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Title: The structure of the English sentence

Author: Lillian Kimball

Release date: January 10, 2025 [eBook #75077]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: American Book Company, 1900

Credits: Alan, The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE ***





                             THE STRUCTURE

                                OF THE

                           ENGLISH SENTENCE


                                  BY

                          LILLIAN G. KIMBALL

    INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, OSHKOSH, WISCONSIN


                  NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO
                         AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY




                            COPYRIGHT, 1900
                         BY LILLIAN G. KIMBALL

                             Eng. Sentence

                                E-V 20




PREFACE


It has long seemed to me both unfortunate and wrong that many pupils
leave school with no keen delight in the study of English grammar,
and with the mistaken idea that it is mainly a study of rules and
definitions based upon the forms of mere words. Far from this, it
should be from the beginning a study of thought. Words should be
examined solely from the point of view of their function in the
sentence, the part they play in the communication of thought. Always
the sentence should be the unit of study, and it should be looked
at, not primarily as expressing a thought that was once in the mind
of its author, but rather as forever communicating thought to the
minds of its readers. For men would neither speak nor write without
an audience. Their aim is not to get their thought into words for
satisfaction to themselves, but to convey thought by means of words to
their fellow-men. Therefore it is that in all language study, in all
language teaching, the governing idea should be, not expression, but
communication, of thought.

It is now universally conceded that the purposes of grammar study
are three; namely, and in the order of their importance and
their realization,--1. to discipline the mind; 2. to aid in the
interpretation of speech and literature; 3. to facilitate the correct
expression of thought. It cannot, then, be denied that a rational
investigation of the structure of English sentences is far more
important than any other phase of grammar study, and for three
reasons:--1. it is a study of thought, and as such must discipline the
mind; 2. it trains the student through practice, which is the most
effective way, to interpret the thought of others; 3. by presenting to
him the best models for imitation, it aids him in communicating clearly
his own thoughts.

Believing this, and knowing from much experience that not until
students have examined the structure of sentences in relation to
the thought embodied, do they have any vital or useful knowledge of
etymology and syntax, I have long thought that a book was needed which
should deal only with the analysis of sentences, the culminating phase
of grammar study, for which all previous work is a preparation. The
book that I have prepared is not intended to supplant any text-book in
grammar, but rather to provide for a profitable continuation of grammar
study in high schools and normal schools. It is based upon the English
sentence as it has been written during the present century. No attempt
has been made to criticize any form or variation of sentence structure.
Instead, sentences are examined as they have been constructed by
reputable authors, with a view to determining the adequacy of their
structure to the communication of thought.

My highest aim and my sincerest hope have been to present worthy
matter in such a way as to require and stimulate good thinking on the
part of students, and to make them marvel and rejoice at the perfect
adaptability of the English sentence to the noble burden that it bears,
that of communicating thought.

  L. G. K.

 OSHKOSH, WIS., May, 1900.




CONTENTS


  CHAPTER                                                          PAGE

       I. The Proposition                                             7

      II. The Classification of Propositions                         11

     III. The Classification of Sentences according to Structure     18

      IV. The Classification of Sentences according to Form          23

       V. The Adjective Clause                                       28

      VI. The Analysis of Simple, Partially Compound, and
          Complex Sentences                                          38

     VII. The Substantive Clause                                     42

    VIII. Analysis of Sentences containing Noun Clauses              51

      IX. The Adverbial Clause of Time                               53

       X. The Adverbial Clause of Place                              59

      XI. The Adverbial Clause of Manner                             62

     XII. The Analysis of Sentences                                  66

    XIII. The Adverbial Clause of Cause                              68

     XIV. Clauses of Purpose and Result                              73

      XV. The Adverbial Clause of Condition                          78

     XVI. The Adverbial Clause of Concession                         82

    XVII. The Adverbial Clause of Degree or Comparison               87

   XVIII. The Compound Sentence                                      97

     XIX. The Conjunction in some of its Uses                       105

      XX. The Infinitive Phrase                                     113

     XXI. The Participial Phrase                                    129

    XXII. The Gerund                                                139

   XXIII. The Prepositional Phrase                                  146

    XXIV. The Appositive Phrase                                     161

     XXV. The Direct Object                                         169

    XXVI. The Subjective Complement                                 175

   XXVII. The Objective Complement                                  179

  XXVIII. The Indirect Object                                       188

    XXIX. The Adverbial Noun                                        189

     XXX. Peculiar Modifications                                    193

    XXXI. Independent Elements                                      201

   XXXII. Sentence Modifiers                                        209

  XXXIII. Elliptical Sentences                                      214

          MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS                      228

          INDEX                                                     241




THE

STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE

CHAPTER I

THE PROPOSITION


In the mind of every human being there are innumerable ideas, or mental
pictures, gathered from previous experience. Whenever we perceive a
relation between any two of these ideas, we form a judgment, or, in
other words, have a thought. If we wish to communicate our thought we
ordinarily express it in words, and this verbal expression of a thought
we call a sentence.

For example, I have an idea of _children_ and an idea of the activity
called _play_; I see a relation between them, that of agent and thing
done; I affirm this relation, and have the sentence, _Children play_.
Or I detect a relation between _flower_ and _whiteness_, and say, _The
flower is white_. Or I fail to establish such a relation and so deny
the former statement by saying, _The flower is not white_. In each case
my sentence serves the great purpose of communicating thought; and it
does this by calling up in the mind of the reader the same combination
of ideas that exists in my mind.

Another name for sentences like those just formed, is _proposition_,
a proposition being the expression of one thought. But since a
proposition is the statement of a judgment, it must contain two ideas.
One of these, denoting that of which something is asserted, we call
the _subject_; the other, denoting what is said of the subject, we call
the _predicate_. The relation between these two ideas cannot always
be expressed by means of two words. If we wish to assert a relation
between _water_ and _freshness_, we must use at least three words,
_Water is fresh_; the word _is_ contains little, if any, meaning, but
is necessary for the grammatical expression of the thought.

Although a proposition must contain at least two ideas, it may contain
any number of them. For example, I may expand the proposition,
_Children play_, by additional ideas, telling (1) whose children, (2)
a characteristic of the children, (3) what they play, (4) where they
play, (5) when they play,--_My neighbor’s little children play hide and
seek in their yard every evening_. Still I have only one proposition,
for the number of propositions in a sentence depends on the number of
judgments, or thoughts, expressed,--in other words, on the number of
assertions made; and here there is but one, that made essentially by
the verb _play_.

All sentences, however, are not single propositions, for in building
sentences we often go a step further than seeing the relation between
ideas, that is, we see the relation between thoughts; and so, instead
of combining mere words, we combine whole propositions into one
sentence. Take, for example, the two propositions, _Children play_, and
_Children enjoy play_. I may see that the second fact is a cause of the
first, and, by combining the two so as to bring out this relation of
cause and effect, get the sentence, _Children play because they enjoy
it_, wherein I substitute the pronouns they and it for the already
known words _children_ and _play_.

Or take the two propositions, _The lion roared_, and _The hyena
laughed_. I may wish to tell some one that these two actions were
related in time, occurring simultaneously; I do this by saying, _The
lion roared and the hyena laughed_, where I have one sentence, but
made of two propositions, because conveying two thoughts. I might put
in other thoughts, telling (1) which lion, (2) why he roared, (3) how
long the hyena laughed,--The lion _that was kept in the cage near the
door_ roared _because the keeper did not bring his food_, and the hyena
laughed _till he had set all the animals around him in an uproar_. Here
I have one sentence containing five thoughts, therefore made up of five
propositions.

However, it is not with composition, the building up of sentences, that
we are to concern ourselves, so much as with an examination into the
structure of the finished product. Now, when we study the structure of
the human body, we look upon it first as a symmetrical whole, then we
separate it into its largest, most distinct members,--the head, the
trunk, the arms, the legs. After we have noted the relations of these
parts, we take up each part as a whole and proceed again in the same
way. In analyzing sentences we shall pursue the same method.

Every sentence is a unit just as the body is; like the body, too,
it is made up of smaller units. In studying its structure we should
first of all find the units which compose the sentence-unit. If the
sentence is a single proposition, the constituent units are, of course,
the subject and the predicate. But if the sentence is a combination
of propositions, as is oftener the case, then its chief units are
these propositions. Therefore, as a foundation for the analysis of
sentences, we must be able to determine readily how many propositions a
given sentence contains. Our first exercise will be devoted to this end.


Exercise 1

Resolve the following sentences into single propositions. Remember that
the number of propositions depends on the number of assertions made.

 1. There are thousands of years between the stone hatchet and the
 machine shop.--_C. W. Eliot._

 2. All along the Atlantic, the country is bordered by a broad tract,
 called the _tierra caliente_, or hot region, which has the usual high
 temperature of equinoctial lands.--_Prescott._

 3. Times grew worse and worse with Rip Van Winkle as years of
 matrimony rolled on; a tart temper never mellows with age, and a
 sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with constant
 use.--_Irving._

 4. Every thing around me wore that happy look which makes the heart
 glad.--_Longfellow._

 5. I came from India as a child, and our ship touched at an island
 on the way home, where my black servant took me a long walk over
 rocks and hills, until we reached a garden where we saw a man
 walking.--_Thackeray._

 6. As a painter may draw a cloud so that we recognize its general
 truth, though the boundaries of real clouds never remain the same for
 two minutes together, so, amid the changes of feature and complexion,
 brought about by commingling of race, there still remains a certain
 cast of physiognomy, which points back to some one ancestor of marked
 and peculiar character.--_Lowell._

 7. Our eyes are holden that we cannot see things that stare us in the
 face, until the hour arrives when the mind is ripened.--_Emerson._

 8. The burning sun of Syria had not yet attained its highest point in
 the horizon, when a knight of the Red Cross, who had left his distant
 northern home and joined the host of the Crusaders in Palestine, was
 pacing slowly along the sandy deserts which lie in the vicinity of the
 Dead Sea, where the waves of the Jordan pour themselves into an inland
 sea from which there is no discharge of waters.--_Scott._

 9.  Through the black Tartar tents he passed which stood,
     Clustering like bee hives on the low, flat strand
     Of Oxus, where the summer floods o’erflow
     When the sun melts the snow in high Pamere.

  --_M. Arnold._

 10. On a fine, breezy forenoon I am audaciously skeptical, but, as
 twilight sets in, my credulity grows steadily, till it becomes equal
 to anything that could be desired.--_De Quincey._

 11. Although it was now well on towards dark and the sun was down an
 hour or so, I could see the robbers’ road before me in a trough of the
 winding hills, where the brook plowed down from the higher barrows,
 and the coving banks were roofed with furze.--_Blackmore._

 12. In one place the poet describes a congregation gathered to listen
 to a preacher in a great unillumined cathedral at night.--_Wm. James._




CHAPTER II

THE CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSITIONS


=How Propositions differ in Nature.=--In studying the human body we
cannot help seeing that all the prominent members are not equally
important. Some could exist independently of others, while some
are joined directly to a more important part, and, if separated
from it, would have no use or life. So, in studying a sentence, we
notice that all the propositions are not equal in rank. Some are
complete sentences in themselves; others would not make sense if
they were obliged to stand alone. Hence there arise two classes of
propositions,--_principal_ and _subordinate_, or _independent_ and
_dependent._

In every sentence there is at least one primary thought which it is the
author’s main purpose to communicate, and this will always be found
in the principal proposition. There may be modifying circumstances of
time, place, manner, condition, etc., which he wishes to embody in
his sentence, but he brings these in by means of words and phrases,
which are elements of the principal proposition, or else, if the
language affords no adequate words and phrases, by means of subordinate
propositions.

In the following sentence from Carlyle,--“How true is that old fable
of the Sphinx, who sat by the wayside propounding her riddle to the
passengers,” there are plainly two propositions. It is also plain that
the thought which the author wished most to convey is this,--The old
fable of the Sphinx is true. In fact, it was the prime importance of
this thought that led him to put it in the principal proposition. He
chose to add the thought expressed in the second proposition, but he
showed its minor importance by constructing the proposition so that
it serves as a mere modifier of the word _Sphinx_. From a grammatical
point of view the first proposition is complete,--it could stand alone
and make sense; hence it is called _independent_. On the other hand,
the second proposition, if separated from the first, would lose its
meaning; it is therefore said to be dependent.

Consider these sentences:

 1. The Mohawk hardly feels the scalping-knife while he shouts his
 death song.--_Macaulay._

 2. No success is worthy of the name unless it is won by honest
 industry and a brave breasting of the waves of fortune.--_Huxley._

 3. That country is the fairest which is inhabited by the noblest
 minds.--_Emerson._

If we separate each of these sentences into its two propositions
and apply the test,--_which proposition is by itself grammatically
complete?_ we shall see that the first proposition in each sentence
is independent and the second dependent. But it may be said that in
each case the dependent proposition is necessary for the truth of the
sentence, that its thought must have been in the author’s mind not as
an addition to the main thought but as something indispensable. This is
perfectly true; logically the truth of the independent proposition does
depend on the thought in the dependent proposition, but grammatically
the dependence is the other way. Notice that in each of these sentences
the second proposition denotes a modifying circumstance of the main
thought, and therefore takes rank in the sentence merely as an
idea,--telling in the first sentence _when_ the Mohawk hardly feels
the scalping knife, in the second _under what condition_ success is
unworthy, in the third _which_ country is the fairest. Now, had the
author so chosen, these modifications might all have been expressed by
phrases, though possibly not so clearly.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Tests for Independent and Dependent Propositions.=--From the foregoing
we may deduce the following tests for propositions.

1. For the independent proposition.--(_a_) It contains the main thought
that the author wished to convey. (_b_) It is so expressed that it is
grammatically complete when standing alone.

2. For the dependent proposition.--(_a_) It expresses a modifying
thought of some word or words in the independent proposition. (_b_) It
may be changed to a simpler element, a word or phrase, provided there
is a word or phrase in the language to express the same meaning. (_c_)
It is not so expressed that it would make sense standing alone.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Function of the Dependent Proposition.=--From what has already been
said it may be inferred that the dependent proposition is employed (1)
for variety, in the place of a word or phrase, (2) for the adequate
expression of what we have no word or phrase capable of saying. But
this is not all. Every dependent proposition can be changed into an
independent proposition, and so might have been brought into the
sentence in that form. For example,--

 The Mohawk shouts his death song, and he hardly feels the scalping
 knife.

 That country is inhabited by the noblest minds and it is the fairest.

 Success should be won by honest industry and a brave breasting of the
 waves of fortune, and no other success is worthy of the name.

By comparing these recasted sentences with the originals we perceive
why the authors employed the dependent proposition; by means of it
they have shown what the recasted sentences do not show--(1) what is
the main thought and what is subordinate; (2) the special relation
existing between the principal and the subordinate thought. This
second point is very important. If we had to tell a story in sentences
of one proposition each, how difficult it would be to give the reader
an idea of the various relations between these propositions. Besides,
how tedious is a succession of single propositions. Compare, for
instance, the following six sentences with the one smooth, compact,
clear sentence into which they may be combined.

 The jay hoards up nuts for winter use.

 This is a general belief among country people.

 This belief has probably some foundation in fact.

 Where can the jay safely place his stores?

 One is at a loss to know this.

 His stores are apt to be pilfered by the mice and squirrels.

 The general belief among country people that the jay hoards up nuts
 for winter use has probably some foundation in fact, though one is at
 a loss to know where he could place his stores so that they would not
 be pilfered by the mice and squirrels.--_Burroughs._

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Combination of Independent Propositions.=--This comes about
when we wish to put related thoughts into one sentence in such a way
as to show that they are equally important, and that, although they
are related, neither is to be considered as denoting some modifying
circumstance of any idea in the other. For example,--

 1. There must be work done by the arms or none of us could
 live.--_Ruskin._

 2. Misfortune could not subdue him and prosperity could not spoil
 him.--_Dickens._

 3. You may talk of the tyranny of Nero and Tiberius; but the real
 tyranny is the tyranny of your next door neighbor.--_Bagehot._

Notice that the connectives in these sentences, while indicating a
relation between the propositions as wholes, belong to one proposition
no more than to the other, hence are not a grammatical part of either;
also that neither proposition is a modifier of any idea in the other.

It has been well said that often when we combine two independent
propositions into one sentence, we are really conveying three
thoughts,--the thought in each proposition and the thought suggested by
the relation between the two propositions. In sentence 3 just quoted,
we have not only the two propositions expressed, but two more implied;
viz., _the tyranny of Nero and Tiberius is not the real tyranny_; and,
_the real tyranny is not talked about_.

We are now ready to take the second step in studying the structure
of a given sentence, that is, to determine whether its component
propositions are independent or dependent.


Exercise 2

Select each proposition in the following sentences. State whether it is
independent or dependent, and give the grounds for your decision.

 1. Children play the part in the household which the king’s jester,
 who very often had a mighty long head under his cap and bells, used to
 play for a monarch.--_Holmes._

 2. Already I breathed gales of the everlasting mountains, that to my
 feelings blew from the garden of Paradise.--_De Quincey._

 3. The waterfall is comparatively narrow at the top of the precipice;
 but it widens as it descends, and curves a little as it widens, so
 that it shapes itself, before it reaches the first bowl of granite,
 into the charming figure of the comet that glowed on our sky some
 years ago.--_King._

 4. He, who, in an enlightened and literary society, aspires to be a
 great poet, must first become a little child.--_Macaulay._

 5. One has only to sit down in the woods or fields, or by the shore of
 the river or lake, and nearly everything of interest will come round
 to him,--the birds, the animals, the insects,--and presently, after
 his eye has got accustomed to the place and to the light and shade, he
 will probably see some plant or flower that he had sought in vain for,
 and that is a pleasant surprise to him.--_Burroughs._

 6. If their lantern had been in its place, they would scarce have
 failed to descry me, unless indeed I had seen the gleam before I
 turned the corner.--_Blackmore._

 7. The whole town knew and kindly regarded Miss Betsey Barker’s
 Alderney; therefore great was the sympathy and regret when, in an
 unguarded moment, the poor cow tumbled into a lime-pit.--_Mrs.
 Gaskell._

 8.     That was the grandest funeral
          That ever passed on earth,
        But no one heard the tramping,
          Or saw the train go forth.

 9. There were rows of houses which he had never seen before, and those
 which had been his familiar haunts had disappeared.--_Irving._

 10. In the morning I arose with the lark, and at night I slept where
 sunset overtook me.--_Longfellow._

 11. Kala Nag, which means Black Snake, had served the Indian
 Government in every way that an elephant could serve it for
 forty-seven years.--_Kipling._

 12. Your dull unhurried worker gets over a great deal of ground
 because he never goes backward or breaks down.--_Wm. James._




CHAPTER III

THE CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE


We have seen that a sentence may consist of one proposition or of
several, and that all its propositions may be independent or one or
more of them may be dependent. This freedom of combination gives rise
to three distinct types of sentences, classified according to the
number and the kind of propositions they contain. These are _simple_,
_complex_, and _compound_.

1. _A simple sentence_ is one that consists of one independent
proposition.--“Lightness of touch is the crowning test of
power.”--_Higginson._

2. _A complex sentence_ is one that contains at least one dependent
proposition. It usually contains a complete independent proposition
also, and it may contain any number of dependent propositions.

(a) With the independent proposition complete,--“What inspiration
gilds his features as he descends the mount with the Tables in his
hand.”--_Lord._

(b) With the independent proposition incomplete because the
dependent proposition is its subject.--“That Chaucer, being at
Milan, should not have found occasion to ride across so far as Padua
for the sake of seeing the most famous literary man of the day, is
incredible.”--_Lowell._

3. _A compound sentence_ is one that contains at least two independent
propositions. It may also contain one or more dependent propositions.
In that case it is often called _complex-compound_.

(a) Compound sentence,--“It is a strange tale, but it hath the
recommendation of brevity.”--_Jerrold._

(b) Complex-compound.--“Times of heroism are generally times of
terror, but the day never shines in which this element may not
work.”--_Emerson._

=Difficulty in Classifying Sentences.=--It is sometimes difficult for
a beginner to determine whether a sentence is complex or compound,
that is, whether a certain one of its propositions is independent or
dependent. Take, for instance, two such sentences as the following:
“The ground is wet this morning because it rained last night”; and,
“The ground is wet this morning, hence it rained last night.” Out of
each of these expressions we get a statement of cause and effect,
but the two sentences are not therefore alike, for a sentence is to
be considered not only logically but grammatically, before we can
decide what kind it is. It is clear that in each sentence the first
proposition is independent, so we shall examine only the second.

Now, in the first sentence the second proposition is intended to
tell _why_ the ground is wet, just as the words _this morning_
tell _when_ it is wet. Why a certain state exists may be told by a
phrase as well as by a proposition, because it is only a modifying
circumstance. It might be told here by the prepositional phrase _from
last night’s rain_. If this second proposition, then, is put into the
sentence merely to tell something about some part of the independent
proposition, it is clearly subordinate, and therefore dependent.

In the second sentence the second proposition does not express any
modification of any idea in the first proposition. It states a
conclusion drawn from the fact stated in the first proposition, and
in the author’s mind the conclusion is of equal importance with the
fact that supports it. We may even supply the conjunction _and_ before
_hence_, which shows that the two propositions are coördinate, so if
one is independent the other must be.

It may be said that if the conjunction _hence_ is taken as a part of
the following proposition, the proposition cannot stand alone any more
than can the proposition introduced by _because._ But _because_ must
be taken as a part of its proposition because it indicates the special
modifying circumstance--not time, or place, but cause--which the author
intended that proposition to denote, whereas _hence_ is not a part of
the following proposition because that proposition is not intended,
as we have shown, to be a modifier of any part of the preceding
proposition, but a conclusion drawn from the whole of it. _Because_,
indicating subordination is a subordinating conjunction and always a
part of the proposition it introduces. _Hence_, indicating equality,
or grammatical coördination, is a coördinating conjunction and never a
part of the proposition following it.

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Partially Compound Sentence.=--Since there are three well defined
types of sentences, it is natural that there should be forms lying in
between any two of these types and partaking of the nature of both.
One of these forms, the complex-compound sentence, we have already
spoken of. Another form is found in the following sentence,--“The
diseases, the elements, fortune, gravity, lightning, respect no
persons.”--_Emerson._

Here there are several subjects but only one assertion made, hence
only one proposition. The sentence resembles both the compound
sentence and the simple sentence, but is, strictly speaking, neither
one. It is called _partially compound_, and may be considered a fifth
kind of sentence. Sometimes it contains only one subject but two or
more predicates,--“He shook his head, shouldered the rusty firelock,
and, with a heart full of trouble and anxiety, turned his steps
homeward.”--_Irving._


Exercise 3

Classify the following sentences according to structure, giving in each
case the grounds for your decision.

 1. I could never fathom how a man dares to lift up his voice to preach
 in a cathedral.--_Stevenson._

 2.     Great feelings hath she of her own,
        Which lesser souls may never know;
        God giveth them to her alone,
        And sweet they are as any tone
        Wherewith the wind may choose to blow.--_Lowell._

 3. When you emerge from the portals of St. Mark’s, you enter upon
 spaces of such sunny length and breadth, set round with such
 exquisite architecture that it makes you glad to be living in this
 world.--_Howells._

 4. Education, to accomplish the ends of good government, should be
 universally diffused.--_Webster._

 5. If a country finds itself wretched, sure enough that country has
 been misguided.--_Carlyle._

 6. These winds in the winter season frequently freshen into tempests,
 and, sweeping down the Atlantic coast and the winding Gulf of Mexico,
 burst with the fury of a hurricane on its unprotected shores, and on
 the neighboring West India islands.--_Prescott._

 7. The Puritan prostrated himself in the dust before his Maker; but he
 set his foot on the neck of his king.--_Macaulay._

 8. You get entangled in another man’s mind, even as you lose yourself
 in another man’s grounds.--_Lamb._

 9.    Not what we think, but what we do,
         Makes saints of us.          --_Alice Cary._

 10.  He reeled, and staggering back sank to the ground;
      And then the gloom dispersed, and the wind fell,
      And the bright sun broke forth, and melted all
      The cloud.                              --_M. Arnold._

 11. Only the learned, who were very few, could read Latin; hence
 there came to be great ignorance of the Bible, and all sorts of
 superstitions and false beliefs took possession of the people, and the
 Bible came to be almost a forgotten and unused book.--_Munger._

 12. Wherever the Anglo-Saxon race goes, there law, industry, and
 safety for life and property are certain to arise.--_Dickens._

 13. The islands of the lagoons seemed to rise and sink with the light
 palpitations of the waves like pictures on the undulating fields of
 banners.--_Howells._

 14.  The heights by great men reached and kept
      Were not attained by sudden flight,
      But they, while their companions slept,
      Were toiling upward in the night.    --_Longfellow._

 15. Sweet funeral bells from some incalculable distance, wailing over
 the dead that die before the dawn, awakened me as I slept in a boat
 moored to some familiar shore.--_De Quincey._

 16. Terror, not love, was the spring of education with the
 Aztecs.--_Prescott._

 17. As night set in, the wind whistled in a spiteful, falsetto key,
 and the rain lashed the old tavern as if it were a balky horse that
 refused to move on.--_Aldrich._

 18. Feudalism was an institution of the Middle Ages, which grew out
 of the miseries and robberies that succeeded the fall of the Roman
 Empire.--_Lord._

 19. Tennyson delights to sing of heroic deeds and to celebrate noble
 souls.




CHAPTER IV

THE CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM


We have classified sentences according to their structure as simple,
complex, compound, partially compound, and complex-compound. There is
another classification made on the basis of form, which gives us three
kinds of sentences,--_declarative_, _interrogative_, _imperative_.
These three forms arise from the fact that there are three modes of
communicating thought; viz., by assertion, by question, by command.

=The Declarative Sentence.=--A declarative sentence is one that states
or declares something,--“Aunt Celia has an intense desire to improve my
mind.”--_Mrs. Wiggin._

This is the commonest kind of sentence, especially in books, for it is
the business of an author to inform his readers of his own thoughts,
not to inquire after theirs. It is the style of sentence best fitted
for relating events, describing objects, or making clear any difficult
subject. Its order is usually the natural one, first the subject and
then the predicate. Variations from this order will be taken up as they
present themselves in connection with different sentence-elements.

=The Interrogative Sentence.=--An interrogative sentence is one that
asks a question,--“Who now reads the ancient authors?”--_F. Harrison._

This kind of sentence is used often in conversation, both oral and
written. It is also common in addresses, such as sermons and lectures,
where the speaker asks questions of his audience, not for the purpose
of getting an answer, but that he may make a more direct appeal to them.

In books we often meet such an interrogative sentence as this,--“What
courage can withstand the ever-during and all-besetting terrors of a
woman’s tongue?”--_Irving._

The purpose of this sentence is not to inquire, to ask a question
of anybody, but to give emphatic expression to a thought. It is a
rhetorical device for making an assertion forcible. The author of the
sentence quoted was so positive of the truth of his thought that,
instead of declaring it, he put it in the form of a question, meaning,
however,--“There is _no_ courage that can withstand, etc.”

Interrogative sentences are of two kinds:

1. Those that can be answered by _yes_ or _no_,--“Can a man weigh off
and value the glories of dawn against the darkness of hurricane?”--_De
Quincey._

These sentences put in question the whole thought, and are usually in
the inverted order, the auxiliary of the predicate verb coming before
the subject.

2. Those that cannot be answered by _yes_ or _no_,--“Why should the
trees be so lovely in Japan?”--_Hearn._

These sentences put in question only one point, either the subject, the
object, an attribute of the subject or object, or some circumstance
of time, manner, place, cause, etc. They usually begin with an
interrogative word, such as the pronouns _who_, _which_, _what_, or the
adverbs _how_, _when_, _why_, _where_.

Interrogative sentences have sometimes the same order and arrangement
of words as declarative sentences. It is only by hearing them spoken
or noting their punctuation that we know they are interrogative; for
example, “Scrooge knew he was dead?”--_Dickens._ This is equivalent
to--“Did Scrooge know that he was dead?”

Before analyzing an interrogative sentence, its order, if inverted,
should be changed to that of the declarative sentence. Motley’s
question,--“When did one man ever civilize a people?” becomes for
analysis,--“One man did ever civilize a people when?” Notice that the
_time_ of an action is the point in question here, and the desired
answer will be this very same sentence with only two changes, the
omission of _ever_ and the substitution of a word or phrase signifying
a definite time, for the word _when_.


=The Imperative Sentence.=--An imperative sentence is one that conveys
a command,--“Tell me why you have brought me to this place.”--_Caine._

The command is frequently so mild that it becomes more a request or
piece of advice,--“Speak as you think, be what you are, pay your debts
of all kinds.”--_Emerson._

Sometimes it is even an entreaty,--“Give us this day our daily bread.”

A very common form of the imperative sentence is that introduced by
the imperative word _let_,--“_Let_ the dessert be served and the fruit
brought.” This generally expresses more of a wish than a command. The
same idea is brought out in such a sentence as the following,--“Come,
sit we down and talk.” Here the present subjunctive _sit_ is employed.
Both of these sentence-forms may be considered as substitutes for the
first and third person imperative, which is lacking in English.

In imperative sentences we use the imperative mood of the verb and so
usually dispense with the subject, the verb becoming thus the first
word in the sentence. For analysis the subject is to be supplied. It is
always a personal pronoun of the second person, _you_, _thou_, or _ye_.
The verb may be a simple imperative, as _go_; an emphatic imperative,
_do go_; or a progressive imperative, _be going_, or _do be going_.


=The Exclamative Sentence.=--Any one of the three forms of sentences
may become exclamative by mode of utterance, but the exclamative
sentence does not communicate thought in a way different from the other
three sentences, nor is it different in form, hence it should not be
considered a fourth kind of sentence.

A declarative sentence made exclamative.--“Alas! the silence which
was then settling on that aged ear was an everlasting silence!”--_De
Quincey._

An interrogative sentence made exclamative.--“Who could have imagined
the whirlwind of passion that was going on within me as I reclined
there!”--_Jefferies._

An imperative sentence made exclamative.--“Sit down, all of you, and
listen to me!”--_Lewis Carroll._


Exercise 4.

Classify the following sentences both as to structure and as to form. A
sentence compound in structure may have members different in form, that
is, one member may be declarative and another interrogative.

 1. A wide-spreading, hopeful disposition is your only true umbrella in
 this vale of tears.--_Aldrich._

 2. What is it to be a gentleman? Is it to have lofty aims, to lead
 a pure life, to keep your honor virgin; to have the esteem of your
 fellow citizens, and the love of your fireside; to bear good fortune
 meekly; to suffer evil with constancy; and through evil or good to
 maintain truth always?--_Thackeray._

 3. Stay, stay with us--rest, thou art weary and worn.--_Campbell._

 4. It is so tedious to live only in one circle and have only a genteel
 acquaintance.--_Higginson._

 5. Take Winter as you find him, and he turns out to be a thoroughly
 honest fellow with no nonsense in him.--_Lowell._

 6. In a word, if the world were actually all civilized, wouldn’t it be
 too weak even to ripen?--_Warner._

 7. Who blows to-day such a ringing trumpet-call to the study of
 language as Luther blew?--_C. W. Eliot._

 8. With what interest do we look upon any relic of early human
 history!--_Agassiz._

 9. Do not delude yourself with the idea that you can practice
 punctuality by and by, when the necessity of it will be more cogent.

  10. Boy as I am, I have seen battles too--
      Have waded foremost in their bloody waves,
      And heard their hollow roar of dying men;
      But never was my heart thus touched before.
      Are they from Heaven, these softenings of the heart?
      O thou old warrior, let us yield to Heaven.
      Come, plant we here in earth our angry spears,
      And make a truce, and sit upon this sand,
      And pledge each other in red wine, like friends,
      And thou shalt talk to me of Rustum’s deeds.

  --M. Arnold.

 11. Whither can I take wing from the oppression of human
 faces?--_Lamb._

 12. But the third sister, who is also the youngest--Hush! whisper
 whilst we talk of her!--_De Quincey._

 13. But after all what religion knits people so closely as a common
 sport?--_Stevenson._

 14. Shut now the volume of history and tell me, on any principle
 of human probability, what shall be the fate of this handful of
 adventurers?--_Everett._

 15. The self-made man is the funniest windbag after all!--_Stevenson._

 16. There! if the trout has a right to his grasshopper, have I not a
 right to the trout!--_Beecher._

 17. Let us trace a river to its source.--_Tyndall._

 18. Go face the fire at sea, or the cholera in your friend’s house,
 or the burglar in your own, or what danger lies in the way of duty,
 knowing you are guarded by the cherubim of Destiny.--_Emerson._

 19. Oh, child of France! shepherdess, peasant girl! trodden under foot
 by all around thee, how I honor thy flashing intellect, quick as God’s
 lightning and true as God’s lightning to its mark, that ran before
 France and laggard Europe by many a century, confounding the malice of
 the ensnarer, and making dumb the oracles of falsehood!--_De Quincey._

  20.
                                    Who could guess
  If ever more should meet those mutual eyes,
  Since upon night so sweet such awful morn could rise?

  --_Byron._




CHAPTER V

THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE


=Function.=--A common form of the dependent proposition is the
adjective clause, so called not because it is equivalent to an
adjective, but because it performs the office of an adjective, that
is, modifies a substantive. It is true that some adjective clauses may
be changed to adjectives, participles, or prepositional phrases, but
there are many more whose meaning cannot be conveyed by any adjective,
participle, or phrase at our command. For example, in this sentence
from Macaulay,--“In climates _where wine is a rarity_, intemperance
abounds,” there is no equivalent simpler adjective element into which
the clause could be changed.

Moreover, a clause gives more dignity and importance to the thought
conveyed by it than a shorter adjective element gives. Often, too,
a sentence loses in definiteness by the abridgment of an adjective
clause. For example, the sentence,--“The statue that was made of marble
pleased me most,” may be changed to,--“The marble statue pleased me
most.” But, whereas the first sentence means that the marble statue
pleased me more than the other statues, the second may mean either the
same or that the statue pleased me more than some other objects, not
statues. In other words, it is clear that the clause is restrictive,
while in the abridged sentence it is impossible to decide whether
_marble_ is used to restrict or to describe.

Another advantage of the clause is, that it does not require to be so
near the word that it modifies as does an adjective or a participle.
Take the following sentence,--“No act of oppression has ever been
imputed to him _which has not a parallel in the annals of the
Tudors_.”--_Macaulay._ Here the clause is separated from _act_ by the
entire predicate of the principal proposition.


=Classification.=--There are two kinds of adjective clauses, according
to the purpose for which they are used in the sentence.

1. The _restrictive_ adjective clause.--This is one which restricts,
or narrows, the application of the noun it modifies to some particular
individual or class.--“He _who_ _never changed any of his opinions_
never corrected any of his mistakes.”--_Hall._ Here the clause points
out the particular individual designated by the pronoun _he_.

A restrictive clause is doubly expressive;--it says one thing directly
and another by implication. In the sentence quoted the clause implies
that there are people who do change their opinions.

Usually the restrictive clause is near the word it modifies, is not set
off by a comma, and is introduced by the relative pronoun _that_, or a
conjunctive adverb, or such a phrase as _in which_, _by which_, etc. No
adjective clause, however, should be tested by any or even all of these
accidents, but rather solely by the purpose for which the author used
it.

2. The _unrestrictive_ adjective clause.--This is one that merely adds
a thought to some idea already expressed. The additional thought is
often valuable, but it is never necessary.--“The window of the little
parlor looked down upon the water, which had made friends with its
painted ceiling, and bestowed tremulous golden smiles upon it when
the sun shone.”--_Howells._ The clause here is evidently not used to
point out which water is meant, but to tell something further about the
water, something unnecessary to the truth of the sentence, but valuable
in giving the reader a beautiful picture. Such a clause is sometimes
merely a definition or expansion of a term already used; for example,
“Style, _which is the peculiar manner in which a writer expresses his
thoughts_, depends to some extent upon the age in which he lives.”


=Introductory Word.=--The adjective clause, being a dependent
proposition and modifying a substantive, needs some word to indicate
its subordination and join it to its substantive. This word may be
several parts of speech.

1. A relative pronoun,--_who_, _which_, _that_. This pronoun, besides
serving as a connective, is a necessary element of the clause. It may
be--

(_a_) Subject of the verb,--“The nature of his subject compelled
him to use many words that would have made Quintilian stare and
gasp.”--_Macaulay._

(_b_) Direct object of a verb,--“So I had arrived in Venice, and I had
felt the influence of that complex spell _which_ she lays upon the
stranger.”--_Howells._

(_c_) Indirect object of a verb,--“We must be as courteous to a man as
we are to a picture, _which_ we are willing to give the advantage of a
good light.”--_Emerson._

(_d_) Object of a preposition,--“Other men are lenses through _which_
we read our own minds.”--_Emerson._

(_e_) Subjective complement,--“He will never be the hero _that_ his
brother was.”

(_f_) Possessive modifier,--“Its members are inflexible men,
_whose_ ability has been as frequently manifested as their
patriotism.”--_Howells._

NOTE.--To ascertain the use of a relative pronoun in a clause,
substitute the antecedent for the pronoun, and observe how the
antecedent is used. Sometimes this substitution requires a slight
change in the arrangement of the words of the clause. For example, in
(_e_) above, the clause _that his brother was_ becomes _his brother was
hero_.

_That_, when used as object of a preposition, must precede the
preposition; as, “Have you ever heard the Lady--the one _that_ I sit
next _to_ at the table--say anything about me?”--_Holmes._

_That_ is frequently omitted when object of a verb or preposition; as,
“One of the shop windows he paused before was that of a second-hand
book-shop.”--_George Eliot._

_As_ and _but_ are sometimes used as relative pronouns; the former
after _such_, _same_, _as many_, and a few other expressions, the
latter after an interrogative or negative antecedent, and as an
equivalent of the relative _that_ plus _not_; as, “There is nothing
born _but_ has to die.”

The relative pronoun _as_ may be--

(a) Subject of a verb,--“I went up from the cabin followed by as many
_as_ could mount the gangway.”

(b) Object of a verb,--“Chaucer has left us such a picture of
contemporary life _as_ no man ever painted.”--_Lowell._

(c) Object of a preposition,--“He was such a schoolboy _as_ a
discerning master delights in.”--_Mrs. Ward._

(d) Subjective complement,--“I shall probably never see just such
another day _as_ yesterday was.”--_Burroughs._

 NOTES.--1. When _as_ introduces an adjective clause, the verb of the
 clause is frequently omitted; as, “Their military code bore the same
 stern features as their other laws (_bore_).”--_Prescott._

 2. The use of the relative pronoun _as_ after _as many_ has been
 extended so that we find it after _as few_, _as much_, _as little_;
 as, “She was done for and bought for ten pounds by the landlord of
 the Drummond Arms, Crieff, who had been taking _as much_ money out of
 her, and putting _as little_ corn into her, _as_ was compatible with
 life.”--_Dr. John Brown._

 3. The word _such_, which usually precedes a noun modified by an
 as-clause, may follow the noun instead; as, “The walls did not flow or
 subside to the valley in charming curve-lines, _such as_ I have seen
 in the wildest passes of the New England mountains.”--_King._ Instead
 of transposing _such_, which would alter the meaning slightly, we
 may say that it is a pronominal in apposition with _curve-lines_ and
 modified by the restrictive adjective clause _as I have seen_, etc.

2. A conjunctive adverb.--This is equivalent to a phrase consisting of
a preposition and a relative pronoun, and is used interchangeably with
such a phrase. Its function in the clause is the same as that of the
phrase, that is, it modifies the verb. The commonest of these adverbs
are _when_ (= _in which_ or _on which_), _where_ (= _in which_ or _on
which_), _whither_ (= _toward which_), _whence_ (= _from which_).
Others less used are _wherein_, _whereon_, _whereof_, _wherethrough_,
_wherefrom_, _wherewith_, _whereupon_, _wherefore_, _whereby_,
_whereat_. For example,--

 Our works are the mirrors _wherein_ the spirit first sees its natural
 lineaments.--_Carlyle._

 Some day you may reach that time _when_ a man lives in greater part
 for memory and by memory.--_Lushington._

  Yet all experience is an arch _wherethrough_
  Gleams that untraveled world whose margin fades
  Forever and forever when I move.--_Tennyson._

3. The subordinating conjunction _that_.--This is often used to
introduce restrictive clauses modifying a word denoting time. It is
equivalent to a phrase like _in which_; for example, “At last the
season comes _that_ the sixtieth minute is due.”

This connective is sometimes used instead of _why_ after the word
_reason_. It is frequently omitted; as, “The instant he understood my
meaning, he obeyed.”


=What the Adjective Clause modifies.=--The adjective clause may
modify a noun used in any relation, a personal pronoun, a pronominal
adjective, or any other substantive. Sometimes, instead of modifying
any single word, it modifies the thought expressed by the whole of the
preceding sentence, or by a portion of it. In such a case the clause
is introduced by the relative pronoun _which_. For example, “They had
comported themselves with such singular wisdom and propriety that
they were never either heard or talked of,--_which, next to being
universally applauded, should be the object of ambition of all ages,
magistrates, and rulers_.”--_Irving._ Here the clause modifies _that
they were never either heard or talked of_. In the sentence,--“His body
was of an oblong form, particularly capacious at bottom; _which was
wisely ordered by Providence, seeing that he was a man of sedentary
habits, and very averse to the idle labor of walking_,” the clause
modifies all of the sentence preceding it.

Sometimes in sentences of this kind the thought to be modified by the
adjective clause is summed up in one noun which is used as a part of
the clause, while the relative pronoun _which_ becomes a relative
adjective modifying the noun; as, “In 1835, Longfellow became Professor
of Modern Languages and Belles Lettres in Harvard University, _which
position_ he held for fourteen years.”

An adjective clause modifying a whole statement is sometimes placed
before that statement instead of after it. The clause is then usually
introduced by the pronoun _what_; as, “_What was worse_, he every week
lost more and more by bad money.”--_Jerrold._

 NOTE.--The adjective clause may modify a noun or pronoun in the
 possessive case; as, “The world is _his who has money to go over
 it_.”--_Emerson._

=Position of the Adjective Clause.=--Usually it follows closely the
word it modifies, but there is a type of sentence in which the clause
modifies the subject and yet comes next to the subjective complement.
The following sentence is an example,--“It was coffee and not wine that
I drank.”--_Howells._ _It_ is here a personal pronoun standing for
_beverage_ and modified by the restrictive adjective clause _that I
drank_. The sentence means,--The beverage that I drank was coffee and
not wine.

Peculiar sentences sometimes arise from this construction; for example,
“It is only birds of prey that fear danger from below more than from
above.” Here the clause modifies the subject _it_, and the sentence
transposed reads, “It that fear danger from below more than from above
is only birds of prey.” This sounds ungrammatical, but it is the
interpretation of the original sentence.

In regard to the position of the connective, it is commonly the
first word in the clause; but when _who_ or _which_ is object of a
preposition, the preposition leads, and sometimes the subject of the
clause precedes the preposition and the relative; thus, “The largest
class of vessels is the full-rigged ship, _the distinctive mark of
which_ is that it has three masts, all square-rigged.” This arrangement
of words arises from the objection that some authors have to using
_whose_ as the possessive of _which_. If _whose_ were substituted
for _of which_ in the sentence above, the clause would read, _whose
distinctive mark is_, etc.

Sometimes the antecedent of a relative pronoun is omitted, especially
if it is a personal pronoun; thus,

                            “Who drove
  Planted both feet upon the leaping share
  To make the furrow deep.”--_E. Arnold._


Exercise 5

Select all adjective clauses in the following sentences. Tell
classification of each clause, what it modifies, its introductory word,
and use of that word (if any) in the clause.

 1. Boy! bring to us the dish the like of which is not found among the
 viands of kings.

 2. How babies will poke those wonderful little fingers of theirs into
 every hole and crack and crevice they can get at.--_Holmes._

 3. Who that sees the meanness of our politics, but inly congratulates
 Washington that he is long already wrapped in his shroud, and forever
 safe.--_Emerson._

 4. Immediately the small son of Shem ran off into the next room,
 whence his voice was heard in rapid chat.--_George Eliot._

 5. The parts and sails of the foremast and mainmast of a ship bear the
 same names as those of the brig.

 6. I said the other day that he had good solid prejudices, which is
 true, and I like him none the worse for it.--_Holmes._

 7. They habitually ascribed every event to the will of the Great
 Being, for whose power nothing was too vast, for whose inspection
 nothing was too minute.--_Macaulay._

 8. Such of these holidays as related to the victories and pride of the
 Republic naturally ended with her fall.--_Howells._

 9.   I live to learn their story
      Who suffered for my sake.--_Banks._

 10. Tennyson began to write tales and verse from the time that he
 could use a pen.

 11. There was a certain very dry land, the people whereof were in sore
 need of water.--_Bellamy._

 12. They have rights who dare maintain them.--_Lowell._

 13. The Greek drama, on the model of which the Samson was written,
 sprang from the Ode.--_Macaulay._

 14. It is hard to realize that our remote ancestors were mere
 barbarians, who by the force of numbers overran the world.--_Lord._

 15. He pretended to pour out some wine, and drank the first glass,
 after which he poured out another for his guest.

 16. There lies before you for your pleasure the spectacle of such
 singular beauty as no picture can ever show you or book tell
 you.--_Howells._

 17.  Who goes that way must take no other horse
      To ride, but Sleipnir, Odin’s horse, alone.--_M. Arnold._

 18. Is there nothing you are acquainted with which they (_clouds_)
 resemble?--_Tyndall._

 19. Is it dark meat or white meat you will be helped to?--_Holmes._

 20. Lady Carbery happened to be down at the seaside, whither my letter
 had been sent after her.--_De Quincey._

 21. Several slaves instantly appeared, whom he ordered to set out the
 table and serve the dinner.

 22.                          The wild thing,
      Living or dead, is his who fetched it down.--_E. Arnold._

 23. Daguerre invented the process of taking daguerreotypes upon
 metallic plates, which invention soon developed into the process of
 taking photographs on paper.

 24. Not one of us, however busy or hard, but once or twice in our
 lives has passed an evening with Goldsmith, and undergone the charm of
 his delightful music.--_Thackeray._

 25. It’s faith in something and enthusiasm for something that makes
 life worth looking at.--_Holmes._

 26.              Who asks does err,
      Who answers, errs; say naught.--_E. Arnold._

 27. It is those who remain indoors, therefore, who are exposed to the
 utmost rigor of the winter.--_Howells._

 28. Soon Stephen went down from the Hoe, and returned in the direction
 whence he had come.--_T. Hardy._

 29. Many times I have come, bearing flowers such as my garden
 grew.--_Holmes._

 30. What is more remarkable considering his century, he is not by any
 means consummate or even eminent as a painter in words.--_Saintsbury._




CHAPTER VI

THE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE, PARTIALLY COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX SENTENCES


1. Study the sentence as to number and kind of propositions, to
determine whether it is simple, partially compound, or complex.
Determine also whether it is declarative, interrogative, or imperative.
Name it according to both structure and form. If it has been rendered
exclamative, state that fact.

2. If the sentence is simple, separate it into its two parts, subject
and predicate.

3. Analyze the subject; that is, separate it into the substantive used
as base-word and the adjuncts of that substantive.

4. Analyze the predicate; that is, separate it into predicate verb,
complement, and modifiers (provided the verb has these adjuncts).

5. If the complement is complex, analyze it by separating it into
base-word and modifiers.

 NOTE.--Do not talk about “complete subject” and “simple subject,”
 neither “logical predicate” and “grammatical predicate.” The subject
 is the subject; the predicate is the predicate. That ends it.

6. If the sentence is complex, containing an adjective clause, proceed
the same as in the analysis of simple sentences, analyzing the clause
last.

7. When the clause is given as an adjunct of some noun, state whether
it is restrictive or unrestrictive, and give its introductory word.

8. If any subject or predicate is partially compound, state that fact
before analyzing it.

Always proceed logically. In analyzing the sentence, “The city editor
laid a clipping from the morning paper on the desk,” do not say that
_from the morning paper_ is a phrase modifying _clipping_. Say instead
that _clipping_ is modified by the prepositional phrase _from the
morning paper_. In other words, get new elements by reaching out from
elements that you already have.

Always proceed from the whole to the part. Do not say that _laid_
is completed by the object _clipping_, for that is only part of the
object. The object is _a clipping from the morning paper_. After giving
this as a unit, or whole, separate it into base-word and modifiers.

Do not analyze a simple prepositional phrase like _on the desk_. It is
a waste of time. If the phrase is complex, that is, contains a phrase,
like _from the morning paper of July first_, it should be analyzed.


Model for Analysis

 The Merced Yosemite was created by the action of five immense
 glaciers, traces of which still exist upon every rock in the
 valley.--_Muir._

 This is a complex declarative sentence.

 The subject is _The Merced Yosemite_. The predicate is _was created by
 the action of five immense glaciers, traces of which still exist upon
 every rock in the valley_.

 The base-word of the subject is the noun _Yosemite_; it is modified by
 the adjective _Merced_ and the article _the_.

 The predicate verb is _was created_; it is modified by the
 prepositional phrase _by the action of five immense glaciers, traces
 of which still exist upon every rock in the valley_.

 The base-word of the object of the preposition _by_ is _action_; it
 is modified by the prepositional phrase _of five immense glaciers,
 traces of which still exist upon every rock in the valley_ and by the
 article _the_. The base-word of the object of the preposition _of_ is
 _glaciers_; it is modified by the adjectives _immense_ and _five_, and
 by the unrestrictive adjective clause _traces of which still exist
 upon every rock in the valley_; this clause is introduced by the
 relative pronoun _which_.

 The subject of the clause is _traces of which_. The predicate is
 _still exist upon every rock in the valley_.

 The base-word of the subject is the noun _traces_. It is modified by
 the prepositional phrase _of which_.

 The predicate verb is _exist_; it is modified by the adverb _still_
 and the prepositional phrase _upon every rock in the valley_. The
 base-word of the object of the preposition _upon_ is _rock_; it is
 modified by the adjective _every_ and the prepositional phrase _in the
 valley_.


Exercise 6

Analyze the following sentences. If the analysis is written, take
pains to arrange it well on paper. Divide it into paragraphs. Either
underline or enclose in quotation marks all words quoted from the
sentence. Use abbreviations. Do not write out elements in full if they
consist of more than two words. Instead write the first and last words
with a dash between them.

 1. Fear is a wonderful goad to remorse.--_H. H._

 2. A part of the citizens seceded from the main body, and formed a
 separate community on the neighboring marshes.--_Prescott._

 3. He is great who confers the most benefits.--_Emerson._

 4. After two hours’ march the cortege stopped at the end of the quay,
 where the Prince de Joinville had stationed himself at the head of the
 officers of the three French ships of war.--_Thackeray._

 5. How many men and women perform their daily tasks from the
 highest motives alone--for the glory of God and the relief of man’s
 estate?--_C. W. Eliot._

 6. No one is useless in this world who lightens the burden of it for
 another.--_Dickens._

 7. He lifted his enormous ears, gave a short trumpet, and for an
 instant wavered in his determination whether to attack or fly.--_Sir
 Samuel Baker._

 8. Simplicity must be the first element of literary art.--_Higginson._

 9. I touched him on the shoulder, at which he collared me and nearly
 knocked me down.--_Miss Mulock._

 10. Those were the days when a man could hold three small livings,
 starve a curate apiece on two of them, and live badly himself on the
 third.--_George Eliot._

 11. A woman kept the summer school, sharp, precise, unsympathetic,
 keen and untiring.--_Beecher._

 12. I hold our actual knowledge very cheap.--_Emerson._

  13. Then saunter down that terrace whence the sea
      All fair with wing-like sails you may discern.

  --_Jean Ingelow._

 14. Man hath no fate except past days.--_E. Arnold._

 15. How few men in all the pride of culture can emulate the easy grace
 of a bright woman’s letter!--_Higginson._

 16. And, what is notable, in no time whatever can they entirely
 eradicate out of living men’s hearts a certain altogether peculiar
 reverence for Great Men.--_Carlyle._




CHAPTER VII

THE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE


=Function.=--The substantive clause is one that performs some office
of a noun. It is not a mere substitute for a noun, however, used for
the sake of variety. On the contrary, it is seldom possible to change
a noun clause to a noun, and just because there is no equivalent
noun in the language. In the sentence,--“I fear that he will come,”
it would appear at first thought that the noun clause, _that he will
come_, might be changed to _his coming_, but this would change the
meaning; for the clause implies that his coming is not expected with
any certainty, while the expression _his coming_ implies that it is so
expected. Every time, in fact, that a noun clause is used, it serves a
distinct purpose, and it is safe to assume that in a well-constructed
sentence no other element would answer so well. Let us discover some of
these purposes.

In the following sentence from Burroughs,--“To what extent the birds
or animals can foretell the weather is uncertain,” we have predicated
something not of a person, place, or thing, that could be named by a
noun, but of a _thought_, the statement of that thought telling us of
an agent and an activity performed by that agent. Hence, by means of
the noun clause we can make predications of thoughts instead of things.

In the sentences,--

“Now one codicil in my general law of freedom had been that my
seventeenth birthday should not find me at school”; and, “The
consequence is, that the seven, or nine, or fourteen lines have a
marvellous aptitude at knotting themselves up beyond the reach of
skill and patience,”--we are enabled by means of noun clauses to tell
what the codicil and the consequences are. We might give a general
definition of such nouns by means of other nouns, but to tell what this
special codicil and what this special consequence are there is no other
way than by the use of the noun clause. Hence, by means of the noun
clause, we can make certain predications that could be made in no other
way.

In the sentence,--

“Whatever ornaments she wears are of massive gold,”--we have made a
predication of certain ornaments; but instead of enumerating them in a
long list we have designated them by means of a noun clause, brief but
more comprehensive than any list could be. Hence, a noun clause may be
used to designate things when we have no names for them, or wish to
withhold the names, or find it awkward to use them.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Uses of the Substantive Clause.=--As a sentence-element it has most of
the important uses of the noun.

1. Subject of a verb,--“_What is true of individual men_ is true also
of races.”--_Lowell._ Frequently, for the sake of a more pleasing
arrangement, the anticipative subject _it_ is used, and the real
subject, a noun clause, is placed after the predicate,--“_It_ matters
little _what virtues a man has_, if he is habitually inexact.”

A common type of sentence, similar to this, is one in which the
anticipative subject is followed by the verb _is_, next by an adverb,
or a phrase, or a clause, and then by the real subject; for example,
“It is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse with superior
minds.” If we say, “It is chiefly through books,” the question at once
arises, “What is chiefly through books?” The answer is, “the fact that
we enjoy intercourse with superior minds.” Transposing the sentence,
we have,--“That we enjoy intercourse with superior minds is chiefly
through books,” the verb is being employed in the sense of _happens_ or
_is true_.

 NOTE.--In the following sentences from Robert Louis Stevenson it is
 interesting to observe how such a sentence as the one just described
 comes about:

 “In the midst of this Babylon I found myself a rallying point; every
 one was anxious to be kind and helpful to the stranger. This was not
 merely from the natural hospitality of mountain people, nor even from
 the surprise with which I was regarded as a man living of his own free
 will in Le Monastier, when he might just as well have lived anywhere
 else in this big world.”

 It is evident that the pronominal adjective _this_, which is subject
 in the second sentence, stands for the second proposition in the
 preceding sentence. How easily might the following sentence have been
 made,--“It was not merely from the natural hospitality of mountain
 people that every one was anxious to be kind and helpful to the
 stranger.”

This type of sentence must be carefully distinguished from one given
in the lesson on adjective clauses; for example, “It is the universal
nature which gives worth to particular men and things.”--_Emerson._

2. Object of a verb,--“It is hard to believe _that we shall
get any good from exercise proportionate to the sacrifice of
time_.”--_Hamerton._ This is the commonest use of the noun clause.
Many of the verbs that take clauses for objects denote action of
the senses, the mind, or the emotions,--as _feel_, _see_, _hear_;
_believe_, _think_, _know_; _desire_, _hope_, _fear_. The clause is
very useful after such verbs, for instance, after _see_; for besides
seeing objects we see those objects performing actions or existing in
certain states, and often the only way to tell this is by means of the
noun clause. Often, too, it would be impossible to particularize what
we believe, or think, or hope, or imagine, or dream, without the aid of
a noun clause.

When verbs that take a direct and an indirect object are changed to the
passive form in such a way that the indirect object becomes subject, we
find the direct object remaining after the passive verb.

Active.--“He told me that the tide was rising.”

Passive.--“I was told that the tide was rising.”

In the second sentence the clause is object of the verb _was told_.

3. Objective complement.--“Understanding, that is, equilibrium of
mind, intellectual good digestion,--this with unclogged biliary ducts,
makes the Saxon mentally and physically _what we call a very fixed
fact_.”--_Lowell._ Here the clause helps to complete the verb _makes_
and at the same time tells us something about the direct object _Saxon_.

4. Object of a preposition.--“How utterly powerless are our senses
to take any measure or impression of the actual grandeur of _what we
see_.”--_King._ A noun clause so used is not always at first sight
easily distinguished from an adjective clause whose first word is
a preposition, but there are several points of difference. In the
adjective clause the preposition is a necessary part of the clause,
governing some word in the objective case, and its position may be
shifted to the end of the clause. The noun clause used as object of a
preposition is generally introduced by the word _what_, which does not
introduce adjective clauses.

The preposition governing a noun clause is frequently omitted.

(_a_) After the adjectives _aware_, _certain_, _glad_, _sure_,
_positive_, etc., especially when used as predicate adjectives,--“When
you saw a lad with that book on the desk before him, you might be
_sure_, without asking, _that he had deserved the master’s approval in
some way_.”--_Annie Preston._

If a noun were used instead of a clause after _sure_, it would be
introduced by a preposition; but it is English usage to dispense with
the preposition when we use a clause, though the clause certainly
answers the same question as the noun, viz., _sure of what_? In
disposing of a clause so used, say that it is brought in by the
adjective without the help of a preposition, or supply the preposition,
or supply the phrase _of the fact_, disposing of the clause as an
appositive of the noun _fact_.

(_b_) After such predicates as _is determined_, _is convinced_, _is
resolved_, etc.--“I am convinced _that every spring a large number of
birds which have survived the southern campaign return to their old
haunts to breed_.”--_Burroughs._

(_c_) _After_ the verbs _assure_ and _warn_,--“You very soon assure
yourself _that such springs are also fed by rain_.”--_Tyndall._

“He immediately discharged two muskets into the darkness, to warn the
enemy _that he knew of their presence and intention_.”

(_d_) After some nouns like _doubt_, _assurance_, _evidence_,
etc.--“Cæsar saw no evidence _that the gods practically interfered in
human affairs_.”--_Froude._

5. In apposition.--“We look not to the question _whether a man have
or have not children to be benefited by the education for which he
pays_.”--_Webster._ Here the clause makes definite the word _question_,
a noun of wide application.

We occasionally come across sentences constructed like the
following,--“What a man does, that he has.”--_Emerson._ The meaning
is,--“A man has what he does,” the noun clause _what he does_ being
object of the verb _has_. But in the original sentence the pronominal
_that_ is object of _has_, and this indefinite object is explained by
the noun clause _what a man does_, which is therefore to be called an
appositive. Such an arrangement arises from a desire to make the clause
prominent and also to hold the main thought in suspense until the end
of the sentence.

6. Subjective complement.--“In fact, the only difference between one of
these ice streams and an ordinary river is, _that the former moves very
slowly_.”

       *       *       *       *       *

=Introductory Word.=--The substantive clause may be introduced by--

1. The relative pronouns, _what_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_, _who_,
_whoever_, _whoso_, _whosoever_, _which_, _whichever_. When introducing
noun clauses none of these words have an antecedent, hence it might be
more precise to call them merely pronouns. Their office is more than an
introductory one, for they have a function within the noun clause, just
as relative pronouns have within adjective clauses.--“I wondered _who
the priest was that_ _wore it_.”--_Howells._ Here the pronoun _who_ is
the subjective complement of the verb was in the clause.

2. The adjectives _what_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_, _which_,
_whichever_, _whichsoever_. These are indefinite limiting
adjectives.--Tell me _what time it is_.

3. The words _if_, _that_, _whether_. These are ordinarily
subordinating conjunctions, but when introducing noun clauses they
should not be considered connectives at all; for a subject does
not need to be connected to its predicate, nor a complement to the
verb it completes, nor an appositive to the noun it explains. These
introductory words serve rather to put the clause into shape, to make
it appear as a subordinate part of the sentence.--“‘I wonder _if his
heart is any softer_,’ thought the Fox.”--_Froude._ “The truth now
flashed upon me _that my companion was a schoolmaster_.”--_Lamb._

The introductory _that_ is sometimes understood.--“It is true _all
things have two faces, a light one and a dark_.”--_Carlyle._

_Whether_ usually takes _or_ as a correlative,--“Chaucer did not waste
time in considering _whether his age were good or bad_.”--_Lowell._

4. Conjunctive adverbs, like _where_, _when_, _how_, _why_. These words
always modify some word in the clause.--“We need not say _how much we
admire his public conduct_.”--_Macaulay._ _How_ modifies the adverb
_much_.

5. _But_ or _but that_, being equivalent to _that not_.--“‘Who knows
_but in the end I may turn into a dog_?’ said the Fox.”--_Froude._

       *       *       *       *       *

=“There” used as an Anticipative Subject.=--We have already spoken
of the anticipative subject _it_, whose office is to throw the real
subject after the predicate verb. Another word used in the same
way is _there_; for example, “_There_ is no good reason for a bad
action.”--_Spurgeon._

This word is not the adverb _there_, for it conveys no idea whatever.
It does nothing at all for the meaning of the sentence, as is shown by
our slighting it in reading.

After the anticipative subject _there_ the real subject is almost
always a noun with modifiers, but it may be a noun clause; for
example,--“No, indeed, there is no wonder _that God loved the
world_.”--_Phillips Brooks._

The verb in these sentences is usually some form of the verb _be_. It
is not the copula so often as it is the complete intransitive verb
_be_, meaning _exist_. In the sentence,--“There are many kinds of sea
fowl that feed on fish and build their nests on the sea coast,” the
entire predicate is the verb _are_.

When the verb is a copula it is often completed by a prepositional
phrase denoting an attribute of the subject. For example, “There is not
a crevice in it where anything green can lodge and grow.”--_King._ Here
the predicate is _is in it_.

Other intransitive verbs are occasionally found after _there_,
as in the sentence, “There _came_ to the beach a poor exile of
Erin.”--_Campbell._


Exercise 7

Select noun clauses in the following sentences, telling the use of
each, its introductory word, and use of that word in the clause, if it
has any.

 1. People are always cheating themselves with the idea that they would
 do this or that desirable thing, if they only had time.

 2. My notion is that you should let me go, and give me a lamb or goose
 or two every month, and then I could live without stealing.--_Froude._

 3. He was desirous that the people should think for themselves as well
 as tax themselves.--_Macaulay._

 4. Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well.

 5. I’m very certain there was nothing about him that could
 spoil.--_Jerrold._

 6. The Reverend Amos Barton did not come to Shepperton until long
 after Mr. Gilfil had departed this life.--_George Eliot._

 7. I think it does not matter just when I came to Venice.--_Howells._

 8. We charge him with having broken his coronation oath; and we are
 told that he kept his marriage vow.--_Macaulay._

 9. The worst of a modern stylish mansion is, that it has no place for
 ghosts.--_Holmes._

 10. It is with lent money that all evil is mainly done, and all unjust
 war protracted.--_Ruskin._

 11. The poor man humbly assured him that he meant no harm, but merely
 came there in search of some of his neighbors, who used to keep about
 the tavern.--_Irving._

 12. I need not say that in real sound stupidity the English are
 unrivaled.--_Bagehot._

 13. What his violins were to Stradivarius, and his fresco to
 Leonardo, and his campaigns to Napoleon, that was his history to
 Macaulay.--_Trevelyan._

 14. It is by his poetry that Milton is best known; and it is of his
 poetry that we first wish to speak.--_Macaulay._

 15. Shall I care about how they criticise the outside of my
 life?--_Phillips Brooks._

 16. The next half hour, at most, would decide the question of
 whether he would or would not get up from his bed and leave the
 room.--_Collins._

 17. So, what was contentment in the slave became philanthropy in the
 emperor.--_Lord._

 18. They showed no reverence except that they did not talk or laugh
 loudly.--_Besant._

 19. We are convinced that the measure was most injurious to the cause
 of freedom.--_Macaulay._

 20. We must not wonder that the outside of books is so different,
 when the inner nature of those for whom they are written is so
 changed.--_Bagehot._

 21. Now, what puzzles me is, that anybody, old or young, should forget
 this,--that the path of life leads to something.--_Munger._

 22. I can say to you what I cannot first say to myself.--_Emerson._

 23. They were compelled to choose whether they would trust a tyrant or
 conquer him.--_Macaulay._

 24. The reason why so few good books are written is, that so few
 people that can write know anything.--_Bagehot._

 25. Men are what their mothers made them.--_Emerson._




CHAPTER VIII

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES CONTAINING NOUN CLAUSES


It is most convenient to analyze the noun clause last, even if it
is the subject of the sentence. As soon as the clause is mentioned,
however, as a sentence-element, its introductory word should be given.
Clauses within the noun clause should be disposed of after the rest of
the noun clause has been analyzed.

A direct quotation is frequently introduced into a sentence to
fulfill the office of a noun clause. In structure and form it is like
an independent proposition, but in function it is subordinate; for
example, “The first and last and closest trial question to any living
creature is, “_What do you like?_”--_Ruskin._

Notice that this sentence is declarative though the quotation is
interrogative.


Exercise 8

Analyze the following sentences:--

 1. Whoever has common sense and a sound heart has the power by which
 Whittier may be appreciated.--_Masson._

 2. It is remarkable how closely the history of the apple-tree is
 connected with that of man.--_Thoreau._

 3. We were welcomed to a Highlander’s home and told where we could
 fish to advantage from three o’clock till dark.--_Bolles._

 4. The announcement that for centuries the tropical forests of Central
 America have hidden within their tangled growth the ruined homes and
 temples of a past race, stirs the civilized world with a strange, deep
 wonder.--_Agassiz._

 5. I was quite determined that the old set of singers should be
 dismissed.--_George Eliot._

 6. It was within the dingy walls of this little potentate’s imperial
 palace that I chose my country residence.--_Longfellow._

 7. Universal History, the history of what man has accomplished in
 this world, is at bottom the History of the Great Men who have worked
 here.--_Carlyle._

 8. The question of common-sense is always, what is it good for?--a
 question which would abolish the rose and be answered triumphantly by
 the cabbage.--_Lowell._

 9. Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must remember the Kaatskill
 mountains.--_Irving._

 10. I am told that one of the most reliable weather signs they have
 down in Texas is afforded by the ants.--_Burroughs._

 11. “It is only the love of all humanity that can keep from
 bitterness,” said Brian.

 12. I left my own garden yesterday, and went over to where Polly was
 getting the weeds out of one of her flower-beds.--_Warner._

 13. “Now tread we a measure!” said young Lochinvar.--_Scott._

 14. Whoever allies himself with God is armed with all the forces of
 the invisible world.--_J. F. Clarke._

 15. Boom is not a nice place, and is only remarkable for one thing:
 that the majority of the inhabitants have a private opinion that they
 can speak English, which is not justified by fact.--_Stevenson._

 16. I do not doubt but that many of you came unwillingly
 to-night.--_Ruskin._

 17. With nature and God one law is inexorable--he who disuses or
 misuses a faculty must lose it.--_Hillis._

 18. It is by little things that we know ourselves.--_Holmes._

 19. I felt in every fibre that this woodman invariably cheated me in
 measurement.--_Howells._

  20. “How happy,” exclaimed this child of air,
      “Are the holy spirits who wander there,
      Mid flowers that never shall fade or fall!”--_Moore._




CHAPTER IX

THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME


=Function.=--All actions or events can be referred to some time--past,
present, or future. Frequently the whole significance of an event
depends upon either the time of its occurrence or its duration; hence
it is often desirable and sometimes necessary to tell the time when
an action takes place or state the period of its continuance. We may
do this by means of single words, like _then_, _now_, _tomorrow_,
_forever_, or by phrases, like _a long time ago_, _at the present day_,
_before supper_, _till the end of the world_. Frequently, however, we
wish to fix the time of one activity with relation to the time of some
other activity. To do this we usually employ a proposition in the form
of a temporal clause; for example,

  “The British soldier trembles
  When Marion’s name is told.”--_Bryant._

Here the action of trembling is said to take place at the time of
another action, the telling of Marion’s name. Notice that from this
sentence we get double information, (1) that two actions occur
simultaneously, (2) that one is the cause of the other.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Introductory Word.=--All time clauses are introduced by some word
which in itself denotes time, and which is chosen because of the
special meaning attached to it. This word subordinates the clause
to the principal proposition, and connects it to that part of the
principal proposition which the clause modifies. Most grammarians say
that this connective is a conjunctive adverb, and that it not only
connects the two propositions but also modifies the verb in the clause.
To us its grammatical office seems to be that of a mere connective,
hence we call it a subordinating conjunction of time. The several
conjunctions of this class can best be studied in sentences containing
them.

1. “_When a prisoner first leaves his cell_, he cannot bear the light
of day.”--_Macaulay._ Here _when_ is chosen in order that the sentence
may signify that the two actions occur at the same time.

_Then_ in the principal proposition is sometimes used as a correlative
of _when_ in the clause. _Then_ is not a necessary word, but if the
clause is long, _then_ is useful in informing the reader that the
principal proposition is about to begin.

2. “Man should forget his anger _before he lies down to sleep_.”--_De
Quincey._ _Before_ (sometimes _ere_) makes a sentence signify that the
main action occurs in time previous to the time of the action expressed
in the clause.

3. “_After I had learned to row in the gondolier fashion_, I voyaged
much in the lagoon with my boat.”--_Howells._ _After_ makes the
sentence signify that the main action occurred later than the action in
the clause.

Sentences in which temporal clauses are introduced by _when_, _before_,
_ere_, or _after_, only establish for us the proper relation between
two points of time; viz., that one point coincides with another,
is antecedent to it, or subsequent to it. If we wish to denote the
duration of a state or an activity, we introduce the temporal clause by
_while_, _since_, _till_, or _until_.

4. “_While they sat at dinner_, a great fire of sunset spread over the
west.”--_Black._ _While_ signifies _during the time that_.

5. “_Since you were at Oulton_, my wife has been growing
worse and worse in health, and more and more eccentric and
crotchety.”--_Shorthouse._ _Since_ signifies _from the time that_.

6. “_Till men have been some time free_, they know not how to use their
freedom.”--_Macaulay._ _Till_ signifies _up to the time that_.

7. If we wish to be exact about the time that something begins, we
introduce the temporal clause by the phrase _as soon as_, or _soon
as_, which phrase may be considered one connective,--“_As soon as it
is convenient to_ you, I shall be glad for you to leave this sombre
place.”--_Shorthouse._

8. _As_ is frequently used either for _when_ or for _while_.

  “The boat had touched the silver strand,
  Just _as the hunter left his stand_.”--_Scott._

9. If we wish to state exactly when something ends, we introduce the
temporal clause by _as long as_, or _so long as_,--“_So long as men
had slender means, whether of keeping out cold or checkmating it with
artificial heat_, Winter was an unwelcome guest, especially in the
country.”--_Lowell._

10. _Whenever_ means _at any time that_,--

  “Yet _whenever I cross the river,
      On its bridge with wooden piers_,
  Like the odor of brine from the ocean
      Comes the thought of other years.”--_Longfellow._

11. Clauses introduced by _now that_ denote both time and cause, and
it is often difficult to determine which of the two ideas is more
prominent. In the sentence,--“What do you think of your home _now that
you see it_?”--_Black_, there is certainly more of time than of cause,
for if the verb in the principal proposition were changed from the
present tense to either past or future, _when_ would be substituted for
_now that_.

       *       *       *       *       *

=What the Time Clause modifies.=--Since we use a time clause to
tell (1) when a state exists or when an activity is performed, (2)
the duration of an activity or a state, it is clear that the clause
modifies a word denoting state or action, namely, a verb. Usually
it modifies a predicate verb, but it may modify the verbals, either
infinitives or participles.

It must be noted here that modifiers vary in their closeness to the
word modified; and therefore in analyzing sentences modifiers should be
given, not in the order of their position, but in the order of their
closeness. In the sentence,--“One night, shortly after the coldest
weather set in, he lost his oar as he was returning to the island,” the
verb _lost_ is modified by three elements denoting time, (1) _as he
was returning to the island_, (2) _one night_, (3) _shortly after the
coldest weather set in_.

 NOTE.--In the sentence just quoted, the connective _after_ is preceded
 by the adverb _shortly_, which is put into the sentence to tell how
 long after the coldest weather set in, hence it is a modifier of
 the whole clause. Other adverbial clauses than those of time may be
 modified in this way; for example, The Puritans espoused the cause of
 civil liberty _mainly_ because it was the cause of religion.

It is interesting and instructive to note that other ideas may be
associated with that of time in a temporal clause. A clause introduced
by _until_ sometimes denotes result as well as time.--“Skirts grew more
and more bulbous _until it did not need more than three or four women
to make a good-sized assembly_.”--_Warner._

A clause introduced by _since_ may denote time and cause.--“_Since I
have begun to examine these expressive little brutes_, I have made many
profound observations.”--_H. James._

A clause introduced by _when_ may denote time and condition.--“_When
the eyes say one thing and the tongue another_, a practiced man relies
on the language of the first.”--_Emerson._


Exercise 9

Select temporal clauses in the following sentences, telling what each
clause modifies and what it denotes, also its connective.

 1. Hero worship endures forever while man endures.--_Carlyle._

 2. Almost as soon as I entered the house, I singled you out as the
 companion of my future life.--_Jane Austen._

 3. When the need of such an institution as Feudalism no longer
 existed, then it was broken up.--_Lord._

 4. Book in hand, he followed the service with one eye, while he
 admonished perpetually the boys to keep still and to listen.--_Besant._

 5. It absolutely startles me now he is in my mind, to find how plainly
 I see him.--_Collins._

 6. Their young men cut neither hair nor beard till they had slain an
 enemy.--_Motley._

 7.   We two had been since morn
          Began her tender tunes to beat
          Upon the May leaves young and sweet,
      Together, planting corn.--_Alice Cary._

 8. Life is not always hard, even after backs grow bent.--_Barrie._

 9. Respect for woman was born in the German forests before the Roman
 empire fell.--_Lord._

 10. As the day advanced, the wind veered round to the north-east and
 settled itself down to work.--_Aldrich._

 11. When you’ve got a man thoroughly civilized you cannot do anything
 more with him.--_Warner._

 12. Now that her father was taken from her, she nestled to Graham, and
 seemed to feel by his feelings, to exist in his existence.--_Brontë._

 13. Even when they fail they are entitled to praise.--_Macaulay._

 14. The house keeper waited until the sobs changed to the regular
 breathing of sleep before she stole out.--_Kipling._

 15. Until a man can truly enjoy a draught of clear water bubbling from
 a mountain-side, his taste is in an unwholesome state.--_F. Harrison._




CHAPTER X

THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PLACE


=Function.=--Just as all events occur at some time, so do they also
occur in some place. We have not many adverbs of place in English, and
few of these are very definite; for example, _here_, _there_, _yonder_,
_somewhere_, _anywhere_, _hither_, _thither_, _up_, _down_, _in_. Hence
we usually tell place by means of prepositional phrases, and we have
many prepositions of place, such as _above_, _across_, _along_, _amid_,
_among_, _around_, _at_, _before_, _behind_, _below_, _beneath_,
_beside_, _between_, _beyond_, _in_, _on_, _over_, _up_. The value
of the prepositional phrase denoting place is seen in the following
sentence from Longfellow, which contains three such phrases:

“It stood upon the brink of a little glassy pool whose tranquil bosom
was the image of a quiet and secluded life, and stretched its parental
arms over a rustic bench that had been constructed beneath it for the
accommodation of the foot traveler, or, perchance, some idle dreamer
like myself.”

But the prepositional phrase will not always serve our turn, for
sometimes we wish to denote a certain place by telling what happens
there, and to do this it is usually best to employ a proposition. This
gives rise to the adverbial local clause. In the following sentence
from Lowell,--

        “Where today the martyr stands,
  On the morrow crouches Judas with the silver in his hands,”

in order to tell the place where Judas crouches, the poet tells what
happens in that place, namely, that it is the place where today the
martyr stands.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Introductory Word.=--The local clause is introduced by the
subordinating conjunctions of place, _where_, _wherever_, _whence_,
_whither_, _whencesoever_, _whithersoever_. _Whither_ conveys the idea
of action going _toward_ a place, and _whence_ of action proceeding
_from_ a place. These two conjunctions and their compounds as well are
not often used by modern writers.

_Wherever_ means _in any place_; as, “Wherever the Anglo-Saxon race
goes, there law, industry, and safety for life and property are certain
to arise.”--_Dickens._

Just as _when_ in a temporal clause often takes the correlative _then_,
so _where_ or _wherever_ in a local clause is often accompanied by
_there_ in the principal proposition, as in the sentence just quoted.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Peculiarities of the Local Clause.=--Often a local clause denotes
condition as well as place; for example, “Wherever money is the
principal object of life with either man or nation, it is both got ill
and spent ill.”--_Ruskin._

Sometimes the idea of time exists along with that of place; for
example, “Where one person is really interested by music, twenty are
pleased by good reading.”--_Hart._

The adverbial clause of place is not common, and yet we frequently
meet clauses introduced by _where_, _whence_, etc. Most of these are
adjective clauses, and as such they have two uses, as may be seen in
the following typical sentences:

(1) “Being newly from a land _where everything, morally and materially,
was in good repair_, I rioted sentimentally on the picturesque ruin,
the pleasant discomfort and hopelessness of everything about me
here.”--_Howells._ The clause here is restrictive, used to point out a
certain land, and _where_ is equivalent to _in which_.

(2) “Dr. Livingstone, a Scotchman, spent many years in exploring
Central Africa, _where he finally perished_.”--Here the clause is
equivalent in meaning to an independent proposition, _where_ meaning
_and there_, but nevertheless it has the structure of a dependent
proposition.


Exercise 10

Select local clauses in the following sentences, telling what each
clause modifies, what it denotes, and its connective:

 1. We knew that we were standing at a time of high and palmy
 prosperity, where he had stood in the hour of utmost peril; that
 we saw nothing but liberty and security where he had met the frown
 of power; that we were enjoying everything where he had hazarded
 everything.--_Webster._

 2.    Where’er a human heart doth wear
       Joy’s myrtle wreath or sorrow’s gyves,
       Where’er a human spirit strives
       After a life more true and fair,
       There is the true man’s birthplace grand.--_Lowell._

 3. Descending, I went wandering whither chance might lead, in a still
 ecstasy of freedom and enjoyment.--_Brontë._

 4. Wheresoever a thinker appeared, there in the thing he thought of
 was a contribution, accession, a change or revolution made.--_Carlyle._

 5. Where boat conveyance along rivers could not be had,
 pack-horses and mules were resorted to for the transportation of
 merchandise.--_Draper._

 6. Coal is the means of transporting itself whithersoever it is
 wanted.--_Emerson._

 7. Hendry had a way of resuming the conversation where he had left off
 the night before.--_Barrie._

 8. He was a soldier of fortune, and had fought wherever the Roman
 eagles flew.--_Motley._

 9. He discerned her not there where she stood.--_Carlyle._

 10. Beginning where it empties itself into the sea, and following it
 backwards, we find it from time to time joined by tributaries which
 swell its waters.--_Tyndall._

 11. Where there is no honest poverty, where education is diffused
 and political intelligence is common, it is easy for the mass of the
 people to elect a fair legislature.--_Bagehot._

 12. Why did we stay here, where there is no shelter and no
 anchorage?--_Black._




CHAPTER XI

THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF MANNER


=Function.=--A common question in regard to activities is _how?_ This
is oftenest answered by means of an adverb or a prepositional phrase;
as, sew _neatly_, study _diligently_, go _with dispatch_. But it is
to be noticed that these elements tell how in an absolute way with
no reference to a fixed standard, and are capable of many degrees
of interpretation, for people’s notions of neatness, diligence, and
dispatch differ.

Adverbs and prepositional phrases are unsatisfactory in another respect
also;--the manner of an action can seldom be characterized by one term,
so unless we wish to call attention to only one characteristic, we must
employ several terms, or leave the action incompletely described. But
if we use a clause we may tell exactly how an action is performed by
comparing it with some other action familiar and understood, which it
more or less precisely resembles; for example, “Sing out, children, _as
the little thrushes do_.”--_Mrs. Browning._ Here the clause conveys
one clear and definite impression to all who have heard the thrushes
sing, an impression that it would take a whole list of adverbs to
convey, like _sweetly_, _joyfully_, _thrillingly_, _spontaneously_; but
how like a catalogue these sound, and how little they appeal to the
imagination.

Frequently a mental action, an action of the emotions or of the
will, or something else not immediately intelligible, is made clear
by comparing it with something material, something evident to the
senses. In such sentences we find the familiar figure of speech
called _simile_; thus, “Poetry produces an illusion on the eye of
the mind, _as a magic lantern produces an illusion on the eye of the
body_.”--_Macaulay._ Here the clause of manner modifies the entire
predicate of the principal proposition.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Introductory Word.=--The ordinary connective of the modal clause is
the subordinating conjunction _as_, though its place is sometimes
taken by _as if_ or _as though_, both of which expressions it is best
to consider one conjunction. In the sentence,

  “The maiden paused as if again
  _She thought to catch that distant strain_,”

the clause conveys an idea of purpose in the maiden’s pausing as well
as an idea of manner. This clause may be expanded to read _as she would
pause if again she thought to catch that distant strain_, where the
clause of manner contains a clause of condition.

A clause introduced by _as though_ cannot be so expanded. “I will
invest your money _as though it were my own_,” cannot be made to
read--“I will invest your money as I would invest it though it were
my own.” This is proof that the clause has been thought of only as a
clause of manner, and _as though_ as only one connective.

Notice that when a modal clause is introduced by _as if_ or _as
though_, the action or state in the clause is represented not as real
but only as assumed.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Position of the Modal Clause.=--The usual position of a clause of
manner is after the predicate it modifies, but sometimes it precedes
the principal proposition and is made emphatic by the adverb _just_,
_even_, or _precisely_, used as a clause modifier; thus, “_Just as
we estimate the importance of a river--not by its length nor by its
breadth, but by the amount of water it contributes to the ocean_--so we
estimate the size of a city by the number of people it contains.”

When the clause is long and comes first, the principal proposition is
often introduced by _so_, a correlative of _as_ in the clause; as in
the example above.


Exercise 11

Select the adverbial clauses of manner, telling what each clause
modifies, and its connective.

 1. These poems differ from others as attar of roses differs from
 ordinary rose-water.--_Macaulay._

 2. The beggars and the wretcheder poor keep themselves warm, I
 think, by sultry recollections of summer, as Don Quixote proposed
 to subsist upon savory remembrances, during one of his periods of
 fast.--_Howells._

 3. The stars all seemed brighter than usual, as if the wind blew them
 up like burning coals.--_Burroughs._

 4.    And ever with the years
     Waxed this compassionateness of our Lord
     Even as a great tree grows from two soft leaves,
     To spread its shade afar.--_E. Arnold._

 5. And as the piety of Noah could not save the antediluvian empires,
 as the faith of Abraham could not convert idolatrous nations, as
 the wisdom of Moses could not prevent the sensualism of emancipated
 slaves, so the lofty philosophy of Aurelius could not save the empire
 which he ruled.--_Lord._

 6. The foreign merchants, manufacturers, and artisans fled from her
 gates as if the plague were raging within them.--_Motley._

 7. The Creole neighbors rushed bareheaded into the middle of
 the street, as though there were an earthquake or a chimney on
 fire.--_Cable._

 8. For, as there is a curiosity about intellectual matters which is
 futile and merely a disease, so there is certainly a curiosity which
 is, in an intelligent being, natural and laudable.--_M. Arnold._

 9. Dislike at first sight is more common than love, as discord is more
 common than harmony.--_A. S. Hardy._

 10. The will has great though indirect power over the taste, just as
 it has over the belief.--_Bagehot._




CHAPTER XII

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES


We are now ready to analyze sentences containing adjective clauses,
noun clauses, and adverbial clauses of time, place, and manner.

It frequently happens that there is a clause within a clause. The first
clause is then to be treated as if it were a complex sentence, and
the second clause analyzed when the rest of the first clause has been
disposed of. In the sentence,--“He felt as if he would like to stay
till every ship that had sailed out of Monterey in the last three years
had returned,” the predicate contains a clause of manner introduced by
_as if_ and extending to the end of the sentence. In this modal clause
the infinitive _to stay_ is modified by a temporal clause introduced
by _till_ and extending to the end of the sentence. In this temporal
clause the base-word of the subject, _ship_, is modified by the
restrictive adjective clause introduced by the relative pronoun _that_
and extending through the word _years_. So we have an adjective clause
within a temporal clause which is within a modal clause.


Exercise 12

Analyze the following sentences.

 1. Again Thor struck, so soon as Skrymir again slept.--_Carlyle._

 2.   We’ll go where on the rocky isles
      Her eggs the screaming sea fowl piles
        Beside the pebbly shore.--_Bryant._

 3.    Where’er the impatient Switzers gazed,
       The unbroken line of lances blazed.--_Montgomery._

 4. The poetry of Milton differs from that of Dante, as the
 hieroglyphics of Egypt differed from the picture-writing of
 Mexico.--_Macaulay._

 5. Natural talent and genius tell in elocution, as they do in the
 other arts.

 6. Seventy years elapsed before the papacy was restored to the Eternal
 City.--_Draper._

 7. No instrument of man’s devising can reach the heart as does that
 most wonderful instrument, the human voice.--_Hart._

 8.    But soon a funeral hymn was heard
       Where the soft breath of evening stirred
           The tall, gray forest.--_Longfellow._

 9. Ever since Mr. Hobart’s “eleven and a bit” was left on the kitchen
 bed, Jess had hungered for a cloak with beads.--_Barrie._

 10. I was coming in, one summer night, from a long walk in the
 country, when I met this apparition at the city gate.--_H. James._

 11. People take their literature in morsels, as they take sandwiches
 on a journey.--_Bagehot._

 12. Scarcely was the artillery got into position when a rapid fire was
 opened on it from the tower.

 13. As Venice in winter is the dreariest and gloomiest place in the
 world, so in spring it is the fullest of joy and light.--_Howells._

 14. Where population is sparse, discussion is difficult.

 15. These newspaper fellows are half asleep when they make up their
 reports at two or three o’clock in the morning, and fill out the
 speeches to suit themselves.--_Holmes._

 16. The German built his solitary hut where inclination
 prompted.--_Motley._

 17.   But when the old cathedral bell
         Proclaimed the morning prayer,
       The white pavilions rose and fell
         On the alarmèd air.--_Longfellow._

 18. How fine a thing it would be if all the faculties of the mind
 could be trained for the battles of life as a modern nation makes
 every man a soldier.--_J. L. Allen._

 19. We wish that whosoever, in all coming time, shall turn his eye
 hither, may behold that the place is not undistinguished, where the
 first great battle of the Revolution was fought.--_Webster._

 20. As an oak profits by the foregone lives of immemorial vegetable
 races that have worked over the juices of earth and air into organic
 life out of whose dissolution a soil might gather fit to maintain that
 nobler birth of nature, so we may be sure that the genius of every
 remembered poet drew the forces that built it up out of the decay of a
 long succession of forgotten ones.--_Lowell._




CHAPTER XIII

THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE


=Function.=--In our daily experience we are continually meeting new
conditions, discovering new truths. It is human nature to be curious
as to the causes of these truths and conditions, hence there is
no question perhaps which is asked oftener than the query of the
scientist, the persistent question of the child, _why?_ So common is
this question that in our speech we anticipate its coming and answer
it before it is asked. When we make statements of facts or of our
opinions, we seem to foresee that we shall be asked _why?_ or _how do
you know?_--so along with our principal statement we give a cause or
reason for it.

Sometimes we are able to tell cause or reason by means of a phrase, as,
He trembled _from fright_, The wind must be blowing _by the sound_. But
the usual way is by means of the subordinate proposition; thus, “Peter
the Great caused his heir to be tried and sentenced to death, _because
he was a sot, a liar, and a fool_.”--_Lord._

       *       *       *       *       *

=What the Causal Clause denotes.=--1. It may denote the natural or
physical cause of some physical effect either in nature or in man;
as, “Journeys by individuals could not be undertaken without much
risk, _for there was scarcely a moor or a forest that had not its
highwaymen_.”--_Draper._

This clause answers the question _why?_ One variety of it, often
called a clause of motive, denotes something that determines man’s
choice, something that leads him to pursue a line of action; as, “He
discouraged commerce, not _because it was in itself demoralizing,
but because it brought the Jews too much in contact with corrupt
nations_.”--_Lord._

A clause of motive answers the question _why?_ or _what made him do
it?_ It can be used only to modify a statement about a human being or
perhaps one of the higher animals--something that can act from a motive.

2. The causal clause may denote the cause of our knowledge of a fact,
the evidence from which we draw a conclusion, but not the cause of
the fact itself; as, “The other bird probably grew to maturity,
_as it disappeared from the vicinity with its parents after some
days_.”--_Burroughs._ This clause, sometimes called a clause of reason,
answers the question _how do you know?_ or _what makes you say so?_

Notice that all these causal clauses denote something that was true or
in operation before what is in the principal proposition was true or in
operation. In other words, the causal clause denotes the source from
which something proceeds; the outcome or result is found stated in the
principal proposition.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Connectives.=--The commonest connective of the causal clause is the
subordinating conjunction _because_, but we often find _for_, _as_, or
_since_ used in its place. Sometimes _that_ is used; as, “And we wept
_that one so lovely should have a life so brief_.”--_Bryant._ When for
or because introduces a clause, we know that the clause is causal,
but _as_, _since_, and _that_ may introduce clauses used in other
relations, so the nature of the clause in question must be determined
by its meaning.

There are several phrases that may be used as conjunctions to introduce
causal clauses. These are _seeing that_, _now that_, _considering
that_, _in that_, _inasmuch as_, _forasmuch as_. These phrases should
be considered as one word, having the function of the word _because_.

The connective is often dispensed with entirely when the relation of
cause is very plain; thus, “One man goes four thousand miles to Italy,
and does not see it, _he is so short-sighted_.”--_Curtis._

       *       *       *       *       *

=What the Causal Clause modifies.=--When the verb in the principal
proposition denotes action, the clause modifies the verb, or it may
modify some participle or infinitive denoting action; as, “Work is
a thing done _because it ought to be done, and with a determined
end_.”--_Ruskin._

When the verb is a copula, the clause modifies the verb and its
complement, as the verb has not in itself sufficient meaning to be
modified. In the sentence,--“To John Inglesant, who had always been
devotedly attached to his brother, this display of affection was
delightful, _cut off as he had been so long from all sympathy and
friendliness_,” the clause modifies _was delightful_. In this clause
the position of the subordinating conjunction as is usurped by _cut
off_ in order to give prominence to those words. The clause may be
transposed, however, so that _as_, meaning _because_, comes first.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Position of the Causal Clause.=--Usually the causal clause follows
the principal proposition. When it comes first, being in an unusual
position it becomes more prominent and therefore more impressive, and
the principal proposition is also rendered more forcible by being
placed at the end of the sentence; for example, “_And as they still
continued to multiply_, there came forth the dreadful edict that every
male child of the Hebrews should be destroyed as soon as born.”--_Lord._


Exercise 13

Select causal clauses in the following sentences. Tell what they
denote, what they modify, and specify the connective.

 1. The modern schoolmaster is expected to know a little of everything,
 because his pupil is required not to be entirely ignorant of
 anything.--_Lamb._

 2. If we dilate in beholding the Greek energy, the Roman pride, it is
 that we are already domesticating the same sentiment.--_Emerson._

 3. Vulgarity is an eighth deadly sin, worse than all the others put
 together, since it perils your salvation in this world.--_Lowell._

 4. The top of Blomidon is not the abode of storm winds alone, for two
 houses stand upon it, and the laughter of children rings cheerily
 among the evergreen groves.--_Bolles._

 5. But when I arose, and felt it, and knew it to be a culverin,
 I was somewhat reassured thereby, inasmuch as it was not likely
 that they would plant this engine except in the real and true
 entrance.--_Blackmore._

 6. He is certainly in correspondence with people on the continent, for
 his letters have all sorts of odd stamps on them.--_Collins._

 7. Because you are king of a nation, it does not follow that you are
 to gather for yourself all the wealth of that nation.--_Ruskin._

 9. The waters of Shirwa are brackish to the taste, and undrinkable;
 but the saltness must have a peculiar charm for game, for nowhere
 else in Africa did I see such splendid herds of the larger animals as
 here.--_Drummond._

 10. The fury of the water which surrounds us was marvelous,
 considering that there were no great waves, and no storm to make
 waves.--_Bolles._

 11. And these, now that they had no longer anything to fear from
 their great Italian adversary, commenced partisan warfare on each
 other.--_Draper._

 12. His black coat shines as if it had been polished; and it has been
 polished on the wearer’s back, no doubt, for the arms and other points
 of maximum attrition are particularly smooth and bright.--_Holmes._

 13. As Cæsar found no reason for supposing that there was a life
 beyond the grave, he did not pretend to expect it.--_Froude._

 14. Its discovery by myself and dog probably opened the door
 for ill-luck, as one day, when I peeped in upon it, it was
 empty.--_Burroughs._




CHAPTER XIV

CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND RESULT


The preceding chapter treated of clauses bearing the relation of cause
to the principal proposition and denoting something true or operative
before the thought in the principal proposition was true or operative.
We have now to consider clauses which are the reverse of causal
clauses, namely, _final_ clauses. These denote something that is true
or will be true after what is stated in the principal proposition is
true. In other words, they denote an end or a consequence realized or
to be realized as a result or outcome of the statement in the principal
proposition. According to their relation to the principal proposition,
they may be classified as clauses of _purpose_ and clauses of _result_.

       *       *       *       *       *

=1. The Clause of Purpose.=--The purpose clause denotes an intended
consequence, which is to follow from the action or condition expressed
in the principal proposition; as, “If natural death seemed to be coming
on, they would cut wounds in their flesh, _that Odin might receive them
as warriors slain_.”--_Carlyle._ This sentence shows that the clause of
purpose answers the question _what for?_ and is put into a sentence to
explain or justify the act in the principal proposition.

It is evident that, since a clause of purpose denotes an intended
consequence of an act or condition, that act or condition must be
performed or brought about by some being capable of forming an
intention, hence the principal proposition states something, either
directly or indirectly, about a voluntary act, usually the act of a
human being. This is oftenest stated directly, as in the example above;
but occasionally we find such sentences as the following,--“The door
of Scrooge’s counting-house was open _that he might keep his eye upon
his clerk_.”--_Dickens._ Here the clause by no means denotes the door’s
purpose in being open, but Scrooge’s purpose in keeping it open.

The clause of purpose may be introduced by the conjunctions _that_,
_so that_, _in order that_. The negative purpose clause is introduced
by _lest_ (= _that not_); as, “We must both speak low _lest she should
waken_.”--_Brontë._

The clause of purpose is seldom met, not because the purpose of an
act is seldom told, but because it can usually be told more briefly
by means of the infinitive; thus, “Garrisons were established in the
larger cities _to keep down revolt and to enforce the payment of
tribute_.”

       *       *       *       *       *

=2. The Clause of Result.=--This denotes not an intention but the
consequence of the act or condition expressed in the principal
proposition; as, “The kingly power among the Jews was checked and
hedged by other powers, _so that an overgrown tyranny was difficult and
unusual_.”--_Lord._

The clause of result is often employed to tell the degree of some
quality or attribute, as in the sentence,--“Washington was so rigidly
punctual _that when Hamilton, his secretary, pleaded a slow watch as an
excuse for being five minutes late, he replied, ‘Then, sir, either you
must get a new watch or I must get a new secretary.’_” Here the clause
tells how punctual Washington was, but it does this by telling a result
of his punctuality. Notice that in the first example the clause may be
said to modify the verbs in the principal proposition, _was checked_
and _was hedged_, but in the second sentence it modifies the verb and
its complement, _was so rigidly punctual_.

The clause of result is introduced by _that_, _so that_, or, if both
principal proposition and clause are negative, by _but_ or _but
that_. These connectives except _so that_ are usually associated with
the correlative _so_ or _such_ in the principal proposition. This
correlative modifies an adjective or an adverb, and serves as a hint
that a clause of result is to follow. As an example of a negative
clause of result, we have the following sentence,--“The long, warm days
of summer never return _but they bring with them a gloom_.”--_Lamb._


Exercise 14

Dispose of all final clauses in the following sentences.

 1. The oak chooses the horizontal direction for its limbs so that
 their whole weight may tell,--and then stretches them out fifty
 or sixty feet so that the strain may be mighty enough to be worth
 resisting.--_Holmes._

 2. High forest-clad hills rose on every side, enclosing the river, so
 that its only method of escape was through deep rifts cut into their
 slopes.--_Bolles._

 3. Every pot made by any human potter or brazier had a hole in its
 cover, to let off the enemy, lest he should lift pot and roof, and
 carry the house away.--_Emerson._

 4. Leonardo da Vinci would walk the whole length of Milan
 that he might alter a single tint in his picture of the Last
 Supper.--_Trevelyan._

 5. Is the old Grecian spirit frozen in your veins, that you do
 crouch and cower like a belabored hound beneath his master’s
 lash?--_Kellogg._

 6. I find myself so much like other people that I often wonder at the
 coincidence.--_Holmes._

 7. He wished the other examinations over, that his own might come
 on.--_Shorthouse._

 8. The two young Cratchits crammed spoons into their mouths
 lest they should shriek for goose before their turn came to be
 helped.--_Dickens._

 9. Even to this day they never hear a thunderstorm of a summer
 afternoon about the Kaatskill, but they say Hendrick Hudson and his
 crew are at their game of ninepins.--_Irving._

 10. She had pushed her bonnet entirely off, so that it hung by the
 strings at the back of her neck.--_J. L. Allen._

 11. And even Scrooge was not so dreadfully cut up by the sad event
 but that he was an excellent man of business on the very day of the
 funeral, and solemnized it with an undoubted bargain.--_Dickens._

 12. The new Ranee hated the seven poor Princesses, and wanted to get
 them, if possible, out of the way, in order that her daughter might
 have all their riches.--_Old Deccan Days._


Exercise 15

Analyze the following sentences:

                        These lofty trees
  Wave not less proudly that their ancestors
  Moulder beneath them.--_Bryant._

 2. Dante shows us the punishment of sins against God and one’s
 neighbor in order that we may shun them and so escape the doom that
 awaits them in the other world.--_Lowell._

 3. A man cannot bury his meanings so deep in his books but time and
 like-minded men will find them.--_Emerson._

 4. Among people who submit to great physical suffering that they may
 have themselves handsomely tattooed, extremes of temperature are borne
 with but little attempt at mitigation.--_Spencer._

 5. He is not tempted to levity or impatience, for he does not see the
 joke and is thick-skinned to present evils.--_Bagehot._

 6. We should naturally think that excitement and pleasure and
 knowledge would make people happy, since they stimulate the
 intellectual powers.--_Lord._

 7. Then she dropped her head quickly, so that her own face remained
 hidden, and silently plied her work.--_J. L. Allen._

 8. Their visit was not wholly unexpected, for his house, which fronted
 the street, was strongly barricaded, the wicket gate of the prison
 was closed up, and at no loop hole or grating was any person to be
 seen.--_Dickens._

 9. The larger trees he had girdled and killed in order that their
 foliage should not cast a shade.--_Wm. James._

 10. The Watsons were doubtless rich people, for they had the
 confidence of conscious wealth in their bearing.--_Brontë._

 11. There are actually districts in Africa where _three_ natives
 cannot be sent on a message in case two should combine and sell the
 third before they return.--_Drummond._

 12. Here was one who never resisted any temptation, never had a desire
 but he coddled and pampered it.--_Thackeray._

 13. A man cannot speak but he judges himself.--_Emerson._

 14. For every bucket of water that ye bring to us, that we may pour
 it into the tank, which is the Market, behold! we will give you a
 penny.--_Bellamy._

 15. A ruined man staggers down to ruin because there was not wisdom
 enough in him.--_Carlyle._

 16. Be clean, for the strength of the hunter is known by the gloss of
 his hide.--_Kipling._

 17. He only meant to walk up and down her street, so that she might
 see him from the window, and know that this splendid thing was
 he.--_Barrie._

 18. If we wore prints, instead of summer silks, it was because we
 preferred a washing material.--_Mrs. Gaskell._




CHAPTER XV

THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONDITION


=Function.=--We are seldom able to make unqualified statements, because
few facts are universally true. On the contrary, we must carefully
hedge in our statements by certain restrictions, and a useful means for
doing this is the adverbial clause of condition. For instance, “The
knight ever came to the rescue of a woman in danger or distress,” is a
sweeping statement, and would instantly be disputed unless we add the
conditional clause, “_provided she was a lady_.”

Such a clause is often so important that writers place it at the
beginning of the sentence as if they wished to guard against
contradiction or misunderstanding, by putting their readers at once
into the proper attitude for comprehending their principal statement.

If we examine a few typical sentences, we shall see how useful is the
condition clause in a variety of ways.

1. “_If nettles and thistles grow in my cabbage garden_, I don’t try to
persuade them to grow into cabbages.”--_Froude._ Here the clause states
a condition which is to be regarded as really taking place. The idea of
time is also associated with that of condition.

2. “_If, in the least particular, one could derange the order of
nature_,--who would accept the gift of life?”--_Emerson._ The clause
here states an imaginary condition, but at the same time implies what
is the real state of the case; namely, that no one can, in the least
particular, derange the order of nature.

3. “I might have been a minister myself, for aught I know, _if this
clergyman had not looked and talked so like an undertaker_.”--_Holmes._
Here the sentence is so framed that the contrary of both clause and
principal proposition is implied; namely, this clergyman did look and
talk exactly like an undertaker, hence I am not a minister. Is it not
wonderful that by means of one set of words we may say two opposite
things, and not fail of being understood?

4. “_If I was ever weak enough to give anything to a petitioner of
whatever nationality_, it always rained decayed compatriots of his for
a month after.”--_Lowell._ Here the subordinate thought is put into the
form of a clause of condition, but at the same time we understand that
we are to find in it the _cause_ of the principal proposition.

5. “Middlingness is always pardonable, _so that one does not ask others
to take it for superiority_.”--_George Eliot._ The clause is here a
saving clause. It states the exception necessary to be made in order
that the principal proposition may be accepted as true.

6. “_If my friend was not a genius_, he was certainly a
monomaniac.”--_H. James._ This sentence does not mean that my friend
was a monomaniac provided he was not a genius, but is a brief way of
saying,--If you assert that my friend was not a genius, you will then
have to admit that he was certainly a monomaniac.

7. “She has met the equinoctials before, _if it is the equinoctials
that are beginning_.”--Black. Here the clause does not state a
condition for the principal proposition, but for some thought not
expressed,--this, perhaps: _and can meet this storm_.

In these sentences we have by no means shown all that may be
accomplished by the conditional clause. We have only indicated the
types of sentences most frequently met with in which this clause occurs.

       *       *       *       *       *

=What the Conditional Clause modifies.=--The conditional clause is
usually brought into the sentence by the predicate of the principal
proposition, and so must be looked upon as an adjunct of that
predicate. Sometimes, however, it modifies a gerund, participle, or
infinitive. In the sentence;--“She must have a story, well, ill, or
indifferently told, _so there be life stirring in it, and plenty
of good or evil accidents_,” the clause modifies the participle
_told_ after it has been modified by the adverbs _well_, _ill_, and
_indifferently_.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Introductory Word.=--1. The subordinating conjunctions _if_, _so_,
_unless_ (= _if not_).

2. The phrases _on condition that_, _conditionally that_, _in case
that_, _provided that_, _but that_, _so that_. These should be
considered as one word.

3. The imperatives _say_, _let_, _suppose_; as, “_Suppose you were
going to carpet a room_, would you use a carpet having representations
of flowers upon it?”--_Dickens._ Here the condition seems to be actual
and present, not imaginary.

4. The participles _providing_, _provided_, _supposing_. The first two
are especially useful in introducing a restriction.

Sometimes there is no connective, but the subordination and the nature
of the clause are indicated by the order of the words, the verb or
its auxiliary being placed before the subject; thus, “_Had I twenty
girls_, they should be brought up exactly in this fashion.”--_Lamb._


Exercise 16

Dispose of all clauses of condition in the following sentences:

 1. If I had my will, every idiot who goes about with ‘Merry Christmas’
 on his lips should be boiled with his own pudding and buried with a
 stake of holly through his heart.--_Dickens._

 2. Despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with
 barbarians, provided the end be their improvement, and the means
 justified by actually effecting that end.--_Mill._

 3. Education will not make people happy, unless it is directed into
 useful channels.--_Lord._

 4. The hall was open to all who came on condition that the guest
 should leave his weapons at the door.--_Besant._

 5. Should a man discover the art of transmuting metals, and present us
 with a lump of gold as large as an ostrich egg, would it be in human
 nature to inquire too nicely whether he had stolen the lead?--_Lowell._

 6. He made very few rules, and in case one was broken in spirit or
 in letter, the delinquent was set up on a high stool behind a small,
 long-legged desk, facing the school, and made to read from the bad
 boy’s scrap book.--_Annie Preston._

 7. If you would not be known to do a thing, never do it.--_Emerson._

 8. While you utterly shun slang, whether native or foreign born,--at
 present, by the way, our popular writers use far less slang than
 the English,--yet do not shrink from Americanisms, so they be good
 ones.--_Higginson._

 9. The Saxon is the man of all others slow to admit the thought of
 revolution; but let him once admit it, he will carry it through
 and make it stick--a secret hitherto undiscoverable by other
 races.--_Lowell._

 10. Had it been wholly serious, it would not have been wholly
 French.--_Higginson._

 11. If he was ambitious, his ambition had no petty aim.--_J. R. Green._

 12. Talents are absolutely nothing to a man except he have the faculty
 of work along with them.--_Lowell._




CHAPTER XVI

THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONCESSION


=Function.=--In the compound sentence,--“The whale is not a fish, but
we speak of the ‘whale fishery,’” we have joined two thoughts which
are opposed to each other, but we have made them of equal importance.
Now, if we wish to make one of them more prominent, and at the same
time indicate that it is true in spite of the other, we construct our
sentence as follows,--“The whale is not a fish _though_ we speak of the
‘whale fishery.’”

Here the main thought is _the whale is not a fish_, and by the form
in which we have expressed the other thought, we have shown not
only that there is an opposition between the two thoughts,--which
was likewise shown in the compound sentence,--but also that it is
strange that the two thoughts are true at the same time when they
seem mutually contradictory. This second sentence is complex, and the
dependent proposition is an adverbial clause of concession. It does
not necessarily indicate that two thoughts are opposed to each other;
sometimes they only stand in contrast; as, “While (= _though_) his
fame rests on his Meditations, as that of David rests upon his Psalms,
he yet rendered great military service to The Empire.”--_Lord._

We may define a concessive clause as one that concedes or grants
something in contrast or opposition to what is expressed in the
principal proposition. It modifies a verb or a verb with modifiers. It
varies but little in function, the slight variations being indicated by
the choice of the introductory word.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Introductory Word.=--1. _Though_ or _although_. This is the
conjunction oftenest used; indeed, all the other words or phrases used
are more or less equivalent to it in meaning. _Albeit_ was formerly
much used, and we occasionally find it in poetry now, but it is very
seldom used in spoken English or in ordinary prose composition.

2. _Whether_.--This word with its correlative _or_ is used when we wish
to say that a thing is true in spite of two other facts or conditions
which are contrary to each other; as, “The balconies are always
charming, _whether they hang high over the streets or look out upon the
canals_.”--_Howells._

3. The indefinite pronouns _whoever_, _whatever_, _whichever_; the
adjectives _whatever_ and _whichever_; and the adverb _however_. These
words signify that the clause is to be taken in its widest possible
application; as, “_Upon whatever career you may enter_, intellectual
quickness, industry, and the power of bearing fatigue are three great
advantages.”--_Huxley._ Here the clause means,--though you may enter
_upon any career whatsoever_.

4. _No matter._--This phrase together with the adverb _how_ is a
frequent substitute for the connective _however_. It emphasizes the
scope of the clause and thus makes the opposition between the principal
proposition and the clause seem greater; thus, “The guns can be fired
in any direction, _no matter how the ship is lying_.”

5. _While._--In some sentences this is nearly equivalent to _though_;
in others it carries with it an idea of time as well as concession;
thus, “Both Charles himself and his creature Laud, _while they
abjured the innocent badges of popery_, retained all its worst
vices.”--_Macaulay._

6. _If_.--When the adversative relation between the two propositions
is perfectly clear without being indicated by the connective, _if_ or
_even if_ may be employed in the place of _though_. A concessive clause
so introduced must not be confounded with the clause of condition. In
the latter _if_ can be changed to _provided_; in the former _if_ is
equivalent to _though_; for example, “_If the scenery failed to charm_,
the names of places did not fail to astonish us.”--_Bolles._

7. _Notwithstanding_ or _notwithstanding that_.--The former of
these is more frequently met with as a preposition introducing a
concessive phrase and meaning about the same as _in spite of_; thus,
“_Notwithstanding the increasing illness of his sister_, he was able
to enjoy some cheerful society.”--_Ainger._ But sentences like the
following are not uncommon,--“_Notwithstanding the wind was favorable
to each alike_, both vessels had deviated from the direct line and were
steering toward a common center.”--_Cooper._

8. A common form of the concessive clause is one in which an adjective,
a verb, an adverb, or a noun comes first, followed sometimes by
_though_, oftener by _as_. This order of words arises from our desire
to make prominent or emphatic some particular attribute; as, “_Strange
as it may appear_, even the baron’s jokes seemed only to render him
the more melancholy.”--_Irving._ Here the attribute _strange_ is
emphasized. That such a clause is only an ordinary clause of concession
transposed for a special purpose, with as substituted for _though_,
becomes evident by comparing it with the clause in the following,--

                        “Thy brow,
  _Glorious in beauty though it be_, is scarred
  With tokens of old wars.”--_Bryant._

Transposing this clause to the natural order, we have, “though it be
glorious in beauty.”

In sentences containing a concessive clause the principal proposition
is sometimes introduced by _yet_, a correlative of the connective in
the clause. _Yet_ is often used when the clause comes first and is
long. It is useful in calling attention to the fact that the concession
has all been stated, gathering it up, as it were, into one word before
the principal statement is made.


Exercise 17

Dispose of all concessive clauses in the following sentences.

 1. The Icelanders say that “Iceland is the best land the sun shines
 on,” though the sun scarcely shines enough to melt the ice in
 summer.--_Munger._

 2. No man, whatever his sensibility may be, is ever affected by
 Hamlet or Lear, as a little girl is affected by the story of poor
 Red-Ridinghood.--_Macaulay._

 3. If they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and
 poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their names
 were not found in the registers of heralds, they were recorded in
 the Book of Life. If their steps were not accompanied by a splendid
 train of menials, legions of ministering angels had charge over
 them.--_Macaulay._

 4. And, again, while the Greeks rightly despised mechanical arts
 as much as the Egyptians, they did not make the fatal mistake of
 despising agricultural and pastoral life.--_Ruskin._

 5. Well-advanced as Hepzibah was, she could not remember when Uncle
 Venner had not gone up and down the street, stooping a little and
 drawing his feet heavily over the gravel or pavement.--_Hawthorne._

 6. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the same
 love to France would have been nurtured.--_De Quincey._

 7. Energetic men, whether they work or whether they play, put their
 strength into the work and their strength into the play.--_Ruskin._

 8. Darwin misses no step that the slow but tireless gods of physical
 change have taken, no matter how they cross or retrace their
 course.--_Burroughs._

 9.   Though the cause of Evil prosper, yet ’tis Truth alone is strong;
      And, albeit she wander outcast now, I see around her throng
      Troops of beautiful, tall angels, to enshield her from all wrong.
                                                            --_Lowell._

 10. Thought is thought, howe’er it speak or spell itself.--_Carlyle._

 11. She would not marry a coward or a braggart even if he were the
 owner of ten thousand acres.--_Lord._

 12. Father Salvierderra always said that it was a duty to look happy,
 no matter how much we might be suffering.--_H. H._




CHAPTER XVII

THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF DEGREE OR COMPARISON


=Function.=--In Chapter XI. we showed that the manner in which an
action is performed is often denoted by an adverbial clause. Now,
it may sometimes be denoted by an adverb, as in the sentence,--He
accumulated his learning _quietly_. But, in order to give force and
point to this adverb, it is frequently accompanied by a clause of
degree bringing in a comparison; thus, “He accumulated his learning _as
quietly as a stout lady accumulates her fat_, by the daily satisfaction
of his appetite.”--_Hamerton._ By comparing the quietness with which
he accumulated learning to the quietness with which a stout lady
accumulates fat, we provide a standard or illustration for the first
thought, and so make it clear and impressive.

We often wish to tell in what degree a certain attribute is possessed.
This may be done by a clause of result, as was seen in Chapter XIV.,
but we may also do it by comparison; for example, “Thou shalt be happy
_as heart can wish_.” Here the degree of happiness thou shalt have is
fixed by saying that it is equal to what thy heart wishes.

Number and amount often cannot be told absolutely but may be told
relatively by means of a comparison; thus, “Mrs. Patten had more
respect for her neighbor Mr. Hackit _than for most people_.”--_George
Eliot._ It would hardly be possible or worth while to tell exactly the
amount of respect that Mrs. Patten had for Mr. Hackit, but it is worth
telling how this respect compared with the respect she had for other
people.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Classification of Clauses of Degree.=--1. A sentence may assert that
two attributes are _equal_ in degree; as, “They were as timid and
cowardly as they were rebellious.”--_Lord._ Here the degree of their
timidity and cowardice is shown by comparing these qualities with
their rebelliousness, and the two sets of attributes are found to be
equal. The clause in such a sentence is usually introduced by the
subordinating conjunction _as_, and a correlative of this word usually
precedes the word in the principal proposition denoting the idea to
be compared. The first _as_ is an adverb, being an adjunct of either
an adjective or an adverb. It may be omitted, as was shown in the
sentence,--Thou shalt be happy as heart can wish.

A clause denoting equality of degree is sometimes introduced by _as
if_, which may be considered a compound conjunction unless we choose
to supply the ellipsis. In the following sentence from Henry James, “I
found as great a fascination in watching the odd lights and shades of
his character _as if he had been a creature from another planet_,”--we
may supply between _as_ and _if_ the words _I would have found_, thus
obtaining a clause of degree having within it a clause of condition.

If the whole comparison is placed first in the sentence, the principal
proposition is introduced by _so_ followed by the word denoting the
respect in which two ideas are compared; as, “But, as eminently
as Homer is plain, so eminently is the Elizabethan literature in
general, and Chapman in particular, fanciful.”--_Arnold._ The words
_so eminently_ are not necessary for the complete structure of the
sentence, but they add to its clearness.

A statement containing a comparison of equality may be denied by means
of the negative adverb _not_, so that the sentence amounts finally to
an assertion of inequality in degree; thus, “He is not by any means so
wise as he looks.”

2. A sentence may assert that two attributes are _unequal_ in degree;
for example, “The manner of saying things often makes a deeper
impression than the thing that is said (_makes_).”--_Brook._ Here the
impression made by the manner of speaking and the impression made
by the thing spoken are compared and said to be unequal in depth.
The clause in such a sentence is introduced by the subordinating
conjunction _than_, and is always an adjunct of some word in the
comparative degree, or the words _else_, _other_, _otherwise_, or
_rather_, the last being in reality a comparative of the Old English
word _rathe_.

When a statement signifying inequality is denied by some negative word,
the sentence amounts to a statement of equality; thus, “It is not more
certain that Sarah Gamp liked her beer drawn mild than it is that your
Englishman likes his poetry cut short.”--_Birrell._

In clauses of both varieties given above there is often an ellipsis,
the words omitted being those already expressed in the principal
proposition and hence easily supplied. In the sentence, “Mrs. Patten
had more respect for her neighbor Mr. Hackit than for most people,”
when we analyze the clause we must fill it out so as to make it read,
_than she had respect for most people_.

3. The clause of degree may tell not that things _stand_ to each other
in a relation of equality or inequality, but that they vary in the
same proportion; thus, “The deeper the snow, the nearer the rabbit is
brought to the tops of the tender bushes and shrubs.”--_Burroughs._
Here the rabbit’s nearness to the tops of the shrubs is said to vary
with the depth of the snow.

In sentences of this sort, both principal proposition and subordinate
proposition are constructed in the same form, but the principal
proposition may always be ascertained by questioning the sentence; for
example, does the foregoing sentence assert that the depth of snow
varies with the rabbit’s nearness, or that the rabbit’s nearness varies
with the depth of snow? Clearly, the latter. Indeed, it will almost
invariably be found that in a sentence of this kind, especially if it
be addressed to the eye, the second proposition contains the principal
thought.

Sentences of this kind are often much abridged; thus, “The more, the
merrier,” “The sooner, the better.”

Another form of the idiomatic sentence just given is one which makes
use of the connective _in proportion as_; for example, “People dread
to be thought unsafe _in proportion as they get their living by being
thought to be safe_.”--_Bagehot._ This can easily be changed to the
older form,--“The more people get their living by being thought to be
safe, the more do they dread to be thought unsafe.”

 NOTE.--_According_ as may be used in place of _in proportion as_, as
 in the following sentence,--“The Sonnets are more or less striking
 according as the occasions which gave birth to them are more or less
 interesting.”--_Macaulay._

Another form of this comparison is one in which the two propositions
are introduced by the prepositional phrases _by as much_ and _by so
much_; for example, “Look at the most vigorous species; _by as much
as it swarms in numbers_, by so much will it tend to increase still
further.”

4. A fourth variety of the clause of degree is found in the following
sentence,--“Night in the tropics, _so far as animal life is concerned_,
is as the day.”--_Drummond._ Here the group of words, _so far as animal
life is concerned_, tells the extent or degree to which night is
like day. It might be separated into the base-word _far_ modified by
the adverb _so_ and the clause _as animal life is concerned_; but it
does not seem to be the author’s purpose to institute any comparison
whatever, hence it is better to consider the whole group of words as
one element denoting degree, and treat _so far as_ as one subordinating
connective.

Sometimes a clause of this kind performs a double duty. It gives the
reason or ground for the main assertion and at the same time makes
that assertion somewhat doubtful; for example, “_As far as I could
observe when the meeting broke up_, they separated without remark on
the sermon.”--_Emerson._ Here the principal statement is based upon the
writer’s observation when the meeting broke up; but he implies that
his main assertion may not be true, for his observation may not have
extended far enough to warrant any certainty in his conclusion.


Exercise 18

Dispose of all clauses of degree in the following sentences.

 1. Never did people believe anything more firmly than nine Englishmen
 out of ten at the present day believe that our greatness and welfare
 are proved by our being so very rich.--_M. Arnold._

 2. A shocking bad hat is perhaps as indifferent to Gladstone as a
 dirty old cloak was to Socrates.--_Lord._

 3. So far as a man thinks, he is free.--_Emerson._

 4. No nobler feeling than this of admiration for one higher than
 himself dwells in the breast of man.--_Carlyle._

 5. The drier the air, and the hotter the air, the greater is the
 amount of cloud which can be dissolved in it.--_Tyndall._

 6. The heretic was excluded, so far as ecclesiastical dogma could
 exclude him, from the pale of humanity, from consecrated earth, and
 from eternal salvation.--_Motley._

 7. The face of the water in time became a wonderful book--a book that
 was a dead language to the uneducated passenger, but which told its
 mind to me without reserve, delivering its most cherished secrets as
 clearly as if it uttered them with a voice.--_S. L. Clemens._

 8. Leave a youth idle; and, the more brave and active and capable he
 is by nature, the more he will thirst for some appointed field for
 action.--_Ruskin._

 9. A long, dark hall stretched before me, extending, as well as I
 could judge in the gloom, entirely across the house.--_Page._

 10. The trumpet does not more stun you by its loudness, than a whisper
 teases you by its provoking inaudibility.--_Lamb._

 11. The less a man thinks or knows about his virtues, the better we
 like him.--_Emerson._

 12. As far as I can make out, the League was founded by an American
 millionaire.--_Conan Doyle._

 13. In proportion as men know more and think more, they look less at
 individuals and more at classes.--_Macaulay._

 14. To me the silence of a summer morning is more touching than all
 other silences.--_De Quincey._

 15. But by as much as Kipling surpasses other poets and novelists
 in originality, by so much does he surpass them in methodical
 industry.--_Hillis._


Exercise 19

Analyze the following sentences:--

 1. He who refuses to embrace a unique opportunity loses the prize as
 surely as if he tried and failed.--_Wm. James._

 2. If they embroidered dresses or worked tapestries, they also wove
 the cloth for their husbands’ coats and made his shirts and knit his
 stockings.--_Lord._

 3. If I had my way, I would give the same education to the child of
 the collier and to the child of the peer.--_Kingsley._

 4. Fat as he is, and old as he is, his movements are astonishingly
 light and easy.--_Collins._

 5. The more we reflect upon this question, the harder it is to
 answer.--_Stockton._

 6. And no matter how superior you think yourselves, you will not pass
 here till you have something of your own to produce.--_Froude._

 7. Inglesant remained in prison, and would have thought that he had
 been forgotten, but that every few weeks he was sent for by the
 Committee and examined.--_Shorthouse._

 8. I hardly know anything more strange than that you recognize honesty
 in play, and you do not in work.--_Ruskin._

 9. Though we believe that the intentions of Cromwell were at first
 honest, though we believe that he was driven from the noble course
 which he had marked out for himself by the almost irresistible
 course of circumstances, though we admire in common with all men of
 all parties the ability and energy of his splendid administration,
 we are not pleading for arbitrary and lawless power even in his
 hands.--_Macaulay._

 10. Much would be lost, had Iceland not been burst up from the sea,
 not been discovered by the Northmen.--_Carlyle._

 11. Clam and worm might be forever undisturbed so far as he was
 concerned.--_J. T. Fields._

 12. If pride of rank was generated in this fraternity of gentlemen, so
 also was scorn of lies and baseness.--_Lord._

 13. But I soon found that my lines had fallen in a place where a
 vegetable growth had to run the gauntlet of as many foes and trials as
 a Christian pilgrim.--_Holmes._

 14. The oriole shortens up its nest in proportion as the danger
 lessens.--_Burroughs._

 15. Suppose I gave you something to eat, would you listen to me
 afterward?--_Miss Mulock._

 16. Lord Mohun alone among historians, so far as my knowledge goes,
 has done fit and full justice to the French Parliaments.--_Higginson._

 17. No one is so blind to his own faults as a man who has the habit of
 detecting the faults of others.--_Faber._

 18. So high as the tree aspires to grow, so high will it find an
 atmosphere suited to it.--_Thoreau._

 19. And if you emigrate, you will soon find out, if you have eyes
 and common-sense, that the vegetable wealth of the world is no more
 exhausted than its mineral wealth.--_Kingsley._

 20. But music and painting, though they may be exquisite adornments of
 life, contain no living force that can develop a weak nation into a
 strong one.--_Draper._


Exercise 20

Sentences containing all kinds of dependent propositions.

 1. When you feel a true admiration for a teacher, a glow of enthusiasm
 for work, a thrill of pleasure at some excellent saying, give it
 expression.--_C. W. Eliot._

 2. Though his opinions were democratic, his tastes and his
 associations were such as harmonize best with monarchy and
 aristocracy.--_Macaulay._

 3. You tremble when you think of how your sin has outgrown itself, and
 is running far, far away where you can never follow it.--_Phillips
 Brooks._

 4.   Broad steps ascended to a terrace broad,
      Whereon lay still light from the open door.--_James Thomson._

 5. Mankind in the aggregate is always wiser than any single man,
 because its experience is derived from a larger range of observation
 and experience, and because the springs that feed it drain a wider
 region both of time and space.--_Lowell._

 6. Whatever is fated, that will take place.--_Emerson._

 7. Whenever it is proved that a man broke one of the Ten Commandments,
 it is roundly replied that in his day there were only nine.--_Stephen._

 8. The market-place and the factory owe much to thinkers, just as the
 branches bowing down with ripe fruit owe much to the roots working in
 silence and darkness.--_Hillis._

 9. I myself must mix with action lest I wither by despair.--_Tennyson._

 10. The Lone Wolf must have sprung and missed his hold, for Mowgli
 heard the snap of his teeth and then a yelp as the Sambhur knocked him
 over with his forefoot.--_Kipling._

 11. The poorest and the richest students are equally welcome here,
 provided that with their poverty or their wealth they bring capacity,
 ambition, and purity.--_C. W. Eliot._

 12.  In the elder days of art,
          Builders wrought with greatest care
      Each minute and unseen part;
          For the gods see everywhere.--_Longfellow._

 13. I have no expectation that any man will read history aright
 who thinks that what was done in a remote age by men whose names
 have resounded far, has any deeper sense than what he is doing
 today.--_Emerson._

 14.  Wherever men are gathered, all the air
      Is charged with human feeling, human thought.
      --_James Thomson._

 15. I talk half the time to find out my own thoughts, as a schoolboy
 turns his pockets inside out to see what is in them.--_Holmes._

 16. Let us therefore send for the soothsayers, that they may interpret
 this thing unto us.--_Bellamy._

 17. Examples would indeed be excellent things, were not people
 so modest that none will set, and so vain that none will follow
 them.--_Hare._

 18. Be the reasons what they may, the influence of generals,
 statesmen, and inventors is less deep and abiding than the influence
 of those poets who have sung of love and grief, of war and worship,
 and of the shepherd-care of God.--_Hillis._

 19. The Turk, who believes that his doom is written on the iron leaf
 in the moment when he entered the world, rushes on the enemy’s sabre
 with undivided will.--_Emerson._

 20. Where a man can trust his own heart and those of his friends,
 tomorrow is as good as today.--_Stevenson._

 21. Have you ever observed that we pay much more attention to a
 wise passage when it is quoted than when we read it in the original
 author?--_Hamerton._

 22.  If thou art worn and hard beset
      With sorrows, that thou would’st forget,
      If thou would’st read a lesson that will keep
      Thy heart from fainting and thy soul from sleep,
        Go to the woods and hills.--_Longfellow._

 23. While, therefore, good nature depends on the physical
 organization, and cannot be cultivated by effort; while good humor
 depends on circumstances, and is no part of the man himself,--good
 temper is something which we can all acquire, if we choose.--_J. F.
 Clarke._

 24. And what wicked thing have you done, that they should haunt you
 so?--_R. H. Dana, Sr._

 25. There is no poltroon in the world but can brag about what he would
 have done.--_Thackeray._

 26. It is the bit of truth in every slander, the hint of likeness in
 every caricature, that makes us smart.--_Lowell._

 27. No man has learned anything rightly until he knows that every day
 is Doomsday.--_Emerson._

 28. Calvin, whose life was darkened by disease, had a morbid and
 gloomy element in his theology.--_J. F. Clarke._




CHAPTER XVIII

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE


In our study of dependent propositions, we have considered in
the main the complex sentence. We shall now take up the compound
sentence, whose distinguishing characteristic is that it contains at
least two independent propositions. These propositions with their
accompanying clauses, if any, constitute the members of a compound
or complex-compound sentence, and such a sentence may be classified
according to the relation subsisting between its members. On the basis
of this relation we have the following classification:--

1. Members may be _in the same line of thought_; that is, they may
denote related events succeeding each other in time, or they may tell
similar things about the same subject, or the second may be added to
the first by way of supplementing or explaining it, etc. Sentences of
this kind are very common; as, “We consecrate our work to the spirit
of national independence, and we wish that the light of peace may rest
upon it forever.”--_Webster._

Connective.--For members in the same line of thought the typical
conjunction is _and_. All the other connectives so used are equivalent
to _and_, though they may have a slight additional meaning. These are,--

(_a_) The coördinating conjunction _nor_ or _neither_, equivalent to
_and not_; as, “Bolts and bars are not the best of our institutions,
nor is shrewdness in trade a mark of wisdom.”--_Emerson._

(_b_) _While._--This must be carefully distinguished from the
subordinating conjunction _while_, and from _while_ used to coördinate
but equivalent to _but_; as, “His lower limbs were sheathed like
his body in flexible mail, securing the legs and thighs, while (=
_and_) his feet rested in plated shoes which corresponded with the
gauntlets.”--_Scott._

A common type of sentence which it seems best to classify here is
one in which the first member is imperative, the second declarative,
and the two joined by _and_; as, “Tell me what you like, and I will
tell you what you are.”--_Ruskin._ This is equivalent in meaning to a
complex sentence containing a clause of condition,--“If you tell me
what you like, I will tell you what you are.” But, inasmuch as the
author used _and_ between his two propositions, it would seem that
he intended the condition to be equally important with the second
statement. Sentences of this kind have a directness of appeal to the
reader that gives them a peculiar force.

2. The members of a compound sentence may denote _contrasting
thoughts_; as, “In cities we study those around us, but in the
retirement of the country we learn to know ourselves.”--_Longfellow._

The second member often denotes a thought not to be expected after the
first has been accepted; as, “Boys are capital fellows in their own
way, among their mates; but they are unwholesome companions for grown
people.”--_Lamb._ This sentence reminds us of the complex sentence
containing a clause of concession, for it might easily be recasted into
one,--Though boys are capital fellows, etc.

Connective.--The typical conjunction for this sentence is _but_; all
the substitutes for _but_ are merely its various equivalents. These
are,--

(_a_) The conjunctions _yet_, _while_, _and yet_, _whereas_; as, “It is
no longer a reality; yet it was one.”--_Carlyle._

(_b_) The adverbs _still_, _only_, _nevertheless_, _however_. These are
conjunctions when used alone between independent propositions, adverbs
when associated with _but_. They all imply an opposition between the
two members; for example, “He is glad of his pay--very properly so,
and justly grumbles when you keep him ten years without it--still,
his main notion of life is to win battles, not to be paid for winning
them.”--_Ruskin._

3. Members of a compound sentence may present an _alternation_ or
_choice between two thoughts_. In such a case only one of the members
is true; as, “Come down and help us, Rustum, or we lose.”--_M. Arnold._
If the first proposition here is fulfilled, the second will not be
true. If the second should be true, it would be because the first was
not fulfilled. Often, as in this example, the second member denotes a
consequence of something which is the direct opposite of what is stated
in the first member.

Connective word.--(_a_) The typical connective is the coördinating
conjunction _or_. Sometimes the first member is preceded by _either_,
a correlative of _or_. It may be remarked here that or is much oftener
met between words or phrases than between propositions.

(_b_) The adverbs _else_ and _otherwise_ when equivalent to or may be
used in its stead.

4. The second member of a compound sentence may denote a result of the
first, either a direct _consequence_ or a _conclusion_. In other words,
the first member may denote (_a_) the cause of the second member;
as, “They speak English there, so your difficulties are now pretty
well over.”--_Brontë._ (_b_) The evidence which supports the second
member; as, “He was not at church Sunday, hence he must have been ill.”
Such sentences suggest the complex sentences containing a clause of
real cause or a clause of reason; and owing to the causal relation
between the two members, it may seem at first sight that one of them
is a dependent proposition. But such is not the case. Each of them is
grammatically independent; for both are presented as equally important,
and the coördinating conjunction _and_ could be supplied between them
in addition to the other conjunction.

Connective.--The typical conjunction is _therefore_. We also find
_hence_, _wherefore_, _so_, _so that_, _so then_, _consequently_ and
_accordingly_, all of which are equivalent to _therefore_.

5. Frequently one member is added to another by way of _explanation_,
giving the author’s reason for making the first statement. It is
introduced by _for_ and usually preceded by a semicolon; thus, “Always
pay; for first or last you must pay your entire debt.”--_Emerson._

It is sometimes difficult to decide whether the second member is
independent or dependent, whether _for_ is a coördinating or a
subordinating conjunction. The tests for the independent proposition
must be these:--Did the author intend the second member to stand equal
in importance to the first? Does the second member add something not
necessary to the first member or affecting its meaning? Does the second
member express a thought not perhaps in the author’s mind when he wrote
the first?

       *       *       *       *       *

=Omission of the Conjunction in Compound Sentences.=--Often when the
relation between two members is perfectly evident, the connective is
omitted. This frequently occurs when the members are in the same line
of thought; as, “The place to observe nature is where you are; the walk
to take today is the walk you took yesterday.”--_Burroughs._

The connective is also omitted to avoid repetition when the sentence
contains several members, all sustaining the same relation to one
another. It should, however, be noticed here that authors differ in
their mode of punctuation. One author might combine two sentences into
one compound sentence by placing a semicolon between them, whereas
another would place a period after each.

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Number of Members in a Compound Sentence.=--In illustrating
compound sentences we have given those that contain only two members,
but it must not be supposed that the number is restricted to two.
On the contrary we often find three or more. However, these are not
often all of the same rank, and the sentence must first be separated
into coördinate members, then if these members are compound they
must be separated in like manner, and so on. Take, for instance,
the sentence,--“Genius is mainly an affair of energy, and poetry
is mainly an affair of genius; therefore a nation whose spirit is
characterized by energy may well be eminent in poetry,--and we have
Shakespeare.”--_M. Arnold._ This complex-compound sentence is, first of
all, made up of a compound sentence and a complex-compound sentence.
The relation between these two members is that of cause and result,
the second being a consequence of the first, as is indicated by the
conjunction _therefore_. The first of these members is made up of two
simple sentences in the same line of thought, therefore joined by the
conjunction _and_. The second member is made up of a complex sentence
and a simple sentence, the second being an addition to the first and
therefore joined to it by _and_.


Exercise 21

Reduce the following sentences to their component members--simple,
partially compound, or complex. State whether these members are
declarative, interrogative, or imperative. State also the relation
existing between members, and point out the connective.

 1. Occupy a youth early and wisely, in agriculture or business, in
 science or in literature, and he will never think of war otherwise
 than as a calamity.--_Ruskin._

 2. One lackey carried the chocolate pot into the sacred presence; a
 second milled and frothed the chocolate with the little instrument he
 bore for that function; a third presented the favored napkin; a fourth
 (he of the two gold watches) poured the chocolate out.--_Dickens._

 3. There was not a nook or a corner in the whole house fit to lodge
 any respectable ghost; for every part was as open to observation
 as a literary man’s character and condition, his figure and
 estate.--_Holmes._

 4. The word lengthy has been charged to our American account, but it
 must have been invented by the first reader of Gower’s works, the only
 inspiration of which they were ever capable.--_Lowell._

 5. Whenever and wherever we turned, a sudden “tinkle-tankle” would
 show that we had nearly fallen over a prostrate cow; therefore after
 half an hour of darkness, ditches, and cows, we returned to the hotel
 and its comforts.--_Bolles._

 6. Ye have quitted the ways of God or ye would not have been
 unhappy.--_Carlyle._

 7. Glossy hammock-cloths concealed the persons of those who were on
 the deck, while the close bulwarks gave the brigantine the air of a
 vessel equipped for war.--_Cooper._

 8. The trees have formed their buds in autumn every year since trees
 first waved; yet you will find that the great majority of persons
 have never made that discovery, but suppose that nature gets up those
 ornaments in spring.--_Higginson._

 9. Marble columns may, indeed, moulder into dust, time may erase
 all impress from the crumbling stone, but their fame remains; for
 with American liberty it rose, and with American liberty only can it
 perish.--_Webster._

 10. Commit a crime, and the earth is made of glass.--_Emerson._

 11. The first attempt of the season, I suspect, had failed in a more
 secluded place under the hill, so the pair had come up nearer the
 house for protection.--_Burroughs._

 12. With a very few exceptions, both the red and the white coral
 polyps are, in their adult state, firmly adherent to the sea-bottom;
 nor do these buds naturally become detached and locomotive.--_Huxley._

 13. But hospitality must be for service and not for show, or it pulls
 down the host.--_Emerson._

 14. The wide expanse of grassy upland stretched before them; overhead
 the arch of heaven, chequered by the white clouds, was full of life
 and light and motion; across the water of the lakes the church bells,
 rung for amusement by the village lads, came to the ear softened
 and yet enriched in tone; the spring air, fanned by a fresh breeze,
 refreshed the spirits and the sense.--_Shorthouse._

 15. Milton’s nature selected and drew to itself whatever was great and
 good, while it rejected all the base and pernicious ingredients by
 which those finer elements were defiled.--_Macaulay._

 16. Let us drive her away or hide the pomeloes, else she will go and
 tell her mother all about it, and that will be very bad for us.--_Old
 Deccan Days._

 17. As a matter of fact we find ourselves believing, we hardly know
 how or why.--_Wm. James._

 18. A man can have himself shot with cheerfulness, but it needs first
 that he see clearly for what.--_Carlyle._


Exercise 22

Analyze the following compound, and complex-compound sentences. They
should first be separated into members, as was done with sentences in
Exercise 21.

 1. A discovery results in an art; an art produces a comfort; a comfort
 made cheaply accessible adds family on family to the population; and
 a family is a new creation of thinking, reasoning, inventing, and
 discovering beings.--_Everett._

 2. All healthy people like their dinners, but their dinner is not the
 main object of their lives.--_Ruskin._

 3. Human nature has a much greater genius for sameness than for
 originality, or the world would be at a sad pass shortly.--_Lowell._

 4. They come together, not for exercise, but pleasure, and the more
 they crowd and cram and struggle, and the louder they scream, the
 greater the pleasure.--_Warner._

 5.   Each shrub and tree is eloquent of him;
      For tongueless things and silence have their speech.--_Aldrich._

 6. William had only a two-wheeled sulky, which could scarcely carry
 three; so it was a relief to all of us when we saw, coming from
 the bar, a youth in a wagon, driving a sprightly nag at a rattling
 pace.--_Bolles._

 7. Give man air, sun, proper food and clothing, ample and varied
 exercise, and there is no curve of grace in ancient statuary which
 would not be reproduced today.--_J. F. Clarke._

 8. By Red Flower Bagheera meant fire, only no creature in the jungle
 will call fire by its proper name.--_Kipling._

 9. You must make it quite clear to your mind which you are most
 bent upon--popularity or usefulness--else you may happen to miss
 both.--_George Eliot._

 10. Nature comes home to one most when he is at home; the stranger and
 the traveler finds her a stranger and a traveler also.--_Burroughs._

 11. A book without art is simply a commodity; it may be exceedingly
 valuable to the consumer, very profitable to the producer, but it does
 not come within the domain of pure literature.--_Higginson._

 12. Either the well was very deep or she fell very slowly, for she had
 plenty of time as she went down to look about her and to wonder what
 was going to happen next.--_Lewis Carroll._

 13. Nothing sooner inspires people with confidence in a business
 man than punctuality, nor is there any habit which sooner saps his
 reputation than that of being always behind time.

 14. Three sisters they are, of one mysterious household; and their
 paths are wide apart; but of their dominion there is no end.--_De
 Quincey._

 15. It is a blessed thing, indeed, that none of us can take our
 rubbish to another world; for, if we could, some of the many mansions
 would be little better than lumber rooms.--_Jean Ingelow._




CHAPTER XIX

THE CONJUNCTION IN SOME OF ITS USES


In our study of complex and compound sentences we have noted the office
of conjunctions, both subordinating and coördinating, so far as they
join propositions. But this is by no means their sole office nor their
most common one.

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Coördinating Conjunction.=--The abridgment of propositions has
been carried so far that we find the coördinating conjunctions, _and_,
_or_, _but_, joining words or phrases just as often as propositions,
for example, “The intimacy between man _and_ nature began with the
birth of man on the earth, _and_ becomes each century more intelligent
_and_ far-reaching.” The first _and_ joins the two nouns _man_ and
_nature_, the second the two predicates whose base-words are the verbs
_began_ and _becomes_, the third the two adjective complements _more
intelligent_ and _more far-reaching_.

There is nothing at all peculiar or difficult in this use of the
conjunction, for we naturally expect it to join any two like elements,
provided they have the same office in the sentence. Occasionally,
however, we find it joining unlike elements; for example, “St. Edmund
punishes terribly _yet_ with mercy.”--_Carlyle._ Here _yet_ joins two
modifiers of the verb _punishes_, but one is an adverb, the other a
prepositional phrase.

A common substitute for _and_ when it joins words or phrases is _as
well as_, the whole group of words having the value of one conjunction;
as, “Truth needs the wisdom of the serpent as well as the simplicity of
the dove.”--_Helps._ This conjunction has a peculiar force. By its aid
the sentence just quoted tells us not that truth needs two qualities,
which the conjunction _and_ would imply, but rather that, while
everybody grants that truth needs the simplicity of the dove, it is the
author’s opinion that she needs, too, the wisdom of the serpent. It is
wonderful that the substitution of this little phrase _as well as_ for
_and_ can make a sentence so different in meaning.

A group of words similar in office to _as well as_, but not so often
used, is _no less than_; as, “The first lesson of literature, no less
than of life, is the learning how to burn your own smoke.”--_Lowell._

Besides joining words, phrases, or propositions as the elements of one
sentence, the coördinating conjunction, especially _and_ or _but_, is
often found at the beginning of an entirely new sentence, where its
function is to show the relation in thought between the new sentence
and the one preceding. In such a position its office is not grammatical
but logical; for example, “_But_ month after month only showed the
king the uselessness of further resistance.”--_J. R. Green._ This
conjunction is sometimes reinforced by an adverb; thus, “_And again_,
Drake’s cannon would not have roared so loudly and so widely without
seamen already trained in heart and hand to work his ships and level
his artillery.”--_Froude._

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Subordinating Conjunction.=--Owing to abridgment we find many
sentences constructed like the following,--

  “Then safe, though fluttered and amazed,
  She paused, and on the stranger gazed.”--_Scott._

Here the subordinating conjunction of concession, _though_, seems to
join two adjective modifiers of _she_. These are _safe_ and the two
participial adjectives, _fluttered and amazed_. Of course it would
be proper to fill out the ellipsis and make a clause of concession,
_though she was fluttered and amazed_, but it does not seem necessary,
and we certainly would not supply anything if _but_ had been used
instead of _though_.

The subordinating conjunction _than_ is used in this way between like
elements oftener than any other, especially when it is associated with
the adverb _rather_; for example, “Commonly a light is for the eyes
rather than for the feet, and a lamp is to read or sew by rather than
to walk by.”--_Munger._ The ellipsis after _than_ may be supplied here,
that is, we may make the sentence read as follows,--“Commonly a light
is rather for the eyes than it is for the feet, and a lamp is rather
to read or sew by than it is to walk by.” But if the sentence had
been,--“Commonly a light is not for the feet _but_ for the eyes,” etc.,
we should say that _but_ joins the two phrases and that the first one
is modified by _not_. So in the original sentence we may say that the
first _than_ joins the two prepositional phrases _for the eyes_ and
_for the feet_, while the second joins the infinitives _to read or sew
by_ and _to walk by_. _Rather_ is then an adverb modifying in one case
the phrase _for the eyes_, and in the other the infinitives _to read or
sew by_.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Correlatives.=--The correlatives _when ... then_, _where ... there_,
_so ... as_, _as ... as_, _though ... yet_, _whether ... or_, have been
sufficiently noted in previous lessons. There remains something to be
said about the familiar pairs _either ... or_, _neither ... nor_, _both
... and_, _not only ... but_. The first three pairs are alike in use,
the second word in each case, _or_, _nor_, _and_, being the connective,
and the first no part of speech whatever. _Either_, _neither_ and
_both_, when correlatives, merely hint that the real conjunction is
coming. The correct position of these words is immediately before the
first of the two elements joined by the conjunction. _Either_ and
_both_ may be omitted without affecting either the meaning or the
structure of the sentence.

These correlatives are found with verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs,
phrases, or propositions either independent or dependent; for
example, “Generally, good useful work, whether of the hand or the
head, is either ill-paid or not paid at all.”--_Ruskin._ “He neither
pretended to high blood nor in good truth cared one fig about the
matter.”--_Lamb._ “There is a working class--strong and happy--among
both rich and poor.”

The correlatives _not only ... but_ are different in some respects
from the others. _But_ is the conjunction, and _only_ is an adjective
or adverb modifying the first of the two words joined by _but_, while
_not_ makes this word negative; thus, “Longfellow has not only charmed
the ear, but has touched the heart of the world.” In this sentence
_but_ joins the two predicates. The first predicate is modified by
_only_ and then denied by the negative adverb _not_. In this use
_but_ is not an adversative conjunction, that is, it does not signify
any opposition between the two predicates. The sentence means that
Longfellow has done two things which are in the same line of action--he
has charmed the ear of the world and in addition has touched its heart.

It is not uncommon for _but_ to be reinforced by the adverb _also_; for
example, “Punctuality should be made not only a point of courtesy, but
also a point of conscience.”


Exercise 23

State the office of all conjunctions in the following sentences.
Determine, if possible, why the given conjunction is chosen instead of
some other.

 1. But I for one do not grudge Amos Barton his sweet wife.--_George
 Eliot._

 2. Either they may be nomads, living in tents and driving their flocks
 and herds from one pasture ground to another, or they may be people
 with fixed habitations.

 3. You must be able, not only to hit any particular dog out of the
 team of twelve, but also to accompany the feat with a resounding crack.

 4. The finest passages are those which are lyric in form as well as in
 spirit.--_Macaulay._

 5. He was abstemious in his food and careless in what it consisted,
 rarely or never touching wine.--_Froude._

 6. The prince or chief governor was elected annually, but only by the
 nobles.--_Motley._

 7. In many parts of London it is difficult, if not dangerous, to cross
 the streets.

 8. But the times were times for action rather than for
 contemplation.--_Webster._

 9.   And you would say that sun and stars took part
      In that unnatural conflict; for a cloud
      Grew suddenly in Heaven, and darked the sun
      Over the fighters’ heads.--_M. Arnold._

 10. Discipline, no less than concentration, is a cure for a weak
 will.--_J. F. Clarke._

 11. But not only is its own population the vastest in the world; a
 large population is poured into it every morning by railway and by
 steamer from all parts of England and from every continent and country
 on the globe.

 12. We are on the eve of a great political crisis, if not of political
 change.--_Ruskin._

 13. It is injurious to the mind as well as to the body to
 be always in one place, and always surrounded by the same
 circumstances.--_Jefferies._

 14.  Let us do our work as well,
      Both the unseen and the seen.--_Longfellow._

 15. I recall him in the attitude of the Colossus of Rhodes, standing
 full before a generous wood fire, not facing it but quite the
 contrary.--_Holmes._

 16. Rough work, honorable or not, takes the life out of us.--_Ruskin._

 17. The elected chieftains had rather authority to persuade than power
 to command.--_Motley._

 18. Not only were the labors of Hannah More extended to the ignorant
 and degraded by the establishment of schools, but she employed her pen
 in their behalf.--_Lord._

 19. They neither get fairly hold of their subject, nor, what is more
 important, does it get hold of them.--_Lowell._

 20. The rough work is, at all events, real, honest, and, generally
 though not always, useful; while the fine work is, a great
 deal of it, foolish and false as well as fine, and therefore
 dishonorable.--_Ruskin._

 21. To detect the flavor of an olive is no less a piece of
 human perfection, than to find beauty in the colors of a
 sunset.--_Stevenson._

 22. All the ground was covered, not with grass and green leaves, but
 with radiant corollas.--_Muir._

 23. The world is filled with the voices of the dead; they speak not
 from the public records of the great world only, but from the private
 history of our own experience.--_O. Dewey._

 24. And where now the steamers of all nations may be seen resting
 at anchor, on that day one solitary ship from France discharged her
 cargo and was viewed with lingering interest by every colonist in
 Quebec.--_Mrs. Catherwood._

 25. Before him and facing him, two paces in front, stood Dan, his
 arms still bound to his sides, his head uncovered, and his legs
 free.--_Caine._




CHAPTER XX

THE INFINITIVE PHRASE


=Nature of the Infinitive.=--In the preceding lessons, we have studied
but one element of the sentence; namely, the proposition. This
combination of subject and predicate we have looked at from the point
of view of its value as a sentence element, and we have found that in
the communication of thought it is of the utmost importance by reason
of its clearness. In this respect it is superior to other simpler and
briefer elements, but nevertheless in the development of English prose
we find the proposition steadily superseded, wherever possible, by
several of the simpler elements. This is the result of an ever-growing
tendency toward brevity and conciseness. In a recent monograph
entitled “The History of the English Paragraph,” the author states
that the English sentence has decreased in length at least one-half
in three hundred years, and that it has shown very great decrease in
formal predication. The means by which predication is avoided without
sacrificing clearness are various. One of them, is the infinitive
phrase, which we shall make the subject of this chapter.

By an infinitive phrase we mean a group of words of which an infinitive
is the base, the whole group being the equivalent of a clause and
forming an element of a sentence. It is an element employed so
frequently that it is very easily interpreted, and its great advantage
is that it enables us to dispense with a subject and predicate.

The infinitive is a verb-form differing from the finite verb in
this,--it expresses the action or state denoted by the verb without
the limitations of person and number, hence it cannot predicate.
It is defined by grammarians as a verbal noun. This does not mean,
however, that it always has the use of a noun, but rather that it has
the nature of a noun in this important respect, that it _names_ the
action or state denoted by the verb. Just as a noun may be employed as
an adjective or an adverb, thus, “I have a _gold_ watch,” “I am going
_home_,” and still retain its essential characteristic, that of being a
name-word, so the infinitive may be used adjectively or adverbially and
still be the name of an action or state. The infinitive also retains
its verb nature so far as to take any of the modifiers or complements
of the verb; for example, in the sentence,--“To furl a sail is to roll
it up and secure it,” the subject is the infinitive phrase _to furl a
sail_, the base of which is the infinitive _to furl_. Now in so far as
_to furl_ is subject it has the use of a noun; it has the nature of
a noun, too, in naming an act; but it also has the nature of a verb
insomuch as it denotes action performed upon the object _sail_.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Forms of the Infinitive.=--There are two infinitives, the root
infinitive, or infinitive with _to_,--_to see_, _to run_, _to be_,--and
the gerund, or infinitive in _-ing_,--_seeing_, _running_, _being_. We
shall study first the root infinitive. Besides the simple form, _to
see_, called the present active infinitive, there is the perfect active
infinitive, _to have seen_, and the corresponding passive forms, _to be
seen_ and _to have been seen_. We may also add the active progressive
forms, _to be seeing_ and _to have been seeing_. Intransitive verbs of
course lack the passive forms. Of all these forms the one most used in
the communication of thought is the simplest one of all, the present
active.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Uses of the Infinitive.=--The infinitive is used for many different
purposes, but nearly always in relation to some word whose meaning it
serves to make more clear and without which it would not be in the
sentence at all. These relations of the infinitive to other words may
perhaps be most clearly explained if we consider them in groups; (1)
its relation to the noun, (2) to the verb, (3) to the adjective or
adverb.

I. A noun may have an infinitive associated with it in two ways:--

1. As an adjective; as, “Leaves have their time _to fall_.”--_Mrs.
Hemans._ Here the infinitive is brought into the sentence by the noun
_time_, to specify what time the leaves have. The expression _time to
fall_ means _falling time_ or _time for falling_. In the following
sentence from Carlyle,--“He that speaks what is really in him will
find men _to listen_,” the infinitive defines the noun _men_, being
equivalent to the restrictive adjective clause _who will listen_, so we
must say of the infinitive that it is used like an adjective modifying
_men_. It is better than the clause, being simpler and briefer.

2. As a noun in apposition; as, “He had formed the heroic resolution
_to defend the tower alone against the enemy_.” Here the infinitive
phrase is associated with the noun _resolution_, but instead of
defining or qualifying _resolution_, it tells exactly what the
resolution is, and so is used as a noun. Moreover, we can make a
sentence by putting the verb _is_ between the noun _resolution_ and the
infinitive phrase; as, “His resolution is to defend the tower,” etc.
This sentence is true, and means that the subject and the complement
of the verb are two names for the same thing. When the infinitive is
used with the noun as an adjective we cannot make such a sentence as
the above; for example, we cannot say _men are to listen_, meaning
that _men_ and _to listen_ are equivalent. Of course few nouns can be
explained by an infinitive in apposition; no such noun, for instance,
as _city_, _man_, _book_, _tree_, but such nouns as _wish_, _promise_,
_luck_, _intention_, _task_.

This use of the infinitive reminds us of a substantive clause in
apposition. In fact, both the adjective infinitive and the appositive
are substitutes for clauses, the former taking the place of a
restrictive adjective clause, the latter of either an unrestrictive
adjective clause or a substantive clause.

In the sentence, “This is a day _on which to travel_,” we have an
infinitive phrase made from an adjective clause and still retaining the
relative pronoun. The relative has an antecedent but does not join to
it as usual a dependent proposition.

 NOTE.--When we say that an infinitive is used as an adjective or a
 noun, we do not mean for an instant that it takes the place of any
 adjective or noun in the language. So far from this being the case,
 the infinitive is employed simply because there are no nouns or
 adjectives to say what the infinitive says for us.

II. The infinitive may be related to a verb in various ways.

1. As subject; as, “_To pass this bridge_ was the severest
trial.”--_Irving._ If we ask, what was the severest trial? the answer
is the whole phrase, _to pass this bridge_; but the base of this phrase
is the infinitive _to pass_, hence it is the essential subject.

A common way of using the infinitive as subject is that arrangement by
means of the anticipative subject _it_, which enables us to put the
real subject after the verb; as, “It is a most earnest thing to be
alive in this world.”--_Carlyle._

 NOTE.--Some grammarians prefer to call _it_ a neuter personal pronoun,
 subject of the verb, and the infinitive its appositive, or explanatory
 modifier.

2. As complement.

(_a_) Object of a transitive verb. Not all transitive verbs can take
infinitives for objects. Most of those that do are verbs denoting
some activity of the feelings or the will; as, “He _resolved_ to go”;
“They _hoped_ to surprise this post.” The infinitives here answer
the questions, resolved what? hoped what? They are equivalent to
substantive clauses,--He resolved _that he would go_, they hoped _that
they might surprise this post_; but when the action denoted by the
infinitive is to be performed by the same person as that denoted by the
subject of the predicate verb, the infinitive is chosen instead of the
clause. It is simpler than the clause and has become by frequent use
equally clear. When the two actors are different, two subjects must be
expressed, hence the clause is employed; for example, They resolved
that _I_ should go; They hoped that _their allies_ would surprise this
post.

 NOTE.--The contraction of a noun clause to an infinitive phrase is
 very evident in such a sentence as this,--“He did not know _what to
 say_.” The word _what_ leads us to expect a subject and predicate
 to follow, but we have merely an infinitive. The second subject if
 expressed would be _he_, the same as that of the principal verb.

Verbs signifying _begin_, _continue_, or _cease_ frequently take an
infinitive for object; as, “As he approached the stream, his heart
began _to thump_.”--_Irving._

The verb _ought_ is always followed by an infinitive, which is clearly
seen to be its object when we remember that _ought_ is an old past
tense of the verb _owe_; as, “The founder of this stately mansion
ought surely to have stood in his own hall and to have offered the
first welcome to so many eminent personages.”--_Hawthorne._ Here the
obligation owed by the founder is specified by the two infinitive
phrases.

A use similar to the above is that of the infinitive after _have_;
as, “My friend, the Poet, tells, me he has to leave town whenever the
anniversaries come round.”--_Holmes._ _Have_ means _to possess_, or _be
under an obligation_.

 NOTE.--The construction, “I had rather go than stay,” may be explained
 by treating _go_ as an infinitive without the sign _to_ used as object
 of the transitive verb _had_. Expanded the sentence reads, “I had to
 go rather than I had to stay.” The constructions, “I had sooner go
 than stay,” and, “I had as lief go as stay,” may be explained in the
 same way.

After _dare_, _need_, and _please_ the sign of the infinitive _to_ is
usually omitted; for example, “I dare _do_ all that may become a man.”
_Dare_ and _need_ are often used with a subject in the third person
singular, whereas we should expect _dares_ and _needs_; thus, “He need
not be angry about it.”

(_b_) As part of a double object of a transitive verb. We have just
said that if one person _resolves_ that another person shall act, or
_hopes_ he will, the fact may be told by using a substantive clause;
as, “I resolved that John should go.” But if I expected that John
would go I could tell it by using an infinitive; thus, “I expected
_John to go_.” This is a matter settled by usage; some verbs must be
followed by a clause object, while others may be followed by a noun
and an infinitive. We call the noun (or pronoun) and the infinitive a
double object. It is not two objects; it is one object the same as a
clause, but it consists of two essential parts closely related. The
logical relation between _John_ and _to go_ in the sentence above is
that of subject and predicate; but grammatically _to go_ cannot be a
predicate because the infinitive does not assert. In this construction
the infinitive is related first to the noun _John_ and then together
with _John_ to the transitive verb _expected_. Sufficient proof that
the two elements _John_ and _to go_ constitute the one direct object of
_expected_ is found in the fact that it takes both of them to answer
the question _expected what?_ For we did not expect John, nor did we
expect to go. Furthermore, the two elements may be changed to the
equivalent noun clause, _that John would go_, in which _John_ becomes
subject and the infinitive becomes a finite verb, the predicate of
_John_.

This use must be carefully distinguished from that of the infinitive
in such a sentence as this,--“He bought apples to eat.” Here _apples_
alone answers the question _bought what?_ It is also plain that
the relation between _apples_ and _to eat_ is not that of subject
and predicate. Besides, if this sentence were expanded, merely the
infinitive would be changed to a clause. This might be an adverbial
clause,--“He bought apples _that he might eat them_”; or an adjective
clause,--“He bought apples _that were good for eating_.”

Another sentence not so easily discriminated is this.--“I told John
to go.” Here there is what seems to be a double object, but in reality
_to go_ is the direct object and _John_ is an indirect object, as
in the sentence, “I told John a story.” If we recast the sentence,
employing a substantive clause, we have,--“I told John that he should
go,” where _John_ remains as indirect object and the infinitive alone
is expanded to the object clause. It is the same often after such a
verb as _order_; for example, “He ordered the men to march”; but in the
sentence, “He ordered the message to be sent,” there is a true double
object. _Men_ is indirect object, because it names those to whom the
order was given, but _message_ does not name anything to which an order
was given,--it merely tells what was to be sent. The sentences expanded
read,--“He ordered the men that they should march,” and “He ordered
that the message should be sent.”

We may conclude that when verbs with the notion of _telling_ in them,
as _urge_, _beg_, _entreat_, _persuade_, etc., are followed by a
personal word and an infinitive,--as, “He urged me to go,” we must
carefully determine whether the personal word is more closely related
to the predicate verb or to the infinitive. If we find it more closely
related to the predicate verb, we must call it an indirect object,
and say that the infinitive needs no word for subject because it is
understood that the subject of the infinitive is the same word as that
used for indirect object.

The verbs most commonly followed by the double object are,--(_a_) verbs
of perception, like _see_, _hear_, _notice_; for example, “Then, on
either hand, I saw stately palaces rise gray and lofty from the dark
waters.”--_Howells_; (_b_) verbs of permitting or causing, like _make_,
_have_, _let_; as, “‘Why, what would you have me do with you?’ said
the man.”--_Froude_; (_c_) verbs of feeling, like _wish_, _desire_,
_expect_; as, “Why, they all want him to get up and make speeches, or
songs, or toasts.”--_Holmes._

(_c_) As complement of an intransitive verb; as, “The art of reading
is _to skip judiciously_.”--_Hamerton._ “For a long time the house has
been _to let_.”--_Barrie._ The infinitive is plainly a completing term
in both cases, but in the first it denotes identity with the subject,
hence has the use of a noun complement; while in the second it tells
the condition of the house, like the word _vacant_, and hence has the
use of a predicate adjective. Sometimes it is possible to change the
infinitive to an equivalent adjective; as, “The accident is _to be
deplored_,” or, “is _deplorable_.”

_Seem_ and _appear_ as well as forms of the verb _be_ are followed
by this adjective infinitive. It is especially useful in denoting an
action that is to take place in the future; thus, “He is to come soon.”

 NOTE.--Some of the difficulty in disposing of infinitives is due to
 an attempt to speak of them in terms that apply to certain parts of
 speech. Sometimes this seems forced. For instance, in the sentence,
 “He seemed to tremble,” pupils are told to consider the infinitive
 as a predicate adjective, when it does not seem to them to bear much
 resemblance to an adjective.

 What the pupils must see is this,--that _to tremble_ completes _seem_
 and tells something about the subject _he_. The following sentences
 may be given,--“He seems a coward,” “He seems afraid,” “He seems to
 tremble.” The verb in each case has a subjective complement, but
 in one case this complement is a noun, in another an adjective, in
 another an infinitive, the choice depending wholly on the special
 meaning to be brought out. If the use of _to tremble_ seems to the
 pupil sufficiently like that of _afraid_ to warrant his calling it
 a predicate adjective, let him do so. If not, let him not try to
 name it, but say of it instead that it completes the verb and tells
 something about the subject.

The infinitive complement of a passive verb belongs here; for example,
“The human voice may be made _to attain a wondrous strength and
richness of tone_.”--_Brook._ This construction often arises from
changing a sentence containing a double object into the passive form.
In the active voice the sentence just quoted reads,--“We may make the
human voice attain a wondrous strength, etc.” Notice that the passive
construction has the advantage over the active in this respect, that it
enables us to avoid telling _who_ makes. This is especially convenient
with the verb _say_. In the sentence, “He was said to have stolen the
money,” no one is charged with having said that he stole.

 NOTE.--The familiar expressions, “That is to say,” “It came to pass,”
 “I came to know him,” also belong here; _came_ is used in the sense of
 _became_.

3. As an adverbial modifier of the verb. The infinitive is very often
joined to a verb to denote purpose; as, “The salmon winters in the
ocean, but in spring ascends the fresh water rivers _to spawn_, or
_lay its eggs_.” Sometimes this infinitive is introduced by _so as_ or
_in order_. It has almost entirely displaced the adverbial clause of
purpose.

The infinitive may also denote the result of an action; as, “His
half worn shoes would wait until his small brother grew _to fit
them_.”--_Holmes._

In the following sentence from Barrie, “Leeby returned panting _to say
that the doctor might be expected in an hour_,” the infinitive seems
to be employed instead of another finite verb, for the meaning is not
that Leeby returned in order to say, but rather that Leeby returned
_and_ said. In the sentence, He went home _only to die_, the infinitive
denotes neither the purpose nor the result of his going home, but only
a subsequent action. It might be preferable in such cases to call the
infinitive an accompaniment of the verb rather than a modifier.

In this sentence from Holmes, “I grieve _to say it_, but our people, I
think, have not generally agreeable voices,” _to say it_ denotes the
cause of my grieving.

In this sentence from Henry James, “He must have been an American, _to
take the picturesque so prodigiously to heart_,” the infinitive phrase
is the equivalent of an adverbial clause of reason, telling on what
ground the main assertion rests.

The infinitive may also denote condition, or manner; for example, “You
must have the imagination of a poet _to transfigure them_,” and, “Is
everything going _to suit you_?” In the former sentence the infinitive
phrase is equivalent to the clause, _if you transfigure them_. In
the latter it tells _how_ things are going on. In fact, this useful
little element may accompany a predicate verb to denote almost all the
relations denoted by adverbial clauses.

Sometimes it is difficult to decide whether an infinitive is a
complement or a modifier. Perhaps the best way to settle the point is
to ascertain what the infinitive is equivalent to, or what question
it answers; for example, “If you continue your observations, you will
not fail to notice that the speed of its disappearance depends on the
character of the day.”--_Tyndall._ Here the infinitive answers the
question, _fail in what respect?_ and is equivalent to the phrase, _in
noticing_. It is well, then, to consider it an adverbial modifier.

Perhaps the infinitive is used after no other verbs oftener than after
_go_ and _use_, as in the sentences, “I am going to stay until you
are tired of me”; “I used to wonder what this might be.” Both _go_
and _use_ are intransitive verbs, but the infinitives can hardly be
described as their modifiers, for the predication lies more in the
infinitive than in the finite verbs, _am going_ or _used_. The verb
_am going_ makes the action denoted by the infinitive intentional, and
_used_ makes it customary. Such predicates as _am going to stay_ and
_used to wonder_ should be described either as idiomatic verb-phrases,
or as consisting of an intransitive verb and an infinitive, without any
attempt to establish a complementary or modifying relation between the
infinitive and the verb.

 NOTE.--The verb _be_ is sometimes used in the sense of _go_ or _come_,
 and may then be modified by an infinitive of purpose, as in the
 sentence,--“The old Master was talking about a concert he had been to
 hear.”--_Holmes._

III. The infinitive may be associated with an adjective or an adverb.

A construction often met is a predicate adjective followed by an
infinitive, especially such adjectives as _sure_, _glad_, _sorry_,
_apt_, _anxious_. The infinitives answer such questions as _sure of
what?_ _anxious about what?_ and so limit the meaning of the adjective;
for example, “We are right willing and able to work.”--_Carlyle._ “He
was careful to acquaint himself with the country.”

Often the adjective is first modified by the adverb _enough_ or _too_;
thus, “This narrative is too significant to be omitted.”--_Carlyle._

When the adjective is first modified by _so_, the infinitive is
introduced by _as_, and takes the place of a clause of result; as,
“Be so kind _as to stand_.” Here the infinitive is brought into the
sentence by the adjective _kind_, but as an infinitive of result, may
be said to modify the entire predicate _be so kind_.

The infinitive in this construction may also be associated with
an adverb; as, “He worked so swiftly as to surprise us all.” We
notice that it is easy to avoid the clause here by substituting the
infinitive, for the subject of the clause is the same as the subject of
the principal verb.

An adjective in the comparative degree is often followed, not by a
clause of degree as we should expect, but by an infinitive introduced
by _than_; as, “He is wiser than to make such a remark.” The infinitive
phrase modifies _wiser_ and is joined to it by the subordinating
conjunction _than_.

IV. In addition to the foregoing constructions we occasionally find the
infinitive used as the object of a preposition. The few prepositions
governing infinitives are _except_, _but_, and _save_, the two latter
meaning _except_; as, “Make no expense but to do good to others or
yourself.” Usually, _to_, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after
these prepositions.

In the following sentences the preposition governing an infinitive
phrase is omitted.--“It’s worth quite a little fortune to any man who
gets it, and I understand that there are more vacancies than there are
men, so that the trustees are at their wits’ end _what to do with the
money_.”--_Conan Doyle_. “I am somewhat at a loss _what to think_.”
The prepositional phrases _at their wits’ end_ and _at a loss_ are
complements of the verbs _are_ and _am_, used instead of adjectives
because there are no equivalent adjectives. The infinitive phrases
answer the questions _at their wits’ end about what?_ and _at a loss
about what?_ and so are best disposed of as objects of the preposition
_about_ understood.

 NOTE.--In the construction, “I am about to go,” _about_ is usually
 disposed of as a preposition governing the infinitive. Instead it
 should be considered as an adverb modifying the infinitive, which is
 the complement of _am_.

The preposition _for_ may take a double object; thus, “A space was
left between them for _the garrison to pass out_.” The answer to
the question _for what?_ is, _the garrison to pass out_. Such a
prepositional phrase is often used as logical subject after the
anticipative subject _it_; thus, “It is not lawful for us to put any
man to death.”

 NOTE.--In the common construction, “I cannot but think,” the word
 _think_ is an infinitive with _to_ omitted, used as object of the
 preposition _but_. There is an ellipsis in this construction which
 must be supplied for analysis, unless we dispose of the whole
 expression at once as an idiomatic verb-phrase. Supplying the ellipsis
 we have, “I cannot do anything but think.”

 The expression, “I can but think” is best disposed of now as
 equivalent to “I can only think,” for that is what it signifies to us.
 The verb then is _can think_, and _but_ is its adverbial modifier.

V. The infinitive may be used independently, having no grammatical
relation to any other word in the sentence; thus, “_To tell you the
truth_, my errand is not so much to buy as to borrow.”--_George Eliot_.
Certain stereotyped phrases are used in this way, such as _to be sure_,
_to speak plainly_, _to make a long story short_. They are useful to
express in few words what in other more regular constructions it would
take many words to say.

In this sentence of Hale’s, “This sort of vagueness, _not to say
misapprehension_, affects the question, Who are our Leaders?” we have
an independent infinitive phrase which adds much to the meaning of the
sentence. It tells us here that the author uses the noun _vagueness_ so
as to be on the safe side, but in his opinion _misapprehension_ is the
more precise term.

 NOTE.--An independent expression very similar to the one just given
 is found in the following sentence,--“It appeals to our more purely
 human, _one might almost say domestic_, qualities.”--_Lowell._


Exercise 24

Dispose of all infinitive phrases in the following sentences.

 1. The winter climate of Venice is still so sharp as to make
 foreigners regret the generous fires and warmly built houses of the
 north.--_Howells._

 2. I started betimes in the evening so as not to hurry, or waste any
 strength upon the way.--_Blackmore._

 3. The way to be original is to be healthy.--_Lowell._

 4. To learn obeying is the fundamental art of governing.--_Carlyle._

 5. The reward of a good sentence is to have written it.--_Higginson._

 6. Follow the Devil faithfully, you are sure enough to go to the
 Devil.--_Carlyle._

 7. The idea of a man’s interviewing himself is rather odd, to be
 sure.--_Holmes._

 8. I had the good fortune to see him at New York, Philadelphia,
 Baltimore, and Washington.--_Thackeray._

 9. When they tried to teach me to sing, they told me to “think of
 eight and sing seven.”--_Hale._

 10. It was death also for a soldier to leave his colors.--_Prescott._

 11. I seem to have made foolish friendships ever since.--_Lamb._

 12. The general course of misrule leaves them helpless, to be the
 burden of the rest.--_Ruskin._

 13. There is nothing to be done but to turn round and hoe back to the
 other end.--_Warner._

 14. The sentinel warns them not to approach too closely.--_Howells._

 15. To forget Homer, to cease to be concerned and even curious about
 Homer, is to make a fatal step towards a new barbarism.--_Lang._

 16. Ladies of rank and of luxurious habits, you know, cannot be
 expected to surmise the details of poverty.--_George Eliot._

 17. One of the most important lessons to be learned in life is the art
 of economizing time.

 18. There is no beautifier of complexion, or form, or behavior, like
 the wish to scatter joy and not pain around us.--_Emerson._

 19. Indeed, to do the best for others is finally to do the best
 for ourselves; but it will not do to have our eyes fixed on that
 issue.--_Ruskin._

 20. He had always (it must not be forgotten) to contend against sad
 memories and anticipations of further sorrow.--_Ainger._

 21. But up to a considerable maturity of childhood I believed Raphael
 and Michael Angelo to have been superhuman beings.--_Holmes._

 22. As a whole, she appeared to carry with her a sort of argumentative
 commentary on her own existence.--_T. Hardy._

 23. But, to judge the action fairly, we must transport ourselves to
 the age when it happened.--_Prescott._

 24. But winter is apt to be very severe in mild climates.--_Howells._

 25. To make a long story short, the company broke up and returned to
 the more important concerns of the election.--_Irving._

 26. The way to speak and write what shall not go out of fashion is to
 speak and write sincerely.--_Emerson._

 27. You must be brave to have come so long and dangerous a
 journey.--_Old Deccan Days._

 28. I have none to call me Charley now.--_Lamb._

 29. I cannot but think that all the characters of a region help to
 modify the children born in it.--_Holmes._

 30. For what was he placed by Providence in the highest position in
 the world, except to benefit the world?--_Lord._

 31. It is true that no language is ever so far gone in consumption as
 to be beyond the great-poet-cure.--_Lowell._

 32. We were brought up to believe in ghosts.--_Page._

 33. They are earnestly requested to leave this paper to young persons
 from the age of twelve to that of fourscore years and ten.--_Holmes._

 34. Let us so live when we are up, that we shall forget we have ever
 been down.--_Stockton._

 35.  Know how sublime a thing it is
      To suffer and be strong.--_Longfellow._

 36. In other lands the man of whom you are a regular purchaser serves
 you well; in Italy he conceives that his long service gives him the
 right to plunder you if possible.--_Howells._

 37. It seemed a time to strike a blow for freedom.--_Motley._

 38. The vilification which was poured on Luther and his doings was so
 bitter as to be ludicrous.--_Draper._

 39. She had the natural tendency of excellent people to place others
 in subjection.--_Howells._

 40. It is such a sad thing to be born a sneaking fellow, so much worse
 than to inherit a hump-back.--_Holmes._

 41. This, as I heard before, could be let fall in a moment so as to
 crush a score of men and bar the approach of horses.--_Blackmore._

 42. After struggling for some time in the deep water he sank to rise
 no more.--_Old Deccan Days._

 43. I know I used to shake the youngest of them with my hands,
 stout as it is now, with a trunk that would defy the bully of
 Crotona.--_Holmes._

 44. But Sigurd is too experienced a chieftain to walk into this
 trap.--_Boyesen._

 45. Ask yourself seriously whether you are fit to read such
 revelations as are to follow.--_Holmes._

 46. To sum up his personal enormities, when he spoke he had a practice
 of always advancing his face as close as possible to the person he was
 addressing.--_Miss Ferrier._

 47. The one secret of life and development is not to devise and plan,
 but to fall in with the forces at work,--to do every moment’s duty
 aright.--_MacDonald._

 48. The blessed work of helping the world forward happily does not
 wait to be done by perfect men.--_George Eliot._

 49. Various efforts were made to allay the panic among the native
 troops.--_McCarthy._

 50. For this notion Johnson has thought fit to make him the butt of
 much clumsy ridicule.--_Macaulay._

 51. Of course Mowgli, as a woodcutter’s child, inherited all sorts
 of instincts, and used to make little play-huts of fallen branches
 without thinking how he came to do it.--_Kipling._




CHAPTER XXI

THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE


The participle has been defined by grammarians as a verbal adjective.
They do not mean that it limits or qualifies the meaning of a noun as
an adjective does. Very few participles do that. They mean only that it
is brought into the sentence for the purpose of telling something about
some noun. It is not usually so close a modifier of the noun, either
in relation or position, as many other noun adjuncts are; often it is
so loosely joined to its noun as to seem almost like a parenthetical
element. When the noun it modifies is the subject of the sentence, then
the great importance of the participle as a sentence-element lies in
the fact that it is a convenient means of avoiding a predication.

=Participial Forms.=--The participial forms of the transitive verb are
six.

  _Active_--Seeing, having seen.
  _Active progressive_--Having been seeing.
  _Passive_--Being seen, seen, having been seen.

The participles of the intransitive verb are four.

  _Common form_--Going, gone, having gone.
  _Progressive_--Having been going.

 NOTE.--We frequently meet these combinations of words: _being gone_,
 _having been gone_. They are not passive participles of the verb _go_,
 for they do not denote action received any more than do the phrases
 _being sick_ and _having been sick_. The word _gone_ is a participle
 used as an adjective complement of the participles _being_ and
 _having been_, just as the word _sick_ is used. This is a very common
 construction, seen in such familiar sentences as the following,--He
 _is risen_, the tree _is fallen_, the coat _is_ badly _worn_, you _are
 mistaken_, the meat _is done_. In all these instances the participles
 denote a condition of the subject, and are therefore complements of
 the verb.

The most common use of the simple participial forms, like _seeing_
and _seen_, is to help form progressive verb-phrases and passive
verb-phrases; thus, _is seeing_, _shall be seeing_, _might have been
seeing_; _is seen_, _shall be seen_, _might have been seen_. These
phrases are not to be separated into their constituent parts, however,
but are to be treated as single verbs, hence we are not concerned with
the participles they contain.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Uses of the Participle.=--1. The participial adjective.--The one use
of the participle which is almost identical with that of the adjective
is seen in such expressions as _running_ water, _trotting_ horse,
_educated_ man, _spoiled_ child. Here the idea Of action is not so
prominent as that of quality. Some of these participles have become so
far like adjectives as to admit of comparison; for example, _striking_
in such an expression as _striking appearance_, or _deceiving_ in
_deceiving story_. Some of them, too, may be modified by _very_, which
is never a verb modifier; as, _loving_ in _very loving children_.

This participle is sometimes used substantively; thus, “The _loving_
are the _daring_.” “The _slain_ were left to die.” Of course such
a word as _people_ is understood after these participles, and in
analyzing these sentences it may be supplied if one so desires, but
it is no more necessary than it is in the sentences,--“The _good_ are
happy, the _righteous_ are blessed,” where a qualifying adjective is
used as a noun.

2. The participial phrase as a substitute for a proposition.--We come
now to those frequent and important uses of the participle where
it saves a predication. It usually has other words associated with
it, either as complement or modifiers, the whole group forming a
participial phrase.

(_a_) The participial phrase may take the place of an adjective clause;
as, “The use of the cartridges _complained of_ was discontinued
by orders issued in January 1857.”--_McCarthy._ The participle is
here equivalent to a restrictive adjective clause pointing out the
particular cartridges.

Just as often the participial phrase is equivalent to an unrestrictive
clause, and then it is very much like an appositive modifier; as, “The
first person I met was a poor old woman, _a little bowed down with age,
gathering grapes into a large basket_.”--_Longfellow._

(_b_) The participial phrase may take the place of an adverbial
clause; as, “And, _having once tasted a life like this_, he could no
more return to what he had left behind him.”--_Boyesen._ Here the
participial phrase tells us _why_ he could no more return to what
he had left behind him. If this idea were differently expressed, we
should have either a prepositional phrase modifying the predicate or
an adverbial clause of cause introduced by _since_. But all this does
not make the phrase a grammatical adjunct of the predicate. Instead it
is an adjunct of the subject _he_. If it were expanded into a clause,
the subject _he_ would have to be supplied and the phrase would become
a predicate. Now, as predicate it would tell something about the
subject _he_; and it does not cease to do this when it is changed to a
participial phrase.

In the following sentence from Geikie,--“_Entering the polluted Temple
space, and gazing round on the tumult and manifold defilement_, He
could not remain impassive,” the phrase is plainly equivalent in
meaning to an adverbial clause, telling _when_ (and in some degree
_why_) he could not remain impassive. But grammatically the phrase is
an adjunct of the subject _He_.

Lest it should not be perfectly clear to the reader what particular
relation the participial phrase is intended to denote, the author
often indicates the relation by the same conjunction that he would
use to introduce an adverbial clause; as, “But we must above all
other things take into account, _when considering the position of
the Hindoo_ _Sepoy_, the influence of the tremendous institution of
caste.”--_McCarthy._ Without _when_ the reader’s first thought would be
that the phrase denotes cause.

In this sentence from Cooper,--“But the vessels of which we write,
_though constructed at so remote a period_, would have done credit to
the improvements of our own time,” the concessive phrase might have
been interpreted as causal, if _though_ had not been inserted.

In this sentence from Hamlin Garland,--“Each soul was solemn, _as if
facing the Maker of the world_,” the fact that the phrase denotes
manner is made evident by the conjunction _as if_. Any conjunction used
like _when_, _though_, _as if_ in the sentences quoted, may be said to
introduce the participial phrase and to indicate its relation.

 NOTE.--In all such sentences as the above, where the participial
 phrase is introduced by a subordinating conjunction, it is perfectly
 proper, before analyzing, to supply the words necessary to make the
 participial phrase into an adverbial clause. It is more satisfactory,
 indeed, to do this except in a few cases where such an expansion gives
 a verb that does not harmonize in tense or form of conjugation with
 the verb in the principal proposition; for example, “Though holding
 no office and steadily refusing an election to the Storthing, he has
 been the life and soul of the liberal party.”--_Boyesen._ Here the
 concord of tenses would call for _has held_ and _has refused_ in the
 concessive clause instead of the progressive verb-phrases _has been
 holding_ and _has been refusing_.

(_c_) The absolute phrase as a substitute for a _dependent_
proposition.--In all the preceding examples the substitution of a
participial phrase for a clause was made easy by the fact that the
subject of the clause was the same as the subject of the principal
proposition. When the subject is not the same, the clause is condensed
into what has been termed an _absolute phrase_; as, “Nature, _her
patience with him being ended_, leaves him desolate.”--_Carlyle._

The absolute phrase consists essentially of a substantive and a
participle, having to each other the logical relation of subject and
predicate. In the sentence quoted the phrase is equivalent to the
adverbial clause of cause, _because her patience with him is ended_.
The absolute phrase is usually said to be grammatically independent,
but it is so frequently used as to be a regular English construction
now, and as such may be said to modify the predicate of the principal
proposition.

Notice that it is not a _participial_ phrase that modifies the
predicate; it is an _absolute_ phrase. The participial phrase is only
one of the two equal parts of the absolute phrase; it can hardly be
said to modify the noun, which is the other part, but it stands side by
side with the noun to make an absolute phrase.

The absolute phrase denotes other relations than that of cause. The
most common are concession and time; as, “Was Oliver Cromwell, _his
bitterest enemies themselves being judges_, destitute of private
virtues?”--_Macaulay._ “_Night coming on_, they broke the bolts of the
Town gates.”--_Carlyle._

(_d_) The chief use of the absolute phrase is to take the place of
an independent proposition; thus, “A child of three sat up in his
crib and screamed at the top of his voice, _his fists clinched_ and
_his eyes full of terror_.”--_Kipling._ Here the absolute phrases
have no relation of time, cause, concession, etc., to the principal
proposition, hence are not modifiers. If expanded into propositions
these phrases would only add coördinate thoughts to the first
one--“_His fists were clinched_,” and “_his eyes_ _were full of
terror_.” It is best to call such phrases accompaniments of the
predicate instead of modifiers.

 NOTE.--From the sentence just quoted we learn that the absolute phrase
 does not always contain a participle; it may consist of a substantive
 and an adjective, as in _his eyes full of terror_. We also find
 absolute phrases in which a prepositional phrase takes the place of
 the participle; as, “He left my side, _a summer bloom on his fair
 cheeks_, a smile parting his innocent lips.”--_Miss Mitford._

 It is even possible to make an absolute phrase of two substantives as,
 “Hargreaves and Arkwright, _both Englishmen_, invented and improved
 spinning and weaving machinery.”

 It would be proper to supply the participle _being_ before either the
 adjective, the prepositional phrase, or the noun, but it is best to
 dispose of constructions just as we find them.

A construction parallel to the absolute phrase is found in the
sentence, “Half way up the hill he met Bagheera _with the morning dew
shining like moonstones on his coat_.”--_Kipling._ Here the object of
the preposition _with_ is the whole group of words following it, and
of this group the base-words are the noun _dew_ and the participle
_shining_, which have the logical relation of subject and predicate.
This is a very common construction after the prepositions _with_ and
_without_.

3. The participial phrase often takes the place not of a whole
proposition but only of a predicate; for example, “Westward on the
banks of the Thames, the towers of Westminster Abbey stand _guarding
the ashes of England’s greatest men_.” The meaning here is, the
towers stand _and_ guard; but by means of the participle one of these
predicates is subordinated to the other. The participial phrase is not
so much a complement of the verb _stand_ as an accompaniment of it; at
the same time it tells an attribute of the subject.

A construction seemingly like the one just given, but in reality
different, is found after verbs of _going_ or _coming_. These verbs may
be followed by participles which tell not an accompanying action, but
how the going or coming is accomplished; as, “Sometimes a wandering
leaf came _floating and wavering downward_, and settled on the
water.”--_Longfellow._ This does not mean that the leaf came _and_
floated _and_ wavered, but only that it floated and wavered, and these
actions were the means of its coming. Such a participle is truly a
modifier of the verb.

4. The participle as part of a double object.--After a few verbs like
_keep_, _find_, _see_, _hear_, _feel_, _have_, we find the participle
taking the place of the infinitive in a double object. The participle
is almost always chosen when a passive construction is needed; as, “The
saddle fell to earth, and he heard _it trampled_ under-foot by his
pursuer.”--_Irving._ When the active construction is called for, the
advantage of the participle over the infinitive is that it gives the
idea of longer continuance of the action; as, “Just then he heard _the
black steed panting_ and _blowing_ close behind him.”--_Irving._

The expression _kept me waiting_ is grammatically equivalent to _made
me wait_.

5. There are two constructions of the participle that are quite
different from any of those cited, being deviations from its ordinary
use.

(_a_) The participle used adverbially to denote degree; thus, _boiling_
hot, _stinging_ cold, _dripping_ wet. Here the participles unmistakably
modify adjectives.

(_b_) The participle used independently; thus, “_Speaking of those
yellow squash-bugs_, I think I disheartened them by covering the
plants so deep with soot and wood-ashes that they could not find
them.”--_Warner._ This participial phrase corresponds to the infinitive
phrase used independently, though it is more rarely met.


Exercise 25

Dispose of all participles or participial phrases in the following
sentences.

 1. He was noted for his success in capturing Spanish ships freighted
 with silver from the mines of Mexico and Peru.

 2. They came and went restlessly, sitting down and knocking their
 steel scabbards against the tables, or rising and straddling off with
 their long swords kicking against their legs.--_Howells._

 3. The girths of the saddle gave way and he felt it slipping from
 under him.--_Irving._

 4. The populations of India became stricken with alarm as they saw
 their native princes thus successively dethroned.--_McCarthy._

 5. She was dressed to please her own fancy, evidently, with small
 regard to the modes declared correct by the Rockland milliners and
 mantua-makers.--_Holmes._

 6. Knowing that I have no right to speak here, I ask your
 leave.--_Kipling._

 7. Livingstone taught himself Latin grammar while working at the loom.

 8. These three guineas deducted, I still had nine, or
 thereabouts.--_De Quincey._

 9. Speaking in quite unofficial language, what is the net purpose and
 upshot of war?--_Carlyle._

 10. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole.--_Dickens._

 11. Thus inundated by mighty rivers, quaking beneath the level of the
 ocean, belted about by hirsute forests, this low land, nether land,
 hollow land, or Holland, seemed hardly deserving the arms of the
 all-accomplished Roman.--_Motley._

 12. The writing is a kind of pugilism--the strokes being made straight
 out from the shoulder.--_Howells._

 13. Mother Wolf lay with her big gray nose dropped across her four
 tumbling, squealing cubs, and the moon shone into the mouth of the
 cave where they all lived.--_Kipling._

 14. The schoolmaster now bestowed both whip and heel upon the
 starveling ribs of old Gunpowder, who dashed forward, snuffling and
 snorting.--_Irving._

 15. At last he heard them entering the defile.

 16. Five lakes are spread over the valley, occupying one tenth of its
 surface.--_Prescott._

 17. Mrs. Cratchit made the gravy hissing hot.--_Dickens._

 18. The river was swollen with the long rains.--_Stevenson._

 19. Farms, stripped of their fences and deserted by their owners, had
 for years produced only weeds.--_Greeley._

 20. Granting the horse, granting good companionship, granting a good
 seat, and a pleasant day, a horseback ride certainly does unite all
 the requisites for healthful exercise.--_Hale._

 21. I have sometimes been puzzled in Venice to know why churches
 should keep cats, church-mice being proverbially so poor and so little
 capable of sustaining a cat in good condition.--_Howells._

 22. Her heavy black hair lay in a braided coil, with a long gold pin
 shot through it like a javelin.--_Holmes._

 23. Thirty years ago, Last Island lay steeped in the enormous light of
 even such magical days.--_Hearn._

 24. The tower had just been vacated by the garrison, who, hearing
 of the approach of the Austrians, had fled, leaving their arms,
 consisting of thirty excellent muskets.

 25. And then again a thousand echoes go booming along the iron-bound
 coast.--_Black._

 26. You see it growing gradually less dense.--_Tyndall._

 27. Touching the Giant’s Stairs in the court of the palace, the
 inexecrable dates would not permit me to rest in the delusion that
 the head of Marin Falier had once bloodily stained them as it rolled
 to the ground.--_Howells._

 28. The air was biting and smelled of frost.--_Stevenson._

 29. The wind, roaring round its broad verandas, hissing through every
 crevice with the sound and force of steam, appeared to waste its
 rage.--_Hearn._

 30. Away then they dashed, through thick and thin, stones flying and
 sparks flashing at every bound.--_Irving._

 31. Lying down on the grass, I spoke in my soul to the earth, the sun,
 the air, and the distant sea far beyond sight.--_Jefferies._

 32. Daffodils perished like criminals in their condemned caps without
 their petals ever seeing daylight.--_Holmes._

 33. They advanced singing and shouting their war cries, briskly
 charging the enemy, as rapidly retreating and making use of
 ambuscades, sudden surprises, and the light skirmish of guerilla
 warfare.--_Prescott._

 34. Lost wealth may be replaced by industry, lost knowledge by study,
 lost health by temperance or medicine; but lost time is gone forever.

 35. But today being Saturday rather complicates matters.--_Conan
 Doyle._




CHAPTER XXII

THE GERUND


The gerund, or infinitive in _-ing_, is substantive in its nature, for
like the root infinitive it _names_ the action or state asserted by
the verb. It is not so easily identified in the sentence as the root
infinitive, however, for in form it is precisely like the participle,
from which it has to be distinguished entirely by its use.

=The forms of the gerund= are shown in the following examples:--

1. The transitive verb _see_:

  Active--seeing, having seen.
  Active progressive--having been seeing.
  Passive--being seen, having been seen.

2. The intransitive verb _rise_:

  Common form--rising, having risen.
  Progressive form--having been rising.

=The use of the gerund= is almost entirely restricted to that of the
noun. When found without adjuncts it does not materially differ from
the noun; for example, _Painting_ is a fine art. But usually the
verb-nature of the gerund is prominent as well as its noun-use, for
usually it is accompanied by a complement or adverbial modifiers;
as, “The need of _feeling responsible all the livelong day_ has been
preached long enough in our New England.”--_Wm. James._ The gerund
together with its adjuncts forms a gerund-phrase. It has certain
advantages over the root infinitive. In many places it is preferable
because it gives the idea of an action in progress. It is also
employed in relation to some words where usage does not permit the
root infinitive. Furthermore, its substantive nature comes out more
prominently than that of the root infinitive, for like the noun it may
be modified by an article or a possessive; thus, “Pascal said that most
of the evils of life arose from _man’s being unable to sit still in a
room_.”--_Bagehot._

I. The gerund used as a noun.

1. Subject of a verb; as, “_Lying in bed and listening to their dreary
music_ had a pleasure in it.”--_Holmes._

2. Object of a verb; as, “I remember _being told that it was the sound
of the waves_.”--_Holmes._

3. Objective complement; as, “If a child finds itself in want of
anything it runs in and asks its father for it--does it call that
_doing its father a service_?”--_Ruskin._ Here the gerund phrase helps
to complete the verb _does call_ and at the same time is an attribute
of the direct object _that_.

4. Subjective complement; as, “The first of all English games is
_making money_.”--_Ruskin._

5. Appositive modifier; as, “I recommend this most faithful form of
reading--_learning by heart_.”

6. Object of a preposition; as, “Nelson attributed all his success in
life to _having been a quarter of an hour before his time_.” This is
the commonest use of the gerund, for while the root infinitive may be
used after very few prepositions, the gerund may be used after many.

7. Objective adverbial.--The adjective _worth_ is usually followed by a
noun that expresses a measure of value, answering the question _worth
how much?_ or _worth what?_ It may be followed by a gerund answering
the same question; as, “That is worth _paying for_.”--_Warner._

II. The gerund used adjectively.--We find the gerund used
adjectively in such expressions as _sleeping_-car, _mourning_-robes,
_dining_-table, _eating_-apples. These gerunds seem at first like the
participles in such expressions as _singing_-bird, _shooting_-star,
_barking_-dog; but they are not like participles in meaning, as can
be proved by changing them to equivalent elements of other kinds. A
singing-bird is a bird _that sings_, but a sleeping-car is not a car
that sleeps; it is a car _for sleeping in_.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Peculiar Constructions.=--It cannot always be settled to one’s entire
satisfaction whether a certain element is a participle or a gerund.
In order to decide one must know just how a certain expression came
to be, that is, of what earlier and older form it is a development.
Sometimes it seems impossible to ascertain this. For instance, take the
sentence, “Nanny has been busy ironing this evening.”--_George Eliot._
Is _ironing_ a participle, and does the order of words in this sentence
arise from a transposition of the sentence,--“Nanny, ironing, has been
busy this evening”? Or is _ironing_ a gerund, and is this sentence a
parallel construction with, “Nanny has been busy _at her ironing_ this
evening”? Either interpretation of the sentence is a sensible one.

Another puzzling instance is found in the sentence,--“He was two weeks
learning to use his flippers.”--_Kipling._ Is _learning_ a part of the
progressive verb-phrase _was learning_, and does the sentence mean, “He
was learning to use his flippers during two weeks”? Or is _learning_
a gerund, object of _at_ understood, that is, is the sentence a
parallel construction with this,--“You were a long time _at it_”? One
cannot pronounce with certainty on this point, but must choose the
construction that seems to him most reasonable.


Exercise 26

Dispose of all gerunds or gerund-phrases in the following sentences.

 1. A serious percentage of books are not worth reading at all.--_F.
 Harrison._

 2. After a quarter of an hour’s chipping and hammering with very
 little result, he paused to rest.--_J. Hawthorne._

 3. The cat did not like being whipped, and she was still more annoyed
 at having been caught stealing.--_Old Deccan Days._

 4. Answering of this question is giving us the soul of the history of
 the man or nation.--_Carlyle._

 5. The only drawback to my rejoicing over the finishing of the first
 hoeing is that the garden now wants hoeing the second time.--_Warner._

 6. I wonder when Englishmen will learn these hospitable graces. They
 are worth learning.--_Stevenson._

 7. What was called governing them meant only wearing fine clothes and
 living on good fare at their expense.--_Ruskin._

 8. There are but three ways of living; by working, by stealing or by
 begging.--_Froude._

 9. He spent all the day roaming over the house.--_Kipling._

 10. I believe they find adorning the body a more profitable vocation
 than adorning the mind.--_Miss Mitford._

 11. She promised to befriend him and advised his disguising himself,
 lest the Magician should see him and turn him likewise into
 stone.--_Old Deccan Days._

 12. The buying a new coat is as to the cost of it a much more
 important matter of consideration to me than building a new Exchange
 is to you.--_Ruskin._

 13. She had been busy all the morning making tea-bread and
 sponge-cakes.--_Mrs. Gaskell._

 14. It is not the finding of a thing, but the making something out of
 it after it is found, that is of consequence.--_Lowell._

 15. A perfectly truthful man, who loves truth for its own sake, is not
 contented with being as truthful as other people.--_J. F. Clarke._

 16. It’ll be no use their putting their heads down and saying, “Come
 up again, dear!”--_Lewis Carroll._


Exercise 27

Analyze the following sentences:--

 1. Miss Binson was, to quote her neighbors, a little too
 sharp-set.--_Miss Jewett._

 2. On she came, swaying, rocking, plunging, with a great whiteness
 wrapping her about like a cloud, and moving with her moving.--_Hearn._

 3. A mind must work to grow.--_C. W. Eliot._

 4. Everybody loves to hear of strange cases; people are eager to
 tell the doctor of the wonderful cures they have heard of; they want
 to know what is the matter with somebody or other who is said to be
 suffering from a complication of diseases, and above all to get a hard
 name, Greek or Latin, for some complaint which sounds altogether too
 commonplace in plain English.--_Holmes._

 5. And at the same time he hated having to break with old
 associations, and to part from anything to which he had been long
 accustomed.--_Ainger._

 6. It paused there an instant, with its fore quarters in the doorway,
 one fore foot raised, the end of its long tail waving.--_J. L. Allen._

 7. To have what we want is riches, but to be able to do without is
 power.--_MacDonald._

 8. The sergeants, seeing these things, told him secrets generally hid
 from young officers.--_Kipling._

 9. Children learn to speak by watching the lips and catching the words
 of those who know how already.--_Lowell._

 10. Strength of will is the power to resist, to persist, to endure, to
 attack, to conquer obstacles, to snatch success from the jaws of death
 and despair.--_J. F. Clarke._

 11. The waves of yesterday are gone today; and the calm of today will
 be tumultuous tomorrow.--_Beecher._

 12. To suffer and to do, that was thy portion in this life.--_De
 Quincey._

 13. The city seems to burst into song with the advent of these golden
 days and silver nights.--_Howells._

 14. To tell the truth, the day was so fine that he regretted going
 in-doors.--_A. S. Hardy._

 15. It (_education_) meant the leading along the baby till he became
 the quick, honest, and fearless boy.--_Hale._

 16. The potato, usually planted in the vegetable mold left by recently
 exterminated forests, yielded its edible tubers with a bounteous
 profusion unknown to the husbandry of our day.--_Greeley._

 17. Born in the country he was ignorant as a sign-post of what came
 out of the soil.--_J. T. Fields._

 18. It is a great deal better to live a holy life than to talk about
 it.--_Moody._

 19. An hour’s reading of these newspaper paragraphs made a boy’s heart
 sick within him and caused a resolve to shoot up in it that he would
 turn him right about and classify him in future with quite a different
 order of boys.--_Annie Preston._

 20. He was never known to laugh.--_Irving._

 21. He must have had rather dull feelings not to have looked forward
 with some interest to her entrance into the room.--_George Eliot._

 22. The strength of the British Empire lies in the strength
 of character of the individual Englishman taken all alone by
 himself.--_Wm. James._

 23. For a time he was afraid of being dropped; then he grew
 angry, but he knew better than to struggle; and then he began to
 think.--_Kipling._

 24. Artists, poets, and musicians are apt to be irritable.--_J. F.
 Clarke._

 25. The best way to put boyishness to shame is to foster scholarship
 and manliness.--_C. W. Eliot._

 26. At any rate, I used to hide my eyes from the sloops and schooners
 that were wont to lie at the end of the bridge.--_Holmes._

 27. We were dismayed to behold the injured husband and his abandoned
 foe playfully scuffling behind the scenes.--_Howells._

 28. He was always being cured without improving his
 health.--_Stephen._

 29. What distinguishes the Norseman above other nations is,
 generally speaking, an indestructible self-respect and force of
 individuality.--_Boyesen._

 30. He was too shackled with weakness to cry out, to stand up.--_J. L.
 Allen._

 31. He had spent half his youth with an older brother hunting horses
 in Texas.--_Hale._

 32. Those who work deserve to eat; those who do not work deserve to
 starve.--_Froude._

 33. At present the penny was doubly dear to him, having been long lost
 and lately found.--_Barrie._

 34. Sunday is coming to stand for perspiration, not
 inspiration.--_Hillis._

 35. The art of knowing when one is needed is more difficult than that
 of helping.--_A. S. Hardy._

 36. I cannot but think that the tennis and tramping and skating habits
 and the bicycle craze, which are so rapidly extending among our dear
 sisters and daughters in this country, are going also to lead to a
 sounder and heartier moral tone, which will send its tonic breath
 through all our American life.--_Wm. James._




CHAPTER XXIII

THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE


=Function.=--No other sentence-element is more frequently employed
or more useful for the precise expression of thought than the
prepositional phrase. By its aid we can define exactly the scope of a
noun, a verb, or an adjective. This is due not to the great number of
prepositions in the English language, for there are not a hundred in
all, but to the many different relations that may be denoted by one
preposition. A striking illustration of this is found in the following
sentence:

“One of the useful and grateful tasks of historians and biographers is
to bring forward to the eye of every new generation of men and women
those illustrious characters who made a great figure in the days of
their grandfathers and grandmothers, yet who have nearly faded out of
sight in the rush of new events and interests, and the rise of new
stars in the intellectual firmament.”--_Lord._

Here we find the preposition _of_ used eight times and expressing
almost as many different relations. The first of-phrase, _of the useful
and grateful tasks of historians and biographers_, serves to point out
the whole group or class of things from which the one thing talked
about is selected. The second phrase, _of historians and biographers_,
limits _tasks_ by telling who performed these tasks. The third phrase
_of every new generation of men and women_, limits _eyes_ by telling
whose eyes are meant. The fourth phrase, _of men and women_, limits the
application of the noun _generation_ to human beings only, and brings
in the nouns _men_ and _women_ to serve as antecedents of the pronoun
_their_ later in the sentence. The fifth phrase, _of their grandfathers
and grandmothers_, specifies what days by locating them in the past.
The sixth phrase _out of sight_, has the preposition _of_ reinforced
by _out_ so that the two words are equivalent to _from_, and thus the
phrase denotes not only place but movement away from it. The seventh
phrase, _of new events and interests_, and the eighth, _of new stars_,
are alike in function; they tell what things _rush_ and _rise_.

Every one of these phrases except _out of sight_ modifies a noun;
but just as often a phrase introduced by _of_ modifies a verb or an
adjective. As soon as we hear the adjectives _capable_, _full_, _glad_,
_jealous_, _proud_, _rid_, _sure_, _weary_, do we not expect an answer
to the question, _capable of what? full of what? glad of what?_ etc.
And do we not usually find such verbs as _borrow_, _buy_, _complain_,
_cure_, _make_, _smell_, _speak_, _taste_, _tell_, _think_, _warn_,
followed by an of-phrase?

What is true of the extensive use of _of_ is no less true of other
prepositions,--_at_, _by_, _from_, _in_, _on_, _to_, _with_; while
there are some whose use is much more limited,--_across_, _after_,
_before_, _up_, _toward_.

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Prepositional Phrase used Adjectively.=--We say of prepositional
phrases that they are adjective or adverbial, according to what they
modify--nouns, verbs, or adjectives. We have seen from the sentence
quoted how freely the prepositional phrase may be joined to a noun,
and how many different relations it may express. Let us see now what
sentence-elements this adjective prepositional phrase takes the place
of.

In the following sentence from Geikie,--“The stay of Jesus in Capernaum
at this time was very short,” the phrase _of Jesus_ takes the place of
the possessive noun _Jesus’s_. It is better than the possessive here,
not so much because this particular possessive is an awkward form as
because _stay_ is the more important word and should have the prominent
place at the beginning of the sentence.

In Higginson’s sentence,--“Yet he has found readers at all periods
alike among men of thought and men of action,” the phrases _of
thought_ and _of action_ take the place of the adjectives _thinking_
and _active_. But the adjectives, preceding their nouns, seem less
important than the nouns; while the phrases, coming after the nouns,
imply that the contrasted words _thought_ and _action_ contain the more
important ideas.

In Boyesen’s sentence,--“According to Norwegian law at that time, every
son of a king was entitled to his share of the kingdom,” the phrase
_at that time_ is a substitute for the clause, _which was operative at
that time_; but it is preferable, not only for brevity, but because it
makes the modifier less prominent,--it is not forced upon the reader’s
attention as it would be by a subject and predicate.

We may well repeat here what was said in one of our first chapters,
that several different elements may be exact equivalents before they
are in a sentence, but as soon as we desire to make use of one of them
for the communication of thought, they are not equivalent--one of them
will almost invariably serve our turn better than the other. _Thinking_
men, men _of thought_, men _who think_ are identical in meaning, but in
a sentence the special setting of these expressions, the accompanying
ideas, will determine which most clearly and precisely conveys our
meaning and should therefore be used.

Besides modifying a noun, the adjective prepositional phrase
may complete an intransitive verb; as, “My march was _of long
duration_.”--_Audubon._ “All these writers are _of a revolutionary
cast_.”--_De Quincey._ “All the floors in Venice are _of
stone_.”--_Howells._ In sentences like these the phrase denotes an
attribute of the subject. It is usually employed because there is no
adjective that expresses so well the precise meaning.

The adjective _long_, if used in the first sentence quoted, would
imply that the march was long in space, in miles traversed, but the
phrase means only that it consumed much time.

The adjective _revolutionary_, if used in the second sentence, might be
interpreted to mean that the writers belong to a revolutionary period,
or that they are decidedly in favor of revolution; but the phrase means
only that they have a leaning toward revolutionary ideas.

In the third sentence the noun _stone_ used adjectively would be to the
general reader an exact equivalent of the phrase _of stone_.

 NOTE.--Occasionally we find a prepositional phrase completing a verb
 and seeming more like a noun complement than an adjective; as, “A
 common means of transportation was _in clumsy carts drawn by oxen
 going at the most but three or four miles an hour_.”--_Draper._

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Prepositional Phrase used Adverbially.=--The prepositional phrase
often modifies a verb or an adjective, and may modify an adverb. As a
verb modifier it may denote the various relations denoted by clauses,
though place, time, and manner are the most common; as, “They come in
the summer months by hundreds and hundreds of thousands out of the cold
gray sea.”--_Kipling._ Here we have three phrases modifying _come_,
introduced by _in_, _by_, and _out of_, and denoting respectively time,
manner, and place.

The prepositional phrase of place tells,--(_a_) where an action occurs
or a condition exists; as, “Herring appear in immense schools _off the
coast of Norway and the northern shores of the British Isles_”; (_b_)
whence an action proceeds; (_c_) whither an action tends. Both of these
last we find in the sentence,--

  “_From underneath an aged oak,
  That slanted from an islet rock_,
  A little skiff shot _to the bay_.”--_Scott._

The prepositional phrase of time may denote almost all the relations
denoted by the adverbial clause of time, and several of the words used
as conjunctions to introduce those clauses, such as _after_, _before_,
_since_, _till_, were originally prepositions and are still employed as
such.

The prepositional phrase of manner is found quite as often as the
adverb of manner; for example, “He had fired with great rapidity yet
with surprising accuracy.” If adverbs had been used here the sentence
would read, “He had fired very rapidly yet surprisingly accurately.”
The combination of the last two adverbs is exceedingly awkward.

When a prepositional phrase modifies an adjective it generally serves
to limit its application by denoting the particular respect in which
its meaning is to be considered; thus, “Our fathers emerged from their
arduous, protracted, desolating Revolutionary struggle, rich indeed _in
hope_, but poor _in worldly goods_.”--_Greeley._ Here the phrases tell
in what particular our fathers were _rich_ and _poor_.

 NOTE.--The prepositional phrase may modify the interjection _alas_,
 which is equivalent to the assertion _I am sorry_; thus, “One may
 believe that the golden age is behind us or before us, but alas for
 the forlorn wisdom of him who rejects it altogether.”--_Higginson._

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Prepositional Phrase used Substantively.=--We often find a
prepositional phrase used as the object of a preposition. This gives
rise to a succession of two prepositions like _from among_, _from
beneath_, _until within_, _till_ _after_. Some grammarians treat these
as one compound preposition, but it seems to us best to consider them
separately.

In the following sentence from Bolles,--“The river came from between
abrupt, rocky walls,” the phrase _between abrupt, rocky walls_ denotes
a place that no noun in the language names, hence the phrase is
employed to name the place, and as such a name it is the object of the
preposition _from_.

It is very common for the preposition _except_ or _but_ (meaning
_except_) to be followed by a prepositional phrase used as its object;
thus, “Nobody comes to Novastoshnah except on business.”--_Kipling._
“No great art ever yet rose on earth but among a nation of
soldiers.”--_Ruskin._ A phrase of this sort is usually preceded by some
negative expression, and is necessary to the truth of the sentence,
as it brings in a reservation or exception to some sweeping negative
statement.

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Prepositional Phrase in an Absolute Phrase.=--The prepositional
phrase, as we saw in Chapter XXI., is sometimes used with a noun to
form an absolute phrase. It is not then an ordinary adjective modifier
of the noun, but is more like a predicated attribute, the verb being
omitted. It may be called an appositive modifier of the noun; for
example,

  “’Tis written that the serving angels stand
  Beside God’s throne, _ten myriads on each hand_.”--_E. Arnold._

The participle is omitted from the absolute phrase in such a sentence
because it can readily be supplied by the reader from the verb in the
predicate. It is always mentally supplied for the interpretation of
the sentence, but it need not be supplied for its analysis.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Object of a Preposition.=--The word or group of words that is brought
into relation to some other word by a preposition is called the object
of the preposition. It is always a substantive, but not always a noun
or pronoun. Some of the common substitutes for the noun are the gerund,
the prepositional phrase, and the noun clause. The prepositional phrase
in this use we have just discussed. The gerund and the noun clause were
discussed in Chapters XXII. and VII. respectively.

All of the above are regular constructions, but there are a few
peculiar stereotyped phrases in the language, made up of a preposition
and an adjective or adverb; as, _from far_, _at all_, _at once_, _at
the best_. It is wiser in such a case not to separate the phrase into
any component parts, but to think of it and treat it as if it were one
word.

Sometimes a preposition is associated with a verb or verbal in such
a way as not to require an object. Such a construction is usually
passive or infinitive; for example, “I was going to say something
about our boarders the other day, when I got _run away with_ by my
local reminiscences.”--_Holmes._ “Those who are still in a state to
require _being taken care of_ by others must be protected against
their own actions as well as against external injury.”--_Mill._ “One
child in a household of grown people _is_ usually _made very much
of_, and in a quiet way I _was a good deal taken notice of_ by Mrs.
Bretton.”--_Brontë._

Prepositions so used may sometimes be considered as adverbs, as in the
expressions, _money to do with, firesides to sit at_; but oftener it
is impossible to separate them from the verb-phrase or verbal-phrase of
which they form a part. They help to express the one notion denoted by
a whole group of words and have not the function of any part of speech.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Peculiar Prepositions.=--Some words originally participles have a use
so much resembling that of prepositions that they are no longer thought
of as verbals, but have come to be considered prepositions. Some of
these are _regarding_, _concerning_, _during_, _excepting_; as, “Our
judgments concerning the worth of things, big or little, depend on the
feelings the things arouse in us.”--_Wm. James._

Some combinations of words, like _as to_, _out of_, _instead of_,
_according to_, _owing to_, are now regarded as single prepositions.
They express a single relation, and often one word may be substituted
for them; as, “You drive a gambler out of the gambling room who loads
dice.”--_Ruskin._ “The Prince of Orange had not been consulted as to
the formation of the league.”--_Motley._

       *       *       *       *       *

=Is “Like” a Preposition?=--It is not uncommon to find both verbs and
nouns taking as an adjunct a phrase introduced by _like_; for example,

“That hand was cold, a frozen thing,--it dropped from his _like
lead_.”--_Mrs. Hemans._

“Now and then he would see a thin fin, _like a big shark’s fin_,
drifting along close to shore.”--_Kipling._

In such a phrase there is always a substantive, and if this is changed
to a personal pronoun we find that it is in the objective case; for
example, “A writer is so like a lover.”--_Holmes._ Substituting a
pronoun for _lover_ we find that usage calls for the objective form
_him_. Does this prove that _like_ is a preposition and _him_ its
object?

There is authority in dictionaries and grammars for calling _like_ a
preposition, and this is certainly both simple and convenient; but
sometimes it leads us into difficulties. In the sentence,--“He walks
more like a soldier than a priest,” shall we say that the preposition
_like_ is compared? In the sentence,--“It is very like a whale,” shall
we say that the preposition _like_ is modified by the adverb _very_,
a word that we expect to modify only adjectives and adverbs? In the
sentence,--“Like to an angel of peace she seemed that day,” how shall
we dispose of _to_ if we call _like_ a preposition governing _angel_?

If we go back to the writings of Milton and Shakespeare, we find
the words _liker_ and _likest_, showing plainly that in their time
_like_ was looked upon as an adjective or adverb. We often find, too,
the preposition _to_ or _unto_ expressed after _like_. It is best,
therefore, to dispose of _like_ as an adjective, meaning _similar_,
when it introduces a phrase modifying a noun or completing a verb;
and as an adverb, when the phrase modifies a verb. It will then be
necessary to supply the preposition _to_ or _unto_.

Words whose use much resembles that of _like_ are _near_ and its
comparative and superlative forms, _nearer_, _nearest_ and _next_; as,
“Near the foot of the walls there are magnificent groves of live oaks
and pines.”--_Muir._

In this sentence we consider _near_ an adverb, modified by a phrase
introduced by _to_ understood. Indeed, the preposition is very often
expressed; for example, “It was next _to_ impossible for a peasant or
artisan or even a merchant to pass that line.”--_Lord._

A construction similar to this is found in the sentence, “To be the
supreme authority in anything is a satisfaction to self-love next
door to the precious delusions of dementia.”--_Holmes._ Here _next
door_ takes the place of _next_. It should be treated as one adjective
element modifying _satisfaction_ and itself modified by the adverbial
propositional phrase following it.

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Prepositional Phrase modified.=--We sometimes find a prepositional
phrase accompanied by an adverb or by a noun used adverbially, as a
sort of measure; thus, “Before his father and mother died, they had
built, some way from their palace, a very beautiful temple.”--_Old
Deccan Days._ In this sentence the verb _built_ is modified by the
phrase _some way from their palace_, the base of this being the
prepositional phrase _from their palace_; this phrase is modified by
_some way_, a noun element used adverbially to answer the question _how
far from their palace?_

In this sentence from John Lord,--“Why did no great scholars arise,
even in the church?” the adverb _even_ modifying the phrase _in the
church_ has a very important office. Its presence in the sentence
entirely changes the meaning. Without _even_, the sentence would tell
us that no great scholars arose in one place, the church; but with
_even_ the sentence tells us that no great scholars arose anywhere, and
that it was very strange that they did not arise in the church, where
we should naturally expect to find them.

Two prepositional phrases joined by _and_ are often each modified by
the adverb _partly_, or even by the pronoun _what_ used adverbially.
_What_ may also modify one prepositional phrase; thus, “What with
teaching others and studying closely myself, I had hardly a spare
moment.”

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Preposition modified.=--So many prepositions were originally
adverbs or may be used as adverbs, that it is not strange to find
them taking adverbial modifiers. Hence we frequently meet such
a succession of words as _ever since_, _just outside_, _right
over_; as, “A horticulturist of eminence wanted me to sow lines of
strawberries and raspberries right over where I had put my potatoes in
drills.”--_Warner._

       *       *       *       *       *

=Position of the Preposition.=--The word _preposition_, meaning _placed
before_, implies that this part of speech precedes its object, but this
it not always the case. It is not uncommon in poetry to find the phrase
inverted; for example,

  “Pleasant it was when woods were green,
      And winds were soft and low,
    To lie amid some sylvan scene,
  Where, _the long drooping boughs between_,
  Shadows dark and sunlight sheen
      Alternate come and go.”--_Longfellow._

We find the transposition, too, in the familiar expressions _the year
round_, _the night through_, _the world over_; as, “The evergreens can
keep a secret the year round, some one has said.”--_Burroughs._

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Prepositional Phrase as an Abridgment of a Proposition.=--In the
chapter on the adverbial clause of degree we found that the clause
as expressed frequently consists only of the conjunction and a
prepositional phrase; as, “The force of the wind had never been greater
_than at this moment_.” We cannot give a satisfactory analysis of such
a sentence without supplying after _than_ the subject _it_ and the verb
_was_. It is best also to supply where a clause of manner has been
abridged; as, “The scene changed _as at a theatre_.”

But there are sentences in which propositions have been abridged to
prepositional phrases and no ellipsis can be supplied; for example, “In
manner he was quiet and gentlemanlike, _with the natural courtesy of
high breeding_.”--_Froude._ In this sentence the phrase is equivalent
to an independent proposition joined to the first proposition by
the conjunction _and_,--“_and he had the natural courtesy of high
breeding_.” Such a phrase may be described as an accompaniment of the
predicate rather than a modifier of any word in it.


Exercise 28

Dispose of all prepositional phrases in the following sentences.

 1. One object of the celebration was to obtain the means of raising a
 monument to Clive in his native country.--_McCarthy._

 2. Next to deciding when to start your garden, the most important
 matter is, what to put in it.--_Warner._

 3. The monument is clearly right as to the year of his
 death.--_Lowell._

 4. It ran north from Jerusalem, past Bethel, between the height
 of Libana on the left hand, and of Shiloh on the right, entering
 Samaria at the south end of the beautiful valley, which further north
 stretches past the foot of Mounts Gerizim and Ebal.--_Geikie._

 5. The last time he had seen her was at a brother mason’s
 marriage.--_Dr. John Brown._

 6. Hendry slowly pulled out his boots from beneath the
 table.--_Barrie._

 7. At that time he used to preach in a little church something like a
 barn.--_George Eliot._

 8. Just outside this room Sylvia met with a little adventure.--_M. A.
 H. Clarke._

 9. Moreover, he found that the parrots, instead of being an expense,
 were the means of increasing his fortune.--_Old Deccan Days._

 10. Indeed, but for the discovery of the capacities of the
 chrysanthemum, modern life would have experienced a fatal hitch in its
 development.--_Warner._

 11. Their wives never came to the island until late in May or early in
 June.--_Kipling._

 12. His head was small, and flat at top, with huge ears, large
 green glassy eyes, and a long snipe nose, so that it looked like a
 weathercock perched upon his spindle neck to tell which way the wind
 blew.--_Irving._

 13. We cannot transform the world except very slowly.--_Higginson._

 14. It was near the close of a bright summer afternoon that I visited
 this celebrated spot for the first time.--_Longfellow._

 15. No well-endowed clergy were on the alert to quit their cathedrals
 and set up a pompous hierarchy in the frozen wilderness.--_Everett._

 16. Mowgli repeated with the Kite’s whistle at the end of the
 sentence.--_Kipling._

 17. We are continually assuming that nations become strong according
 to their numbers.--_Ruskin._

 18. Owing to circumstances over which he had had entire control, the
 Colonel’s reputation--either as a promoter or as anything else--was of
 a sort that no longer could be trifled with.--_Janvier._

 19. Now, notwithstanding this state of his own feelings, he had never
 made a declaration in so many words to Miss Wilkins.--_R. M. Johnston._

 20. She was seated across a donkey between a pair of glittering
 milk-cans; and, as she went, she kicked jauntily with her heels
 upon the donkey’s side, and scattered shrill remarks among the
 wayfarers.--_Stevenson._

 21. He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his
 tail, but quite like a weasel in his head and his habits.--_Kipling._

 22. The critical moment of the day as regards the weather is at
 sunrise and sunset.--_Burroughs._

 23. I am going to take it for granted now and henceforth.--_Holmes._

 24. His spare frame shook, and his knees knocked against each other as
 in an ague fit.--_R. H. Dana, Sr._

 25.  Who of this crowd tonight shall tread
        The dance till daylight gleam again?--_Bryant._

 26. Longfellow was exquisitely sensitive to the beautiful.

 27. It cannot be brought from far.--_Webster._

 28. Nay, the hunger and the cold and the whistling bullets have
 brought pleasant messages to many a man before now.--_Ruskin._

 29. From this time forth he is an outlaw, hunted over field and
 fell, and roaming with untold sufferings through the mountains and
 wilderness.--_Boyesen._

 30. Just at that moment the moon shone out from behind a cloud.--_Old
 Deccan Days._

 31. She was dressed in plain dull black, save for a sort of dark blue
 kerchief which was folded across her bosom.--_H. James._

 32. Until very lately, the promenaders in the Piazza were exclusively
 foreigners, or else the families of such government officials as were
 obliged to show themselves there.--_Howells._

 33. Just then he heard the black steed panting and blowing close
 behind him.--_Irving._

 34. And people remembered her mother, how silent she had been, and how
 patient, and how like to what Mona was, and they said now, as they had
 said long ago, “She’s going down the steep places.”--_Caine._

 35. The causes of this change lie partly in the altered character of
 the whole world’s civilization, partly in the increasing poverty of
 the city.--_Howells._




CHAPTER XXIV

THE APPOSITIVE PHRASE


=Function.=--As a means of avoiding a predication, perhaps no other
sentence-element is oftener employed than the appositive phrase; as,
“They have the genius for hard work--_the most desirable kind of
genius_.” The appositive is a very loosely joined adjunct, but its
position in the sentence and the frequency of its use make its relation
easily intelligible.

The appositive phrase comes about in this way. The sentence quoted
above really amounts to two independent propositions; namely, They have
the genius for hard work, and, The genius for hard work is the most
desirable kind of genius. These propositions joined into a closely
built sentence with proper subordination might read thus,--They have
the genius for hard work, which is the most desirable kind of genius.
Here we have an unrestrictive adjective clause.

The important part of this clause, the only part that adds anything
new to the sentence, is the complement, _the most desirable kind of
genius_. The subject _which_ merely represents a previous word, and the
verb _is_ is only a link between the subject and its attribute, the
complement. These two words help in the grammatical structure of the
proposition, but since they are easily supplied by a reader, they may
just as well be omitted, as in fact is often the case. This brings the
really important words into a position next to what they explain or
describe, but without any relation-words between them. A group of words
so used is called an appositive phrase. The base-word of the phrase,
usually a noun, is called a noun in apposition.

In general the appositive is not a necessary element of the sentence.
So far as the truth of the statement and the grammatical structure of
the sentence are concerned, it may be omitted. Sometimes, however, it
is joined to a noun to point out a special individual or class, when it
resembles the restrictive adjective clause; as, “It is quite true that
practical life is a kind of long, competitive examination, conducted by
that severe pedagogue, Professor Circumstance.”--_Huxley._

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Base-Word of an Appositive Phrase.=--When the base-word of an
appositive phrase is a noun, it gives another name for something,
and so makes that thing more fully known by revealing another of
its attributes; as, “We turn to commemorate the genius and virtues
of John Milton, the poet, the statesman, the philosopher, the glory
of English literature, the champion and the martyr of English
liberty.”--_Macaulay._

Attributes are just as often told by adjectives as by nouns, hence we
find many appositive adjectives; as,

“At the first glimpse he thought it a dog--_long, lean, skulking,
prowling, tawny_--on the scent of his tracks.”--_J. L. Allen._ The
adjectives are an abridgment of an unrestrictive adjective clause, just
as appositive nouns are.

Besides the noun and the adjective, the base-word of an appositive
phrase may be,--

(_a_) A reflexive pronoun; as, “The old Professor _himself_ sometimes
visited the house after it had changed hands.”--_Holmes._ This pronoun
does not explain or describe in the least. It is put into the sentence
for emphasis.

(_b_) A personal pronoun. This forms a convenient word to add a phrase
or clause to; as,

  “How good it was of him
      To mind a slender man like me,
  _He of the mighty limb_.”--_Holmes._

(_c_) A pronominal adjective. This does not explain. It has not
sufficient meaning in itself for that. Like the personal pronoun it
is to be modified by some phrase or other sentence-element that has
meaning; as, “On a gently rising ground in the heart of the city
rises St. Paul’s, _one_ of the largest churches in the world, and a
masterpiece of Wren, _one_ of the greatest architects.” In neither
place here does _one_ mean anything until it is modified by the phrase
telling class.

Such an appositive may serve many purposes. In the following sentence
from Lowell, “The poetry of the Danes was _much of it_ authentic
history,” it narrows the scope of what it modifies,--_the poetry of the
Danes_.

(_d_) The infinitive. See Chapter XX.

(_e_) The gerund. See Chapter XXII.

(_f_) The participle. When a participial phrase is clearly an
abridgment of an unrestrictive adjective clause, it may be said to be
in apposition; as,

  “All are architects of Fate,
  _Working in these walls of Time_.”--_Longfellow._

(_g_) The noun clause. See Chapter VII.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Words that take an Appositive Modifier.=--The appositive is usually
added to a noun, but not always. A pronoun may be made definite in
its application by an appositive; thus, “_We_ are doing the English
cathedral towns, _Aunt Celia and I_.”--_Mrs. Wiggin._

 NOTE.--In the following sentence from Wordsworth,--

  “But oh, ye fountains, meadows, hills, and groves,
  Forebode not any severing of our loves,”

 many would consider the nouns in the first line as appositives of
 _ye_. It seems better to consider _ye_ as filling the office of a
 limiting adjective. If we spoke _about_ the fountains, we would say
 _these fountains_; speaking _to_ them it is usage to employ the
 pronoun _ye_ in the place of _these_.

Occasionally we find an adjective, adverb, phrase, or clause, explained
by some sort of appositive; as, “Active and sprightly people are
called _mercurial_, that is, _born under the planet Mercury_.” Here a
participial phrase is in apposition with the adjective _mercurial_.

The appositive may even be used to explain a predicate, a use in
which it very much resembles one use of the adjective clause; as,
“The surplus beyond what was required for the support of the national
worship was distributed in alms among the poor; _a duty strenuously
prescribed by their moral code_.”--_Prescott._

       *       *       *       *       *

=Introductory Word.=--The appositive is frequently introduced or
brought into the sentence by such words or expressions as _namely_,
_to wit_, _as_, _that is_, _or, in other words_; as, “The whale is a
mammal, _that is_, a warm-blooded, air-breathing animal that suckles
its young.”

The introductory _as_ is useful in limiting the application of a noun,
signifying that it is to be considered only to the extent denoted by
the appositive; as, “To the Esquimaux, the auk, _as an article of
food_, is second in importance only to the seal.”

With this restrictive office _as_ often introduces an appositive to
a possessive pronoun; as, “As _masters your_ first object must be to
increase your power.”--_Ruskin._ It will readily be seen that _masters_
is an appositive of _your_ if the sentence is changed thus, “The first
object of you, as masters, must be, etc.”

_Such as_ or _as_ often brings in the names of several individuals
belonging to a certain class; thus, “The leaves and tender twigs are an
agreeable food to many domestic animals, _as_ the cow, horse, sheep,
and goat.”--_Thoreau._

A noun whose meaning is broad may have two appositives, specific in
meaning, joined by _or_ and introduced by _whether_; as, “There is
always something to see about a church, _whether living worshipers or
dead men’s tombs_.”--_Stevenson._

       *       *       *       *       *

=Case and Number of the Noun in Apposition.=--The appositive noun is
usually in the same case as the noun it explains, but often when it
is joined to a possessive noun, the possessive case ending is dropped
from the first noun for the sake of euphony, and added only to the
appositive.

In number an appositive usually agrees with its noun, but not always;
for example, “The _priests_ were _each_ devoted to the service of some
particular deity.”

       *       *       *       *       *

=Position of the Appositive Phrase.=--Usually the appositive follows
immediately the group of words it explains; but sometimes the two are
separated by intervening words; thus, “_These votive pictures_ are no
less interesting _as works of art_ than as expressions of hopeless
superstition.”--_Howells._

Sometimes the appositive begins a sentence; as,

  “_One burnished sheet of living gold_,
  Loch Katrine lay beneath him rolled.”--_Scott._

“_Calm, strong, and nobly aglow with love of country_, he has no need
of going into paroxysms in order to prove his sincerity.”--_Boyesen._


Exercise 29

Dispose of all appositives in the following sentences.

 1. As a composition the Declaration is Mr. Jefferson’s.--_Webster._

 2. There is one topic peremptorily forbidden to all well-bred, to all
 rational mortals, namely, their distempers.--_Emerson._

 3. Long before I had dealings with him, I knew him by the superb song,
 or rather incantation, with which he announced his coming on the Grand
 Canal.--_Howells._

 4. He made his Masque what it ought to be, essentially lyrical and
 dramatic only in semblance.--_Macaulay._

 5. Do I not remember the time when I myself haunted the
 station?--_Stevenson._

 6. Grandchild of Henri Quatre, niece of Louis XIII., cousin of Louis
 XIV., first princess of the blood, and with the largest income in the
 nation (500,000 livres) to support these dignities, Mademoiselle was
 certainly born in the purple.--_Higginson._

 7. Two kinds of men make good teachers--young men and men who never
 grow old.--_C. W. Eliot._

 8. Devils, thicker than tiles on housetops, scare him not from his
 work.--_Motley._

 9. Unostentatious illustrations of divine power, such as healing the
 sick, opening the eyes of the blind, or the ears of the deaf, were not
 enough.--_Geikie._

 10. Punctuality must be cultivated by all who would succeed in any
 calling, whether lofty or humble.

 11. The old Norse poets were many of them natives of
 Iceland.--_Carlyle._

 12. The bold assertions of these people have of late impressed a
 large portion of the public with an opinion that James the Second was
 expelled simply because he was a Catholic, and that the Revolution was
 essentially a Protestant Revolution.--_Macaulay._

 13. Restless, sleepless, unable to read, tired of sitting, driven
 on by the desire to get rid of his own thoughts, he started out to
 walk.--_J. L. Allen._

 14. We none of us spoke of money, because that subject savored
 of commerce and trade, and though some might be poor we were all
 aristocratic.--_Mrs. Gaskell._

 15. The question must have raised the sense of His supreme right as
 consecrated Son of God.--_Geikie._

 16. The refined formality with which the literary product of Provence
 is for the most part stamped as with a trade mark, was doubtless
 the legacy of Gallo-Roman culture, itself at best derivative and
 superficial.--_Lowell._

 17. This was Blomidon, simple, majestic, inspiring.--_Bolles._

 18. He was an accomplished scholar intimately acquainted with the
 languages and literatures of continental Europe.

 19. They have all had a truth in them or men would not have taken them
 up.--_Carlyle._

 20. You Americans, he said, wear too much expression on your
 faces.--_Wm. James._


Exercise 30

Analyze the following sentences.

 1. Throughout this period, Rousseau was, for the last time in his
 life, at peace with most of his fellows.--_Morley._

 2. In life it is difficult to say who does the most mischief--enemies
 with the worst intentions, or friends with the best.--_Bulwer._

 3. For men of force are generally men of faults.

 4. Close under the eastern foot of Gerizim, at the opening of the side
 valley from the wide plain, on a slight knoll, a mile and a half from
 the town, surrounded now by stones and broken pillars, is Jacob’s
 Well.--_Geikie._

 5. Prudence had kept him away from the other girl, but he was feeling
 a great want; some one to applaud him.--_Barrie._

 6. Self-reliance, self-restraint, self-control, self-direction, these
 constitute an educated will.--_J. F. Clarke._

 7. The aspect of the venerable mansion has always affected me like a
 human countenance.--_Hawthorne._

 8.   Farewell, ye vanishing flowers, that shone
      In my fairy wreath, so bright and brief.--_Moore._

 9. What was it that filled the ears of the prophets of old but
 the distant tread of foreign armies, coming to do the work of
 justice?--_George Eliot._

 10. A woman kept the summer school, sharp, precise, unsympathetic,
 keen and untiring.--_Beecher._

 11.  The street-lamps always burn; but scarce a casement
      In house or palace front from roof to basement
      Doth glow or gleam athwart the mirk air cast.--_James Thomson._

 12. Men dress their children’s minds as they do their bodies, in the
 prevailing fashion.--_Spencer._

 13. The choice of Capernaum by Jesus as his future center was
 significant.--_Geikie._

 14. But his marvelous moral beauty, even as a child, attracted the
 attention of the Emperor Hadrian.--_Lord._

 15. Facts and the consequences of facts draw the writer back to
 the falconer’s lure from the giddiest heights of speculation.--_De
 Quincey._

 16. The northern curve of the rock basin’s wall was broken by a narrow
 perpendicular rift, reaching from the sky down to within sixty or
 eighty feet of the surface of the pool.--_Bolles._

 17. She starts, and is lost sight of round the cliff, gone straight
 away for the very ends of the world.--_Jefferies._

 18. A veteran American sailor, he had learned to know the great Gulf
 as scholars know deep books by heart.--_Hearn._

 19. We come, as Americans, to mark a spot which must forever be dear
 to us and our posterity.--_Webster._

 20. Two of them were guests like ourselves, both men of the
 north.--_Stevenson._

 21. Indeed, man is naturally more prone to subtlety than open
 valor, owing to his physical weakness in comparison with other
 animals.--_Irving._

 22. Kotick was the only one who asked questions, and none of his
 companions could tell him anything except that the men always
 drove seals in that way for six weeks or two months of every
 year.--_Kipling._

 23. As compared with the two other writers, Epictetus shortens his
 sword; that is, his sentences.--_Higginson._




CHAPTER XXV

THE DIRECT OBJECT


The direct object of a transitive verb is so familiar a
sentence-element that it makes itself understood without much special
investigation. It presents few peculiarities, and these are not
difficult.

The transitive verb is usually defined as one that denotes action
terminating on an object. This definition does not cover all verbs
called transitive, for instance, the verb _have_, meaning _own_, which
does not denote any action whatever. But it would be difficult indeed
to make a better definition. The definition, a transitive verb is one
that takes an object, is open to the objection that it applies only to
transitive verbs in the active voice, whereas passive verbs are also
transitive in meaning. We may say this much, however,--(_a_) no verb
is considered transitive unless it has two substantives, a subject
and a complement, the two meaning different things, an agent and a
non-agent. (_b_) A sentence containing a transitive verb can always be
changed to the passive form, the complement becoming the subject, and
the subject of the active verb becoming the object of the preposition
_by_. This second point is a better test of the transitive verb than
the definition is.

For example, take the verb _earn_ in the sentence,--“Indeed, a man may
earn twenty thousand dollars a year by writing ‘sensation-stories,’ and
have nothing to do with literature in any high sense.”--_Higginson._ It
is true that when a man earns he acts, but his action is not performed
upon the twenty thousand dollars. In so far this verb does not come
under the definition of a transitive verb; but it answers the test,
that is, it may be changed to the passive; thus, “Twenty thousand
dollars was earned by him.” This does not mean that the twenty thousand
dollars received an action; it means that twenty thousand became his
possession as a result of his work.

Of transitive verbs denoting action performed directly upon some
object, examples are in the following sentences.

(_a_) “Let us _build_ altars to the Beautiful Necessity, which secures
that all is made of one piece.”--_Emerson._

(_b_) “When Gabriel _blows_ his trumpet I hope he will select the
moment before sunrise for his summons.”--_Bolles._

(_c_) “Many men _eat_ finer cookery, _drink_ dearer liquors, with what
advantage they can report and their doctors can.”--_Carlyle._

Examples of transitive verbs like _earn_ that take an object and denote
action, but not action really performed upon the object, are found in
the following sentences.

(_a_) These deluded people _visit_ fortune tellers in the hope of
_finding out_ what is to happen in the future.

(_b_) “He _entered_ the street at the end opposite to the Holborn
entrance.”--_George Eliot._

(_c_) “As he approached the village, he _met_ a number of
people.”--_Irving._

Action always suggests to us at first thought physical action, that
accompanied by movement; but there are other kinds of action which may
be told by transitive verbs.

1. Action of the mind, denoted by such verbs as _believe_, _learn_,
_think_, _remember_; as, “_To know_ anything that turns up is, in the
infinity of knowledge, _to know_ nothing.”--_F. Harrison._

2. Action of the emotions, denoted by such verbs as _hate_, _love_,
_revere_; as, “When Père Antoine was a very young man, he had a friend
whom he _loved_ as he _loved_ his life.”

3. Action of the senses, denoted by the verbs _see_, _hear_,
_feel_, _smell_, _taste_; as, “_To see_ a good man and _hear_ his
voice once a week would be reason enough for building churches and
pulpits.”--_Holmes._

Verbs of saying, like _tell_, _remark_, _declare_, _exclaim_, are
followed by a direct object, usually a quotation or a noun clause
telling just what was said; thus, “He _cried_ in the bitterness of his
soul that God had hid his face from him.”--_Macaulay._

The verbs _ask_ and _teach_ are often followed by two direct objects,
one of the person and the other of the thing; as, “Whoever will teach
the people of New England the advantages of good food, fresh air, and
sunshine, will renew the physical constitution of the race.”--_J.
F. Clarke._ “Ask a great money-maker what he means to do with his
money--he never knows.”--_Ruskin._

These verbs are really used in a double sense. For instance, in the
first sentence, in so far as _will teach_ takes the object _the people
of New England_, it means _instruct_; in so far as it takes the object
_the advantages of good food, fresh air and sunshine_, it means
_impart_. When such a sentence is changed to the passive form, either
object may become the subject, and the other may remain as the object
of the passive verb; or, if the personal object remains, it may be
called an indirect object.

Some verbs usually intransitive may become transitive by being followed
by a cognate object, that is, one whose meaning is akin to that of the
verb, as in the familiar expressions _run a race_, _dream a dream_,
_smile a smile_; as, “There he fell into evil paths, and on a fatal day
_sinned a great sin_.”--_Hillis._

Some transitive verbs may be followed by an object meaning the same
person or thing as the subject. This is called a reflexive object; as,
“On the wall opposite, about a mile across the gulf, _a brook was
pouring itself_ to the valley.”--_King._ In this sentence the brook is
conceived in two aspects, that of a doer and that of a receiver--it
pours and is poured.

Some verbs are made transitive by the addition of an adverb; as,

  “Ring out the old, ring in the new,
  Ring out the false, ring in the true.”--_Tennyson._

Here _the old_ is the object not of the verb _ring_, but of the verb
_ring out_.

Frequently a preposition is to be taken with a verb, the two
words denoting one idea and that transitive; as, “You cannot stir
abroad but Jews and Christians _pounce upon_ you with unsettled
bonds.”--_Carlyle._ A test for this sort of compound verb is that
when it is changed to the passive form, the two words--verb and
preposition--remain together; thus, “You are pounced upon by Jews and
Christians.”

In the sentence, “Make up your mind to forego driving sledge,” we
have four different direct objects. (1) The compound verb _make up_
takes the object _your mind_. (2) The whole group of words _make up
your mind_ is equivalent to the one verb _decide_, and as such takes
the infinitive phrase for object, _to forego driving sledge_. (3) The
object of the infinitive _to forego_ is the gerund-phrase _driving
sledge_. (4) The object of the gerund _driving_ is the noun _sledge_.

A combination of two verbs with the meaning of one transitive verb is
found in the every-day expression _make believe_, meaning _pretend_.
This cannot be separated. It is usually followed by an infinitive or
a noun clause used as its object. For example, “Whereupon the puppy
jumped into the air off all its feet at once, with a yelp of delight,
and rushed at the stick and made believe to worry it.”--_Lewis Carroll._


Exercise 31

Explain how all verbs and verbals in the following sentences are
completed.

 1. Storms shall sob themselves to sleep.--_Beecher._

 2. The time will come, let us hope, when all boys will be taught the
 use of tools, and all girls the principles of cooking.--_J. F. Clarke._

 3. He doubted, as he has himself owned, whether he had not been born
 “an age too late.”--_Macaulay._

 4. You will hear more wit and better wit in an Irish street row than
 would keep Westminster Hall in humor for five weeks.--_Bagehot._

 5. He was her special pet and she disapproved of the nurse.--_Kipling._

 6. Conclave after conclave asked him to be Pope.--_Hale._

 7. When the clock strikes the hour, his mind begins to work.--_Hillis._

 8. He said he was a surgeon, and that in case any accident occurred on
 board he must always be in readiness.--_Crawford._

 9. It must not be supposed that the Italians hate the Austrians as
 individuals.--_Howells._

 10. Then I shall hang you for yourself, as a rogue and a
 rascal.--_Froude._

 11. The Saxon is wanting in taste, which is as much as to say that he
 has no true sense of proportion.--_Lowell._

 12. However, she soon made out that she was in the pool of tears which
 she had wept when she was nine feet high.--_Lewis Carroll._

 13. All ruin, desolateness, imperfectness of hut or habitation you
 must do away with.--_Ruskin._

 14. To study a nest is to make an acquaintance.--_Olive T. Miller._

 15.  Go, seek it, and redeem thy sin--
      ’Tis sweet to let the pardoned in.--_Moore._

 16. Even in books I like a confined locality.--_Miss Mitford._




CHAPTER XXVI

THE SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT


=Function.=--When we wish to assert that a thing possesses a certain
quality, we do it by a predicate made up of some form of the verb _be_
together with an adjective; as in the sentence, “The very name was
uncanny.”--_Page._ Here the idea words are the subject noun and the
adjective in the predicate; the verb _was_ serves merely as a copula,
or tie-word, necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence,
but having little, if any, meaning.

The verb is employed in the same way when we wish to denote--

(_a_) The identity of two ideas; as, “The secret of success is
concentration.”--_Schreiner._

(_b_) The class to which a thing belongs; as, “Ben Battle was a soldier
bold.”--_Hood._

In such sentences as the three quoted, we call the adjective or noun in
the predicate a _subjective complement_ of the verb. The noun is often
termed a predicate nominative, and the adjective a predicate adjective.
In either case the complement tells some attribute of the subject,
and it is for the express purpose of telling this attribute that such
sentences are made. These sentences are very common, being framed
to answer certain questions that it is natural for the mind to ask;
namely, who is he? what is it? what kind of person is he? what sort of
thing is it?

The noun used as base-word of a subjective complement does not
necessarily agree with the subject in number; as, “Justice and
Reverence are the everlasting central Law of the Universe.”--_Carlyle._

Neither does the subjective complement have to succeed its verb.
Sometimes the whole order of the sentence is inverted; thus, “Fair as
a summer dream was Margaret.”--_Lowell._ “A very attractive person is
that child-loving girl.”--_Miss Mitford._

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Subjective Complement not always a Noun or Adjective.=--Often,
as was stated in Chapter XXIII, a prepositional phrase takes the
place of a predicate adjective, usually because we have no adjective
adequate to express the meaning of the phrase. In this sentence from
Lowell,--“Popular literature is _of value_,” the adjective _valuable_
might well be substituted for the phrase; but in the following
sentences the language affords no equivalent adjectives.--“I am _in
love_ with this green earth.”--_Lamb._ “J. G. Whittier is _of a Quaker
family_ and was born in Haverhill, Massachusetts.”

The noun clause, the root infinitive, the gerund, and the participle
used as subjective complements, have been discussed in preceding
chapters.

To this use must also be referred the personal pronoun in the
possessive case used as in the sentence,--“All the beauty of these
summer days is _mine_.” Is this pronoun a predicate nominative meaning
_my beauty_, or is it a predicate adjective meaning _possessed by me_,
or shall we make no attempt to classify it at all?

The word _so_ often does duty as a subjective complement. It is used to
avoid a repetition of some noun or adjective; as, “The house is empty
and has been _so_ for months.”

       *       *       *       *       *

=Verbs that take a Subjective Complement.=--The verb _be_ is by no
means the only one that may be completed by a subjective complement.
There are numerous others, most of which will fall in the following
classes.

1. _Become_, and verbs of similar meaning, like _grow_, _get_, _turn_;
as, “Bob had grown up very handsome.”--_Page._

2. Certain verbs of position like _stand_, _sit_, _lie_; as, “The moon
stood bright and full in the heavens.”--_Howells._

3. Verbs signifying to appear to the senses, like _look_, _feel_,
_smell_, _sound_, _taste_; as, “Our own thought sounds new and larger
from his mouth.”--_Emerson._ “Both he and his wife looked outwardly
gentlefolks.”--_Lamb._

4. A few verbs denoting action, like _begin_, _come_, _go_,
_rise_, _spring_; as, “One that goes in a nurse may come out an
angel.”--_Holmes._ With this class of verbs an adjective complement
often seems to partake of the nature of an adverb; as, “They descended
_fearless_ into all gulfs and bedlams.”--_Carlyle._ The author must
decide whether to use the adjective or the adverb by his purpose. That
is, does he wish to make more prominent the condition of the subject or
the manner of the action?

5. Certain passive verbs. In general these are:--

(_a_) Verbs of _calling_; as, “The place is fitly called Inspiration
Point.”--_King._

(_b_) Verbs of _deeming_; as, “I have been counted a successful
teacher.”--_Annie Preston._

(_c_) Verbs of _making_; as, “The forlorn condition of the new settlers
was made still worse by domestic feuds.”--_Prescott._

       *       *       *       *       *

=Introductory Word.=--After some verbs it is usage to precede the
complement by _as_ or _for_, sometimes even by the infinitive _to
be_. These words are not connectives, nor do they add anything to the
meaning of the sentence, though often they do serve to make it more
clear; thus, “Chaucer undoubtedly began as an imitator, perhaps as mere
translator.”--_Lowell._

If _as_ were omitted, it might not be clear at once that _imitator_ is
not a direct object of _began_.


Exercise 32

Explain how all verbs and verbals in the following sentences are
completed.

 1. Duck-hunting was my favorite sport, and the marshes on the river
 were fine grounds for them usually, but this season the weather had
 been so singularly warm that the sport had been poor.--_Page._

 2. It is not simply beets and potatoes and corn and string-beans
 that one raises in his well-hoed garden; it is the average of human
 life.--_Warner._

 3. The cultivation of this delightful and beautiful art of reading
 should be recognized as a part of a liberal education.--_Brook._

 4. Bread is found fresh at the baker’s.--_Howells._

 5. Blithe were it then to wander here.--_Scott._

 6. We’ll choose among them as they lie asleep.

 7. You come hot and tired from the day’s battle and this sweet
 minstrel sings to you.--_Thackeray._

 8. The doctor had been and gone, and the hand had been pronounced as
 injured but slightly, though it would of course have been considered a
 far more serious case if Mr. Smith had been a richer man.--_T. Hardy._

 9. Half the secret of human intercourse is to make allowance for each
 other.--_Leigh Hunt._

 10. The eating-houses are almost without number.--_Howells._

 11. We read of cliffs that spring naked and sheer to an equal
 height.--_King._

 12.  He stood concealed amid the brake
      To view this Lady of the Lake.--_Scott._

 13. Christians were cast to the lions, but the Christian church grew
 up a stately and spreading tree.--_Mill._

 14. The wind was blowing a hurricane.--_Page._

 15. Two years later, Mexico became independent of Spain, and
 California was made a Mexican province.

 16. Why are we never quite at our ease in the presence of a
 schoolmaster?--_Lamb._

 17. A chieftain’s daughter seemed the maid.--_Scott._

 18. His meat was locusts and wild honey.




CHAPTER XXVII

THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT


=Function.=--Sometimes an action performed upon an object makes a
different thing of that object. Our desire to tell this as briefly as
possible has given rise to sentences in which a transitive verb is
followed by two complements, one a direct object naming the thing
acted upon, and the other an attribute of the direct object telling the
outcome of the activity denoted by the verb; as, “By his Sketch Book
Irving has made the Hudson a classic river.”

The second complement is quite as often an adjective as a noun; for
example,

  “Shafts of sunshine from the west
    Paint the dusky windows red.”--_Longfellow._

We understand from this sentence that the windows undergo the action
denoted by the words _paint red_, and are therefore changed from dusky
windows to red windows.

Such a word as _river_ in the first sentence or _red_ in the second is
called an objective complement. A noun used in this office somewhat
resembles an appositive, being a second name for an object already
named; but the appositive has no relation to any word except the noun
it explains, while the objective complement has a very important
relation to the predicate verb. So close is this relation that we
may often express the meaning of the two words, the verb and the
objective complement, by one word; as, “Political freedom makes every
man an individual.”--_Higginson._ Here the verb _makes_ and the
objective complement _an individual_ may be combined into the one verb
_individualizes_.

The close complementary relation of the objective complement to
the predicate verb is still further brought out when a sentence of
this type is changed to the passive form. There arises the sentence
discussed in section 5 in the preceding chapter, a sentence wherein the
direct object of the active verb has become the subject of the passive
verb, and the objective complement still remains after the verb but
becomes a subjective complement.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Verbs that take an Objective Complement=:--

(_a_) Verbs of _making_, such as _render_, _elect_, _appoint_, called
factitive verbs; as, “Old habits of work, old habits of hope, made my
endless leisure irksome to me.”

(_b_) Verbs of _thinking_, such as _consider_, _regard_, _look upon_;
as, “The student is to read history actively and not passively, to
esteem his own life the text, and books the commentary.”--_Emerson._

(_c_) Verbs of _naming_ or _calling_; as, “We do not hesitate
to pronounce them a brave, a wise, an honest, and a useful
body.”--_Macaulay._

(_d_) The verbs _feel_, _find_, _leave_, _prove_, _see_; as, “He
had never seen her so radiant, so young.”--_J. L. Allen._ “Chaucer,
like Dante, found his native tongue a dialect and left it a
language.”--_Lowell._

(_e_) Some intransitive verbs are completed in this way, especially
when the direct object is a reflexive personal pronoun; as, “They
shouted themselves hoarse.” “She cried herself sick.” These sentences
mean--“They made themselves hoarse by shouting”; “she made herself sick
by crying.”

       *       *       *       *       *

=Introductory Word.=--After some verbs usage puts in the word _as_
or _for_ before the objective complement, using it merely as an
introductory word; thus, “I respected him as a sound and accurate
scholar.”--_De Quincey._

  “No harmless thing that breathed,
  Footed or winged, but knew him for a friend.”--_Aldrich._

When these sentences are changed to the passive, the introductory word
is usually retained before the subjective complement.

 NOTE.--After _as_ the participle may take the place of an adjective;
 as, “I consider him as having lost his right.” The participle has here
 the same use that the adjective _destitute_ has in the expression
 _destitute of his right_.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Position of the Objective Complement.=--It usually follows the
direct object, but the adjective so used is sometimes placed next
to the verb, and the noun may, to render it emphatic, be placed at
the beginning of the sentence; as, “Grape shot will sweep clear all
streets.”--_Carlyle._ “A perpetual fountain of good sense Dryden calls
Chaucer.”--_Lowell._

We have certain stereotyped verb-phrases such as _make free_, _think
best_, and _see fit_, in which the adjective is so closely related to
the verb that it is placed next to it, and the two words have acquired
the meaning of one verb. _Make free_ has almost the meaning of _dare_;
for the other two phrases there are no good substitutes. These phrases
are followed by an infinitive phrase used as direct object. For
example,--“A native of that region saw fit to build his house very near
it.”--_Holmes._


Exercise 33

Explain how the verbs and verbals in the following sentences are
completed.

 1. Enthusiasm had made them Stoics.--_Macaulay._

 2. To make the common marvellous is the test of genius.--_Lowell._

 3. For the purpose of public instruction we hold every man subject to
 taxation in proportion to his property.--_Webster._

 4. None but the dissolute among the poor look upon the rich as their
 natural enemies.--_Ruskin._

 5. He had so far completed his preparations as to have leisure to be
 talking himself hot and hoarse with the neighboring barber.--_Howells._

 6. Alfred left England better, wiser, happier in all ways than he
 found it.--_Dickens._

 7. Grenadier, I salute you; you have proved yourself the bravest of
 the brave.

 8. Haste can make you slipshod, but it can never make you
 graceful.--_Higginson._

 9. A murderer he has written himself down.--_Birrell._

 10. If you will only call a headache a _Cephalalgia_ it acquires
 dignity at once, and a patient becomes rather proud of it.--_Holmes._

 11. When mobs were roaring themselves hoarse for Wilkes and liberty,
 he denounced Wilkes as a worthless profligate.--_J. R. Green._

 12. Before he had finished his toilet a stroke of apoplexy stretched
 him senseless upon the floor.--_Motley._

 13. Sad or sinful is the life of that man who finds not the
 heavens bluer and the waves more musical in maturity than in
 childhood.--_Higginson._

 14. Meanwhile the French and Bretons made good their ascent on either
 flank.--_J. R. Green._

 15. The excitement on shore became wild; men shouted themselves
 hoarse; women laughed and cried.--_Hearn._

 16. In the fullness of my heart I laid bare our plans before
 him.--_Stevenson._

 17. They have criticised the Insurrection as evincing in the rioters
 an extreme backwardness to battle.--_Carlyle._

 18. But seeing that our host sets us the good example of forgetting
 ceremony, I shall likewise throw it aside and make free to intrude on
 his privacy.--_Hawthorne._


Exercise 34

Analyze the following sentences.

 1. He placed the guns, together with a good supply of ammunition,
 under the loop-holes that commanded the road by which the enemy must
 advance.

 2. The standing difficulty in the long run is not want of places, but
 want of men.--_Hale._

 3. Act faithfully, and you really have faith, no matter how cold and
 even how dubious you may feel.--_Wm. James._

 4. Learned sergeant eloquence, were it continued until the learned
 tongue wore itself small in the indefatigable learned mouth, cannot
 make unjust just.--_Carlyle._

 5. We charge every man with positive dishonesty who drives birds
 from his garden in fruit time; the fruit is theirs as well as
 yours.--_Beecher._

 6. The Austrians are simply hated as the means by which an alien and
 despotic government is imposed upon a people believing themselves born
 for freedom and independence.--_Howells._

 7.  The desert heavens have felt her sadness;
     Her earth will weep her some dewy tears.--_Jean Ingelow._

 8. Finally he shook himself free from the dreamy spell of the place,
 and turned his face southward again.--_H. H._

 9. Bob had always been a great favorite with the Colonel, and ever
 since he had been a small boy, he had been used to coming over and
 staying with him.--_Page._

 10. But they detest Venice as a place of residence.--_Howells._

 11. Place a tree or plant in an unusual position, and it will
 prove itself equal to the occasion and behave in an unusual
 manner.--_Burroughs._

 12. The grand essentials of happiness are something to do, something
 to love, and something to hope for.--_Chalmers._

 13. To touch the Temple was, in the eyes of the Jews, to incur the
 vengeance of the Almighty.--_Geikie._

 14. Daily work is one of the blessed influences which keep the soul
 strong and sane.--_J. F. Clarke._

 15.  Who toiled a slave may come anew a Prince
        For gentle worthiness and merit won;
      Who ruled a king may wander earth in rags
        For things done and undone.--_E. Arnold._

 16. It was somewhat wistfully that she asked her husband how far this
 place was from her home, and whether, when he was at work, she could
 not come down here by herself.--_Black._

 17. They set up their country as their idol, and proposed to
 themselves the heroes of Plutarch as their examples.--_Macaulay._

 18. He was sent to St. Luke’s and dismissed as cured.--_Miss Mitford._

 19. Mrs. Smith was a matron whose countenance addressed itself to the
 mind rather than to the eye.--_T. Hardy._

 20. At the far end of the vista he could behold her in her childhood
 as the daughter of a cavalier land-holder in the valley of the
 James.--_J. L. Allen._

 21. It amused me vastly at times to think that he was of our shrewd
 Yankee race.--_H. James._

 22. I know this, that the way Mother Earth treats a boy shapes out a
 kind of natural theology for him.--_Holmes._

 23. The aim which Bonaparte avowed as his highest ambition for France,
 to convert all trades into arts, is being rapidly fulfilled all around
 us.--_Higginson._

 24. No man becomes a saint in his sleep.--_Carlyle._

 25. She taught the youth how to make friends with the crickets and
 squirrels, and how to call the thrush and the robin to eat from his
 hand.--_Hillis._

 26. He will hunt among these hills during the next moon, so he has
 told me.--_Kipling._




CHAPTER XXVIII

THE INDIRECT OBJECT


=Function.=--Many verbs are followed by two substantives, both of
which are called objects; for example, “Abbot Samson read his monks
a severe lecture.”--_Carlyle._ “I will tell you a common case.”--_De
Quincey._ “For this did God send her a great reward.”--_De Quincey._ If
we ask the questions _read what?_ _will tell what?_ _did send what?_
the answers are the direct objects of the verbs, namely, _a severe
lecture_, _a common case_, _a great reward_.

If we go farther and ask the questions, read a severe lecture _to
whom?_ will tell a common case _to whom?_ did send a great reward _to
whom?_ the answers are--_to his monks_, _to you_, _to her_. But in the
sentences as quoted the preposition to is not expressed, the meaning
being evident without it. A word used like _monks_, _you_, _her_, is
called the indirect object of the verb. It is not a complement, for the
meaning of the verb is complete without it; but it is brought into the
sentence by the verb, and is therefore its adjunct.

The indirect object is usually defined as denoting the one to whom or
for whom something is done. It is not always, however, a personal word,
as is seen in Shakespeare’s sentence,--“Give _thy thoughts_ no tongue
nor _any unproportioned thought_ his act.”

       *       *       *       *       *

=Position of the Indirect Object.=--The position of the indirect object
is next to the verb. If its position is changed, the preposition is
expressed, as is seen in the sentences,--“Mother made _me_ a dress,”
and “Mother made a dress _for me_.” The logical use of the word
_me_ is identical in the two sentences, but the sentences are built
differently. It prevents confusion if we call _me_ in the second
sentence the object of the preposition _for_, the phrase _for me_ being
an adjunct of the verb just as the one word _me_ is an adjunct of the
verb in the first sentence.

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Indirect Object in a Passive Sentence.=--When sentences containing
direct and indirect objects are changed to the passive form, the direct
object should become the subject, and the indirect object should remain
after the verb or should become the object of an expressed preposition.
If we change the sentence, “Abbot Samson read his monks a severe
lecture,” we should have, “A severe lecture was read to his monks by
Abbot Samson.” But it is a common practice to make the indirect object
the subject of the passive verb and leave the direct object unchanged;
thus, “The monks were read a severe lecture by Abbot Samson.” In this
sentence _lecture_ is called a residual object of the passive verb
_were read_.

Sentences arising in this way are often extremely awkward, and should
not be tolerated; for example, “I was sold a horse.”

       *       *       *       *       *

=Verbs that take an Indirect Object.=--The most common are bring,
build, cost, cut, do, fling, forgive, get, give, grant, hand, leave,
make, offer, pay, play, pledge, promise, reach, read, sell, send, show,
teach, tell, throw, weigh, win, wish, yield.

Since the indirect object is not a necessary sentence-element, it
follows that it is frequently omitted, so that we find these verbs
taking only the direct object. On the other hand, we occasionally find
verbs followed by an indirect object and no direct object. This comes
about in several ways.--

(_a_) When the sentence is changed to the passive form and the
preposition _to_ or _for_ is not supplied; as, “This chance was never
offered _me_ before.”--_James Thomson._

(_b_) When the direct object is omitted, being unimportant or else well
known; as, “After he had earned the reward the committee refused to pay
him.”

(_c_) When the verb is intransitive; as, “The effort cost him his
life.” The word _life_ is not a direct object but an answer to the
question _how much?_ therefore an adverbial noun.


Exercise 35

Dispose of all indirect objects in the following sentences. Account for
the sentences in the passive form.

 1. The constant sight of chilblains among people who bring you bread,
 cut you cheese, and weigh you out sugar, by no means reconciles the
 Northern stomach to their prevalence.--_Howells._

 2. Give a busy man ten minutes to write a letter, and he will dash it
 off at once.

 3.  Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul,
         As the swift seasons roll.--_Holmes._

 4. The boy believes there is a teacher who can sell him
 wisdom.--_Emerson._

 5. The amiable manners of the Indian girl had won her the regard of
 the wife of one of the caciques.--_Prescott._

 6. He was allowed abundance of food and liberty to walk in the
 courtyard of the tower.--_Shorthouse._

 7. I think the old fellow has hitherto had scant justice done him in
 the main.--_Lowell._

 8. But since he was denied speech, he scorned the inarticulate
 mouthings of the lower animals.--_Warner._

 9. Paul, seeing a servant in the yard, ordered the boy something to
 eat.--_R. H. Dana, Sr._

 10. In Venetian streets they give the fallen snow no rest--_Howells._

 11. There is the large wooden reel which the blear-eyed old Deacon
 sent the minister’s lady.--_Holmes._

 12. We are shown the power of our country growing and
 expanding.--_Froude._

 13. It costs a beautiful person no exertion to paint her image on our
 eyes, yet how splendid is that benefit.--_Emerson._




CHAPTER XXIX

THE ADVERBIAL NOUN


=Function.=--Questions like _how long?_ _how far?_ _when?_ _where?_
are often answered by adverbs, phrases, or clauses; but they may be
answered by nouns, as in the following sentences,--“_A while_ she
paused; no answer came.”--_Scott._ “We are transported _a hundred and
fifty years_ back.”--_Macaulay._ “_Every moment_ they came nearer.
_Next door_ lives a carpenter.”--_Miss Mitford._

It is clear that the italicized expressions are used adverbially,
modifying respectively the verb _paused_, the adverb _back_, the verb
_came_, and the verb _lives_.

The base-word of each of these expressions is a noun, called an
adverbial noun. It is immaterial to us what case this noun is in, but a
study of Old English teaches us that it is in the objective case, while
a further proof is that we frequently employ a preposition before it.

The adverbial noun usually denotes measure of some sort, of time,
distance, space, weight, value, etc.

       *       *       *       *       *

=What the Adverbial Noun modifies.=--1. A verb; as, “A man could have
found places where he could have jumped three thousand feet in one
descent to the valley.”--_King._

2. An adjective; as, “He was nearly a head taller than myself.”

The adjective _worth_ is always modified by an adverbial noun answering
the question _how much?_ and frequently by others answering various
other questions; as, “Wheat worth a dollar a bushel last week is
selling now for eighty cents.” Notice that the modifiers of _worth_
differ in closeness of relation; the closest is _dollar_, the next
_bushel_, and the next _week_. This is not determined by position.

3. An adverb; as, “The oldest sergeant present stepped a pace forward.”

4. A phrase; as, “Centuries before this the Chinese had printed books
by means of carved wooden blocks.”

5. A clause; as, “His room is hung round with cases of them, each
impaled on a pin driven through him something as they used to bury
suicides.”--_Holmes._

In such a sentence as, “He is forty years of age,” it is somewhat
difficult to determine whether _years_ modifies _of age_ or _of age_
modifies _years_. This arises perhaps from the fact that neither
_years_ nor _of age_ makes a good base for the complement of _is_. He
is not forty years, neither does the sentence mean that he is of age.
We must say that _is_ is completed by the expression _forty years of
age_, used adjectively and having the meaning of one word. If we wish
to go further and analyze this complement, we say that _of age_ is the
base, meaning _old_, and that this phrase is modified by the adverbial
noun _forty years_.

It is the same in the sentence, “We often read about precipices that
are thousands of feet in descent.”--_King._ The verb _are_ is completed
by the group of words, _thousands of feet in descent_, having the
meaning of _very high_. Of this group _in descent_ is the base modified
by the adverbial noun _thousands of feet_.

A common construction is found in the sentence, “About two weeks ago I
looked down from the Mariposa trail into the tremendous fissure of the
Sierras.” In analyzing the adverbial element _about two weeks ago_,
we find the base-word to be the adverb _ago_; this is modified by the
adverbial noun _about two weeks_, the base of which is _weeks_ modified
first by _two_ and then by _about_.

 NOTES.--1. Many prefer to consider _about_ a preposition, governing
 _weeks_, and _ago_ an adjective modifying _weeks_. But in the familiar
 expression _long ago_, _ago_ is said to be an adverb, and its use
 seems to us the same in the expression _two weeks ago_. It is a case
 where use rather than derivation should determine the part of speech.
 _About_ has the same relation to _two weeks_ that _almost_ would have
 in the same position.

 2. A further expression denoting degree, which may well be noticed
 here, is found in the sentences,--“John is good and strong”; “She
 sailed good and fast.” In the first sentence it is not the author’s
 intention to give two attributes of John; the sentence means that John
 is very strong. In analyzing the sentence it is best not to separate
 the group of words _good and strong_. In the following sentence from
 Stevenson,--“But I was rare and hungry,” the substitution of _rare_
 for _good_ makes the sentence mean,--“I was unusually hungry.”


Exercise 36

Dispose of all nouns used adverbially in these sentences.

 1. A few years later, Prof. S. F. B. Morse, an American, invented the
 electric telegraph.

 2. If you had been able to keep awake only a year or two longer,
 you would not have been so wholly surprised by our industrial
 system.--_Bellamy._

 3. He is the chieftain who looms a head above all his
 people.--_Boyesen._

 4. Judgment for an evil thing is many times delayed some day or
 two, some century or two, but it is sure as life, it is sure as
 death.--_Carlyle._

 5. The snow lay half an inch deep on the brown tiles.--_Howells._

 6. Dante died only seven years before Chaucer was born.--_Lowell._

 7. Soon his face was worth going far to see.--_J. L. Allen._

 8. The desolate and splintered walls of Horeb and Sinai are not a
 quarter so high.--_King._

 9. Some years ago I was traveling by railway, no matter whence or
 whither.--_Froude._

 10. He was exactly five feet six inches in height and six feet five
 inches in circumference.--_Irving._

 11. Only about three weeks since, there was a leader with this or a
 similar title.--_Ruskin._

 12. I arrived one winter morning about five o’clock, and was not so
 full of soul as I might have been in warmer weather.--_Howells._

 13. Some of you are, perhaps, more livingly aware than you were an
 hour ago of the depths of worth that lie around you, hid in alien
 lives.--_Wm. James._

 14. He did not know that he bore with him from school and college a
 character worth much fine gold, but was pleased to find his mess so
 kindly.--_Kipling._

 15. This was a bad beginning; so, half an hour after the gun was
 withdrawn, the Austrian colonel ordered an assault.




CHAPTER XXX

PECULIAR MODIFICATIONS


It is not uncommon to find words modified in what seems to us an
ungrammatical way; for example, an article modifying an adjective, as
in the phrase _all the same_, or an adverb modifying a noun, as in the
sentence, “We walked the whole distance, _exactly three miles_,” where
the adverb _exactly_ is a modifier of the noun phrase _three miles_.
Some of these modifications we shall now consider.

1. The article _the_ modifying an adjective.--We find this in many
phrases that have become current in literature no less than in
conversation; for example, _all the quicker_, _none the worse_, _quite
the contrary_, _at the best_. In some instances, as in the last
example given, we may say that the adjective has become a substantive
in meaning and hence may be modified by the article. In other cases a
noun may be supplied after the adjective, and the article may be said
to modify the noun. But in most cases the adjective is used in the
sense of an adjective, and it is impossible, too, to supply any noun
after it, so we must take the expression as we find it and say that the
article modifies an adjective, the construction being idiomatical.

Illustrations of this construction are found in the following
sentences:--

(_a_) “Hundreds and hundreds of thousands of seals watched them being
driven, but they went on playing _just the same_.”--_Kipling._

(_b_) “The negroes declared that under the old house were solid
rock chambers which had been built for dungeons, and had served for
purposes which were _none the less_ awful because they were vague and
indefinite.”

Many of these phrases contain a modifying adverb. In _just the same_,
the adverb _just_ modifies _the same_. In _all the more_ we have _all_
used adverbially to modify _the more_.

The base-word of these phrases is just as often an adverb as an
adjective, as in the sentences, “This news only made us walk _the
faster_”; “He did it _none the worse_ for the many interruptions.”

2. In such expressions as _a few books_, _a good many trees_, the
article _a_ may seem at first thought to modify a plural noun; but this
is not the case. The article modifies the pronominal adjectives _few_
and _many_, having the meaning of collective nouns, that is, meaning
individuals taken as a group instead of singly. This pronominal is
then modified by the prepositional phrase _of books_, _of trees_, with
the preposition _of_ understood. Usage alone settles for us when the
preposition is to be expressed. We say _a few of them_; but if we use a
noun in place of the pronoun _them_ we omit the preposition; as, _a few
pennies_. We say _a score of years_, and _a couple of years_, but we
omit the preposition after _dozen_, another word denoting number, and
say _a dozen years_. After the collective noun _crowd_ we express the
preposition; as, _a crowd of boys_; but if we say _a great many_ in
place of _crowd_, we omit the preposition, saying _a great many boys_.
For analysis, however, the preposition should always be supplied.

3. Adverbs sometimes modify nouns.--This comes about often by abridging
an adjective clause to an appositive phrase; for example, “John Adams
was born at Quincy, _then part_ of the ancient town of Braintree, on
the 19th day of October (O. S.) 1735.”--_Webster._ If we supply _which
was_ after the noun _Quincy_, we have an adjective clause, in which the
adverb _then_ modifies the whole predicate--a regular construction. But
in the sentence as originally written, the adverb modifies the noun
_part_.

We occasionally find nouns used in the place of these modifying
adverbs. We may say _thrice the amount_, wherein _amount_ is modified
by the adverb _thrice_, or we may substitute for _thrice_ the noun
phrase _three times_. We also find the noun _something_ used in the
place of the adverb _somewhat_, as in the sentence,--“He had something
the manner of a Southerner.” Such a word restricts the application of
the noun it modifies. The adverbs _almost_ and _about_ are used in the
same way, as in _almost a year_, _about a pound_.

_But_ is frequently used adjectively in the sense of _only_, having a
limiting or restrictive force; thus, “He was but one generation removed
from the soil.”--_Boyesen._

Examples of adverbs modifying nouns are found in the following
sentences:

(_a_) “The Scheld, _almost exclusively a Belgian river_, after leaving
its fountains in Picardy, flows through the pleasant provinces of
Flanders and Hainault.”--_Motley._

(_b_) “It may well be doubted whether Roman literature,
_always a half-hardy exotic_, could ripen the seeds of living
reproduction.”--_Lowell._

(_c_) “South Dome is a vast globe of bold rock, _almost a full mile_ in
height.”--_King._

(_d_) “I fell a helpless prey to a boatman who addressed me in some
words of wonderful English and then rowed me to the sea wall at about
_thrice the usual fare_.”--_Howells._

4. Some nouns like _howl_, _cry_, _shock_, derived from verbs denoting
action, may be modified by an adverbial clause of time or place. We
may say, “He cried out joyfully when he caught sight of me,” where the
clause modifies the predicate _cried out joyfully_; or we may say, “His
cry when he caught sight of me was joyful,” where the same clause with
the same meaning modifies the subject _his cry_.

A clause introduced by _as_, with the meaning and construction of an
adverbial clause of manner, may modify a noun and so save several
words; for example, “Their plays are much shorter than the standard
drama _as it is known to us_.”--_Howells._ Here _as_ is equivalent to
the group of words _in the form in which_.

5. There are some modifiers of verbs consisting of several words which
should not be separated, inasmuch as they express only one idea. Some
of these are _by and by_, _off hand_, _day by day_, _side by side_.
Some of these expressions after they have been considered as units may
be separated into their compound elements. In the sentence, “They have
infested the place time out of mind,” we say that the predicate _have
infested the place_ is modified by the adverbial phrase _time out of
mind_, this having the force of one adverb. We may then say that this
phrase is made up of the noun _time_ modified by the prepositional
phrase _out of mind_.

6. Certain absolute phrases have become equivalent to single words
and as such are used adjectively or adverbially to modify nouns or
verbs. Some of these are _wrong side out_, _upside down_, _one behind
the other_. Each of these consists of a substantive--_wrong side_,
_upside_, _one_,--and an attribute of this substantive--_out_, _down_,
and _behind the other_. These attributes are joined directly to the
substantive because of the omission of the participle _being_. Examples
of these phrases are found in the following sentences:

(_a_) “Apoplexy is only egotism _wrong side out_.”--_Holmes._

(_b_) “Salvationists sat _three in a seat_ and played
concertinas.”--_Bolles._


Exercise 37

Find examples of peculiar modifications in the following sentences.

 1. One is always the better for a walk in the morning air, a medicine
 which may be taken over and over again without any sense of sameness
 or any failure of its invigorating quality.--_Lowell._

 2. Her gratitude for such thoughtfulness of his smote him like a
 reproach; all the more that he knew her gentle heart had never held a
 thought of reproach in it towards him.--_H. H._

 3. These barges were all tied one behind the other with tow-ropes, to
 the number of twenty-five or thirty.--_Stevenson._

 4. I ran the same way, outstripping a good many, and soon came facing
 the sea.--_Dickens._

 5. Æschylus was, head and heart, a lyric poet.--_Macaulay._

 6. The dog-whip is six yards long, and the handle but sixteen inches.

 7. Civilis was hemmed in by the ocean; his country, long the
 basis of Roman military operations, was accessible by river and
 canal.--_Motley._

 8. Sea Catch was fifteen years old, a huge gray fur-seal with almost a
 mane on his shoulders, and long, wicked dog-teeth.--_Kipling._

 9. He was the representative of the great dynasty whose name and
 effigies had been borne by all the coin of India until within some
 twenty years before.--_McCarthy._

 10. It is better to do a few things precisely as they should be done,
 than to do ten times as many in a loose, slovenly way.

 11. One of these tunes, just as it had sounded from her spiritual
 touch, had been written down by an amateur of music.--_Hawthorne._

 12. He was a lean, nervous, flibbertigibbet of a man, with
 something the look of an actor, and something the look of a horse
 jockey.--_Stevenson._

 13. The shock to the senses there, as one rides out from the level and
 sheltered forest, up to which our horses had been climbing two days,
 is scarcely less than if he had been instantly borne to a region where
 the Creator reveals more of himself in his works than can be learned
 from the ordinary scenery of this world.--_King._

 14. Thus the whole life upon the globe, as we see it, is the
 result of this blind groping and putting forth of nature in every
 direction.--_Burroughs._

 15. I know very well that he could better himself, and earn twice what
 I am able to give him.--_Conan Doyle._


Exercise 38

Analyze the following sentences.

 1. The sight of the resting country does his spirit
 good.--_Stevenson._

 2. To go to bed was to lie awake of cold, with an added shudder of
 fright whenever a loose casement or a waving curtain chose to give you
 the goose-flesh.

 3. The house had been built many generations before by a stranger
 in this section, and the owners never made it their permanent
 home.--_Page._

 4. One stick, pointed, makes him a spear; two sticks rubbed
 together make him a fire; fifty sticks tied together make him a
 house.--_Drummond._

 5. I often thought that he felt the dumb limitations which denied him
 the power of language.--_Warner._

 6. Lengths of brownish-green and yellow tapestry, none the fresher for
 its two centuries and more of existence, still protested against the
 modern heresy of wall-paper.--_J. Hawthorne._

 7. Centuries ago his granite crumbled and his marble became dust, but
 his sweet psalms and songs do still abide.--_Hillis._

 8. Besides the cattle we saw no living thing except a few birds and a
 great many fishermen.--_Stevenson._

 9. I passed some pleasant hours, a few years since, in the Registry
 of Deeds and the Town Records, looking up the history of the old
 house.--_Holmes._

 10. Dennis dealt him a blow upon the face which felled him to the
 ground.--_Dickens._

 11. The strength of a rope may be but the strength of its weakest
 part; but poets are to be judged in their happiest hours, and in their
 greatest works.--_Birrell._

 12. Why are you not on your way home?--_Froude._

 13. Many a gardener will cut you a bouquet of his choicest blossoms
 for small fee, but he does not love to let the seeds of his rarest
 varieties go out of his own hands.--_Holmes._

 14. The spirit of local self-government, always the life-blood of
 liberty, was often excessive in its manifestations.--_Motley._

 15. Shere Khan was the tiger who lived near the Waingunga River,
 twenty miles away.--_Kipling._

 16. This was not the first time that I had been refused a
 lodging.--_Stevenson._

 17. It cost him the best years of his life to conquer them.--_Lord._

 18. The society was formed four centuries and a half after the poet’s
 death.--_Lowell._

 19. The whites have too frequently set them an example of violence,
 by burning their villages and laying waste their slender means of
 subsistence, and yet they wonder that savages do not show moderation
 and magnanimity towards those who have left them nothing but mere
 existence and wretchedness.--_Irving._

 20. I arrived one winter morning about five o’clock, and was not so
 full of soul as I might have been in warmer weather.--_Howells._

 21. There is a gentleman with them, who somewhat resembles St.
 Nicholas as he appeared to the young Van Gleeks on the fifth of
 December.--_Mrs. Dodge._

 22. It took him twenty years to subdue these fierce warriors.--_Lord._

 23. One good, kind, story-telling, Bible-rehearsing aunt at home, with
 apples and gingerbread premiums, is worth all the schoolma’ams that
 ever stood by to see poor little fellows roast in those boy-traps
 called district schools.--_Beecher._

 24. The spectre started full jump with him.--_Irving._

 25. As in his tales he had endeavored to concentrate into a few
 strongly defined types the modern folk-life of the North, so in his
 dramas the same innate love of his nationality leads him to seek the
 typical features of his people, as they are revealed in the historic
 chieftains of the past.--_Boyesen._




CHAPTER XXXI

INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS


In the chapters on the infinitive phrase and the participial phrase,
we discussed those phrases used independently, that is, thrown loosely
into the sentence and forming no part of its structure, as in the
following sentences,--“It will then, _to borrow the elegant language
of the play-bills_, be withdrawn to make room for the forthcoming
novelties.”--_Macaulay._ “There is no custom that can, _properly
speaking_, be final.”--_Carlyle._

Besides phrases of these kinds, there are several other varieties of
independent elements that are commonly used and form very interesting
material in the sentence. Their function is often an important one,
and they could not be dispensed with without necessitating a very
roundabout and clumsy form of expression. Some of these elements
are single words, some are phrases, and some are propositions, both
independent in structure and dependent.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Words used Independently.=--I. The noun of address.--This is used in
two ways:

(_a_) In oral or written conversation or formal address, where the
name of the person spoken is used, either to invite his attention or
for the sake of courtesy; as, “Upon my life, _Mr. Caudle_, that’s very
cool.”--_Jerrold._

(_b_) In more or less impassioned composition, often poetry or oratory,
where the person or thing spoken about is addressed as if actually
present and capable of understanding the address. Such an address has
the nature of an explanation. It forms the figure of speech called
apostrophe; as,--

  “_O star of strength._ I see thee stand
  And smile upon my pain.”--_Longfellow._

2. We also have the noun used independently by pleonasm, that is,
either for emphasis or to call the reader’s attention to the subject
that is to be talked about; as, “_The birds that come about one’s
door in winter or that build in his trees in summer_, what a peculiar
interest they have.”--_Burroughs._ The base of this independent element
is the noun _birds_; the element is long because of the two restrictive
adjective clauses modifying _birds_.

Often this independent noun is introduced by _as for_ or _as to_;
_thus_, “_As for the boy_, he turned up after a while as a constant
guest.”--_Howells._ The words _as for_ indicate that the boy had
already been the subject of discourse in some previous sentence.

3. The words _well_, _now_, _why_ often begin a sentence. They may
indicate the writer’s state of mind, his attitude toward what he is
going to say, also the tone, whether of conviction, remonstrance,
surprise, or deliberation, with which the sentence should be read;
as, “_Why_, let him go home in the rain, to be sure.”--_Jerrold._
“_Now_, the capitalists were men of understanding and wise in their
generation.”--_Bellamy._

4. The interjection is an independent element. It may be a single word
or a group of words with the office of one. Such words and expressions
as _Ah!_ _Oh!_ _Alas!_ _Dear me!_ _O my stars and garters!_ _Hurrah!_
_fudge!_ _pooh!_ are used to communicate not our thoughts but our
feelings. In doing this they perform the work of a whole declarative
sentence; as,--

  “_Hurrah!_--_Hurrah!_--the west wind
      Comes freshening down the bay,
  The rising sails are filling,--
      Give way, my lads, give way!”

  --_Whittier._

The interjection _eh?_ is interrogative. _Whoa!_ and _hist!_ are
imperative. _O_ is frequently used before the noun of address.

       *       *       *       *       *

=The Prepositional Phrase used Independently.=--This is usually a
stereotyped phrase ready to hand for any one who wishes to use it, such
a phrase as _for example_, _in fact_, _in short_, _at any rate_. In the
following sentence from Stevenson, “I take it, _in short_, that I was
about as near Nirvana as would be convenient in practical life; and if
this be so I make the Buddhists my sincere compliments,” the little
independent phrase signifies to the reader that the author, instead of
going on with a long description of his state of feeling, has thought
of a happy way by which he can communicate a knowledge of it in very
few words.

In Irving’s sentence, “This, _by the way_, is a mere casual remark,
which I would not for the universe have it thought I apply to Governor
Van Twiller,” the independent phrase indicates that this sentence also
is only a casual remark, much like a personal “aside” from the author
to the reader.

In this sentence from Mrs. Gaskell,--“_In the first place_, Cranford
is in possession of the Amazons,” the phrase is equivalent to the
independent infinitive phrase _to begin with_. It informs the reader
that the remark it introduces is necessary as a setting or background
for further description of Cranford.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Propositions used Independently.=--1. The imperative sentence
addressed to the reader; as, “_Mind you_, this was the world as I
first knew it.”--_Holmes._ This independent element is like a note of
warning, telling the reader not to conclude that this is the world as
the writer knew it later.

2. An exclamation like “Bless your soul!” or “Thank God!” wherein
the subject of the verb is omitted. Such an expression reveals the
author’s feeling about the statement; as, “The civilized world is
learning, _thank God_, more and more of the importance of physical
science.”--_Kingsley._

An expression somewhat similar to this is found in the sentence,
“_Thanks to you_, I am able to speak French.” Here the cause of my
ability to speak French is given in the expression _Thanks to you_;
but this is not so constructed as to be a grammatical modifier of the
predicate, and hence must be considered independent.

3. A proposition introduced by _as_.--This has the structure of an
adverbial clause, but in meaning it is not a modifier of any part of
the sentence. Many of these expressions are stereotyped; for example,
_as it were_, _as it will be seen_, _as the case might be_, _as it was
called_. They are usually parenthetical. Their value in the sentence
can best be seen from a few examples.

(_a_) “Time, _as it will be seen afterward_, did not allow Sir George
Lewis any chance of making good this prediction.”--_McCarthy._ The
independent element here informs the reader that the author will not
drop the matter under discussion with the single statement of it, but
will take it up more at length later.

A similar expression, “as we have seen,” takes the reader’s mind back
to something he has read before.

(_b_) “The Saxon, _as it appears to me_, has never shown any capacity
for art.”--_Lowell._ The independent clause signifies here that the
author makes his statement not as a matter of fact but only as a matter
of personal opinion.

(_c_) “She was, _as I had supposed_, a gentlewoman whom a change of
circumstances had brought down from her high estate.”--_Holmes._ This
independent clause conveys to the reader the author’s satisfaction
in making a statement that is true and that coincides with his own
supposition.

(_d_) “‘You don’t know what your thoughts are going to be beforehand!’
said the ‘Member of the Haouse,’ _as he called himself_.”--_Holmes._
This independent element gives the authority for the preceding
quotation, and together with the quotation marks absolves the writer
from all responsibility for spelling and pronunciation.

Familiar forms of this clause are--_as everybody says_, _as the Bible
says_, _as Shakespeare puts it_. We often use the first of these when
we are unwilling ourselves to be held responsible for our statements.
The other two are sometimes used lest people should think we are trying
to pass off a quoted remark for an original one.

4. A clause of reason introduced by _for_. When such a clause is
independent, it gives the reason not for any action expressed in the
sentence nor for the whole statement, but rather the author’s reason
for using a particular word or phrase; as, “The bitterest opponent of
the poet (for like every strong personality he has many enemies) is
thus no less his debtor than his warmest admirer.”--_Boyesen._ Such a
clause is not always enclosed in a parenthesis; it is just as often
set off by commas or dashes.

5. An independent proposition, declarative.--Many of these independent
elements are stereotyped; such as, _I dare say_, _it seems_, _it is
said_, _it is true_. The following sentences contain familiar instances.

(_a_) “Mr. Swinburne, _Heaven knows_, has been imitated
enough.”--_Saintsbury._ The independent element here makes the sentence
emphatic, even makes it mean that Mr. Swinburne has been imitated too
much.

(_b_) “To equip so small a book with a preface is, _I am half afraid_,
to sin against proportion.”--_Stevenson._ The independent words are
here apologetic, revealing to the reader the author’s misgiving that
the preface is uncalled for, but not his full conviction.

(_c_) “I want my ‘asides,’ _you see_, to whisper loud to you who read
my notes.”--_Holmes._ The independent words, a familiar personal remark
to the reader, indicate the author’s appreciation of the fact that
the reader understands fully as well as the author the purpose of the
“asides.”

Sentences like the last three quoted could be re-arranged so that the
independent element would become the principal proposition and the rest
of the sentence a noun clause; thus, “Heaven knows that Mr. Swinburne
has been imitated enough.” This transposition is unjust, for it makes a
different sentence from what the author intended. Oftentimes sentences
read as if the independent element were not in the author’s mind when
he began to write, but occurred to him during the writing and so was
put in loosely, parenthetically--for a purpose, to be sure, but not as
part of the structure of the sentence. If we transpose such sentences,
we give the independent element an undue importance, not intended for
it by the author.


Exercise 39

Select the independent elements in the following sentences. Tell the
function of each.

 1.   Keen son of trade, with eager brow,
          Who is now fluttering in thy snare?
      Thy golden fortunes, tower they now
          Or melt the glittering spires in air?--_Bryant._

 2. Now, we will not discuss the point on any rigid principles of
 morality.--_Macaulay._

 3. For my part, I had never been in a canoe under sail in my
 life.--_Stevenson._

 4. These strangers or neighbors, as the case might be, were
 looking at the display of toys and petty commodities in Hepzibah’s
 shop-window.--_Hawthorne._

 5. Without a word to either of them--and that was not his wont--he
 passed to the stern of the yacht.--_Black._

 6. Why, bless your soul, if all the cities of the world were reduced
 to ashes, you’d have a new set of millionaires in a couple of years or
 so out of the trade in potash.--_Holmes._

 7. As to the nature of the dinner, it of course varies somewhat
 according to the nature of the diner.--_Howells._

 8. To be frank, the Doctor’s little establishment was dusty and
 disorderly--very.--_Cable._

 9. They’ll come and look at me, but, you may depend upon it, they will
 dine at your expense before they go home again.--_Froude._

 10. When the thunders of universal France, as even yet may happen,
 shall proclaim the grandeur of the poor shepherd-girl that gave up all
 for her country, thy ear, young shepherd-girl, will have been deaf for
 five centuries.--_De Quincey._

 11. Depend upon it, there is now truer duty to be done in raising
 harvests than in burning them.--_Ruskin._

 12.  And hark! how blithe the throstle sings!
          He, too, is no mean preacher;
      Come forth into the light of things,
          Let Nature be your teacher.--_Wordsworth._

 13. In a word, Rip was ready to attend to anybody’s business but his
 own.--_Irving._

 14. Poor as he was,--for his income was little more than two hundred
 a year,--and springing as he did from a family of no political
 importance, it was by sheer dint of genius that the young cornet of
 horse, at whose youth and inexperience Walpole had sneered, seized
 a power which the Whig houses had ever since the Revolution kept in
 their grasp.--_J. R. Green._

 15. Call her, King of France, but she will not hear thee!--_De
 Quincey._

 16. The beauty of the scene increased, thanks largely to the brilliant
 effects of cloud masses and an ardent setting sun.--_Bolles._

 17. As for the carnival, which once lasted six months of the
 year, charming hither all the idlers of the world by its peculiar
 splendor and variety of pleasure, it does not, as I said, any longer
 exist.--_Howells._

 18. The fireplace, it should be noted, was built on the side of the
 room opposite to the windows; that is to say, in one of the partition
 walls.--_J. Hawthorne._

 19.      Ho! ye who suffer! know
      Ye suffer from yourselves. None else compels.--_E. Arnold._

 20. And now, being a trifle choleric in his temperament, the
 lieutenant governor uplifted the heavy hilt of his sword, wherewith
 he so beat and banged upon the door that, as some of the bystanders
 whispered, the racket might have disturbed the dead.--_Hawthorne._

 21. Maule’s Lane, or Pyncheon Street, as it were now more decorous to
 call it, was thronged at the appointed hour as with a congregation on
 its way to church.--_Hawthorne._




CHAPTER XXXII

SENTENCE MODIFIERS


Closely allied to the independent elements discussed in the preceding
chapter are certain adverbs and adverbial phrases, which seem to modify
not any special part of the sentence but the whole assertion. In some
cases it is difficult to decide whether it is better to call a certain
expression a sentence modifier or an independent element, but this need
not trouble us greatly, for it is not the name we give to an element
that is the vital point; it is a clear perception of what that element
does in the sentence for the communication of the author’s thought.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Classification of Sentence Modifiers.=--Certain of these modifiers are
so clearly distinguishable from all other sentence-elements that we may
study them in the following groups.

1. Adverbs.--Most of these are modal adverbs, denoting the manner
in which an assertion is made. This may be positive, doubtful, or
negative, hence the adverbs _surely_, _perhaps_, and _not_ are very
common sentence modifiers.

Other adverbs make the sentence emphatic, as _indeed_; others denote
the extent of its application, as _generally_; still others take the
reader back in thought to some previous statement, and denote the
logical relation between this previous statement and the sentence in
which they occur, as _moreover_, _however_, _anyhow_, _though_.

Examples of the use of these adverbs are found in the following
sentences:

(_a_) “_Perhaps_, Mr. Wilson, you would have the great kindness to
recommence your narrative.”--_Conan Doyle._

(_b_) “_Indeed_, almost all slang is like parched corn and should be
served up hot or else not at all.”--_Higginson._

(_c_) “It served, _moreover_, as a council of state to assist the
monarch in the transaction of public business.”--_Prescott._

2. Prepositional phrases.--These denote, for the most part, what the
modal adverbs denote. Usually they may be changed to adverbs that are
nearly or quite equivalent in meaning; for example, “on the other hand”
= _however_; “at all events” = _anyhow_; “of course” = _certainly_.

It may seem best to some persons to say of these phrases, as likewise
of the adverbs, that they modify the predicate instead of the whole
sentence. There can be no objection to this, as the predicate is the
asserting part of the sentence.

Examples of these phrases are found in the following sentences:

(_a_) “_For the most part_, young people have a pretty keen
sense of honor, so that the main thing is to keep it fresh and
active.”--_Munger._

(_b_) “_For my part_, I travel not to go anywhere, but to
go.”--_Stevenson._

(_c_) “_For the life of me_, I cannot understand it.”--_Stevenson._

3. Phrases or clauses introduced by _as_; for example,--

(_a_) “_As luck would have it_, there was a fair spring morning shining
over the city.”--_Black._ This clause means _luckily_, and tells the
author’s opinion of the statement he makes.

(_b_) “_As a rule_, we disbelieve all facts and theories for which we
have no use.”--_Wm. James._ This phrase means _generally_, and denotes
the extent to which the statement is true.

(_c_) “_As sure as my name is Jack Copley_, I saw the prettiest girl in
the world today.”--_Mrs. Wiggin._ This clause means _truly_, _verily_,
and is used to make the statement emphatic.

4. We frequently meet sentences containing a phrase like that
italicized in the following,--“_Far from showing due reverence to St.
Edmund_, he did not even show him common justice.”--_Carlyle._ This
phrase, it is plain, means “_instead of showing due reverence to St.
Edmund_,” but in addition it implies there is a very wide difference
between two things,--the thing he did not do and the thing he did do.
It would be natural for us to say--“Instead of white, she wore pink”;
and it would be just as natural to say--“Far from wearing white, she
wore black.” Our choice of phrases depends on the degree of difference
between the two things contrasted. The difference between white and
pink is not great; but the difference between white and black is one
hundred and eighty degrees.

When we analyze this sentence modifier we find it to consist of the
adverb _far_ for a base-word, modified by a prepositional phrase
introduced by _from_. The object of the preposition is a gerund, which
may be complete or incomplete, modified or unmodified.

It is not uncommon for _far_ to be modified by _so_, which only
intensifies its meaning; thus, “For the King’s subjects, _so far_ from
being charmed by his resolution to marry a woman out of their midst,
are scandalized.”


Exercise 40

Dispose of the sentence modifiers in the following sentences.

 1. Nevertheless, an important part of culture is to acquire the habit
 of finishing every work.--_J. F. Clarke._

 2. For my own part, I think there is such a thing as being too
 Anglo-Saxon.--_Lowell._

 3. People, as a rule, only pay for being amused or for being cheated,
 not for being served.--_Ruskin._

 4. Believe me, my dear Miss Elizabeth, that your modesty, so
 far from doing you any disservice, rather adds to your other
 perfections.--_Jane Austen._

 5. True eloquence, indeed, does not consist in speech.--_Webster._

 6. Had we seen this charming landscape immediately after bidding
 farewell to Chocorua, it would have failed to make the strong
 impression upon us which as a matter of fact it did produce.--_Bolles._

 7. Of course, genius and enthusiasm are, for both sexes,
 elements unforeseen and incalculable; but, as a general rule,
 great achievements imply great preparations and favorable
 conditions.--_Higginson._

 8. Probably the election goes by avoirdupois weight; and, if you
 could weigh bodily the tonnage of any hundred of the Whig and the
 Democratic party in a town on the Dearborn balance, as they passed the
 hayscales, you could predict with certainty which party would carry
 it.--_Emerson._

 9. To be inefficient or shiftless is the unpardonable sin, to the mind
 of a born New Englander.--_J. F. Clarke._

 10. With a frank cordiality charming to contemplate, they severally
 and collectively did their very best to make him feel that, so far
 from being a stranger in a strange land, he was very much at home
 among genuine friends.--_Janvier._


Exercise 41

Analyze the following sentences. As far as possible analyze independent
elements.

 1. For, to repeat, the ground of a man’s joy is often hard to
 hit.--_Stevenson._

 2.   Alas! they had been friends in youth;
      But whispering tongues can poison truth;
      And constancy lives in realms above;
      And life is thorny; and youth is vain;
      And to be wroth with one we love
      Doth work like madness in the brain.--_Coleridge._

 3. Surely this was his native village which he had left but the day
 before.--_Irving._

 4. As a rule, when I have heard some slight indication of the course
 of events, I am able to guide myself by the thousands of other similar
 cases which occur to my memory.--_Conan Doyle._

 5. Milton, it is said, inherited what his predecessors
 created.--_Macaulay._

 6. For my own part, as the gondola slipped away from the blaze and
 bustle of the station down the gloom and silence of the broad canal,
 I forgot that I had been freezing two days and nights; that I was at
 that moment very cold and a little homesick.--_Howells._

 7. The king, as we have seen, must be an experienced
 warrior.--_Prescott._

 8. Our solar system, far from being alone in the universe, is only one
 of an extensive brotherhood bound by common laws and subject to like
 influences.--_Draper._

 9. Fight on, thou brave true heart, and falter not through dark
 fortune and through bright.--_Carlyle._

 10. Further,--and this was where the pinch came,--his reputation as a
 promoter had been most severely injured.--_Janvier._

 11. “So, my dear Miss Pyncheon,” said the daguerreotypist,--for it was
 that sole other occupant of the seven-gabled mansion,--“I am glad to
 see that you have not shrunk from your good purpose.”--_Hawthorne._

 12. The voice, for example, in a surprisingly large number of us, has
 a tired and plaintive sound.--_Wm. James._

 13. As for this old man, he had the beard of a saint and the dignity
 of a senator.--_Howells._

 14. Fortunately for us, want of food, great heat, extreme cold,
 produce promptings too peremptory to be disregarded.--_Spencer._

 15. In the first place, he was named “Frank,” a circumstance I
 mentally resented; but, what was more to the point, he had an evident
 desire to spill us over the steepest bank he could find.--_Bolles._

 16. Thanks to the beneficent mysteries of hereditary transmission, no
 capital earns such interest as personal culture.--_C. W. Eliot._

 17. The human species, according to the best theory I can form of it,
 is composed of two distinct races, the men who borrow, and the men who
 lend.--_Lamb._

 18. The first author, it is plain, could not have taken anything from
 books, since there were no books for him to copy from.--_Bagehot._




CHAPTER XXXIII

ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES


In preceding chapters we have spoken of the tendency in English speech
and composition towards abridgment. Independent propositions become
clauses, clauses become phrases, and phrases give place to words. This
tendency to abbreviate the expression of thought is due to two causes:
(1) a predominating interest in one’s ideas and a minor interest in
the expression. In such a case one uses only the significant words,
leaving out all those that can be supplied by the reader. (2) A desire
to be impressive, to gain and keep the reader’s attention. At such
times one rejects all unnecessary words as distracting attention from
the main purpose and retarding the progress of the main thought. The
result of either of these causes is an elliptical sentence--one that
cannot be analyzed without supplying certain elements necessary to its
grammatical structure.

Elliptical sentences are very common. Some of them have been already
mentioned in different chapters, for instance, the common idiom, “I
cannot but think.” Some other ellipses we shall make the subject of
inquiry in the present chapter, and for convenience we shall take them
up as ellipses in subordinate propositions and ellipses in principal
propositions.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Ellipses in Subordinate Propositions.=--

1. An elliptical adjective clause; as,--

  “A sound _as of myriads singing_
  From far and near stole in.”--_Whittier._

This ellipsis comes about through the omission of (1) the correlative
of _as_, which in this case is _such_, (2) the noun _sound_, which can
easily be supplied from the principal proposition, and (3) the verb
_is_. Expanded the sentence reads,--“Such a sound as a sound of myriads
singing is, from far and near stole in.”

2. The elliptical adverbial clause of time; as, “St. Patrick, _when a
boy of twelve_, lights a fire with icicles.”--_Froude._

In discussing adverbs as modifiers of nouns in Chapter XXX, we found
that an adjective clause is frequently abridged to an appositive
phrase in which the base-word, or noun in apposition, is modified by
an adverb. A sentence like the following might have arisen in such
a way,--“St. Patrick, _then a boy of twelve_, lighted a fire with
icicles.” Here we have an abridgment, but it is unnecessary to supply
any ellipsis, for we may say that the adverb _then_ modifies _boy of
twelve_. But in the sentence quoted we have not the simple adverb
_then_, but the subordinating connective _when_. In order that it may
perform its ordinary and proper function in the sentence, we supply
after it the two words _he is_, making a regular adverbial clause of
time, _when he is a boy of twelve_.

3. The elliptical clause of manner; as, “A great city sprang up _as
if by magic_.” This construction has been spoken of in the chapter
on prepositional phrases. It resembles the elliptical time clause in
that the connective _as if_ is a subordinating connective and needs
a complete proposition following it. In the sentence quoted we must
therefore supply the words _it sprang up_.

In the elliptical modal clause the connective is often the one
word _as_, though it generally has the meaning of _as if_; as, “On
that I found scratched _as with a nail or fork_, the following
inscription.”--_Holmes_.

4. The elliptical adverbial clause of condition.

(_a_) An omission of the connective and the subject; as, “This
frame of mind was the great exploit of our voyage, _take it all in
all_.”--_Stevenson._ Expanded for analysis this clause becomes, “_if we
take it all in all_.”

(_b_) An omission of the subject and the verb. This is found in
the familiar expression _if possible_, which is really _if it be
possible_, also in such sentences as the following,--“What is the use
of health and life _if not to do some work with them_?”--Here we may
supply after _if_ the words _the use is_ or _it is_.

5. The elliptical adverbial clause of concession.

(_a_) An omission of connective and subject; as, “_Do what we may_,
summer will have its flies.”--_Emerson._ In this sentence the verb _do_
is also to be supplied after the auxiliary _may_. Expanded the clause
reads, _though we do what we may do_.

(_b_) An omission of subject and verb, the latter being a copula; as,
“Solitude, _though silent as light_, is, like light, the mightiest
of agencies; for solitude is essential to man.”--_De Quincey._ Since
the noun _solitude_ immediately precedes the clause as subject of the
principal proposition, the clause is perfectly clear without even the
pronoun _it_ for a subject, and the verb _is_ is easily understood.
Only the new and necessary ideas need be expressed and these are the
attribute _silent as light_. The base of such an attribute is not
always an adjective; it may be a noun, a participle, or a prepositional
phrase.

(_c_) An omission of connective and subject, sometimes also of copula
or auxiliary, before a pair of words in opposition to each other and
joined by _or_; as, “_Rain or shine_, the King rode every day for
hours.”--_Thackeray._ This elliptical expression means “_though it
might rain or might shine_.”

6. The elliptical adverbial clause consisting of a connective and a
participial phrase. This may denote various relations,--time, manner,
condition, etc., but is so frequent a construction that it seems best
to treat it by itself. We have already spoken of this construction in
the chapter on participial phrases, where we gave illustrations which
might be disposed of without supplying any ellipsis. However, this
disposition is not always satisfactory, and some may prefer to expand
the clause in all cases of this kind. Illustrations are found in the
following sentences:--

(_a_) Denoting time,--“No amount of hereditary virtue has thus far
saved the merely devout communities from deteriorating, _when let
alone_, into comfort and good dinners.”--_Higginson._

(_b_) Denoting manner,--“It blew in enormous sighs, dying away at
regular intervals, _as if pausing to draw breath_.”--_Hearn._

(_c_) Denoting concession,--“Such men, _however pressed with business_,
are always found capable of doing a little more.”

7. The elliptical adverbial clause of degree.--This is so frequent that
we seldom find a clause of degree involving a comparison that is not
elliptical. We shall take up first the ellipses after the conjunction
_than_.

(_a_) An omission of the predicate when it is about the same as the
predicate of the principal proposition; as, “Alas! books cannot be more
than the men who write them (_are_).”

(_b_) An omission of both subject and verb when these are readily
supplied from the context; as, “In no other spot had sympathy been more
fiercely kindled than along that Western border where life was always
tense with martial passion.”--_J. L. Allen._ After _than_ we are to
understand the words _it had been kindled_.

(_c_) An omission of the subject. This may be the impersonal _it_;
as, “His features were more refined than (_it_) was usual in Roman
faces.”--_Froude._ Or the subject understood may be the indefinite
pronoun _what_; as, “We have a great deal more kindness than (_what_)
is ever spoken.”--_Emerson._

(_d_) Very much like the last type of sentence is one in which we
cannot supply _what_ but must supply _those who_, with the verb _are_
for the predicate of _those_; as, “He met more people _than could be
remembered_.” This clause expanded reads, “_than those are who can be
remembered_.” This gives us a restrictive adjective clause within the
clause of degree.

(_e_) We find cases of ellipsis after _than_ which it is difficult to
supply, and some of them are familiar everyday expressions current
everywhere and therefore invaluable in the communication of thought;
as, “Naturally the coming of the Marques de Valdeflores at this
critical juncture was regarded by the colonel as nothing less _than
providential_.”--_Janvier._ Shall we make a clause here reading _than a
providential thing is_?

Another difficult ellipsis is found in the sentence,--“He may look
up to a tower of rock and see its broken edges, softened by _more
than three-fourths of a mile_ of distance, directly above his
eyes.”--_King._ It seems best here not to attempt to supply anything,
but to take the italicized words as a unit, as if the one word _mile_
had been in their place. This sentence could, however, be expanded to
read--_softened by more of distance than three fourths of a mile is_.

Another common instance is found in the sentence,--“He was _more than
venerated_ in his day.”--_Lord._ This passive construction comes from
the active--“We _more than venerated_ him,” which in turn comes from
the sentence,--“We _did more than venerate_ him.” It is possible to
supply the ellipsis in the last sentence, making it,--“We did more
than to venerate him (_is much_),” but the other two sentences must be
considered idiomatic.

An idiom similar to the last is found in the sentence,--“In very marked
contrast with this younger man is the _something more than middle-aged_
Register of Deeds.”--_Holmes._ The italicized words are a group
signifying one idea, for which we have no single word. The base-word of
the group is _more_, but this alone is not a modifier of _Register of
Deeds_. So far as the group of words modifies the noun phrase _Register
of Deeds_, it cannot be separated.

       *       *       *       *       *

We come now to ellipses in clauses of degree after the conjunction _as_.

(_a_) The subject may be omitted; as, “These are by no means so nearly
connected _as might be thought at first sight_.”--_Bagehot._ Here we
may supply _it_ after _as_, or we may make the clause read “_as they
might be thought to be at first sight_.”

(_b_) The subject and auxiliary of the verb may be omitted when they
can easily be supplied from the principal proposition; as, “His
fellow-conspirators were hanged nearly as fast _as taken_.”--_Howells._
The clause expanded is “_as they were taken_.”

(_c_) As after _than_, so after _as_ we have some idiomatic expressions
arising by ellipsis which it seems best not to fill out; as, “He knew
that into the world where Ramona really lived he _did not so much as
enter_.”--_H. H._ This predicate may be expanded to read _did not do
so much as to enter is much_, but this is very awkward. Besides, _so_
_much as_ has to us an adverbial force, being almost equivalent to the
adverb _even_.

An extension of this construction is found in the following sentence
from Hawthorne,--“It was doubtful whether the poor lady _had so much
as closed_ her eyes during the brief night of midsummer.” The ellipsis
could be supplied if the predicate were _had done so much as close_,
but as it stands it must be considered an idiom and left as it is. This
construction has even gone over into the passive voice; as, “Parliament
_is not so much as mentioned_ in the whole instrument.”--_Webster._

Another familiar elliptical construction is found in the
sentence,--“But you think you _may as well have_ the right thing for
your money.”--_Ruskin._ If one wishes he may expand this sentence
so that it will read,--“you may have the right thing for your money
as well _as you may not have it_.” Here the entire clause is to
be supplied. Sometimes a portion of it is expressed, as in the
sentence,--“You may as well go _as not_.”

A peculiar expression denoting degree, which it seems best to give here
although it follows neither _than_ nor _as_ is found in the sentence,
He was _all but killed_. It seems best not to separate _all but_, but
to consider the expression as one adverbial modifier of the passive
verb _was killed_. In the sentence, He was _all but dead_, we may say
if we choose that _all_ is used as the base-word of the adjective
complement of _was_, and is modified by the prepositional phrase _but
dead_. However, the sentence does not appeal to us in this way; we do
not naturally make the separation between _all_ on one side and _but
dead_ on the other. Still less do we make such a separation when the
word following _but_ is a verb; as in, “We _all but_ _won_.” Instead
of this we keep the words _all but_ together as if they were one word,
having almost the same meaning as the adverb _nearly_.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Ellipses in Principal Propositions.=--1. The entire subject and part
of the predicate may be omitted; as, “A prick (= _I gave her a prick_)
and she passed the most inviting stable door.”--_Stevenson._ Here the
abbreviated expression accords well with the thought.

2. If part of a compound sentence is the same as what has already been
expressed, it is frequently omitted; as, “The former seems to have been
a loyal and homely soul; the latter (_seems to have been_) restless,
imperious, penetrating, unamiable.”--_Morley._

3. In replies to questions, that part is often omitted which can be
supplied from the question; as, “‘What do you hope?’ ‘That long before
this moon has grown old, you will be quite strong again.’”--_Miss
Mulock._ The reply is here a noun clause, object of _hope_, which with
its subject _I_ is to be supplied.

4. In sentences beginning with the words _no wonder_, the verb _is_ and
the anticipative subject _it_ are to be supplied. The real subject is
a noun clause following _no wonder_; as, “No wonder the princess loved
him.”--_Stockton._

5. The verb and the anticipative subject _it_ are often omitted at the
beginning of sentences introduced by _no matter_; as, “No matter just
at this moment, what he said.”--_Holmes._ Here the real subject of the
predicate _is no matter_ is the noun clause _what he said_.

6. Some interrogative or exclamative sentences begin with the words
_what if_. The word _what_ is all that is left of a principal
proposition, and _if_ introduces a conditional clause. It may seem best
sometimes to dispose of this if-clause as a noun clause used as the
real subject of the principal proposition. The principal proposition
may be expanded to read,--“_What does it matter_,” “_what matter is
it_,” “_what difference does it make_,” etc.; as, “What (_would the
result be_) if one of the Himalayas could be cloven from its topmost
tile of ice to its torrid base?”--_King._

7. A construction similar to the last is one in which the negative
adverb _not_ takes the place of a whole proposition; as, “Not that I
could see the boat drift, for I could not, the stars being all gone by
this time.”--_S. L. Clemens._ We may expand this sentence to read,--“_I
do not mean_ that I could see,” or “_I would not say_ that I could see.”

8. Exclamative sentences expressing a wish often begin with the verb
_would_, which is to be taken as equivalent to _wish_ with the subject
_I_ omitted. _Would_ is followed by a noun clause used as its object;
as, “Would to Heaven that we had a sieve, that we could so much as
fancy any kind of sieve that would do this work.”

9. The imperative _let_ is sometimes omitted at the beginning of a
sentence, especially before the verb _suffice_; as, “_Suffice_ it here
to say that the people in all times enjoyed a freedom far above that
possessed by any other city of Europe.”--_Besant._


Exercise 42

Expand the following elliptical sentences. Analyze them.

 1. Slow wavelets caressed the bland brown beach with a sound as of
 kisses and whispers.--_Hearn._

 2.   I am alone; my bugle strain
      May call some straggler of the train;
      Or, fall the worst that may betide,
      Ere now this falchion has been tried.--_Scott._

 3. The thing for thee to do is, if possible, to cease to be a
 hollow-sounding shell of hearsays and become a faithful discerning
 soul.--_Carlyle._

 4. Another, his big brother, though evidently some years younger, is
 selling doughnuts and bonbons.--_Mrs. Dodge._

 5. While resting thus, she became aware of another presence, and
 turning her head, beheld a small boy with his cap in one hand and a
 hammer in the other.--_M. A. H. Clarke._

 6. Philip, so far from having the least disposition to yield in the
 matter of the great religious persecution, was more determined as to
 his course than ever.--_Motley._

 7. The others, to do them justice, more than atoned for Dr.
 Théophile’s coldness by their effusive friendliness.--_Janvier._

 8. The stranger attempted once or twice to stem the torrent of
 words, but in vain; so he bowed his head and suffered it to flow
 on.--_Irving._

 9. No matter whether or not Moses was gifted in a most extraordinary
 degree to write his code.--_Lord._

 10.      What if thou withdraw
      Unheeded by the living, and no friend
      Take note of thy departure.--_Bryant._

 11. Would I were in a wilderness of apes, tossing cocoanuts about,
 grinning and grinned at.--_Lamb._

 12. The country rose as one man at his refusal.--_J. R. Green._

 13. Mr. Simon Watts, though of extremely limited means, had some
 ambition.--_R. M. Johnston._

 14. Never do we more evince our arrogant ignorance than when we boast
 our knowledge.--_Everett._

 15. They are soon to be matched in a longer and more determined combat
 than the world has ever seen.--_Motley._

 16. Grief of that sort, and at that age, has killed more than ever
 have been counted amongst its martyrs.--_De Quincey._

 17. This resolution was in the same words, when originally submitted
 by Mr. Lee, as when finally passed.--_Webster._

 18. What matter if the Governor removes you from office? he cannot
 remove you from the lake; and if readers or customers will not bite,
 the pickerel will.--_Higginson._

 19. To Thompson’s credit be it recorded he showed no tendency to
 desert the cause he had espoused.--_Tyndall._

 20. In 1784, when he was twenty-one years of age, Carlton Palace was
 given to him, and furnished by the nation with as much luxury as could
 be devised.--_Thackeray._

 21. More than a thousand feet beneath us was the arching head of a
 waterfall.--_King._

 22. Now it sank to a murmur, as of one who consoles and soothes and
 promises things to come.--_Besant._

 23. They built their cities as if for eternity.--_Froude._

 24. To Nature therefore we turn as to the oldest and most influential
 teacher of our race.--_Mabie._

 23. His legs, though exceeding short, were sturdy in proportion to
 the weight they had to sustain; so that, when erect, he had not
 a little the appearance of a robustious beer-barrel standing on
 skids.--_Irving._

 26. This is a sturdy looking personage of a good deal more than middle
 age.--_Holmes._

 27. There seems no end to the charm of their vast, smooth, all but
 melancholy expanses.--_Howells._

 28. No wonder that the ladies look complacently at the glassy ice;
 with a stove for a footstool, one might sit easily beside the North
 Pole.--_Mrs. Dodge._

 29. Not that my motives were not as pure and as patriotic as ever
 carried any man into public office.--_Clay._

 30. Despising every other acquirement as superficial and useless, they
 came to their task as to a sport.--_Lamb._

 31. Wet or dry, light or dark, the stout old George was always in his
 place to say amen to the chaplain.--_Thackeray._

 32. Here the poet caught the first glimpse of a greater and
 freer life than moved within the narrow horizon of the Norwegian
 capital.--_Boyesen._

 33. Seven altogether; a delightful number for a dinner party,
 supposing the units to be delightful, but everything depends on
 that.--_George Eliot._

 34. Even genius itself then feels rebuked and subdued as in the
 presence of higher qualities.--_Webster._

 35. We ought to be as cheerful as we can, if only because to be
 happy ourselves is a most effective contribution to the happiness of
 others.--_Sir John Lubbock._

 36. This only proves the profundity of an observation made by Mr.
 Bagehot--a man who carried away into the next world more originality
 of thought than is now to be found in the Three Estates of the
 Realm.--_Birrell._

 37. Venice lures you in a gondola into one of her remote canals, where
 you glide through an avenue as secret and as still as if sea-deep
 under our work-day world.--_Howells._

 38. What if their palaces were grand, and their villas beautiful,
 and their dresses magnificent, and their furniture costly, if their
 lives were spent in ignoble and enervating pleasures, as is generally
 admitted?--_Lord._

 39. Antwerp shook as with an earthquake.--_Motley._

 40. His age, though rich in minor decorative arts, had no accomplished
 statuary.--_Lang._

 41. His pride never appeared in loftier and nobler form than in his
 attitude towards the people at large.--_J. R. Green._

 42. Suffice it to say that he received an offer of the high and
 responsible station of Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of
 Massachusetts.--_Webster._

 43. That one purpose of malice faithfully pursued has quartered
 some people upon our national funds of homage as by a perpetual
 annuity.--_De Quincey._

 44. Though not more than twice as large as New England, it presented
 every variety of climate.--_Prescott._

 45. Although it was slipping down more than half a mile of undisturbed
 depth it appeared to be creeping at its own will and leisure.--_King._

 46. He did not seem so much desirous of provoking discussion by
 the questions which he asked, as of obtaining information at any
 rate.--_Lamb._

 47. Would to Heaven I could persuade you of this world-old fact, than
 which Fate is not surer, that Truth and Justice alone are capable of
 being conserved.--_Carlyle._

 48. But death was then scarcely intelligible to me, and I could not so
 properly be said to suffer sorrow as a sad perplexity.--_De Quincey._

 49. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and
 my heart to this vote.--_Webster._

 50. Their frequent overflow when forced back upon their currents by
 the strong sea, rendered the country almost uninhabitable.--_Motley._

 51. What if this man Odin should have felt that perhaps _he_ was
 divine?--_Carlyle._

 52. I do not see my way through it as clearly as could be wished.--_De
 Quincey._

 53. Woe to the child who happens to be born with a weak will in New
 England.--_J. F. Clarke._

 54.      Turn wheresoe’er I may
          By night or day,
      The things which I have seen I now can see no more.--_Wordsworth._

 55. At close quarters his striped coat is all but as fine as the
 tiger’s, while the form and movement of his body are in every way
 nobler.--_Drummond._


MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES

 1. Who knows but the world may end to-night?--_Browning._

 2. The white-coated sentinels never cease to pace the bastions, night
 or day.--_Howells._

 3. Marcus Aurelius is immortal, not so much for what he did as for
 what he was.--_Lord._

 4. To the right lay the sea, sometimes at full tide, sometimes
 withdrawn to the very horizon; but he knew it for the same
 sea.--_Kipling._

 5.   Outside her kennel, the mastiff old
      Lay fast asleep, in moonshine cold.--_Coleridge._

 6. Come to read the other side of her, she had a trust in God Almighty
 that was like the bow-anchor of a three-decker.--_Holmes._

 7. “What is a Caucus-race?” said Alice; not that she much wanted to
 know, but the Dodo had paused as if it thought that _somebody_ ought
 to speak, and no one else seemed inclined to say anything.--_Lewis
 Carroll._

 8. The General was on his feet as if by the touch of a
 spring.--_Cable._

 9. It isn’t fair to judge a man’s promise by one performance, and that
 one a livery stable, so I shall say nothing.--_Mrs. Wiggin._

 10. Finishing a thing, doing it thoroughly before we begin anything
 else, is very important to our own happiness and the good of
 others.--_J. F. Clarke._

 11. Upon the beach lies a piece of timber, part of a wreck; the wood
 is torn and the fibres rent where it was battered against the dull
 edge of the rocks.--_Jefferies._

 12. And then, being given many rich gifts by the old Rajah, he set out
 to return home.--_Old Deccan Days._

 13. There should find a peaceable refuge the odd volumes of
 honored sets, which go mourning all their days for their lost
 brother.--_Holmes._

 14. Look backward only to correct an error of conduct for the next
 attempt.--_George Meredith._

 15. Every failure teaches a man something, if he will
 learn.--_Dickens._

 16. A man can find more reasons for doing as he wishes than for doing
 as he ought.--_Ruskin._

 17. Mist may rest upon the surrounding landscape, but our own path is
 visible from hour to hour, from day to day.--_Gladstone._

 18. I cannot, however, but think that the world would be better and
 brighter if our teachers would dwell on the Duty of Happiness as well
 as on the Happiness of Duty.--_Lubbock._

 19. In character, in manners, in style, in all things, the supreme
 excellence is simplicity.--_Longfellow._

 20. One thorn of experience is worth a whole wilderness of
 warning.--_Lowell._

 21. His home was at the top of a house of four floors, each with
 accommodation for at least two families, and here he had lived with
 his mother since his father’s death six months ago.--_Barrie._

 22. As usual, the king-bird united the characters of brave defender
 and tender lover.--_Olive T. Miller._

 23. And thus I came to the robber’s highway, walking circumspectly,
 scanning the skyline of every hill, and searching the folds of every
 valley, for any moving figure.--_Blackmore._

 24. Mistakes themselves are often the best teachers of all.--_Froude._

 25. Every position in life, great or small, can be made as great or as
 little as we desire to make it.--_Dean Stanley._

 26. Blessed is he who has found his work; let him ask no other
 blessing.--_Carlyle._

 27. Granted that swimming must be learned; granted that the arts of
 the orator must be learned.--_Hale._

 28. Then you can imagine the times that he had with his companions
 ducking under the rollers; or coming in on top of a comber and landing
 with a swash and a splutter as the big wave went whirling far up the
 beach.--_Kipling._

 29. When each man is true to himself, then must all things
 prosper.--_Spencer._

 30. How easy it is to follow one of the two lives--the animal or the
 intellectual! how difficult to conciliate the two!--_Hamerton._

 31.                  Govern the lips
      As they were palace-doors, the King within.

 32. The way to be satisfied with the present state of things is to
 enjoy that state of things.--_Bagehot._

 33. It is lawful to pray God that we be not led into temptation; but
 not lawful to skulk from those that come to us.--_Stevenson._

 34. The consequence was that just when we were the most afraid to
 laugh, we saw the most comical things to laugh at.--_Beecher._

 35.  It’s wiser being good than bad;
      It’s safer being meek than fierce;
      It’s fitter being sane than mad.

 36. To be sure, eyes are not so common as people think, or poets would
 be plentier.--_Lowell._

 37. The actual problem to be solved is not what to teach, but how to
 teach.--_C. W. Eliot._

 38. If it be the pleasure of heaven that my country shall require the
 poor offering of my life, the victim shall be ready at the appointed
 hour of sacrifice, come when that hour may.--_Webster._

 39. The ministers are good talkers, only the struggle between nature
 and grace makes some of ’em a little awkward occasionally.--_Holmes._

 40. I hope your hearts will never get to be so dry and hard that they
 will not beat responsive to brave and noble deeds, even if they are
 not exactly prudent.--_Munger._

 41. For months his only splendid possession had been a penny despised
 by trade because of a large round hole in it, as if some previous
 owner had cut a farthing out of it.--_Barrie._

 42. Better to finish one small enterprise than to leave many large
 ones half-done.--_J. F. Clarke._

 43. But woe to the man who is not ready for the opportunity when it
 comes.--_Hale._

 44. They were assigned a dwelling place in the vilest and unhealthiest
 part of the city.--_Howells._

 45. For to miss the joy is to miss all.--_Stevenson._

 46. The reason why men succeed who mind their own business is because
 there is so little competition.--_Crawford._

 47. All that is purchasable in the capitals of the world is not to be
 weighed in comparison with the simple enjoyment that may be crowded
 into one hour of sunshine.--_Higginson._

 48. How the English navy came to hold so extraordinary a position is
 worth reflecting on.--_Froude._

 49. The most troublesome meddler was, as might be expected, an English
 sparrow.--_Olive T. Miller._

 50.                  We look before and after
                        And pine for what is not;
                      Our sincerest laughter
                        With some pain is fraught;
      Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.
                                                    --_Shelley._

 51. But no living person is sunk so low as not to be imitated by
 somebody.--_Wm. James._

 52. ‘Robinson Crusoe’ is simply a narrative of facts, though the facts
 did not happen to take place.--_Stephen._

 53. When the Yosemite was discovered, it was supposed to be the only
 valley of the kind; but nature is not so poor as to possess only one
 of anything.--_Muir._

 54. The haste to get rich, and the intense struggles of business
 rivalry, probably destroy as many lives in America every year as are
 lost in a great battle.--_J. F. Clarke._

 55. I must be Mabel after all, and shall have to go and live in that
 poky little house, and have next to no toys to play with, and oh! ever
 so many lessons to learn.--_Lewis Carroll._

 56. As soon as a stranger is introduced into any company, one of the
 first questions which all wish to have answered, is, How does that man
 get his living?--_Emerson._

 57. “Revenge may be wicked, but it’s natural,” answered Miss
 Rebecca.--_Thackeray._

 58. And was not their experience, who lived in remote cabins, or
 wandered night after night through the loneliest woods, stronger
 evidence than the cold reasoning of those who hardly ever stirred
 abroad except in daylight?--_Page._

 59. His head was a perfect sphere, and of such stupendous dimensions,
 that Dame Nature, with all her sex’s ingenuity would have been
 puzzled to construct a neck capable of supporting it; wherefore she
 wisely declined the attempt, and settled it firmly on the top of his
 backbone, just between the shoulders.--_Irving._

 60. Once an artist has chosen evil and not good, his clay model ceases
 to be art and becomes only a mass of mud.--_Hillis._

 61.  Kill not--for Pity’s sake--and lest ye slay
      The meanest thing upon its upward way.--_E. Arnold._

 62. Then we are told how Fielding emptied his pockets into those of a
 poorer friend; and when the tax-gatherer came, said, “Friendship has
 called for the money; let the collector call again!”--_Stephen._

 63. He visited the nest when empty; he managed to have frequent peeps
 at the young; and notwithstanding he was driven off every time, he
 still hung around, with prying ways so exasperating that he well
 deserved a thrashing, and I wonder he did not get it.--_Olive T.
 Miller._

 64. Divinity lies all about us, and culture is too hide-bound to even
 suspect the fact.--_Wm. James._

 65.  I heard a thousand blended notes,
        While in a grove I sate reclined,
      In that sweet mood when pleasant thoughts
        Bring sad thoughts to the mind.--_Wordsworth._

 66. It is the people who rule.--_Hale._

 67. You will walk in no public thoroughfare or remotest byway of
 English Existence, but you will meet a man, an interest of men, that
 has given up hope in the Everlasting True, and placed its hope in the
 Temporary, half or wholly False.--_Carlyle._

 68. To separate pain from ill-doing is to fight against the
 constitution of things, and will be followed by far more
 pain.--_Spencer._

 69. There was a story in our family, which I used to hear when a boy,
 that Governor Brooks, when an officer in the Revolution, received
 an order from General Washington to go somewhere, when he was lying
 helpless from rheumatism.--_J. F. Clarke._

 70. Summer and winter came again--crocuses and roses; why not little
 Jane?--_De Quincey._

 71. Every here and there, in an opening, appeared the great gold face
 of the west.--_Stevenson._

 72. If I were writing a poem, you would expect, as a matter of course,
 that there would be a digression now and then.--_Holmes._

 73. One said, “I am Health, and whom I touch shall never know pain nor
 sickness.”--_Schreiner._

 74. I never knew a man to escape failure, in either body or mind, who
 worked seven days in the week.--_Peel._

 75. Now this blush of beauty upon the cheek without represents regular
 habits for the health within.--_Hillis._

 76. Thus the sovereign voluntary path to cheerfulness, if our
 spontaneous cheerfulness be lost, is to sit up cheerfully, to look
 round cheerfully, and to act and speak as if cheerfulness were already
 there.--_Wm. James._

 77.  Enough if in our hearts we know
      There’s such a place as Yarrow.--_Wordsworth._

 78. The early white settlers of Kentucky soon became more than a match
 for the Indians in everything wherein the Indian excelled.--_J. F.
 Clarke._

 79. An honorable defeat is better than a mean victory, and no one is
 really the worse for being beaten, unless he loses heart.--_Lubbock._

 80. God’s influence on the heart was like the flowing wind--free,
 felt, and yet mysterious.--_Geikie._

 81. Ha, it was only last week I had a new nozzle put on that
 umbrella.--_Jerrold._

 82. We doubt whether there is in English literature a more triumphant
 book than Boswell’s.--_Birrell._

 83. They would not eat except from off one plate.--_Old Deccan Days._

 84. Science has nothing to do with Christ, except in so far as the
 habit of scientific research makes a man cautious in admitting
 evidence.--_Darwin._

 85. Think of being moved religiously by looking at a pinnacle or bluff
 from thousand feet high, and then think what the earth contains which
 might move us.--_King._

 86. It was Bagheera, the Black Panther, inky black all over, but with
 the panther markings showing up in certain lights like the pattern of
 watered silk.--_Kipling._

 87. It is not desirable to go out of one’s way to be original; but it
 is to be hoped that it may lie in one’s way.--_Higginson._

 88. If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in
 slavery, they may indeed wait forever.--_Macaulay._

 89. I know few Christians so convinced of the splendor of the rooms
 in their Father’s house as to be happier when their friends are
 called to those mansions than they would have been if the Queen had
 sent for them to live at court; nor has the Church’s most ardent
 “desire to depart and be with Christ” ever cured it of the singular
 habit of putting on mourning for every person summoned to such
 departure.--_Ruskin._

 90.  Then to side with Truth is noble when we share her wretched crust,
      Ere her cause bring fame and profit, and ’tis prosperous to be
      just.--_Lowell._

 91. The very word “education” is a standing protest against dogmatic
 teaching.--_C. W. Eliot._

 92. He is as noiseless in a room as any of us women; and, more than
 that, with all his look of unmistakable mental firmness and power, he
 is as nervously sensitive as the weakest of us.--_Collins._

 93. In a word, as Alphonse Karr puts it, the more we change, the more
 we remain the same.--_Besant._

 94. Marshy ground covered their right; on the left, the most exposed
 part of the position, the hus-carles or body-guard of Harold, men
 in full armor and wielding huge axes, were grouped round the Golden
 Dragon of Wessex and the Standard of the King.--_J. R. Green._

 95. I was startled at hearing her address by the familiar name of
 Benjamin the young physician I have referred to, until I found on
 enquiry, what I might have guessed by the size of his slices of pie
 and other little marks of favoritism, that he was her son.--_Holmes._

 96. It is when to-morrow’s burden is added to the burden of to-day,
 that the weight is more than a man can bear.--_MacDonald._

 97. He grieved to give up his dog and gun; he dreaded to meet his
 wife; but it would not do to starve among the mountains.--_Irving._

 98. To know what you prefer instead of humbly saying Amen to what
 the world tells you you ought to prefer, is to have kept your soul
 alive.--_Stevenson._

 99.  Were half the power that fills the world with terror,
      Were half the wealth, bestowed on camps and courts,
      Given to redeem the human mind from error,
      There were no need of arsenals and forts.--_Longfellow._

 100. Modern imaginative literature has become so self-conscious, and
 therefore so melancholy, that Art, which should be “the world’s sweet
 inn,” whither we repair for refreshment and repose, has become rather
 a watering place, where one’s own private touch of the liver-complaint
 is exasperated by the affluence of other sufferers whose talk is a
 narrative of morbid symptoms.--_Lowell._

 101. The farmer was twisting a halter to do what he threatened, when
 the fox, whose tongue had helped him in hard pinches before, thought
 there could be no harm in trying whether it might not do him one more
 good turn.--_Froude._

 102. If the youth decides to consume all his time and strength in
 making his arms big and his legs brawny, he ends his career a physical
 giant, indeed, but also an intellectual pigmy.--_Hillis._

 103. Experienced soldiers tell us that at first men are sickened
 by the smell and newness of blood, almost to death and fainting;
 but that as soon as they harden their hearts and stiffen their
 minds, as soon as they _will_ bear it, then comes an appetite for
 slaughter.--_Bagehot._

 104. Take away from us what the Greeks have given; and I hardly can
 imagine how low the modern European would stand.--_Ruskin._

 105.   And no voice but was praising this Roland of mine,
        As I poured down his throat our last measure of wine,
        Which (the burgesses voted by common consent)
        Was no more than his due who brought good news from Ghent.
                                                      --_Browning._

 106. Though the French sailed out again, romance remained behind to
 dwell forever in Port Royal’s placid basin.--_Bolles._

 107. There is a time in every man’s education when he arrives
 at the conviction that envy is ignorance, that imitation is
 suicide.--_Emerson._

 108. Now to Baloo’s word I will add one bull, and a fat one, newly
 killed, not half a mile from here, if ye will accept the man’s cub
 according to the Law.--_Kipling._

 109. I believe it is by persons believing themselves in the
 right that nine-tenths of the tyranny of this world has been
 perpetrated.--_Thackeray._

 110. It is a just and a feeling remark of Dr. Johnson’s that we
 never do anything consciously for the last time without sadness of
 heart.--_De Quincey._

 111. I do not believe it is possible to describe or paint the
 difference between savage and civilized man.--_Darwin._

 112. It’s no matter what you say when you talk to yourself, but when
 you talk to other people, your business is to use words with reference
 to the way in which those other people are like to understand
 them.--_Holmes._

 113. Mammon is not a god at all; but a devil, and even a very
 despicable devil.--_Carlyle._

 114. The ship-builder who built the pinnace of Columbus has as much
 claim to the discovery of America as he who suggests a thought by
 which some other man opens new worlds to us has to a share in that
 achievement by him unconceived and inconceivable.--_Lowell._

 115.   Where, twisted round the barren oak,
          The summer vine in beauty clung,
        And summer winds the stillness broke,
          The crystal icicle is hung.--_Longfellow._

 116. Whilst Johnson was preëminently a reasonable man, reasonable in
 all his demands and expectations, Carlyle was the most unreasonable
 mortal that ever exhausted the patience of nurse, mother, or
 wife.--_Birrell._

 117. That house was built on purpose to show in what an exceeding
 small compass comfort may be packed.--_Mitford._

 118. But the life which is to endure grows slowly; and as the soil
 must be prepared before the wheat can be sown, so before the kingdom
 of heaven could throw up its shoots there was needed a kingdom of this
 world where the nations were neither torn in pieces by violence, nor
 were rushing after false ideals and spurious ambitions.--_Fronde._

 119. Words afford a more delicious music than the chords of any
 instrument; they are susceptible of richer colors than any
 painter’s palette; and that they should be used merely for the
 transportation of intelligence, as a wheelbarrow carries brick, is not
 enough.--_Higginson._

 120. It always seems to be raining harder than it really is when you
 look at the weather through the window.--_Lubbock._

 121. Sleep and dreams exist on this condition--that no one wake the
 dreamer.--_Schreiner._

 122. It is only when you stick it in the silver candlestick and
 introduce it into the drawing-room, that a tallow-dip seems plebeian,
 dim, and ineffectual.--_George Eliot._

 123. The crow boasts from the moment his loud voice first comes back
 to his ears from the echoing hillside, he steals from the time he sees
 the corn blades start from the furrow.--_Bolles._

 124. A man who has learned to do anything well enjoys doing it. This
 is the lure which wise Nature uses to lead us to finish our work.--_J.
 F. Clarke._

 125. A great Bostonian, whom I remember to have heard speculate on
 the superiority of a state of civilization in which you could buy
 two cents’ worth of beef to one in which so small a quantity was
 unpurchasable, would find the system perfected in Venice, where you
 can buy half a cent’s worth.--_Howells._

 126. At the foot of these fairy mountains, the voyager may
 have descried the light smoke curling up from a village, whose
 shingle-roofs gleam among the trees, just where the blue tints
 of the upland melt away into the fresh green of the nearer
 landscape.--_Irving._

 127. It is easy to sugar to be sweet and to nitre to be
 salt.--_Emerson._

 128. Even Baloo, half smothered under the monkeys on the edge of the
 terrace, could not help chuckling as he heard the big Black Panther
 asking for help.--_Kipling._

 129. Even Shakespeare, who seems to come in after everybody has done
 his best with a “Let me take hold a minute and show you how to do it,”
 could not have bettered this (_a line of Chaucer’s_).--_Lowell._

 130. When I had the pleasure of staying at your father’s house, you
 told me, rather to my surprise, that it was impossible for you to go
 to balls and dinner-parties because you did not possess such a thing
 as a dress coat.--_Hamerton._

 131. If, in the future, an age of general well-being is to arrive, its
 children will turn, as all men who have the opportunity must, to what
 is best in human art, to the literature of Greece.--_Lang._

 132. I fear you will laugh when I tell you what I conceive to be about
 the most essential mental quality for a free people, whose liberty
 is to be progressive, permanent, and on a large scale; it is much
 stupidity.--_Bagehot._

 133. Look beneath the surface anywhere and you can find ugly things
 enough, especially if you have a taste for the revolting.--_Stephen._

 134. Tug as he would at the old man’s wrists, the hangman could not
 force him to unclinch his hands.--_Dickens._

 135. His dislike of books was instinctive, hearty, and
 uncompromising.--_Boyesen._

 136.   It ceased; yet still the sails made on
        A pleasant noise till noon,
        A noise like of a hidden brook
        In the leafy month of June,
        That to the sleeping woods all night
        Singeth a quiet tune.--_Coleridge._

 137. Toil--toil, either of the brain, of the heart, or of the hand--is
 the only true manhood, the only true nobility.--_Orville Dewey._

 138. He had his eye all but exclusively directed on terrestrial
 matters.--_Carlyle._

 139. And then, again, some of our old beliefs are dying out every
 year, and others feed on them and grow fat, or get poisoned, as the
 case may be.--_Holmes._

 140. Old Matthew Maule, in a word, was executed for the crime of
 witchcraft.--_Hawthorne._

 141. Our lodging-places must be the simple homes of Gaelic-speaking
 Presbyterians, in whose eyes we should be foreigners, not to say
 heathen.--_Bolles._

 142. Dr. Bushby is said to have kept his hat on in the presence
 of King Charles, that the boys might see what a great man he
 was.--_Lubbock._

 143. Look strictly into the nature of the power of your Goddess of
 Getting-on; and you will find she is the goddess--not of everybody’s
 getting on--but only of somebody’s getting on.--_Ruskin._

 144. Now, Tabaqui knew as well as any one else that there is nothing
 so unlucky as to compliment children to their faces.--_Kipling._

 145. The capacity of indignation makes an essential part of the outfit
 of every honest man, but I am inclined to doubt whether he is a wise
 one who allows himself to act upon its first hints.--_Lowell._

 146. We honor the rich, because they have externally the freedom,
 power, and grace which we feel to be proper to man, proper to
 us.--_Emerson._

 147. Originality is simply a fresh pair of eyes.--_Higginson._

 148. In a word, Rip was ready to attend to anybody’s business but his
 own.--_Irving._

 149. There are more fools and fewer hypocrites than the wise world
 dreams of.--_Schreiner._

 150. It has been well said that an Englishman is never happy but
 when he is miserable; that a Scotchman is never at home but when
 he is abroad; that an Irishman is never at peace but when he is at
 war.--_Walker._




INDEX


  _A_, modifying a pronominal adjective, 194.

  _About_, modifying an infinitive, 125, note.

  Absolute phrase, 134;
    without a participle, 135;
    after _with_ or _without_, 135;
    containing a prepositional phrase, 152;
    stereotyped, 197.

  _According as_, introducing a clause of degree, 90.

  _According to_, a preposition, 154.

  Adverbs, modifying prepositional phrases, 156, 194;
    modifying nouns, 195;
    used independently, 202;
    as sentence modifiers, 209.

  Adverbial noun, function of, 189;
    modifying a prepositional phrase, 156, 190;
    an adjective, 190;
    an adverb, 190;
    a clause, 190.

  _Ago_, modified by an adverbial noun, 191.

  _All but_, 221.

  _All the quicker_, 193.

  Analysis, method of, 38, 51, 66.

  _And_, introducing a sentence, 106.

  Anticipative subject, _there_, 49;
    _it_, 44.

  Appositive, a noun clause, 47;
    function of, 161;
    with base-word a noun, 162;
    an adjective, 163;
    a pronoun, 163;
    a pronominal adjective, 163;
    a participle, 163;
    an infinitive, 114;
    a gerund, 141;
    what it modifies, 164;
    introductory word, 164;
    case and number of appositive noun, 165;
    position of appositive phrase, 166.

  _As_, introducing an appositive, 165;
    a relative pronoun, 32;
    a subjective complement, 178;
    an objective complement, 181;
    a proposition used independently, 204;
    a phrase or clause modifying a sentence, 210.

  _As for_, introducing an independent noun, 202.

  _As if_, _as though_, introducing a modal clause, 64.

  _Ask_, followed by two direct objects, 172.

  _As long as_, _as soon as_, introducing a clause of time, 56.

  _As to_, a preposition, 154;
    introducing an independent noun, 202.

  _As well as_, a coördinating conjunction, 106.

  _At a loss_, 124.

  _At the best_, 193.

  _At their wits’ end_, 125.


  _Be_, meaning _go_, 123, note.

  _By and by_, 196.

  _But_, a relative pronoun, 32;
    introducing a noun clause, 45;
    a clause of result, 75;
    a sentence, 107;
    used adjectively, 195.


  _Can but_, _cannot but_, 125, note.

  Clauses,--
    Adjective, function of, 28;
      classification, 29;
      restrictive, 30;
      unrestrictive, 30;
      introductory word, 30;
      what they modify, 33;
      position of, 35;
      introduced by subordinating conjunction _that_, 33;
      modifying _it_, 34;
      modifying a proposition, 34.
      Adverbial, modifying nouns, 195;
      of time, 53;
      introductory word, 54;
      what it modifies, 56;
      of place, function of, 59;
      peculiarities, 60;
      introductory word, 60;
      of manner, function of, 62;
      introductory word, 63;
      position of, 64;
      of cause, function of, 68;
      what it denotes, 69;
      connective, 70;
      what it modifies, 70;
      position of, 71;
      reason clause used independently, 205;
      of purpose, 73;
      connective, 73;
      of result, 74;
      of condition, 78;
      what it modifies, 80;
      introductory word, 80;
      of concession, 82;
      introductory word, 83;
      of degree or comparison, 87;
      classification, 88.
      Substantive, 42;
      function of, 42;
      uses, subject, 43;
      object of verb, 44;
      objective complement, 45;
      object of preposition, 45;
      appositive, 47;
      subjective complement, 47;
      after a preposition understood, 47;
      introductory word, 47.

  Compound sentences, 18, 97;
    members of in same line of thought, 97;
    one imperative, one declarative, 98;
    in contrast, 98;
    in alternation, 99;
    second member a consequence, 99;
    an inference, 100;
    an explanation, 100;
    omission of conjunction in, 101;
    number of members in, 101.

  Conjunctions, coördinating, joining dissimilar elements, 106;
    subordinating, introducing participial phrases, 132.

  Conjunctive adverbs, introducing adjective clauses, 35;
    noun clauses, 48;
    participial phrases, 131.

  Correlatives, 108;
    whether--or, 48, 83, 165;
    when--then, 55;
    where--there, 60;
    as--so, 63;
    so--that, 74;
    though--yet, 85;
    either--or, 99, 108;
    by as much--by so much, 90;
    neither--nor, 108;
    both--and, 108;
    not only--but, 108;
    so--as, 121.


  _Day by day_, 196.


  Ellipses, cause of, 214;
    in adjective clauses, 215;
    in adverbial clauses of time, 215;
    of manner, 216;
    of condition, 216;
    of concession, 217;
    of degree, introduced by _than_, 218;
    by _as_, 220;
    resulting in a participial phrase, 218;
    in independent propositions, 222;
    in compound sentences, 222;
    in answers to questions, 222.

  _Even_, modifying a prepositional phrase, 156.
    Exclamative sentences, 26;
    used independently, 204;
    introduced by _would_, 223.


  _Far from_, introducing a sentence modifier, 211.

  _For_, as coördinating conjunction, 100;
    introducing an objective complement, 181;
    an independent element, 205.


  Gerund, nature, 139;
    forms, 139;
    uses, subject, 140;
    object, 140;
    objective complement, 141;
    subjective complement, 141;
    appositive, 141;
    object of preposition, 141;
    adverbial noun, 141;
    adjective, 141;
    peculiar constructions, 141.

  _Go_, followed by an infinitive, 123.

  _Good and strong_, an idiom, 191, note.


  _Had rather_, 117, note.

  _Have_, followed by an infinitive, 117.


  _If_, introducing clause of concession, 84.

  Imperative sentences, 25;
    used independently, 204.

  Independent elements, noun of address, 201;
    pleonastic noun, 202;
    adverb, 202;
    interjection, 202;
    prepositional phrase, 203;
    imperative sentence, 204;
    exclamative sentence, 204;
    clause of reason, 205.

  Indirect object, function of, 186;
    position of, 186;
    becoming subject of passive verb, 187;
    after certain verbs, 188.

  Infinitives, nature of, 112;
    forms, 113;
    uses, adjective, 114;
    appositive, 114;
    subject, 114;
    after anticipative subject, _it_, 116;
    object of verb, 116;
    part of double object of verb, 117;
    of preposition _for_, 125;
    subjective complement, 120;
    adverbial modifier, of verb, 121;
    of adjective or adverb, 123;
    object of preposition, 125;
    independent, 125;
    sign _to_ omitted, 117.

  _In other words_, introducing an appositive, 165.

  _In proportion as_, introducing clause of degree, 90.

  _Instead of_, a preposition, 154.

  _Interjection_, 202.

  _It_, modified by an adjective clause, 34;
    used as anticipative subject before a noun clause, 43;
    before an infinitive, 116.


  _Just the same_, 194.


  _Let_, introducing clause of condition, 80.

  _Like_, is it a preposition? 154.


  _Make believe_, followed by object, 173.

  _Make free_, followed by an infinitive, 182.

  _Make up your mind_, followed by an object, 173.

  _Mine_, as subjective complement, 176.


  _Namely_, introducing an appositive, 164.

  _Near_, _next_, _next door_, 155.

  _Nevertheless_, coördinating conjunction, 99.

  _Night through, the_, 157.

  _No less than_, a coördinating conjunction, 107.

  _No matter_, introducing clause of concession, 83;
    remaining after an ellipsis, 222.

  _No wonder_, 222.

  _None the less_, 193.

  _None the worse_, 193.

  _Not_, as an abridgment of a proposition, 223.

  _Notwithstanding_, introducing clause of concession, 84.

  _Now that_, introducing clause of time, 56.


  Object, direct, a noun clause, 43;
    nature of, 169;
    cognate, 172;
    reflexive, 173;
    of preposition, 151;
    a noun clause, 45.

  Objective complement, function of, 179;
    a noun clause, 44;
    gerund, 141;
    participle, 182, note;
    after certain verbs, 181;
    introduced by _as_ or _for_, 181;
    position of, 182.

  _Off hand_, 196.

  _Only_, a coördinating conjunction, 99.

  _One behind the other_, 197.

  _Or_, introducing an appositive, 165.

  _Ought_, followed by an infinitive, 117.

  _Out of_, a preposition, 154.

  _Owing to_, a preposition, 154.


  Participles, introducing clause of condition, 80;
    nature of, 129;
    forms, 130;
    seeming passive, 130, note;
    uses, mere adjective, 131;
    substantive, 131;
    instead of adjective clause, 131;
    of adverbial clause, 132;
    in absolute phrase, 134;
    accompanying a verb, 135;
    part of double object, 136;
    adverbial, 136;
    independent, 136;
    in peculiar constructions, 142;
    as prepositions, 154;
    as base of objective complement, 182, note;
    remaining after an ellipsis in a clause, 217.

  _Partly_, modifying prepositional phrase, 156.

  Prepositions, omitted before noun clause, 46;
    two in succession, 151;
    as part of verb phrase, 153;
    compound, 154;
    modified by adverbs, 157;
    position of, 157.

  Prepositional phrases, function of, 146;
    used adjectively, modifying nouns, 148;
    completing intransitive verbs, 150;
    noun complement, 150, note;
    adverbial modifier, of verb, 150;
    of adjective, 151;
    modifying _alas_, 151, note;
    object of preposition, 153;
    part of absolute phrase, 152;
    with adverb or adjective for object, 154;
    modified, by a noun, 156;
    by an adverb, 156, 193;
    used independently, 203;
    as sentence modifiers, 209.

  Propositions, constituent parts of, 7;
    classification, 11;
    principal or independent, 12;
    tests for, 13;
    subordinate or dependent, 12;
    function of, 14;
    independent, 204.

  _Provided_, _providing_, introducing clauses of condition, 80.


  _Quite the contrary_, 193.


  Relative pronouns, introducing adjective clauses, 31;
    _as_ and _but_, 32;
    position in clause, 35;
    omission of antecedent, 35;
    introducing noun clauses, 47.


  _Say_, introducing clause of condition, 80.

  _See fit_, followed by an infinitive, 182.

  Sentences, classification, according to structure, 18;
    according to form, 23;
    difficult to classify, 19;
    simple, 18;
    complex, 18;
    compound, 19;
    complex-compound, 19;
    partially-compound, 20;
    declarative, 23;
    interrogative, 23;
    imperative, 25;
    exclamative, 26.

  Sentence modifiers, adverbs, 209;
    prepositional phrases, 210;
    phrases introduced by _as_, 210;
    clauses introduced by _as_, 211.

  _Side by side_, 197.

  _So_, as subjective complement, 177.

  _So far as_, introducing clauses of degree, 91.

  _Still_, as coördinating conjunction, 99.

  Subjective complement, function of, 175;
    a noun clause, 47;
    an infinitive, 119;
    a participle, 130, note;
    a gerund, 141;
    a prepositional phrase, 176;
    after certain verbs, 177;
    introduced by _as_ or _for_, 178.

  _Such_, modified by an as-clause, 32.

  _Suffice_, introducing a sentence, 223.

  _Suppose_, _supposing_, introducing clauses of condition, 80.


  _Teach_, followed by two direct objects, 172.

  _Tell_, followed by noun and infinitive, 119.

  _Than_, joining coördinate elements, 107;
    introducing infinitives, 124.

  _Thanks to you_, 204.

  _That_, subordinating conjunction introducing adjective clauses, 33.

  _That is_, introducing an appositive, 165.

  _That is to say_, 122.

  _The_, modifying an adjective or adverb, 193.

  _Think best_, followed by an infinitive, 182.

  _Though_, joining coördinate elements, 107.

  _Time out of mind_, 197.

  _To wit_ introducing an appositive, 165.

  Transitive verbs, nature of, 170.
    made so by addition of adverb or preposition, 172.


  _Upside down_, 197.

  _Used_, followed by an infinitive, 123.


  _What_, retained in infinitive phrases, 116;
    modifying prepositional phrases, 156.

  _What if_, 222.

  _Which_, retained in infinitive phrases, 116.

  _While_, introducing clauses of concession, 84;
    as coördinating conjunction, 98, 99.

  _With_, _without_, followed by an absolute phrase, 135.

  _World over, the_, 157.

  _Worth_, followed by a gerund, 141;
    by a noun, 190.

  _Would_, introducing exclamative sentences, 223.

  _Wrong side out_, 197.


  _Year round, the_, 157.




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 By SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph. D., Professor of European History,
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DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE TEXTBOOKS

Published Complete and in Sections


We issue a Catalogue of High School and College Textbooks, which we
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