bird is much
disfigured.

In accordance with my suggestion, Messrs. Greening, of Church Gates,
Manchester, have manufactured some of their patent fencing on the
same plan, namely, spiked at the top and chicken proof below,
as shewn in the cut; from experience I can recommend it as most
efficient, and from its great strength and durability it is much more
economical than the ordinary hexagonal pattern in common use.

[Illustration]

During summer it is not requisite to remove the hen and chicken
from these runs at night, but a little house made of a few boards
nailed together, so as to resemble a dog-kennel, made water-tight, is
necessary for shelter.

Some of the most successful breeders of Cochins have their grounds
thus partitioned out and furnished with rude huts, boarded at the
sides and covered on the top with some of the patent asphalte felt
now so much used for roofing. This, if properly tarred, is perfectly
waterproof, and being a bad conductor of heat, is warm in winter and
cool in summer.

The common open circular wicker coop I regard as an exceedingly
useful article in a poultry-yard, but not for the purpose to which
it is generally applied, of keeping the hens _in_, but, on the
contrary, for keeping them _out_. I have found it very convenient for
feeding chicken under; the oatmeal, grits, and other expensive food
used for the young birds is apt to be devoured by those of advanced
growth, an evil which is readily prevented by placing it under a
large coop which admits the younger chicken, and enables them to feed
undisturbed by the others.

The remark is often made, that chicken reared in the country by
cottagers are more vigorous and healthy than those bred in the most
expensive poultry houses; this I believe to be entirely owing to the
more natural circumstances under which they are brought up. Fresh
air, fresh grass, and fresh ground for the hens to scratch in, far
more than counterbalance the advantage of expensive diet and superior
lodging, if these latter are unaccompanied with the more necessary
circumstances just described.

The plans here recommended I found to be more than ordinarily
successful during the most unfavourable chicken seasons, even on
the cold clay soil in the neighbourhood of London, and I have there
severely tested their perfect efficiency with regard to Cochins,
Dorkings, Spanish, and Hamburghs.

In cases where fowls are bred _in and in_ to preserve peculiar
markings, or where, so to speak, a very artificial variety has been
produced, great delicacy necessarily results; this, for example, is
the case in the Sebright Bantam, and hardiness cannot be expected in
such breeds; as well might the breeder of King Charles’ spaniels or
Italian greyhounds expect similar success to that of the rearer of
the Scotch terrier or sheep dog.

When chicken are hatched in the winter, or early spring months,
either for competition in the chicken classes at the summer
poultry shows, or for table use, some slight modification of these
proceedings is requisite. I have tried enclosed rooms, both heated by
stoves and fire-places and without, but have never found them answer,
and am confident that even in winter chicken do better in an open
shed than in any other situation; the shed, however, must face the
south, and be warmly and closely sheltered from the north and east.
The hens must be placed in coops, where all the sun can reach them;
and there should be a little run of a few feet, enclosed by laths,
wire-work or netting, for the hen and chicken to exercise in. The
common triangular wooden coop is a very useful one for early chicken;
but it should have a false bottom, to keep them off the cold ground,
and this should be made to slide in and out, so as to be readily
removed and cleaned. The coops, at night, should be warmly covered up
with sacking or matting, and plenty of short hay or soft straw placed
in the interior. The most successful breeder of early Cochins in the
year 1853, reared all his birds in a shed thus arranged; but, instead
of coops, he employed snugly built brick boxes, with abundance of
short straw for the hen and chicken to sleep in; and in front of each
box was a little alley or run, enclosed by laths, for an exercise
ground,--the run not extending in front of the shed, so that it was
not subject to be damped by the rain or dew.

Another precaution necessary to be taken with early chicken, even
after they have attained some size, is to avoid letting them run in
the grass whilst it is wet with dew, otherwise they are very apt to
get chilled, and die with cramp. When hens are cooped care must be
taken to supply them with gravel and a little mortar rubbish, or
broken oyster shells,--the first being required for the digestion of
the food, the second to furnish the materials of the bones of the
growing chicken.

As I have elsewhere stated, the rearing of early chicken is always
attended with risk and trouble, and extraordinary success must not
be expected; it should only therefore be attempted under favourable
circumstances; and unless chicken are bred for the summer poultry
shows, or for early table use, for which purpose they fetch a high
price in the market, it is not a desirable proceeding; for the best
and finest birds, that alone should be kept for stock, are those
hatched in April and May, as they attain their full size without
having their growth once checked by cold.

Chicken, on the contrary, which are hatched at a late period of
the year, have their growth checked by the colds of winter, and
consequently never make large birds; hence the practice of hatching
Bantams in autumn to prevent their attaining a large size, an object
which is only accomplished by a sacrifice of constitutional strength
and hardihood.




                        PROFITABLE VARIETIES.


In a work of this extent it is impossible to do more than allude to
several of the least important varieties of the domestic fowl, and
this is of less moment as the general directions given with regard to
feeding, breeding, &c., apply, with very slight variations, to all
the different breeds.

[Illustration: COCHIN CHINA HEN.]

COCHINS OR SHANGHAES.--Cochins are perhaps the most popular fowl
at the present time, and, in the opinion of many, deservedly take
the first place on account of their good qualities as profitable
stock, no less than from the estimation in which they are held as
fancy fowls. So extensively have they been diffused over the entire
length and breadth of the land, that a lengthened description of
their peculiarities is scarcely requisite. Their large size,
peculiar crow, small wings, rudimentary tail, and the extraordinary
development of the fluffy feathers of the thighs and under parts of
the body are familiar to all; these remarkable characteristics are
carried to an extreme degree in the bird shown in the engraving,
which is a representation of an imported hen, formerly the property
of Mr. Andrews. In purchasing Cochins for stock, care should be
taken to obtain birds of good quality, as breeding from second and
third-rate fowls will be found exceedingly undesirable. As regards
size, the cocks should weigh at least 10lbs., the hens 8lbs., when
full grown; they should be short on the legs, which should be yellow
and well feathered down to the tips of the outer toes, which should
only be four in number on each foot. The tail feathers should, in
both sexes, be very small, and almost hidden by the dense mass of
saddle feathers covering the back, and the fluff should be well
developed.

With regard to colour, at present the fashion is entirely in favour
of the light buff birds, which, to command the highest prices,
must even be destitute of dark markings on the neck hackle; or any
slaty tinge in the downy under portions of the fluff, or of the
body feathers. The rage for light buff birds I regard as an undue
prejudice, and believe the darker breeds will be found quite as
valuable for farming stock; in fact, the extreme prices which are
commanded by the lightest birds are simply owing to the difficulty of
breeding them perfectly free from dark colour; and am confident that
it has had a very injurious effect upon the breed; for size and form
have been sacrificed in the endeavour to rear birds of the desired
colour, and in too many instances a set of small leggy almond shaped
hens have taken the place of heavy square-built short-legged birds of
a darker colour.

The white birds, though exceedingly ornamental, are scarcely equal
in character to the coloured varieties, and the black have hitherto
been only produced by crossing a buff with a white, and, as might
be expected from such an origin, their progeny are very uncertain in
their colour.

Putting aside the value of Cochins as fancy fowls, their chief
importance as profitable poultry depends on the immense supply of
winter eggs yielded by the pullets of the year. This, I am confident,
will eventually be found their strongest recommendation; for table
birds, their length of leg, small breast, and game-like flavour, are
objectionable, and the colour of their skin renders them very unfit
for being used as boiled fowls. The attempt to breed pure Cochins
with a fuller breast I believe to be perfectly futile, their wings
are so small in size that they never fly, and the muscles which
move the wings and form the entire mass of flesh on the breast, are
consequently of small size also; it would be as reasonable to expect
the muscles of a blacksmith in the arms of a draper, as the plumpness
of a Dorking on the breast of a Cochin. The hens are extremely good
sitters, their large size enabling them to cover a great number of
eggs, and their docility, and the readiness with which they sit in
any situation in which they may be placed when broody, being also
great recommendations. I have found that the eggs hatch remarkably
well, and that the chicken are equally, if not more hardy than those
of other fowl.

In speaking of their good qualities, their contentedness in a
comparatively small space, their attachment to home, and the ease
with which they are confined by a three feet fence, must not be
omitted. Their chocolate coloured eggs, though small, are of good
flavour, but they have not yet been sufficiently introduced into the
markets to state how they are appreciated by the public at large.
With regard to their laying twice in one day, such an event happens
by far too rarely to be taken into consideration when speaking of
their economical value, and when it does occur no egg is laid on the
following day. The great drawback to Cochins, as farmers’ fowls, is
the large quantity of food they require, which, notwithstanding all
that has been said to the contrary by their exclusive admirers, is
considerably greater than that consumed by other varieties, and their
disposition leads them to remain at home instead of seeking for worms
and other food in the fields; in fact, the old birds seem not to care
for the large earth worms, which are so greedily devoured by all
other fowls.

BRAHMA POOTRAS.--In the first edition of this book I inserted the
description, from actual observation, of a pair of these birds that
had been sent to this country from the United States, by Dr. Bennett,
who claimed to be the original holder of the variety, and I left the
question as to their being a distinct breed an open one; since that
article was published a more extended experience and the opportunity
of making anatomical examinations of very many specimens, have led me
to form a decided opinion respecting their origin and true character.

All the Brahmas that have come under my notice, and I have made a
point of seeing as many as possible, have been of either one or the
other of the three following varieties, namely:--

     1. Grey Cochins.
     2. Cross-bred Cochin and Dorking.
     3. Cross-bred Cochin and Malay, or Chittagong.

That the best of these birds are nothing more than grey Cochins,
is proved by the fact that they have been frequently imported from
Shanghae with the buff birds, ever since the latter have been
introduced, and I know personally that the descendants of Grey
Cochins, which were thus introduced into this country before the name
of Brahma was ever heard of, have taken prizes as Brahma Pootras; the
circumstance that those presented to the Royal Aviary were sent over
from America as Grey Shanghaes would alone be sufficient to settle
the question. As to the name which has been given to these birds,
there is not one tittle of evidence to prove that they ever came
from the region of the Brahma Pootra river, which, in the lower part
of its course, is within one hundred and fifty miles of Calcutta,
running through territory which has long been in the possession of
the British; further from its mouth it flows through the country of
Assam, to which some years since the East India Company sent two
most observant naturalists to report on the natural history of the
region, and had any such remarkable fowls existed it is scarcely
credible that they could have escaped observation. A further and even
more conclusive proof, if one were needed, may be found in their
anatomical peculiarities; it is a fact, universally recognized by
comparative anatomists, that the distinguishing characters of nearly
allied animals are more strongly marked in the bones of the skull
than in any other part of the body; if the skull of a Cochin be
examined there will be found in the frontal bone, exactly under the
base of the comb, a deep narrow groove running from before backwards,
this remarkable structure is peculiar to these birds, being found in
no other variety whatever, and is as strongly marked in the first
named variety of so called Brahmas as in the Buff Cochins.

When it was found that grey birds were realising large sums, every
mode of raising them was put in practice; single grey Cochins were
mated with buff, and the progeny, when of the desired colour, were
sold as Brahmas; in other cases Buff Cochins were paired with light
Dorking hens, and many of the selected chicken found their way to
the sale room. Under my own eye last season many of these birds were
so manufactured; during the autumn, after the breeding for stock
purposes was over, a Buff Cochin cock was allowed to run with some
Dorking hens, the eggs of the lightest hen were hatched, and the
Chicken were all greys, some were clear-legged, some white-legged,
others five-toed; but several had well-feathered yellow legs with
four toes, and these were undistinguishable from a large number of
the birds sold as Brahmas. On examination I found the frontal groove
strongly marked, although, as might be expected, in a rather less
degree than in a pure bred Cochin.

The birds originating in the Malay or Chittagong cross have
been chiefly imported from America, I cannot therefore give the
particulars of their manufacture, but the long snaky neck, the
upright gait, and the peculiar carriage of the head, render other
evidence unnecessary, These birds also have the characteristic
frontal groove.

After what has been stated, it will scarcely be expected that any
lengthened description of these birds should be given. The best are
simply Cochins, and as silver pencilled Shanghaes or Brahma Pootras,
they were originally avowedly exhibited at the London shows. The
Mongrels have every variety of form and almost of colour; from the
most celebrated yards are shewn clear legs and feathered legs; yellow
legs, and white legs; pea combs and single combs; white birds, grey
birds, and even black birds, all pure Brahmas!! One person writes
that they roam over acres, another authority states that they are
more domesticated than Cochins; on the one hand, you hear of their
laying eggs as large as those of turkeys, and on the other of their
being of the average Cochin size; one day they are said to crow like
their buff relations, and the next we hear that their voices are much
more mellifluous.

My opinion of their merits and demerits may be stated in a few words;
of the half breeds I will only say that they are worthless for stock
purposes, as they do not breed true to any particular character; of
the true grey Cochin I may state, as far as my experience goes, that
they are generally leggy compared with the best bred buffs, and that
in many of them there is a remarkable tendency (especially in the
hens) to accumulate internal abdominal fat, or in other words to “go
down behind” a state of things generally terminating in irregularity
of the egg organs, which running on into inflammation is frequently
fatal; at the same time, however, I have no doubt but that by careful
breeding for a season or two they may be produced in every respect
equal to the buff birds; Dr. W. C. Gwynne, who has reared them longer
than any other amateur in this country, states his conviction that
the genuine strain are a very good variety of grey Cochin, without
the slightest cross: this verdict respecting them, coming as it
does from one of the greatest admirers and most successful rearers
of Brahmas, will, I have not the slightest doubt, be eventually
universally acquiesced in; with regard to their hardihood as chicken,
I may state that the most successful rearer of Cochins in the year
1853, to whose plans I have already alluded, and who spared no
expense in getting first rate stock, informs me that he has reared
Brahmas and Cochins in the same brood, and that he has not found the
former by any means the hardier variety.

DORKINGS.--To those who rear chickens for the table there are no
fowls so well adapted as the coloured Dorkings; though not remarkable
as layers, as sitters and nurses they cannot be surpassed; whilst
their large size, plump breasts, short legs, and delicate white
flesh, render them the most desirable table birds.

[Illustration: SPECKLED DORKINGS.]

Latterly much attention has been paid to this variety, and the result
has been that great improvements in their size and good qualities
have been effected. The engraving represents one of the old birds,
of whom it has been truly said, “Their qualities surpass their
charms.” In the improved kinds the head is smaller, the under part
of the breast fuller, and the carriage of the bird more elegant, the
body being more compact; the feathers are also firmer, and I have
found along with this latter character that the birds are hardier
and less subject to diseases of the egg organs. Dorkings vary very
much in colour, and there is some difficulty in breeding them true
to any marking. My own opinion is decidedly in favour of the dark
birds, both as to appearance and hardiness, and I think there are
no more noble fowls than a heavy, broad-chested, dark Dorking cock
and a compact short-legged hen. Dorkings are bred with both single
and double, or rose combs, but the former are generally preferred,
on the score of appearance. In purchasing Dorkings for stock, broad
compact bodies and short white legs, with five toes on each foot,
should be regarded as indispensable; the weight of these birds varies
very considerably; in the pens which have taken prizes at the recent
poultry shows the cocks have usually weighed about ten, and the hens
eight pounds, but these weights are beyond the average, and such
birds are not generally to be obtained.

The white Dorkings, although exceedingly ornamental, are not of equal
value in an economical point of view, being much smaller in size,
and narrower and longer in the body; they are almost invariably bred
with a rose or double comb, and are obviously a distinct variety from
the coloured Dorking, the latter having evidently derived its size,
aptitude to fatten, and other profitable characteristics from the
large Surrey fowl, which differs only from what is now known as the
colored Dorking, in the absence of the fifth toe.

The great drawback to the value of this most useful breed is in
the delicacy of the chicken; in spite of every care they too often
exhibit the evil effects of a constitutional delicacy when about
three weeks old, when their wings droop, and they die without any
evident cause, whilst other birds hatched at the same time, and under
the same treatment, are running about full of health and vigour.
There is a very erroneous opinion, in many parts of the country,
that Dorkings can only be successfully reared in Kent or Surrey;
the absurdity of this statement is evident from the fact that the
best Dorkings, those that have carried off the first prizes at the
various poultry shows, have not, with few exceptions, been natives
of Surrey. The opinion has evidently arisen from their delicacy when
chicken, and the fact that persons at a distance have often obtained
a stock of Dorkings, and then without any introduction of fresh
blood, they have continued breeding “in and in” until the breed has
degenerated, not only in size, but in constitutional vigour; there is
however no doubt but that on the dry chalky soil of Kent and Surrey
they are more likely to do well than in any situation where the
ground is wet or clayey.

Dorkings do not bear confinement well, requiring a good range;
to attain a large size, and make good table birds, they must be
liberally fed at every period of their lives, hence, and from the
fact that they do not forage for themselves as well as the smaller
varieties, they are not the best fowls for the cottager, especially
as their egg producing powers are not remarkable.

I have found that pullets hatched in April and May usually, if well
fed, begin to lay about Christmas, and there is no difficulty in
hatching in the beginning of February, although there is always some
uncertainty about rearing the chicken in cold weather; but I have
found that by cooping the hens in a shed open to the south they have
done much better than in an enclosed room.

To produce the fat fowls, that are seen in greater perfection in
the London markets than elsewhere, and which are generally termed
(although they are not) capons, Dorkings are cooped for fatting
at the age of three to four months in summer and five to six in
winter, being fed with oatmeal, mixed with water or milk; this must
be given fresh three times a day, the first meal being _early_ in
the morning; and, in addition, the birds should be supplied with
whole corn (either dry or boiled), gravel, clean water, and a turf
or green meat; the most scrupulous cleanliness as to troughs, coops,
&c., being observed. By these means a fowl, if previously well fed,
will be fat enough for any useful purpose in a fortnight to three
weeks; should they be required very fat, some mutton suet; or, what
is equally good, the parings of the loins of mutton, may be chopped
up with the food. The unnatural process of cramming is frequently
recommended, but I have never found it necessary. It should be borne
in mind that a fowl cannot be kept in the greatest degree of fatness
for any length of time, as the over repletion soon causes internal
disease. The houses must be dry, quiet, dark, and warm, and the
fatting coops carefully kept from draught, and warmly covered at
night during cold weather.

SPANISH.--The true Spanish fowls, known by their uniform black
colour, burnished with resplendant tints of green, the great
development of comb and wattle, and the peculiar white face, which
should be free from any other colour, are magnificent birds. Regarded
as profitable poultry, their strong recommendation consists in the
number and very large size of the eggs laid by them. The hens seldom
attempt to hatch, and are bad sitters and nurses; their eggs should
consequently be hatched by other varieties. The chicken are slow in
feathering, but I have not found them so delicate as is sometimes
stated, it is not however desirable to hatch them very early in the
season, as they run about for a long time with naked necks and wings;
and there is a remarkable difference in the fowls of the same brood,
some being far superior in size and qualities to the remainder. In
purchasing Spanish, blue legs, the entire absence of white or colored
feathers in the plumage, and a large white face, with a very large
high comb, which should be erect in the cock, though pendant in the
hens, should be insisted upon. Although the flesh is of good quality,
yet, from the want of size, the length and darkness of the legs,
the Spanish is not equal to the Dorking for the table, and from the
long period of their moulting, the laying in winter is considerably
interfered with; nevertheless, the large size and number of their
eggs renders them most profitable, and their handsome carriage and
striking contrast of colour in the comb, face, and plumage recommend
them to all; they are perhaps better adapted for a town fowl than
any other variety, as when full grown they seem to suffer less
from confinement to a small run; not unfrequently exceedingly good
specimens may be seen in the stable yards of London.

The price of very good white faced Spanish always ranges high,
notwithstanding that they have been largely bred in this country for
many years; this arises from the extreme uncertainty in the character
of the chicken, for even when produced from eggs laid by first rate
stock red faced birds constantly make their appearance, and these,
though equally useful as layers, are of no value as stock birds; it
may be remarked, that those cockerels and pullets are most promising
that exhibit a long bluish skinny face, as this generally changes
into pure white.

In the West of England, a variety of the Spanish known as Minorcas
are much esteemed as profitable layers. They differ from their more
aristocratic relatives in possessing a white ear lobe merely, the
face being red, and in a somewhat more compact and less leggy form.

[Illustration: BLACK BREASTED RED GAME.]

GAME FOWL.--This variety, formerly so extensively reared for the
cock-pit, is still bred by many on account of its beauty and
utility. The game cock is distinguished by a long head with a strong
massive beak, and a single upright comb; the chest is prominent and
fleshy, the whole body muscular, the carriage bold and erect, and
the feathers particularly close and firm; the hens are remarkable
for their neat appearance, and are characterized by a large erect
fan-shaped tail. In colour this breed varies greatly, amongst the
most esteemed strains are those known as the black breasted reds, the
brown breasted reds or gingers, the various piles, a term applied to
such as have a proportion of white in the plumage, duckwings, blues
or grays, and white and black. Game fowl fly well, and a good grass
run is absolutely essential to their well being; the hens usually lay
about five and twenty buff colored eggs before wanting to sit, and
are unsurpassed as mothers and nurses; both sexes are good foragers,
supplying themselves with a great portion of their food. As table
fowls they are small, though plump, the quality of the flesh being
very superior. The pugnacious disposition of the cockerels is much
against them in a profitable point of view, and it is desirable to
cut off their combs and wattles at the age of five or six months,
otherwise, from fighting, much suffering and loss of blood ensues,
this operation is usually performed with a pair of sharp scissors,
and the application of a little green vitriol dissolved in water will
be found immediately to check the effusion of blood.

HAMBURGH FOWLS.--There are two very distinct varieties of these
birds, the spangled and the pencilled; where fowls are kept mainly
for the production of eggs, no breeds are so advantageous; and as
they are comparatively unknown in many parts of the country, I
have entered rather fully into their description. I am indebted to
an amateur, an extensive breeder of the spangled variety, for the
following account of their merits.

“_Gold and Silver Spangled Hamburghs._--These very beautiful
varieties have not hitherto attracted the attention which their
intrinsic merits so justly deserve. Indeed, except in the northern
counties, they have been until lately almost unknown.

“I will endeavour, as briefly as possible, to put before my readers,
firstly, the origin, habits, and economical merits, and, lastly, the
desired points of beauty of these dandies (_par excellence_) of the
poultry yard.

“Firstly as to their history and origin--Unlike the pencilled
Hamburghs, which are imported wholesale from Holland, the spangled
birds are never so obtained, and although similar in some of their
habits, they are infinitely more hardy than their pencilled rivals,
suffer less from cold, lay better in winter, and are far less subject
to roup; they also attain to a considerably greater weight and size.
I am myself rather inclined to consider them, as they have for years
undoubtedly been, natives of our northern counties, more especially
Yorkshire and Lancashire, although they are said to be common in
Russia and the northern countries of Europe. The Spangled Hamburghs,
or Pheasant Fowls, as the north country breeders call them, are, in
my judgment, the best and most regular layers I can recommend; but
in this respect the gold and silver varieties somewhat differ. I
have generally found that the pullets of the former variety commence
laying at about six months old, and, if the season is moderately
warm, they continue to lay about nine eggs a fortnight, until their
moulting time the following year--I should say that on an average
they lay about 200 eggs per annum. They are everlasting layers, in
the strictest sense of the word, never sitting, and recommencing
their labours of production about two months from the commencement
of their moult. Their eggs are of a fair size, of a very light pinky
brown colour, and excellent flavour. Indeed, in the latter quality
the eggs of the Hamburgh fowls generally are not to be surpassed.

“It is the birds of silver variety, however, which I regard and
recommend as perfect miracles of egg-producing constancy. They
commence laying, if in good health and with a _good run_ (an
essential to the well-doing of both the varieties), at _five_ months
old, and generally lay at least six days out of the seven, until the
moulting season arrives--in all probably some 250 eggs. They very
quickly get their new plumage--and in six weeks recommence their
labours with the same praiseworthy diligence, until another season
passed warns them that moulting time is again at hand. After the
second year I do not consider it advisable to keep them for laying
purposes, although I think the best chicken are bred from them after
that period with a young yearling cock.

“Like their golden relations they never sit, and rarely evince the
slightest desire to undertake the task of incubation. I feel quite
confident that no fowl produces so much _egg stuff_ with so _small
an amount of food_. Give them a good run, a clean, dry, warm house
at night, and one quarter of the food you bestow upon Cochins, and
you will have no further trouble with them. They feather early and
quickly, and may safely be hatched early in April.

“I must not, however, omit to state one drawback which there is to
the keeping my spangled pets--they fly like pheasants, and know not
bounds. They are great enemies to flowers, fruit, vegetables, indeed,
anything they can lay hold of; and although capable of being made as
tame as any other fowls, in their instincts they seem almost more
like game than domesticated poultry. However, as a balance to this,
there is no fowl so capable of taking care of itself, of finding its
own food, of avoiding danger, and of repaying its owner handsomely
for the slight care it demands at his or her hands. Indeed, I cannot
recommend to a beginner in poultry-keeping a more beautiful and
interesting, or a more profitable selection.

“There is much difference of opinion about the desired points of
beauty in these birds. For the exact requirements in the north
country shows I must refer my readers to the Rules of the Yorkshire
Societies, and I will therefore confine myself to a brief and general
description of what I consider requisite for perfection in these
birds, and firstly as to the golden variety; although, with the
exception of a few observations which I shall make about the cocks,
the same points are almost requisite in both varieties.

“In the cocks, the comb should be flat, rose, stretching far back
on the head, and ending in a pike--at least an inch and a quarter
in width, and as square in shape as possible; the ear lobe white;
the neck hackle in the golden variety, of which I am now speaking,
black fringed with gold; the back, breast, and legs, regularly
spangled, and the larger and brighter green black the spangles the
better; the saddle feathers small and spangled; the tail long, full,
and of a brilliant green black; the legs light grey blue; toe nails
white. The same description applies to the hens, who should have
a flat rose comb, not lopping, but upright; the ground colour of
the plumage should be a rich red gold or burnt sienna colour. One
great point of beauty also, both in the cocks and hens, is that
the wing should be regularly laced, as in the spangled Polands. The
great difficulty in breeding the cocks is the tendency they have to
come with black breasts and red backs--and for show such birds are
valueless, although it is said more likely to throw good pullets than
the spangled breasted birds which are sometimes termed hen-feathered.
The _silver_ spangled cock should not be hen-feathered, the hackle,
and saddle feathers should be white, the latter very long, the tail
spangled black and white, the breast regularly spangled up to the
throat, and in colour the clearest white for the ground, and the
brightest green black for the spangles is requisite. The lacing of
the wing in this variety is quite a _sine quâ non_, both in the cocks
and hens; and in the latter the tail should be clear white, with
three or four large circular spangles upon it, but no other dark
markings whatever. The neck, back, breast, rump, and legs, should be
regularly spangled, and there should be a total absence of patchiness
in the markings. In both varieties great distinctness of colour
is requisite, and from the delicacy of the plumage the slightest
approach to breeding _in and in_ is sure to make the produce utterly
valueless. In conclusion, the carriage of the cocks should be lofty
and upright with the breast thrown forward like the Polands; the
weight of the male birds from 5lb. to 6lb., of the hens from 4lb. to
5lb., or a little more.”

There is, in addition to the gold and silver spangled, a third
variety of these fowls, in which the whole plumage is of a glossy
green black, the other characters being similar to those above
described; these are termed Black Pheasant Fowls in the north of
England.

The term pheasant fowl, as applied to the spangled Hamburgh, takes
its origin from the crescentic moon shaped markings, which resemble
those of that bird; and the term Moonies is also sometimes applied to
them from the same cause.

_Pencilled Hamburghs._--This variety is also of two colours, golden
and silver, the hens in both should have the feathers of the body
distinctly pencilled or marked across with several separate bars of
black, the hackle in both sexes should be perfectly free from dark
marks, the comb a piked rose, the ear lobe white, and the legs blue
as in the spangled Hamburghs, the tail should be very large and black
or bronzed. The cocks do not show these pencillings, but are white or
brown in the silver or golden birds respectively. The birds are of a
compact form, and very graceful sprightly carriage. They do not sit,
but lay exceedingly well, hence one of their common names, that of
Dutch every day layers, they are also known in different parts of the
country as Chitteprats, Creoles, or Corals; Bolton bays and grays;
and in some parts of Yorkshire by the erroneous name of Corsican
fowls. Large numbers are imported from Holland, but the birds bred
in this country are much superior in size, retaining, however, their
profitable characteristics.

POLAND FOWLS.--Poland fowls are characterized by the presence of
a large top-knot, which, in the cocks, is composed of feathers
resembling those of the hackle, and in the hens forms a dense
globular tuft; a very small crescent shaped comb is usually present,
rising like two small horns from the arched and dilated nostrils.
Several varieties of colour exist; in the black birds there should be
an entire absence of white except in the top-knot, in which the less
black the better, the chest should be very prominent an fleshy, the
legs dark, the wattles large and pendulous.

The spangled Polands, both gold and silver, are rather larger and
less compact; and in addition to the crest, many possess a large
tufted beard. Other varieties, as buff, white, &c., also exist, but
they are less frequent. Polands are very good layers, but do not
sit; as table birds they are not surpassed by any variety in quality
and plumpness, although their small size is against them as a market
fowl, and their delicacy as chicken is also a considerable drawback;
from the latter circumstance, they will scarcely be found entitled
to rank as profitable poultry, except on dry, sandy, or chalky soil,
and in warm, sheltered situations.

MALAY FOWLS.--Malays are large leggy fowls, with a very upright
carriage, small tail and clear legs, their heads and necks are long
and snaky, and distinguished by a small warty comb; the hens are
fair layers and remarkably good sitters and nurses. Malays are of
almost every variety of colour, black, white, grey, &c., though the
most common tint is a cinnamon brown. They are not as largely bred
as formerly, for as egg producers they are not very profitable, and
their large limbs are against their use as table fowls. What is
termed the Pheasant Malay originates in a bad cross between the Malay
and spangled Hamburgh, in which the good qualities of both breeds are
sacrificed.

BANTAMS, SILK FOWLS, FRIZZLED AND RUMPLESS FOWLS, &c., &c., can
hardly be regarded as profitable poultry, but come under the
description of fancy fowls. As paying stock, my opinion is in favour
of one or other of the following varieties:--

For market fowls for table use, the coloured Dorking is unequalled.

For the production of eggs, Hamburghs where there is a free range;
Cochins and Spanish where there is less space; the first being the
best winter layers, the latter yielding the largest eggs.

Many persons recommend cross breeding fowls for the purpose of
improving upon certain varieties; it is difficult to see by what
cross the qualities of Dorkings, as table fowls, can be improved; or
the superior laying properties of Hamburghs, Spanish, and Cochins,
increased.

To improve the hardihood of Dorkings some very experienced persons
have recommended crossing a Malay cock with Dorking hens; in this
case care must be taken to kill all the cross-bred chicken, as,
if bred from again, a set of variable, worthless mongrels are the
result. I have myself, however, never seen any cross-bred fowls equal
for the table to the pure Dorking.

For home consumption, yielding numerous eggs, and large size
chicken, Cochins are very valuable; their hardihood, docility, and
matronly habits, enable a greater number to be reared from the same
number of hens, than can be obtained from any other variety; but as
poultry for the market they are of little value.

In conclusion, I would strongly recommend persons who are at present
breeding from common fowls, not to attempt to improve them by the
introduction of one or two good male birds into the yard, but to
obtain a good stock either by the purchase of birds or eggs, and to
breed from them alone, avoiding of course all intermarriage between
blood relations.




                              DISEASES.


The diseases of poultry may perhaps be more conveniently arranged
under the heads of the different parts that are affected than in any
more strictly scientific order. We may therefore describe them as
affecting the Skin, Lungs and Air Passages, Digestive System, Egg
Organs, Brain, and the Organs of Motion.

SKIN DISEASES.--When fowls are kept on unnatural food, and in
closely confined, dirty situations, they are very liable to lose
the feathers of the head and neck from a chronic disease of the
skin. This complaint may be constantly seen in the fowls in the mews
and stableyards in London, where it arises from the dirty, dark
roosting places, and absence of fresh vegetable and insect food. Of
course a radical cure is out of the question, unless the unnatural
circumstances producing the disease are removed; if this is done,
and a five-grain Plummer’s pill given on two or three occasions, at
intervals of three days, the disease is speedily removed, but the
feathers will not be replaced until the next moulting season.

In Cochins which have been highly fed, particularly if peas and
greaves have formed part of their food, a somewhat similar disease
is often seen; and, as it commences with whiteness of the comb, it
is frequently termed “white comb.” The treatment in severe cases is
similar to that previously described; but mild attacks are said to
yield to the application of turmeric mixed with cocoa-nut oil in the
proportion of one part of the former to eight of the latter.

Moulting, being a natural action, cannot be regarded as a disease,
but it frequently is much delayed, and the birds evidently suffer in
such cases; it is therefore desirable, when fowls are not moulting
favourably, to treat them as invalids, giving them food which is more
nourishing than usual, such as a little chopped meat, either raw or
cooked, keeping them in a warm and sheltered habitation, &c.

Lice often infest fowls to an extreme degree, and cause a great
amount of irritation; this inconvenience may be prevented by giving
them dry ashes to scuffle in, and keeping the houses clean and well
lime-washed. When they are very abundant, flour of brimstone dusted
under the feathers will be found a certain remedy; it is conveniently
used if tied up in a piece of coarse muslin, or powdered from a flour
dredger, or if more convenient, a pound or two may be added to the
dust bath.

DISEASES OF THE LUNGS AND AIR PASSAGES.--Roup is the most serious
disease occurring in the poultry yard, not only on account of its
affecting large numbers at one time, but also from the fact that
it is not easily subdued by medical treatment; great confusion and
difference of opinion have occurred from several distinct diseases
having been confounded under this name. True roup commences with a
sticky discharge from the nostrils, at first clear, but afterwards
thick and of a very peculiar and offensive smell, the nostrils become
partially or entirely closed, and there is consequently some slight
difficulty of breathing, and a distention of the loose skin of the
under jaw may be noticed; froth frequently appears at the inner
corner of the eye, the lids swell, and in severe cases the sides of
the face swell greatly, the fowl becoming blind; from the discharge
being wiped on the feathers of the side and under the wing, they
become matted together; and in addition to these symptoms there is
extreme thirst. Roup is essentially a disease of the membrane lining
the nose, similar in this respect to glanders in horses; I believe
it to be highly contagious, and unless a roupy fowl is very valuable
would recommend its being at once killed. I think the disease is
often communicated by the discharge from the nostrils running into
the water out of which the fowls drink. As to treatment, a roupy
fowl should at once be removed from the yard, placed in a warm dry
room, the nostrils and eyes sponged with warm water, and a solution
of ten grains of blue vitriol to an ounce of water dropped into the
nostrils, either from the front or through the slit in the roof of
the mouth, warm stimulating food, as meal or bread and ale, and a
little pepper should be given. Remedies given internally seem to have
but very little effect on the disease, but I think I have seen more
benefit from half a grain of blue vitriol given once a day in meal
than from any other medicine.

Croup, from the similarity of its name is often confounded with Roup,
from which, however, it is perfectly distinct, being inflammation
of the wind-pipe, the symptoms are a difficulty of breathing and a
rattling or peculiar noise in the throat, this, in some cases, is
even musical; sometimes thick glairy mucus is coughed up, but there
is never any swelling of the face or discharge from the nostrils, the
disease is most frequent in damp weather, and yields readily to warm
dry housing, and one-twelfth of a grain of tartar emetic.

Inflammation of the lungs is known by a difficulty of breathing, but
without the noise of croup, the same treatment with tartar emetic is
advisable.

Consumption, arising from the presence of scrofulous matter in the
lungs, is produced by cold, damp, bad food, and is also inherited
from parents; this disease being hereditary, it is worse than useless
to attempt to cure fowls that are affected, as the chicken are
certain to be tainted with the disease.

Pip is the name given to a dry horny scale which appears on the
tongue, in all those diseases in which the fowl becomes feverish; it
is only a symptom of internal fever and not a disease itself, the
remedy is to remove the real disease causing it.

Gapes in chicken is caused by peculiar parasitic worms adhering to
the inside of the windpipe; they are readily removed by stripping a
small quill of its side feather, except an inch of the end, dipping
it in spirits of turpentine, and inserting it in the wind-pipe; but
as this remedy often excites fatal inflammation, I have suggested
fumigation with the vapour of turpentine, by shutting the chicken up
in a box, with some shavings moistened with the spirit, as long as
they can withstand the action of the vapour, and the remedy has been
found very successful.

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS are simple in their treatment. A
fowl sometimes becomes crop-bound from overdistending that organ;
warm water poured down the throat frequently loosens the mass; but,
if necessary, a perpendicular incision may be made at the upper part
of the swelling sufficiently large to extract the swollen food, and
it will be found to close again without the slightest difficulty;
the fowl should, however, be kept on soft food for several days
afterwards. Inflammation of the stomach, which is situated between
the crop and the gizzard, is a very frequent cause of death in highly
fed fowls--they mope, refuse to eat, pine away, and die; there is
no cure for the disease, but it is readily prevented by the use of
natural food--peas, greaves, hemp seed, being rigorously excluded.

In Diarrhœa, five grains of chalk, two grains of cayenne, and five
grains of powdered rhubarb may be given, and if the discharge is
not speedily checked, a grain of opium and the same quantity of
ipecacuanha may be administered every four or six hours.

DISEASES OF THE EGG ORGANS.--The most important disease of these
organs is inflammation of the egg passage, shewn by the laying
of soft or imperfect eggs; this complaint is readily remedied by
giving one grain of calomel and one-twelfth of a grain of tartar
emetic, made into a pill with meal; sometimes soft eggs arise from
a deficiency of lime, in which case, a little old mortar rubbish
remedies the defect.

The calomel and tartar emetic, which I first recommended for this
disease in the _Cottage Gardener_, has been frequently given in
other diseases, such as inflammation of the stomach, &c., and I need
scarcely say with the effect of aggravating the evil very materially;
there is no universal poultry medicine.

Disease of the ovary, or organ in which the yolks are formed, is
not unfrequent, when the comb and wattles become like those of the
cock, and the hen crows frequently; such birds are generally but
erroneously termed hen-cocks, they must not be confounded with the
hen-feathered cocks spoken of in the article on Hamburghs.

DISEASES OF THE LIMBS.--Cramp in young chicken from exposure to cold
and damp is very fatal to early hatches, it can be prevented only by
warmth and dryness.

Leg weakness, which is most frequent in rapidly growing chicken
and young birds, particularly Cochins, arises from a disproportion
between the weight and strength of the animal, the bird in
consequence, sinks down upon its hocks; I have found four or five
grains of citrate of iron given daily in meal successful in every
case in which I have employed it.

Inflammation of the feet, closely resembling gout, I have seen in
many cases, particularly in Cochins; the feet become very hot and
swell. One grain of calomel at night and three drops of colchicum
wine twice a day, I have found afford considerable relief.

The bumble foot of Dorkings, is a swelling occurring in the ball of
the foot, not attended with heat, but followed by ulceration and
a diseased growth. I have found that it may, to a great degree, be
prevented by having the perches broad and low, not above four feet
in height, as the disease is evidently set up in many cases, and
increased in all, by the violence with which the heavy birds descend
to the ground; from the low vitality of the parts affected, I have
found that no treatment is attended with any beneficial results.

Broken wings are best treated by tying the points of the quill
feathers together in a natural position and keeping the bird in an
empty place, where there is no perch to tempt it to fly. Broken legs
may be bandaged round by strips of stout brown paper soaked in white
of egg well beaten up with a fork, the leg should be kept steady by
two splints of wood until the paper has become dry, when it will be
found sufficiently firm to remain secure if wound round with a turn
or two of thread.

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN are not unfrequent in overfed fowls, apoplexy
being the most frequent. The birds affected fall suddenly from their
perches and are found dead. Little can be done in the way of cure;
much in the way of prevention, by abstaining from unnatural food; in
an actual attack, if the bird is seen before death, it may be bled by
opening the vein on the under side of the wing, but the chances of
recovery are but small. Paralysis also arises from the same cause.
In vertigo, which depends on an undue determination of blood to the
brain, the fowls run round and round or stagger about; letting a
stream of cold water on the head immediately relieves, this should be
followed by a grain of calomel or ten of jalap, in severe cases it
may be necessary to open a vein.

In most of the older poultry books certain nostrums, as rue and
butter, are constantly recommended; rue is a violent irritating
stimulant, and I am not aware of any disease affecting fowls in which
its use is at all likely to be productive of good effects.


             King, Printer, 63, Queen Street, Cheapside.




Transcriber’s Note:


Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like
this_. Inconsistent hyphenation was not changed. Two misspelled words
were corrected. One excess comma was removed. One final stop missing
at the end of an abbreviation was added. A column key was added to the
table beginning on line 411.





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