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Title: Archimedes; or, the future of physics

Author: Lancelot Law Whyte

Release date: February 23, 2025 [eBook #75452]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, 1927

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHIMEDES; OR, THE FUTURE OF PHYSICS ***





  ARCHIMEDES

  OR

  THE FUTURE OF PHYSICS




  TO-DAY AND TO-MORROW

  _For a full list of this Series see the end
  of this Book_




  ARCHIMEDES

  OR
  THE FUTURE OF PHYSICS

  BY
  L. L. WHYTE


  LONDON:
  KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD.
  NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO.




  To
  LOTTE


  Made and Printed in Great Britain by
  M. F. Robinson & Co. Ltd. at the Library Press, Lowestoft




CONTENTS


  CHAP.                                                         PAGE

    I THE SCIENCES CONVERGE                                        7

   II A MODERN DUEL: EINSTEIN AND EDDINGTON _v._ BERGSON AND
      WHITEHEAD                                                   22

  III TIME IN ASTRONOMY AND PHYSICS                               37

   IV AN EVOLUTIONARY EXPERIMENT                                  47

    V PHYSICS AND THE HUMAN MIND                                  66

   VI THE FUTURE OF THE SCIENCES                                  79

      NOTES                                                       95




ARCHIMEDES

OR

THE FUTURE OF PHYSICS




CHAPTER I

_The Sciences Converge_


One of the most fascinating features in the history of thought is that
on several occasions an important new idea has come simultaneously to
independent minds. Thus after Euclid’s geometry had remained without
a rival for two thousand years the conception of an alternative
non-Euclidean system was reached separately by Gauss, Lobatschewsky,
and Bolyai during the years 1820-30. Bolyai’s father, while ignorant of
the fact that Gauss had already made the same discoveries, wrote to his
son urging him to publish his results and used the following prophetic
words:

 “There is some truth in this, that many things have an epoch, in which
 they are found at the same time in several places, just as the violets
 appear on every side in the spring.”

Another example of the simultaneous emergence of an idea in the minds
of different thinkers is given by Darwin in his introduction to the
_Origin of Species_. He there calls attention to the fact that in
1794-5 the broad idea of the evolution of species--though not its
cause--was simultaneously formulated by Goethe in Germany, St Hilaire
in France, and his own grandfather, Dr Darwin, in England. Moreover
Darwin himself had the remarkable experience of finding in an essay
submitted to him in 1858 by A. R. Wallace a complete summary of his
own unpublished theory of natural selection as the chief cause of the
evolution of species.

The last few years constitute another critical period of a similar
kind, since an idea, which when made precise will transform scientific
thought, has already come independently to many thinkers. Since 1922
many scientists have felt that in studying the emission and absorption
of light physics has come near to the problem of life.[1] Others have
proposed that in order to straighten out its atomic problems physics
will have to take a hint from biology, but what this hint should be
has not yet been indicated. The following pages suggest a definite
line of advance for physics, and interpret these isolated flashes of
intuition as evidence of a special feature in the present situation of
the sciences.

We stand at the eve of a new epoch. Physics, biology, and psychology
are converging towards a scientific synthesis of unprecedented
importance, whose influence on thought and social custom will be so
profound that it will mark a stage in human evolution. For centuries
science has concentrated its highest genius on the study of inanimate
matter; to-day the three great sciences are at last reaching the
problem of life. For their researches on matter, life, and mind are
now overlapping at one common issue: the nature of the fundamental
electrical processes which underlie radiation and chemical combination.

Thus physics is at present occupied with the changes that occur when
an atom emits either light or electricity. Biology is at the same
problem in studying the electrical processes which are the basis of all
organic behaviour, whether in primitive forms of protoplasm or in the
highly developed central nervous system of man. Meantime psychology is
dealing with an identical process when it analyses the structure of
mind, and considers the elementary changes of consciousness which are
produced when light of a given colour falls on the retina and sends
its influence to the brain.

As the result of these convergent researches, life and consciousness
will soon be subject to the first stages of a theoretically-grounded
control, compared with which the present tentative efforts of medicine
and psychology will be looked back on much as we remember the haphazard
work of the alchemists before the foundation of chemistry. But this
development of human knowledge and powers will carry with it great
responsibilities, and scientists have to prepare themselves for the new
tasks that will very soon fall to them. By indicating the main ideas
through which this broad scientific synthesis may come about, this
essay aims at showing that this possibility has to be taken seriously.
We shall first examine the situation in physics and then turn to
consider the influence which future developments of physical theory
may have on biology and psychology.

Two main types of process defy interpretation within the present scheme
of physical conceptions: life itself, and the atomic processes of
radiation and the building up of stable compounds. In organic processes
on the one hand, and the energy-interchanges of atoms on the other
hand, we find something happening which cannot adequately be explained
as a change in the _structure_ of the system considered. By structure
is meant a spatial pattern of particles, which are supposed to be
permanent and to move about like cricket balls or planets. Systems
with a structure of this kind could not display the purposive quality
of organic behaviour, and when we try to make a structural model
of the atom we find that it fails to explain why the atom radiates
energy in the abrupt packets which are called ‘quanta’, instead of
in a continuous wave. We shall return presently to the question of
organisms, after making an endeavour to discover why the atom cannot be
described in terms of a particle structure.

In 1911 Rutherford achieved remarkable success in accounting for the
results of his own researches in radioactivity by adopting a model of
the atom as a miniature solar system, with planetary electrons rotating
rapidly around a nucleus. But in order to explain the fact that the
spectrum of the light emitted by an atom shows a characteristic series
of lines, Bohr suggested that an electron inside an atom could emit
light only by making a discontinuous jump from one possible orbit to
another quite distinct orbit. This apparent discontinuity in the motion
of electrons has intrigued physicists for more than ten years, and the
following interpretations have recently been offered for this puzzling
behaviour:

 1. Nature is made up of electrons, but neither space nor time is
 fundamentally discontinuous. The electron appears to have some freedom
 of choice, and to be able to reappear unexpectedly at forbidden places.

 2. Nature is not discontinuous or arbitrary, but nevertheless
 something prevents us determining all the things we should like to
 know about an electron. For instance, if we try to determine exactly
 where it is, it behaves so that we cannot simultaneously measure its
 exact velocity. (Heisenberg.) This view may perhaps be interpreted
 to mean that we have made the atom model more complex than the atom
 itself is, and that consequently we have been using more quantities
 than are necessary for describing all we can observe of its behaviour.

 3. Nature is not made up of electrons, but of waves. The atom must be
 considered as a system of electric waves spread over its whole volume.
 ‘Electrons’ are merely an inaccurate way of describing some of the
 properties of these waves. The wave picture of the atom is, however,
 to be considered only as a temporary expedient to be used until some
 better description of the atom can be invented, in which both the wave
 and the corpuscular properties of atoms will appear as aspects of some
 more profound physical property. (Schrödinger.)

The first alternative is a mere cry of despair, since it does not
propose any line of advance. But the other two suggestions may be
combined thus:

 4. The view of the atom as a structure of Newtonian particles is wrong
 since it gives rise to discontinuities, and provides more quantities
 than we at present need. A new formulation of atomic processes must
 be found using fewer quantities which will explain why we find wave
 properties, and why sometimes the electron does behave like a small
 billiard ball though really it is some different sort of thing.

Now since the Newtonian mathematics of moving particles is inadequate
for describing the changes that go on in the atom--just as it is for
describing organic processes--there must be some assumption implicit in
Newton’s laws which is valid neither for atom nor for organism. Such
an assumption can be found very easily, though physics has never given
it much attention. It is that the elementary processes in nature are
_reversible_, or would be if they could be isolated. By reversible is
here meant that the laws governing the process remain unchanged when
the direction of time is reversed, i.e. when -t is substituted for +t.
If the law is changed by this substitution so that the reversed process
never occurs or is recognizably different, then the process is called
irreversible. An irreversible process can therefore be used to yield an
objective criterion of past and future, when these terms have been once
defined.

To take an example. If I am standing behind a hedge and take a
cinematograph film of a stone which suddenly rises in the air and
disappears from sight, I could not tell from an examination of the
film which way to wind it. Thus if it is wound one way the stone
appears to rise, and if wound the other way to fall from the sky.
To tell which was the right way I should have to use my subjective
sense of the direction of time, i.e. remember the fact that I saw the
stone low in the air before I saw it high up. This case, like every
gravitational process, is reversible, and motions of this kind have
provided the basis for modern physical conceptions.

But suppose that instead I had taken a film of a cup of tea as it was
cooling. One end of the film would show the steam above the cup and the
spoon changing in length as it changed in temperature. Passing along
the film these effects would grow less marked until the successive
photos showed no variation when the temperature of the tea was nearly
that of the surrounding air. It would be obvious which way to wind
this film, without using any subjective criterion supplied from memory
of the individual process which had been photographed. This process is
irreversible, but physics has hitherto assumed that all such processes
are merely the statistical result of a chaos of molecular motions each
of them perfectly reversible.

The assumption of reversibility seems to some physicists so fundamental
that they think there could be no science without it. But that is
a mere prejudice arising from the fact that Newton conceived one
particular way of giving mathematical formulation to the measurable
features of physical processes. By suggesting that all the laws of
nature might take a form similar to his law of gravitation, he made
the implicit assumption that all elementary processes were reversible.
Gravitational motions are so, at any rate within the accuracy of
Newton’s law, and as a consequence of the confirmation of his law
and the fact that it has been taken as a model for the whole system
of modern physical conceptions, the latter are only appropriate for
reversible processes.

Apparent irreversibility, such as the cooling of a cup of tea,
is attributed to statistical effects, and the second law of
thermodynamics, which asserts that temperatures tend to uniformity,
is treated as merely a statement of what is highly probable. This is
probably quite legitimate, but even where no statistical effect can
enter and the process is clearly irreversible physics usually adopts
any measure rather than assume that a fundamental elementary process
is irreversible.[2] We cannot be surprised at this, since if physics
once admitted that any elementary process was irreversible it would
have to give up the whole system of Newtonian conceptions. Matter,
force, energy, action, and wave properties are all unsuitable for the
treatment of irreversible effects since they all ultimately depend on
Newton’s reversible law.

An entirely new set of ideas is necessary for describing processes
which necessarily proceed in one direction, so that one particular
state of the system must precede another state. It appears conceivable
that an alternative set of conceptions to replace the Newtonian might
be established by demanding the irreversibility of all natural laws, as
well as the demands hitherto made by physics, i.e. the permanence of
matter and the conservation of energy.

The question of the reversibility of natural processes provides the key
to a great intellectual struggle which is now in progress behind the
complexities of philosophic and scientific thought. The issue can be
formulated thus:

Is there a real temporal process in nature? Is the passage of
irreversible time a necessary element in any view of the structure of
nature? Or, alternatively, is the subjective experience of time a
mere illusion in the mind which cannot be given objective expression?
These are not metaphysical questions that can still be neglected
by science with impunity. For just as Einstein made his advance by
analysing conceptions such as simultaneity, which had been thought
to be adequately understood for the purposes of empirical science,
so the next development of physical theory will probably be made by
carrying on the analysis of time from the point at which Einstein left
it. Moreover, the above questions may be put into precise scientific
form by asking if the causal relations which are studied by science
are symmetrical and reversible so that we cannot obtain from them any
criterion by which to distinguish past and future. If, on the other
hand, they are asymmetrical and irreversible, the laws of nature lead
us on necessarily from what went before to what comes afterwards.




CHAPTER II

_A modern duel: Einstein and Eddington v. Bergson and Whitehead_


In this battle over the importance of time and process great names
stand out as representatives of the two opposed views: Einstein
and Bergson, with their lieutenants, Eddington and Whitehead. The
two leaders use very different methods. Einstein, as mathematical
physicist, suggests that physical laws can best be expressed if we
assume that space and time are so similar that physics can make no
absolute distinction between them. Thus in relativity theory the
symmetry of space involves the symmetry of time, and therefore the
reversibility of physical laws, as has been shown by Birkhoff.
Bergson, as biologist and philosopher, denies that the view of time
which is implicit in relativity mathematics is adequate when a wider
range of experience is taken into account.

Einstein starts by excluding all but a very narrow range of physical
experience, and finds that he can make successful predictions about
light and gravitation by treating the irreversibility of the passage
of time as of no importance for scientific measurements. Bergson, by
studying a wide range of biological and subjective experience, comes
to assert the existence of a creative process, though the inherent
limitations of the intellect and of science may leave the essence of
this process outside their reach.

Both protagonists have left their flanks exposed, by omitting to
present their view as a consistent logical system, Einstein because he
is concerned only with the equations that can be empirically tested,
and Bergson because his chief interest is non-intellectual. It is here
that their lieutenants step forward to develop the two points of view,
and hence to intensify the conflict.

Eddington provides a logical basis for the theory of relativity and
reveals that the significance of physical laws is not quite what we
used to think. They are, he argues, identities which the human mind
discovers in its search for something permanent that it can call
_matter_ beneath all the changing appearances of the world. We have
made matter the real thing by demanding permanence or indestructibility
as the basis of physical reality. Now that we know that we have done
this it need not trouble us too much to find that absolute unchanging
matter doesn’t exist, since this merely means that we started out with
a demand that nature cannot fulfil. Unfortunately Eddington doesn’t
discuss what alternative demand we might now make in order to build
up a more satisfactory system of scientific ideas. But in spite of his
enthusiastic support of Einstein’s theory, with its implicit assumption
of reversibility, Eddington hesitates at least once in his advocacy
of reversible laws, for facts are turning up which suggest that this
undiscussed presupposition may not prove valid.[3]

Meantime Whitehead has been at work on the other side, and by
sharpening his logic till few can understand him has made the idea of
temporal process the basis of all intellectual and scientific thought,
whereas up to now process has always presented many difficult problems
for the intellect. He proposes that since the conception of matter
has been found to be unsatisfactory we must start from the basic idea
of process in building up a new physical theory. As a consequence of
his line of thought, Whitehead found it necessary to reject some of
Einstein’s arguments and to show that Einstein’s law could be reached
from quite different postulates. For instance, Whitehead assumed that
the motion of light was irreversible, and that light did not travel
with the same velocity in the two opposed directions.

So much for one aspect of the conflict, its logical and philosophical
basis. But the issue must be decided by appeal to experimental
confirmation over the widest range of phenomena. Orthodox physics still
assumes reversibility, and has on its side the explicit statement made
by Einstein in 1925,[4] but by doing so it excludes at the start any
reference to organic processes. Conceptions based on this assumption
could never be legitimately applied to life, and all attempts made
hitherto to explain the central controlling processes of organisms in
terms of classical physics have necessarily failed. We know now that
this failure could have been foreseen.

The same objection cannot be made against the basic ideas of Bergson
and Whitehead, nor against the new atomic physics as interpreted by
Born, as we shall see in a moment. To Bergson and Whitehead, as to many
others amongst whom Lloyd Morgan must be mentioned, the process of
nature is creative, i.e. it involves the coming into being of the new,
the appearance of new combinations essentially precluded before. This
probably means that the laws of physics which are to describe what is
actually happening in the world must be given irreversible form. For
reversible equations make no distinction between to-day and to-morrow,
and cannot express the fact that at later moments new forms may emerge,
either in the evolution of organisms or of stars. On the other hand
irreversible laws can be arranged so as to display time as an active
factor in causation, i.e. to emphasize the fact that a certain period
of time necessarily has to pass before some new combination can be
attained.[5]

The upholders of a real process in nature can appeal to the facts of
organic life, human memory, and to biological and stellar evolution.
But their case is still weak because fundamental irreversibility
has not yet received explicit mathematical formulation suitable for
experimental test. When this has been done the intellectual battle will
be brought to its decision, and if irreversibility wins the day biology
and psychology will find themselves in possession of a physical basis
well suited to the facts with which they have to deal.

There is reason to believe that the decision will be made very soon.
We saw that the implicit assumption of reversibility underlies all
Newtonian conceptions. It may therefore be that the reason why we
cannot interpret atomic behaviour in terms of particle motions is that
electrical and radiational processes are essentially irreversible.
Particle motion and wave propagation--the two ideas on which all
modern theories of matter are based--are both represented by
mathematical expressions which are essentially reversible since time
enters only through the square of ‘dt’. If the quantum processes should
prove to be irreversible, we have already found a reason why the old
conceptions of particles and waves must be inadequate.

This speculation may indeed be found correct, since Born, one of
the leading experts in Quantum Dynamics, asserts that all quantum
processes are irreversible and that the apparent reversibility of
classical processes is only an approximation due to the fact that their
irreversibility happens to be negligible.[4] We may therefore hope that
the atomic physicists will soon formulate the quantum laws in a clearly
irreversible form which admits of precise experimental test.

But this may take some years, and in the meantime we must look around
and see how this issue is affecting current thought. We find the doubt
about process presented by Mr Sullivan (in _Gallio_), who has not yet
made up his mind to which side science will grant the victory. Thus on
one page he writes: “it seems to be true that events do not really take
place, we come across them” and suggests that process may be “a totally
irrelevant idea when applied to reality”. But later we learn to our
surprise that “it seems likely that (in scientific theory) the world
will have to be regarded as an evolutionary process, where patterns of
value emerge”. However, this inconsistency need not bother us, since
we are told that “the teachings of science so far as the spiritual
problems of man are concerned are merely irrelevant”.

These views reflect perfectly the uncertainty of the time, and will be
looked back on as a precious record of the state of mind which preceded
the scientific synthesis. Perhaps the most interesting feature of
the essay is the indecision it displays with regard to the spiritual
importance of science. This is a relic from the days when there were
two worlds, the world of science and the world of religion and art. No
one ever knew which of these worlds they were living in, and this is no
wonder. For the division was made only because at one time it looked
as though the scientific method could only deal with _quantities_,
and therefore that science could have nothing to say about values or
qualities. This view is no longer tenable. For instance, there is a
quality in organic integration which most of us value, and without this
and many other such conceptions biology and psychology could not get
far.

Before proceeding any further it is necessary to correct a common
misunderstanding with regard to the significance of Einstein’s theory
of relativity. This theory is mathematical, and is based on a series
of postulates which rule out any claim to present an ultimate theory
of space and time. One of these postulates[6] asserts that all our
physical knowledge can be reduced to the space-time coincidences
of pairs of point-events, or in other words the intersection of
the world-lines of electrons. No respect for the supreme genius
who predicted two experimental results and eliminated the chief
discrepancies remaining in Newtonian theory should restrain scientists
from pointing out that this postulate assumes something that has never
been known to occur, and has no valuable reference to the world of
physical experiment. The confirmation of Einstein’s final equations
cannot give any validity to this postulate. For it is difficult to
think of any physical experience considered by theoretical physics
which does not involve the perception of light or colour, and one
cannot assume that the perception of light is a perception of
coincidences. Light varies in colour and intensity; coincidence in
space is too abstract to account for an effect which is subject to
variation. Moreover all physical experience requires a certain amount
of time, and this fact is neglected if perception is reduced to the
recognition of instantaneous coincidences. Even if these two criticisms
are left on one side we still have to notice that Einstein’s postulate
rules out from the range of physics the important fact that many
processes are irreversible. For instance, if we accept Einstein’s
definition of physical experience, then the interesting fact that
radioactivity is only observed in the form of disintegration, and not
also as the reverse process of a spontaneous building up of heavier
elements from lighter, has to be left over by physics to be dealt with
by some other science.

It almost always happens that the formulations of genius are
exaggerated and form the basis of a pernicious orthodoxy, and it has
certainly happened to relativity theory. Against a tide of exaggerated
praise Whitehead, Larmor, and Bridgman, as well as some Continental
astronomers, have debated the general assumption that the theory of
relativity is adequate to its task, but those in whose hands the power
of orthodoxy lies have not yet answered their criticisms in print.
Neglect has always been the weapon by which orthodoxy has unknowingly
hindered the advance of new ideas. But while this neglect is easy to
understand, it is really remarkable that the postulates of relativity
theory were not subjected to closer examination before it was made the
basis of wide philosophical speculation. The experimental confirmation
of Einstein’s law of gravitation does not guarantee his postulates,
since Whitehead has reached a similar law (identical within the
accuracy of the observations) from different assumptions.

Einstein’s profound creative intuition and use of a difficult
technique compel our deepest respect, but his work should never have
been regarded as a _general_ theory of time and space. Not only does
he neglect the question of irreversibility but it is very doubtful if
periodic processes can be made to fit into his scheme, as has been
pointed out by Russell and Bridgman during the last year. Probably
Einstein himself has never regarded his theory as more than a stage in
the attempt to create a still wider physical synthesis, and we must
not interpret in a broad sense his statement that one of the demands
of his theory “takes away from space and time the last remnant of
physical objectivity”.[6] This could only be true if physical time
shared the absolute symmetry of space, i.e. if physical processes
were all reversible. But there are processes from which we can obtain
an objective criterion of the direction of time, and hence time does
retain an element of physical objectivity as distinct from the
absolute symmetry of space. One of the most interesting features in the
future of physics will be the explanation of the fact that Einstein
reached a correct law from postulates of limited validity, and in
this connection Whitehead’s alternative derivation may prove to be of
importance.




CHAPTER III

_Time in Astronomy and Physics_


The real discrepancy between the world of physics and that of life lies
in the fact that physics has never recognized the irreversibility of
time, while this is fundamental to life. We may even feel a doubt if
the ‘t’ of physics has the same significance as the time of biology,
evolution, history, and human experience. The physical conception of
time arose from the practical utility of clocks for describing natural
processes, and finally took the form of defining astronomical time in
terms of the rotation of the earth. The day was in fact taken as an
absolute measure of time, and this remained quite satisfactory so long
as the laws of physics were found to take a simple form with reference
to the time so defined.

But then a complication arose. The study of the moon’s motion suggested
to astronomers that the earth’s rotation was slowing down, i.e. to
account for the apparent motion of the moon they had to assume that
the day was increasing in length. The theory of the tides revealed
a possible cause for this slowing down in the tidal friction on the
bottom of shallow water basins, for instance the rush of the Atlantic
tides into the Irish Sea provides an appreciable frictional force
retarding the spin of the earth. In addition to this slowing down there
appears to be a very slow periodic variation in the length of the day
such as would be accounted for by a rhythmic expansion and contraction
of the earth’s crust.

The astronomers declare that our old measure of time is not only
getting slower and slower, it is even varying rhythmically! It is clear
that they have thrown over the earth as their definition of equal
time intervals and have surreptitiously substituted something else.
Yet one cannot discover any formal announcement of this, or find out
if they realize that by doing this they have altered the theoretical
significance of all physical measurements. In earlier days physics
defined time in terms of a selected clock, and then set about finding
the laws of nature. But the old ways aren’t good enough for the modern
astronomer who gives us our time and sets the clocks of our physical
laboratories. He has reasons for disapproving of the earth, and has
almost reversed the procedure. In order to save the laws of inertia
and gravitation in connection with the moon’s motion--and to a lesser
degree in the cases of the planets and the sun--he has made these laws
his standard of equal time intervals in place of the earth’s rotation.

It is a curious situation, especially in view of the fact that
Einstein’s law, which has superseded Newton’s, is not very suitable
for use as an astronomical clock, as has been pointed out by Larmor.
Perhaps the physicist will soon be able to use the atom as the
theoretical clock for physics, and we can go on using the corrected
rotation of the earth as our practical standard. There is a faint
chance, for instance, that if physics can invent some way of measuring
the minute time intervals along the track of an electron, then
electrons might be used as giving the fundamental measure of time. Thus
if the velocity of an electron were first measured by some indirect
method the electron itself might then be used as a clock. But in the
meantime the astronomers should make a formal announcement to the Royal
Society of what they have been up to. It then might be found necessary
to appoint a commission to discover exactly what physics is now doing.
For by using an astronomical clock of the new type it is assuming
classical laws while researching on processes which are already
known to undermine the absolute validity of these laws. Theoretical
physics cannot hope to clear up its fundamental problems until it has
considered exactly what is involved in this suspicious procedure.

Like most professions, physics includes a good deal of bluff, but
unlike the others physics is now occupied on a campaign to get rid of
all pretence. For instance, physical text-books have been filled for
twenty years with phrases of this kind: “an electron with a velocity
of so many cms per sec.” Yet the professors omitted to tell their
students the awful secret that this hypothesis of electron velocities
is one that has never yet received direct experimental confirmation.
To-day a reaction has set in and the demand is being made that physical
theory shall not make use of conceptions that do not correspond to
directly observed quantities. Thus the latest theories of the atom have
eliminated the idea of electron orbits because it was realized that
these were nothing more than a mathematical trick for calculating
something quite different: the wave-length of the light an atom can
emit. In place of the orbits it is hoped to substitute something which
only makes use of the directly-observed features of the atom, but this
new picture is not complete.

Yet physics still makes use of ideas that have not been adequately
justified. For though the idea of moving electrons has been removed
from the latest atomic model, no substitute for it has yet been
proposed for the case of electrons outside the atom. It therefore
becomes very important for the experimental physicist to discover
whether he can measure the distance travelled by an electron in a
measured fraction of a second. As yet we have no proof that nature
has not confused us by making electrons behave rather like moving
particles, though really they are something different. In fact we
have not yet made enough direct experiments to know even whether
the dimensional system which is used for electrons is correct. Since
no electron velocity has ever been directly measured we cannot be
sure that the dimensions of the new constant ‘h’--called Planck’s
constant--are really what we suppose, energy multiplied by time. Until
a way has been invented of making a direct measurement of some _time_
involved in electronic motions, it is impossible for physical theory to
know how it should deal with the quantum processes.

When we realize how uncertain are the conceptions on which the whole
of electron theory is based, we may wonder what is really known about
the atom itself. Yet it is possible that we know more about the atom
than we think, and that what are talked about as facts concerning
electrons and radiation may really be better viewed as information
about individual atoms and the way in which they influence one another.
The emission of light is an atomic process, and we only know about
light when it has reached some atom and been at least partially
absorbed. Some un-understood change of condition occurs in an atom when
it radiates and passes this changed condition on to another atom. The
absorbed energy may cause chemical change, as on a photographic plate.
But if a human mind is to become aware of this change of condition,
then sooner or later, directly or indirectly, its influence must be
passed on to an atom in the retina. We know very little about this
change of atomic condition, and though it is usually called a change of
the internal electrical energy of the atom this supposes more than we
really know until some electron velocity has been directly measured.
The dimensions of electrical energy are taken as those of kinetic
energy, i.e. mass times square of velocity, but we do not yet know if
this describes atomic changes correctly. Since no one has ever measured
a _time_ involved in an electronic process, the scale of time in the
atom might be quite different from that given by our calculations.

Our ignorance of what this change of atomic condition really signifies
is so profound that some writers have begun to treat the atom as though
it were an organism, alive when the atom is excited, and dead when in
a state of minimum energy. Thus Whitehead proposes that we should call
the atom an organism, though this of course may only muddle us since we
know even less about life than we do about the atom.

Yet we do know one very interesting thing about this change which
happens to atoms but cannot be reduced to a change of structure. When
light reaches an atom in the retina, an electrical stimulus passes
up a nerve and alters the condition of the protoplasm somewhere in
the brain. This change in brain condition is known to us directly as
the perception of colour. Therefore in one sense we know more about
this change of atomic condition than we ever did about ‘electric
fields’ or ‘gravitational potential’ or any other of the mathematical
conveniences used by physics in correlating observed quantities. The
change in a sodium atom when we put salt in a flame is not a change
in the consciousness of the sodium atom, because it is not part of a
complex nervous system with the same high co-ordination as is found in
the human being, and therefore the atom has no consciousness. But when
an atom in the brain undergoes the same change we may become conscious
of it, and the changes in matter which occur when light is absorbed are
undoubtedly associated with the problem of consciousness.

Thus we are led to ask: how are single atoms built up into complex
systems which have the characteristics of life, and finally into still
more complex systems which have human consciousness?




CHAPTER IV

_An Evolutionary Experiment_


Questions are often made unnecessarily difficult by their being
expressed in an abstract or theoretical form, and instead of asking
What is life? it will be more valuable to put forward a practical issue
for discussion: Could an infinitely wise physicist order the necessary
chemicals to-day, and to-morrow put together a synthetic man? If not,
why not? What are we really up against, that seems to put some aspects
of life beyond our control?

Let us watch this ambitious physicist as he enters his laboratory.
He has started quite easily and has in a moment prepared some simple
molecules from their elements. Now he has completed the first colloid
that he will require, and is starting on his first organic synthesis.
But his infinite wisdom does not give him eternity within a minute,
and we notice that he is getting on more slowly. While the actual
combination of the first molecules took only about a thousandth of a
second, once he had the apparatus ready, the simplest colloid took
about a second. The organic colloid has taken him about a minute; it
seems that nature won’t work faster than that. She has her own rhythm
and won’t be rushed. If we wait patiently till the end of the day our
friend may have his first speck of protoplasm, and all the skill in the
world would only have helped him to make more of it, not to have got
any further in his game of evolution.

But look at him now! He is making a hasty calculation as though he had
just realized some great secret of nature, and knew that he could never
create his homunculus. We look over his shoulder and read:


 _Estimated minimum time required by the synthetic processes of nature
 to attain various evolutionary stages._

  Starting from the                        Minimum
    elements, to                             Time

  Simple inorganic compound                 1/1000 sec.
  Simple colloid                            1 sec.
  Protein                                   1 hour
  Primitive protoplasm                      1 month
  Simplest uni-cellular organism            10 years
  Flagellate                                1,000 years
  Mammal, including _Homo sapiens_          1,000,000 years

This highly speculative estimate is based on suggestive facts. A
certain amount of time is necessary for two atoms to approach one
another and form a molecule. The time required will be greater if many
atoms have to settle down together into some special arrangement. For
instance, the metal silver is normally crystalline, but if silver
vapour is condensed too quickly the atoms will not have time to
arrange themselves, and it is found that they pile up anyhow into an
amorphous mass.

Colloidal processes require even longer periods, because great clumsy
molecules have to arrange themselves on the surface of the colloidal
particles. In elementary forms of protoplasm the molecular patterns
are still more complex, and yet more time must be necessary to get the
molecules properly adjusted.

It is probable that only our ignorance prevents us from building up
protoplasm, but that we shall require rapidly increasing amounts of
time for each successive stage of evolution. This will certainly be
the case when we have reached organisms which can only be rendered
more complex by controlling their environment while they reproduce
themselves for many generations. A higher organism cannot be built up
directly; the molecular arrangements in its body can only be reached
through the synthesis of some simple form of life which must then be
allowed to evolve through countless generations. Organic heredity
resides in molecular patterns which can only be built up by this very
slow process of repeated reproduction. Thus it is _shortage of time_
that our ambitious scientist is up against in his haste to create a
homunculus. Only the synthetic alchemy of time can build up organisms,
each bearing within itself a long heredity.

The estimates given for the minimum time required in each case are
about a thousandth of the actual time taken in a laboratory experiment
or in the history of evolution as known from geological records. It may
have taken a million years or more for the first mobile cells to have
developed from inorganic materials and a thousand million years for the
mammals. Yet perhaps these processes might have gone on more quickly.
The times given are mere suggestions of a minimum time which may be
necessary under ideal conditions. We waste a lot of time adjusting
the apparatus in a laboratory experiment, and in evolution there may
have been stationary periods with little or no new development. But it
seems likely that when we know more about it we shall discover that a
certain time is required for the formation of organic systems of given
complexity. In this sense we may say that then human spermatozoon and
ovum carry within them the synthesis of at least a million years.

Only an International Institute of Evolutionary Research under the
most stable of Leagues of Nations could hope to create an artificial
man, and even then man could hardly take the credit, for Time would
have done more than man. But with sufficient consistency of purpose
man could do this, provided he learnt how to make use of every moment
of the creative power of time, and never made a slip by which the
accumulated treasure of the years (i.e. heredity) might be broken. How
man would learn to value life, and how profoundly such an experiment
might alter his view of human beings, each one a priceless miracle,
fruit of a million years!

In twenty years’ time scientific knowledge will be adequate for the
beginning of this giant task, and we shall be subscribing our guineas
for the foundation of the Institute. Time has created man; man may use
time to create man once more. With a million years ahead of us before
we reach the sensitive mammals, we need hardly fear criticism from the
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. We are simply going
to allow life to evolve itself under ideal conditions with Switzerland
as the State for Evolutionary Research.

It may happen that under such perfect conditions life will evolve more
swiftly than it did on this rough-and-ready planet. But equally well
we--or rather our descendants--may find that the Darwinian struggle for
survival is essential for evolution, and then the nations would have to
debate on the morals of reproducing the ‘cruelty of nature’ inside the
World’s Evolutionary Zoo. Perhaps a wrathful god will seek to punish
mankind for attempting to build this ladder to the secret of life, this
modern Tower of Babel, and amuse himself by watching the community of
scientists stricken by a plague of inconsistency amongst their weights
and measures.

The possibilities of such grand schemes have to be taken seriously. We
are now highly self-conscious beings with a tremendous technique for
research. Men with genuine creative imagination who reverence life must
shoulder the responsibilities of the twentieth-century consciousness,
and use scientific technique for creative not life-destroying purposes.
One can imagine a growing fraction of the interest now given to
war, other people’s adultery, and greyhound racing, turned towards
Switzerland, whence at critical moments wireless bulletins would
announce that the first amoeba had just successfully taken nourishment.
If we wish it, the future of science can be such as to recompense for
its recent occupation with gunpowder. Governments would be powerless
to make war if the physicists refused to make the guns and the Royal
Society called upon scientists to go on strike until each war crisis
had been settled by arbitration.

The problem of life may be seen in a new light if the speculations of
the last section are accepted and we assume that a definite period
of time is necessary for the building up of any living organism. For
if this is so the laws which govern life must involve the age of the
organism since some definite moment in its history. We might choose for
this moment the instant when the parent spermatozoon entered the ovum
in the case of a higher organism, or in the evolutionary experiment
just described the age might be reckoned from the moment when the first
elementary chemicals were combined into molecules. The point is that
this whole evolutionary process must be described by laws which take
into account the age of the system under consideration.

Let us take a very simple, indeed the simplest possible, example.
If two hydrogen atoms having just the correct total energy for the
formation of a hydrogen molecule have approached one another and
combined, the law describing what has happened must indicate that at
a definite moment the combination was complete and the process at an
end. This is an example of an irreversible process, since the molecule
does not _spontaneously_ break up again. Moreover, the mathematical
formulation of this process must include the definite age of the system
at which the process was complete, this age being measured from some
selected initial moment.

This process provides an interesting limitation to a principle put
forward by Maxwell as the basis of physical science. He suggested that
the laws of physics must be considered to be eternal and unchanging and
that therefore they must be expressed in a form which does not contain
the time explicitly. This means that for physical laws there can be no
difference between to-day and to-morrow. The laws are concerned with
small changes which systems undergo in small time intervals, and need
not express any fundamental distinction between one moment and another.

Such laws cannot express the fact that anything sudden ever occurs
which makes an essential change in the system as when two systems
become one, or when one system breaks up into two. The laws of organic
growth or the evolution of individual systems must display the fact
that at a certain age of the system special things happen, such as the
combination of two hydrogen atoms, or the attainment of maturity by an
organism. Maxwell’s principle puts a limitation on the form of physical
laws which precisely eliminates the laws that would be appropriate for
organisms. But there is no reason why a broader physics should not try
to frame this new type of law that would be applicable to the history
and development of individual systems, and it is probable that if this
could be done the reversible laws of Newton, Maxwell, and Einstein
would appear as approximations which were valid when nothing of special
interest was happening, i.e. when only spatial movements were involved
without synthesis, disintegration or the emission of light.

Laws of the Newtonian type which Maxwell had in mind assume that
one can adequately describe the present state of a system without
specifying its past history. But we cannot say anything very precise
about the inside of a living organism, and it is found far more
efficient to describe what is known of its past history. We do not try
to say where atoms are in an organism; instead we mention its species,
age, etc. Organisms might be defined as systems whose future behaviour
is more easily estimated from their past history than from what can be
known about their immediate internal structure. The most convenient
formulation of organic laws will therefore be expressed in terms of
the age of the organism and take account of how its life has been
spent. These laws are necessarily irreversible, since the assimilation
of oxygen or food is always going on in a manner which can never be
reversed. Life is like a function which must always alter in one
direction; when this development ceases life has disappeared.

The contrast of living and dead now appears less important than the
following classification of natural processes:

 1. Processes which are reversible and whose laws can be expressed
 independently of the age of the system, e.g. gravitational and
 mechanical motions which do not involve light or heat.

 2. Processes which are irreversible, the laws being best expressed in
 terms of the total time which has passed since some initial state,
 e.g. chemical combination, growth, evolution, radioactivity, and all
 changes involving light or heat.

Physics has always asserted that processes of the first type were
fundamental in nature, and astronomy provided the ideal example in
planetary motion. It was this assertion that gave rise to the essential
issue behind the conflict of mechanism and vitalism. But if Born is
right, and the fundamental atomic processes are irreversible, then
the situation is completely altered. There is no longer a question
of life being an arbitrary irruption in a world of mechanical law,
since the laws of gravitation and mechanics must then be looked on as
the limiting case, when the irreversibility is vanishingly small, of
a whole series of irreversible processes which constitute the most
important examples of the fundamental order in nature. This series
would include the atomic processes connected with heat, light, and
electricity, chemical combination, colloidal effects, organic growth
and evolution, and the highly co-ordinated electrical processes which
form the physiological basis of consciousness.

If this view is correct the atomic processes of radiation and chemical
combination should be just what the biologist needs to build up
organisms. Instead of a chaos of little particles obeying inverse
square laws, the modern physicist offers to the biologist a new kind of
atom with electrical and magnetic properties which cause it to build
up stable compounds.

The biologist may reply: “Yes, but organisms have four chief
characteristics, their behaviour is irreversible, and displays
growth, memory, and purposiveness. If you tell me that your atoms
obey irreversible laws, so much the better, because my organisms
certainly do. But your crystals grow very differently from my cells and
organisms, and you can’t explain away the apparent purposiveness of all
life.”

To which the physicist may answer: “Suppose that two hydrogen atoms are
some distance apart with the total energy necessary to make a molecule.
If they begin to move towards one another under some attractive
influence which they exert we display no surprise. But they are moving
towards a final end, which is an end, even though they are of course
unconscious of it; and provided that nothing interferes they will reach
one another, form a molecule, and the process will be consummated.
The atoms move under an irresistible law of attraction towards a final
condition which is unavoidable unless outside influences prevent
it. The system of the two atoms develops necessarily towards a
consummation, and the process has in this sense a teleological quality,
though this need not mean that any god or man had consciously planned
the end for these particular hydrogen atoms.

“This quality was not present in Newton’s law of gravitation precisely
because it failed to say what happens at the end of any process, for
instance when a meteorite hits the earth. Newtonian laws avoid the
responsibility of dealing with all the exciting events, like the
wedding of the atoms or the death of the meteorite. On the other hand
it appears probable that all irreversible laws can be interpreted as
leading either from or to some critical end condition. Thus all heat
processes tend towards an approximate uniformity of temperature, and
chemical reactions also move towards a final condition.

“Such systems as these display the rudiments of unconscious purpose.
One must imagine these systems made much more complex so that it takes
a long time and considerable nourishment before their unconscious
purpose is fulfilled, whether this be the instinctive reproduction of
their kind or any other biological function.”

“Maybe. I like the unconscious purpose which you have revealed in
irreversible physics, because I am troubled by colleagues who see
conscious mind everywhere.

“But if I grant that your view of the atom, and hence of molecules
and colloids, allows me two of the four features I find in life, i.e.
irreversibility and unconscious purpose, you have still to deal with
growth and organic memory.”

“Yes. Growth and memory are things that physics has as yet little
to say about. But we have at any rate reduced the problem of life
to smaller proportions. It is no longer the question what is
life? but, how do colloidal processes build themselves up into
continuously-active, developing systems which can react to their
surroundings so that some distant condition can ultimately be attained?
This is a much less difficult question. Moreover, since the problem of
radiation underlies all the chemical processes which are associated
with the maintenance of life, we may expect considerable assistance
when physics has cleared up this crucial problem.”




CHAPTER V

_Physics and Mind_


If a psychologist who was not a behaviourist had been listening to this
conversation he might break in:

“Does the physicist seriously propose that we should try to leave mind
out of our picture of the human organism? Even if we can eventually
explain the unconscious purposes of the lower organisms as ends towards
which they are driven by physical laws, yet man has the supreme
distinction of a conscious mind, he can select his aim, and if he likes
renounce it again for something else. You must therefore allow in your
picture for the emergence of mind at some point during the course of
evolution.”

“Wait a moment,” replies the physicist. “Your whole outlook towards
consciousness betrays not only an anthropomorphic standpoint, but one
limited to a single stage in man’s development. There is no single
condition adequately described by the word ‘conscious’. There are in
fact a great many different states of awareness which may grade into
one another, or may form a series of distinct conditions. We do not
know much about them yet, but their variety is most striking. There
is the dim sentience as we awake from chloroform, the awareness of
the dreaming state, the passive experiencing that accompanies any
intensely rhythmic activity such as running. Again, quite different
states are known in day-dreaming, intellectual concentration and the
delicately-balanced semi-consciousness of creative thought.

“Consider especially the states of awareness associated with love, or
with the supreme creative activities of the mind. Free-will, or the
deliberate choice of a purpose, is completely lost in a whole-natured
falling in love, as it is also in the artist’s need to follow some
dimly-conscious intuition of a task he must attempt. At these important
occasions free-will disappears before a sense of inner organic
necessity.

“These examples seem to me to make it clear that ‘conscious purpose’ is
not in any sense the ultimate or highest criterion of human behaviour,
and that free-will need not be taken necessarily to mean the power
to over-ride any laws of nature. In my view ‘free-will’ is simply
the apparent characteristic of organic behaviour when no complete
integration of the personality has been achieved and the mind seems
to be able to oscillate from one purpose to another. We really have
to deal in human beings with a whole series of forms of behaviour
of increasing complexity and integration: reflex and instinctive
actions, deliberate activity, and finally the intuitive whole-natured
creative functioning which leads to ends which could not have been
intellectually foreseen. To each of these must correspond a certain
type of awareness, and in my view, a brain process of a definite degree
of complexity. By analogy with our own experience of different modes
of consciousness, we may be able to infer from the structure of the
central nervous system of an organism what sort of awareness it can
experience.

“Eventually we must expect to be able to give a complete scheme of all
organic behaviour in terms of the organic processes and their laws, but
none the less it will remain a great deal more convenient in some cases
to refer to what happens to human beings by using words that suggest
their conscious experience. The behaviourist denies the scientific
significance of all but the very barest elements of conscious
experience, but of course he has to start from the human perception
of light and colour. Science cannot get on without ideas which obtain
their whole meaning from the qualities of conscious experience, and
hence the extreme behaviourist position merely arises from a prejudice
which prevents clear thinking. But as a campaign to put more stress on
the direct observation of what really happens to living beings in terms
of physical movements, behaviourism can only do good by bringing more
unbiassed knowledge about life.

“My own interpretation of the question may be put in this way. The
thing that is given in nature is a process in time. According to
its complexity and degree of co-ordination an organic process has
different degrees of awareness. There is no one condition called human
consciousness, because the human organism can function with different
degrees of co-ordination, and if we ask if an atom in absorbing light
is conscious, the question has no definite meaning. But in a few years
those who are studying the physiology of the central nervous system
will be able to indicate how many steps of synthesis and integration
occur between the simplest cell and the creative thinker, and to each
of these stages will be ascribed a mode of awareness. But below a
certain degree of organic complexity this ‘awareness’, will cease to
be anything that can be consciously imagined by man, e.g. below the
dimmest sentience one might allow an undifferentiated knowledge of mere
continuance, based in turn on the rhythmic pulsation of the elementary
cells.”

“Your scheme is of course still rather vague, but in its main outlines
it appears satisfactory”, replies the psychologist. “But tell me
outright, can mind influence matter? If I understand you rightly, you
suggest that matter certainly influences mind.”

“On the contrary, I do not! You are back at the meaningless questions
on which philosophers have wasted much time. To ask if mind can
influence matter does not mean anything until you know what you mean
by mind and matter, and to a scientist that means knowing the laws
they obey. Now, on the one hand, relativity and modern quantum theory
indicate that there is no matter in the old sense of particles made of
some unchanging stuff, and physical science recognizes atomic and other
_processes_ as fundamental in the place of ‘matter’. On the other hand,
you really mean by ‘mind’ one particular form of conscious activity:
the deliberate selection of a purpose. Therefore to give your question
real meaning I have to ask instead ‘Does the conscious selection of a
purpose alter the physical processes going on in the human organism?’

“But that is an absurd question. It is like asking: Does a dint in the
outside of a hat _cause_ an alteration in the shape of the inside of
the hat? To which the only reply is that the dint on the outside is
merely another way of describing the dint on the inside. There is no
_causing_ of the one by the other any more than if you fold a bit of
paper you can say that the crease on one side causes the crease on the
other side. They are identical and the double method of description
used in the question creates a meaningless problem.

“‘Conscious selection of a purpose’ is one way of describing a
particular process, and after this process has occurred the brain
will be different from before. The old theories of the correlation or
interaction of mind and matter presupposed that they were separate
things in themselves. The important questions become quite different
when one realizes that mind and matter do not exist independently,
but that they are both somewhat inadequate ways of describing certain
_aspects_ of one organic process. The spatial aspect of organic
process is called the physical organism. The temporal aspect of organic
process corresponds to the content of its consciousness. The physical
body is a group of spatial characteristics. Consciousness is a system
of temporal elements; memory, anticipation, deliberate repetition,
creative longing, hope and fear are all things set in time.

“Professor Alexander has said ‘Time is the mind of Space.’ He attempts
to explain space and time by an anthropomorphic analogy. It is a very
suggestive idea, though for the searcher whose goal is the nature of
consciousness itself it is more valuable to put it the other way round:
mind is the temporal aspect of process, body the spatial aspect. But
it is very important indeed to notice that we have not yet found the
adequate terms for describing these two aspects of process. Matter is
unsatisfactory for the spatial aspect, because there are no unchanging
particles. But nor is mind sufficient for the temporal aspect, because
there is a temporal aspect to the combination of hydrogen atoms and to
chemical and colloidal processes, and yet we must not speak of these
as having mind. When the new words for these two aspects are invented
they will form the foundation of the scientific synthesis which I am
expecting.”

To which the psychologist may answer: “Well, at heart I have always
been a thorough-going determinist like you, at least in dealing with
my patients. Moreover I find it works, because I have always included
in my picture of the patient a life-impulse of some sort, which can be
influenced by my personality. Thus if the behaviour of my patient is
absolutely determined, the conditions which determine what happens to
him include some inner life tendency, and also the effects produced on
him by all the people he meets.

“But if one attempts to formulate such an absolute determinism, or
to apply it to oneself, one gets into deep waters, and I haven’t the
courage to try it. It seems you must be right at bottom, but that only
a god could believe it without its upsetting his mental balance or his
sense of moral responsibility.”

“There I agree,” replies the physicist, “as long as one does not
simultaneously revise one’s whole view of life in terms of this new
organic knowledge. That is a very big task, but I should like one
day to attempt it. Two things especially would attract me to such a
revision of human values. One is that people who ought to know better
still go about making moral judgments about their acquaintances. Now
that we know how profound is the influence on a child of the treatment
it receives during its first five years of life, moral judgments become
rather old-fashioned and only show that the person making them has
himself not yet learnt to find emotional fulfilment in healthier ways.
An analysis of human behaviour along the lines of organic determinism
might do something to show that moral condemnations, whether of
bolshevism or of the sins of one’s children, are never effective unless
immediately accompanied by positive example or creative suggestion.

“But there is another more attractive reason why I should like to
attempt this transvaluation of values. If organic determinism is valid,
then the artist’s aspiration to create is a natural consequence of
some organic law. Creative aspiration may then be looked on as the
natural destiny of certain human beings, though they no more know
where they are going than did the two hydrogen atoms. But organic
determinism allows us to understand why it is of no importance that the
artist doesn’t know what he is going to create before he does it. It
seems that in some matters our organic body is wiser than ourselves,
or rather wiser than our very immature consciousness. When we have
developed our consciousness by the discovery of the organic laws of our
own natures we may be able to make human life more beautiful.”




CHAPTER VI

_The Future of the Sciences_


The preceding pages have very broadly indicated the way in which
current physical researches may influence the scientific outlook on
the problems of matter, life, and mind. The view has been put forward
that we are on the eve of a profound scientific synthesis of which the
main outlines are already determined. These general suggestions will
now be made more precise in order to offer to anyone who is interested
the opportunity of testing for himself some definite prophecies
regarding the future of scientific thought. The forecast made here does
not involve any supernatural reading of the future, but is based on
tendencies already inherent in the different departments of science.
For convenience it is expressed in the form of separate assertions
concerning the future of physics, biology, and psychology.

1. Before 1940 a very remarkable simplification will be made in atomic
theory, which will indicate that in quantum processes physics has
‘touched bottom’ and that--for the time being--we may consider that
nature is not infinitely complex within the heart of the atom. The
proof of this apparent if not absolute limit to the micro-structure
of nature will take the form of the discovery of simple relationships
between the fundamental constants of atomic structure, e, m, M, c, and
h. (The electronic charge and mass, the mass of the hydrogen nucleus,
the velocity of light, and Planck’s constant.) Such relations are
already known but are considered to be of no significance since they
are ruled out by the accepted theory of electrical dimensions.

Yet this dimensional system is not based on direct observation,
and the importance of these relationships will soon be recognized
in consequence of experiments aimed at a direct determination of
an ‘electron velocity’, in a curved track. ‘Electron velocity’ as
calculated from deflection experiments will be found not to be the same
as the directly measurable cms. per sec., and in the case of straight
electron tracks, the measured velocity may be found to be always that
of light, though this does not mean much since the velocity of light in
one direction has never been measured.

As the result of the study of individual radiation tracks, for instance
in the reflection of electrons by crystals, and particularly of
any _time_ measurements that can be made, a new system of physical
conceptions will be built up appropriate to irreversible processes,
which will be substituted for the Newtonian reversible system. The
new scheme will probably be based on the conception of the atom,
with its radiating electron tracks, as a natural clock which not
only can be used to measure out equal time intervals, but also to
yield an objective criterion of past and future. In order to make
this idea, or at least one part of it, capable of empirical test the
following hypothesis is put forward: The time-interval between any two
point-events on any electron track is a simple function of the length
and curvature of the part of the track between the two points. This
hypothesis contradicts the current interpretation of electron theory on
a point which has never yet been subjected to experimental test.

The conceptions which will be built up on electron velocity experiments
will very quickly bring within one simple theory the facts of chemical
combination and colloidal processes. For these depend upon irreversible
effects connected with radiation and electrons, and will therefore be
amenable to treatment by the new conceptions for the very reason which
necessarily puts them beyond the scope of Newtonian laws.

2. As the result of the alteration in physical conceptions biology
will soon cease to draw a definite line between inanimate and
living systems. The normal characters of life will be recognized
as appearing in steps as one passes up the series atom, molecule,
colloid, protoplasm, cell, and through further stages to mammal and
man. In each class of organism a central controlling process will be
discovered and its laws formulated with some precision, in terms of
irreversible electrochemical processes. The process which in each
organism represents the co-ordinating factor and is the life of the
organism considered as a unit may for instance be described in terms
of a quantity which we shall call ‘f’. ‘f’ would be such that so long
as ‘f’ keeps on increasing the organism is alive, while if ‘f’ stands
still the organism dies. The rate of increase of ‘f’ indicates the
tempo or intensity of the organism’s life. In a simple case ‘f’ might
be directly related to the intake of oxygen or food, and just as
respiration and assimilation are irreversible, so is the change in ‘f’.
‘f’ must go on increasing, or else cease to represent any quantity
in nature; as soon as it ceases to increase the process to which it
corresponds cannot be identified any longer.

The most important factors which influence the life-function ‘f’ (i.e.
which affect the central controlling process in any organism) will be
known before about 1950, with the result that local rebellions such as
cancer will not only be controllable, but easily prevented. Harmless
methods for increasing the rate of change of ‘f’, i.e. for increasing
the _élan vital_ of the organism, will be discovered, so that, for
instance, the duration of child-birth will be reduced to a natural
minimum. If child-birth sometimes takes very long nowadays, this is
presumably because the woman’s body is tired, exhausted, or partially
poisoned by her mode of living, and by raising her vitality at the
critical moment we may expect to be able to let the process go on at
its natural speed. There must be some minimum time necessary for the
act, since a vast number of complex organic processes have to complete
themselves in a certain order, but probably this time is considerably
shorter than that during which many women in this country have to
suffer.

It is already known that the Mendelian _genes_ which determine heredity
are related to the rates of development of special processes in the
organism, and a control over the life-tempo, or rate of increase of
‘f’ in any organism or group of cells within an organism, will provide
a new method of tackling the practical problem of heredity. It is
possible that hereditary tendencies to specific weakness or disease
will be overcome by accelerating or retarding the rate of development
of the human system at some special moment between conception and
maturity.

Rejuvenation will soon be safe and efficient, but not as a means for
attempting immortality. It will be socially recognized as healthy and
legitimate only when undertaken to compensate for premature ageing due
to specific repressions, illness, or anxiety.

The elimination of known diseases by a genuine science of life does not
mean that other diseases will spring up perhaps worse than before. A
theoretical science of life will know the meaning of all disease, and
will not prevent one in such a way as to give rise to another. Instead
of making campaigns against influenza or any other one disease, it will
determine the conditions in which no disease can survive, and thus
gradually eliminate all the organic diseases which attack the body.

But this does not mean the attainment of a hygienic Utopia in which
human life necessarily fulfils itself. A balance will be made to
the disappearance of cancer and syphilis, not by the arising of
other diseases but as a result of the consequent increase in the
sensitiveness of the human brain.

The supremely difficult task of the next hundred years will be to keep
the mind of the race healthy and stable through a period of critical
sensitiveness. We are in a transition stage of violent instability, of
intense cruelty coupled with compassion (America), of blended love of
liberty and need of discipline, of emotional religions and of wars--but
we must hope that it will lead to some mode of life with greater
inherent stability.

3. Psychology is now occupied with the discovery that the human
response to perceptions is not additive, i.e. that the effect made by a
group of sounds or colours depends on the pattern in space and time in
which they are arranged. (_Gestalt-theorie._) For instance, the effect
made on a man by the individual notes of ‘God save the King’ when
played in the wrong order is negligible, and bears no relation to his
response when he hears the tune played in a cinema, and it reminds him
of ‘patriotism’ and the War. So far no scientific method has been found
of describing when a group of elements is to be treated as a ‘whole’
for the purposes of psychology, and this is where the greatest advances
may be expected.

Most scientific conceptions have been based on the method of spatial
analysis, i.e. the reduction, where possible, of a thing to its
smallest spatial elements. Physics, biology, and psychology have all
lacked the equipment to describe what makes the atom, organism, or the
pattern function as a unit, and how we are to know if some group is
a unit or not. The analytical method is fully developed, but we lack
even the basis for a synthetic treatment. This leads some hard-headed
scientists of the materialistic school who will ‘stand no nonsense’
to assert that there is no such thing as ‘synthesis’, that this is a
mystical idea left over from primitive anthropomorphism. Yet to any
mind that is guided not by prejudice but by a simple search for truth,
the fact of synthesis is obvious, though not yet properly formulated.

Here modern physics can supply a clue. Analysis is the method required
in a search for instantaneous spatial structure; the synthetic method
which we need must deal with the temporal history and behaviour of
systems. The fact that the human being reacts in the ways he does to a
tune as a whole is evidence of something in his history, that he has
heard the tune often under certain emotional surroundings. The unity
of any synthesis, whole, or organism is not an instantaneous fact
explicable in terms of structure, for we can recognize this unity only
from a continued observation over a period of time.

Physics can invent one law to describe the approach of the two
hydrogen atoms to form a molecule, and in doing so treats the two
together as a unit. This suggests that the fact of organic unity is to
be defined and formulated in terms of an irreversible law which governs
the system as a whole. Thus a group of atoms, cells, or any other
elements is to be called a unit when, and only when, one irreversible
law can be found which expresses the behaviour of the different
elements as contributing towards some common end, like the formation of
the molecule in the case of the hydrogen atoms.

We can now draw a practical conclusion for the future of psychology,
which is in great need of a moral principle to guide its treatment of
disintegrated human personality. On the analogy of the two atoms, a
human being is to be considered as a unity when his whole behaviour
displays continuous co-ordination towards some end. But there is an
important difference in the two cases: the atoms move towards an end
which we know because it has already happened in history, whereas
man’s development is creative, that is it proceeds towards an end we
cannot know exactly before it comes into being. Thus the parent or
psychologist need not trouble if he cannot understand what his child or
subject is aiming towards: so long as some consistency and harmony of
functioning is apparent, the ‘end’ can be left to nature to look after,
because such harmony _means_ that the organism is tending towards some
ultimate condition.

The psychologists of the future will therefore have to follow some
principle such as this: their only legitimate aim is the maintenance
and restoration of harmonious co-ordination of all the human functions,
and no concern need be paid to ultimate intellectual or spiritual
ideals. Of course if the person considered is apparently tending
towards some degenerate condition, that is known to the onlooker
because it is _not_ new but a repetition of what many human beings
have done before, then this tendency can be altered. At least, it can
be altered if the onlooker can use his intuition to discover signs
of repressed conflict which show that the immediate tendency is not
whole-natured, but based on the repression of some more profound
aspiration or desire. Then by bringing this repressed aspiration back
into consciousness the degenerate tendency may be arrested. But this
control over the lives of others can only be effectively exercised
by the intuitive discovery that their present tendencies are not
whole-natured.

       *       *       *       *       *

Prophecy can never be scientific, and forecasting in the realm of
science is perhaps the most dangerous form of intellectual acrobatics.
Science must be thorough, and all vague speculation is its enemy.
But there are moments when a profound revision is necessary, and
amidst the responsibilities and rich appeal of daily life no one will
undertake this task who does not believe that it offers an adequate
reward to science and to man. To-day prophecy can call attention to
unjustified limitations inherent in current scientific thought, and
encourage the students of matter and of life to get together and try to
discover the single system of natural law which we must believe covers
both realms. It may even help them to find crucial experiments by which
to guide their search.

The reward is certainly great. The indifference to the destruction of
life which has marked recent years is no cause either for surprise or
for despair after an epoch of orthodox and insincere religion coupled
with an abstract science of matter. One thing only can guide humanity
to a saner and richer life: the recognition and valuation of life.
This can be assisted by science and art both revealing life in all its
significant forms. But the roots of art have been destroyed by the
domination of a science which had not recognized the significance of
life within the realm of natural law. For great art can only arise from
a profound reverence for life, whereas to the scientific mood of this
period life appeared as an arbitrary impulse in continual conflict with
the laws of matter.

Physics is now studying light. The radiant influence of light nourishes
life and within human body forms the fabric of consciousness. We are
alive and conscious, but our consciousness is immature for we do not
yet know the laws that govern our own lives and thoughts. Yet it is
certain that light, life, and consciousness are bound together by some
undiscovered law. This secret of nature’s alchemy is still hidden from
us within our own bodies. By revealing it physics will create a new
hope for man.




NOTES


[1] Whitehead, _Science and the Modern World_. Eddington comes near
to the same idea in an essay in _Science, Religion, and Reality_,
1925. See also Weyl, _Was ist Materie?_ 1924, p. 84. It has also been
expressed by others quite independently, though I do not know of other
published references.

[2] E.g. the irreversible motion of an electron in the field of a bar
magnet is rendered formally reversible by the assumption that the
magnetic field is due to moving electrons. Yet this assumption is
highly artificial since it postulates electronic movements that have
never been observed. In other cases irreversibility is eliminated by
the choice of special co-ordinate systems. Some physicists now hold the
view that irreversibility may be inherent in atomic as it is in organic
processes.

[3] _Internal Constitution of the Stars_, 1926, p. 56. Compare note on
p. 44.

It may be convenient here to summarize the processes that give at any
rate superficial evidence of their irreversibility: processes involving
heat changes, or the radiation of light, or mass; the production of
energy in a star, the motions of electrons in magnetic fields, certain
types of atom-ion collision in mixed gases, processes dependent on
retarded potentials, radioactivity, organic growth and evolution,
and consciousness itself. Eddington deals only with the case of the
emission and absorption of light, but suggests that the direction
of time can only be deduced from statistical processes. This is the
orthodox view, though it is very doubtful if it is valid now that the
quantum processes are receiving formulation. In this connection, see
note 4.

[4] Einstein. Berlin Akad., _Sitzungsberichte_, 1925, p. 418. But
Einstein’s view must be revised in view of recent experimental results
(e.g. Harnwell, _Phys. Rev._, vol. 29, 1927, pp. 683 and 831), if these
have been correctly interpreted. See Born, _Zeitschr für Physik_, vol.
40, pp. 177-8; and Jordan, _Naturw._ 1927, p. 792.

[5] The idea that time may be an active factor in causation has the
mathematical significance that ‘t’ (for the system in question) must
appear explicitly in the formulation of the law, and not merely as the
square of a time-differential found convenient for the correlation of
a standard clock with a reversible process which is being observed.
A law whose mathematical formulation involves ‘t’ measured from some
moment in the history of the system, gives an entirely new meaning
to ‘t’, though one consistent with the properties of the reversible
Newtonian differential ‘dt’. Such a law may claim to express the fact
of historic, irreversible, duration, a feature in nature which is
neglected by laws involving only ‘dt’ squared.

[6] Einstein, _Annalen der Physik_, vol. 49, pp. 776-7, 1916.





_SIXTY VOLUMES ARE NOW PUBLISHED_

TO-DAY AND TO-MORROW

_Each, pott 8vo, boards, 2/6 net_


This series of books, by some of the most distinguished English
thinkers, scientists, philosophers, doctors, critics, and artists, was
at once recognized as a noteworthy event. Written from various points
of view, one book frequently opposing the argument of another, they
provide the reader with a stimulating survey of the most modern thought
in many departments of life. Several volumes are devoted to the future
trend of Civilization, conceived as a whole; while others deal with
particular provinces. It is interesting to see in these neat little
volumes, issued at a low price, the revival of a form of literature,
the Pamphlet, which has been in disuse for many years.


  _Published by_
  KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD.
  Broadway House: 68-74 Carter Lane, London, E.C.4


_FROM THE REVIEWS_

 _Times Literary Supplement_: “An entertaining series of vivacious and
    stimulating studies of modern tendencies.”

 _Spectator_: “Scintillating monographs ... that very lively and
    courageous series.”

 _Observer_: “There seems no reason why the brilliant To-day and
    To-morrow Series should come to an end for a century of to-morrows.
    At first it seemed impossible for the publishers to keep up the
    sport through a dozen volumes, but the series already runs to more
    than two score. A remarkable series....”

 _Daily Telegraph_: “This admirable series of essays, provocative and
    brilliant.”

 _Nation_: “We are able to peer into the future by means of that
    brilliant series [which] will constitute a precious document upon
    the present time.”--_T. S. Eliot._

 _Manchester Dispatch_: “The more one reads of these pamphlets, the
    more avid becomes the appetite. We hope the list is endless.”

 _Irish Statesman_: “Full of lively controversy.”

 _Daily Herald_: “This series has given us many monographs of
    brilliance and discernment.... The stylistic excellencies of this
    provocative series.”

 _Field_: “We have long desired to express the deep admiration felt by
    every thinking scholar and worker at the present day for this
    series. We must pay tribute to the high standard of thought and
    expression they maintain. As small gift-books, austerely yet
    prettily produced, they remain unequalled of their kind. We can give
    but the briefest suggestions of their value to the student, the
    politician, and the voter....”

 _New York World_: “Holds the palm in the speculative and
    interpretative thought of the age.”


VOLUMES READY

 =Daedalus=, or Science and the Future. By J. B. S. HALDANE, Reader in
    Biochemistry, University of Cambridge. _Seventh impression._

    “A fascinating and daring little book.”--_Westminster Gazette._
    “The essay is brilliant, sparkling with wit and bristling with
    challenges.”--_British Medical Journal._

    “Predicts the most startling changes.”--_Morning Post._

 =Callinicus=, a Defence of Chemical Warfare. By J. B. S. HALDANE.
    _Second impression._

    “Mr Haldane’s brilliant study.”--_Times Leading Article._ “A book
    to be read by every intelligent adult.”--_Spectator._ “This
    brilliant little monograph.”--_Daily News._

 =Icarus=, or the Future of Science. By BERTRAND RUSSELL, F.R.S.
    _Fourth impression._

    “Utter pessimism.”--_Observer._ “Mr Russell refuses to believe that
    the progress of Science must be a boon to mankind.”--_Morning Post._
    “A stimulating book, that leaves one not at all
    discouraged.”--_Daily Herald._

 =What I Believe.= By BERTRAND RUSSELL, F.R.S. _Third impression._

    “One of the most brilliant and thought-stimulating little books I
    have read--a better book even than _Icarus_.”--_Nation._ “Simply and
    brilliantly written.”--_Nature._ “In stabbing sentences he punctures
    the bubble of cruelty, envy, narrowness, and ill-will which those in
    authority call their morals.”--_New Leader._

 =Tantalus=, or the Future of Man. By F. C. S. SCHILLER, D.SC., Fellow
    of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. _Second impression._

    “They are all (_Daedalus_, _Icarus_, and _Tantalus_) brilliantly
    clever, and they supplement or correct one another.”--_Dean Inge_,
    in _Morning Post_. “Immensely valuable and infinitely
    readable.”--_Daily News._ “The book of the week.”--_Spectator._

 =Cassandra=, or the Future of the British Empire. By F. C. S.
    SCHILLER, D.SC.

    “We commend it to the complacent of all parties.”--_Saturday
    Review._ “The book is small, but very, very weighty; brilliantly
    written, it ought to be read by all shades of politicians and
    students of politics.”--_Yorkshire Post._ “Yet another addition to
    that bright constellation of pamphlets.”--_Spectator._

 =Quo Vadimus?= Glimpses of the Future. By E. E. FOURNIER D’ALBE, D.SC.
    _Second Impression._

    “A wonderful vision of the future. A book that will be talked
    about.”--_Daily Graphic._ “A remarkable contribution to a
    remarkable series.”--_Manchester Dispatch._ “Interesting and
    singularly plausible.”--_Daily Telegraph._

 =Thrasymachus=, the Future of Morals. By C. E. M. JOAD, author of “The
    Babbitt Warren,” etc. _Second impression._

    “His provocative book.”--_Graphic._ “Written in a style of
    deliberate brilliance.”--_Times Literary Supplement._ “As outspoken
    and unequivocal a contribution as could well be imagined. Even those
    readers who dissent will be forced to recognize the admirable
    clarity with which he states his case. A book that will
    startle.”--_Daily Chronicle._

 =Lysistrata=, or Woman’s Future and Future Woman. By ANTHONY M.
    LUDOVICI, author of “A Defence of Aristocracy,” etc. _Second
    Impression._

    “A stimulating book. Volumes would be needed to deal, in the
    fullness his work provokes, with all the problems raised.”--_Sunday
    Times._ “Pro-feminine but anti-feministic.”--_Scotsman._ “Full of
    brilliant common-sense.”--_Observer._

 =Hypatia=, or Woman and Knowledge. By MRS BERTRAND RUSSEL. With a
    frontispiece. _Third impression._

    An answer to _Lysistrata_. “A passionate vindication of the rights
    of woman.”--_Manchester Guardian._ “Says a number of things that
    sensible women have been wanting publicly said for a long
    time.”--_Daily Herald._

 =Hephaestus=, the Soul of the Machine. By E. E. FOURNIER D’ALBE, D.SC.

    “A worthy contribution to this interesting series. A delightful
    and thought-provoking essay.”--_Birmingham Post._ “There is a
    special pleasure in meeting with a book like _Hephaestus_. The
    author has the merit of really understanding what he is talking
    about.”--_Engineering._ “An exceedingly clever defence of
    machinery.”--_Architects’ Journal._

 =The Passing of the Phantoms=: a Study of Evolutionary Psychology and
    Morals. By C. J. PATTEN, Professor of Anatomy, Sheffield University.
    With 4 Plates.

    “Readers of _Daedalus_, _Icarus_ and _Tantalus_, will be grateful
    for an excellent presentation of yet another point of
    view.”--_Yorkshire Post._ “This bright and bracing little
    book.”--_Literary Guide._ “Interesting and original.”--_Medical
    Times._

 =The Mongol in our Midst=: a Study of Man and his Three Faces. By
    F. G. CROOKSHANK, M.D., F.R.C.P. With 28 Plates. _Second Edition,
    revised._

    “A brilliant piece of speculative induction.”--_Saturday Review._
    “An extremely interesting and suggestive book, which will reward
    careful reading.”--_Sunday Times._ “The pictures carry fearful
    conviction.”--_Daily Herald._

 =The Conquest of Cancer.= By H. W. S. WRIGHT, M.S., F.R.C.S.
    Introduction by F. G. CROOKSHANK, M.D.

    “Eminently suitable for general reading. The problem is fairly and
    lucidly presented. One merit of Mr Wright’s plan is that he tells
    people what, in his judgment, they can best do, _here and
    now_.”--From the _Introduction_.

 =Pygmalion=, or the Doctor of the Future. By R. MCNAIR WILSON, M.B.

    “Dr Wilson has added a brilliant essay to this series.”--_Times
    Literary Supplement._ “This is a very little book, but there is much
    wisdom in it.”--_Evening Standard._ “No doctor worth his salt would
    venture to say that Dr Wilson was wrong.”--_Daily Herald._

 =Prometheus=, or Biology and the Advancement of Man. By H. S.
    JENNINGS, Professor of Zoology, Johns Hopkins University. _Second
    Impression._

    “This volume is one of the most remarkable that has yet appeared in
    this series. Certainly the information it contains will be new to
    most educated laymen. It is essentially a discussion of ... heredity
    and environment, and it clearly establishes the fact that the
    current use of these terms has no scientific justification.”--_Times
    Literary Supplement._ “An exceedingly brilliant book.”--_New
    Leader._

 =Narcissus=: an Anatomy of Clothes. By GERALD HEARD. With 19
    illustrations.

    “A most suggestive book.”--_Nation._ “Irresistible. Reading it
    is like a switchback journey. Starting from prehistoric times we
    rocket down the ages.”--_Daily News._ “Interesting, provocative, and
    entertaining.”--_Queen._

 =Thamyris=, or Is There a Future for Poetry? By R. C. TREVELYAN.

    “Learned, sensible, and very well-written.”--_Affable Hawk_, in _New
    Statesman_. “Very suggestive.”--_J. C. Squire_, in _Observer_. “A
    very charming piece of work, I agree with all, or at any rate,
    almost all its conclusions.”--_J. St Loe Strachey_, in _Spectator_.

 =Proteus=, or the Future of Intelligence. By VERNON LEE, author of
    “Satan the Waster,” etc.

    “We should like to follow the author’s suggestions as to the
    effect of intelligence on the future of Ethics, Aesthetics,
    and Manners. Her book is profoundly stimulating and should be
    read by everyone.”--_Outlook._ “A concise, suggestive piece of
    work.”--_Saturday Review._

 =Timotheus=, the Future of the Theatre. By BONAMY DOBRÉE, author of
    “Restoration Drama,” etc.

    “A witty, mischievous little book, to be read with
    delight.”--_Times Literary Supplement._ “This is a delightfully
    witty book.”--_Scotsman._ “In a subtly satirical vein he visualizes
    various kinds of theatres in 200 years’ time. His gay little book
    makes delightful reading.”--_Nation._

 =Paris=, or the Future of War. By Captain B. H. LIDDELL HART.

    “A companion volume to _Callinicus_. A gem of close thinking and
    deduction.”--_Observer._ “A noteworthy contribution to a problem of
    concern to every citizen in this country.”--_Daily
    Chronicle._ “There is some lively thinking about the future of war
    in _Paris_, just added to this set of live-wire pamphlets on big
    subjects.”--_Manchester Guardian._

 =Wireless Possibilities.= By Professor A. M. LOW. With 4 diagrams.

    “As might be expected from an inventor who is always so fresh, he
    has many interesting things to say.”--_Evening Standard._ “The
    mantle of Blake has fallen upon the physicists. To them we look for
    visions, and we find them in this book.”--_New Statesman._

 =Perseus=: of Dragons. By H. F. SCOTT STOKES. With 2 illustrations.

    “A diverting little book, chock-full of ideas. Mr Stokes’
    dragon-lore is both quaint and various.”--_Morning Post._ “Very
    amusingly written, and a mine of curious knowledge for which the
    discerning reader will find many uses.”--_Glasgow Herald._

 =Lycurgus=, or the Future of Law. By E. S. P. HAYNES, author of
    “Concerning Solicitors,” etc.

    “An interesting and concisely written book.”--_Yorkshire Post._ “He
    roundly declares that English criminal law is a blend of barbaric
    violence, medieval prejudices and modern fallacies.... A humane
    and conscientious investigation.”--_T.P.’s Weekly._ “A thoughtful
    book--deserves careful reading.”--_Law Times._

 =Euterpe=, or the Future of Art. By LIONEL R. MCCOLVIN, author of “The
    Theory of Book-Selection.”

    “Discusses briefly, but very suggestively, the problem of the future
    of art in relation to the public.”--_Saturday Review._ “Another
    indictment of machinery as a soul-destroyer ... Mr McColvin has the
    courage to suggest solutions.”--_Westminster Gazette._ “This is
    altogether a much-needed book.”--_New Leader._

 =Pegasus=, or Problems of Transport. By Colonel J. F. C. FULLER,
    author of “The Reformation of War,” etc. With 8 Plates.

    “The foremost military prophet of the day propounds a solution for
    industrial and unemployment problems. It is a bold essay ... and
    calls for the attention of all concerned with imperial
    problems.”--_Daily Telegraph._ “Practical, timely, very interesting
    and very important.”--_J. St Loe Strachey_, in _Spectator_.

 =Atlantis=, or America and the Future. By Colonel J. F. C. FULLER.

    “Candid and caustic.”--_Observer._ “Many hard things have been
    said about America, but few quite so bitter and caustic as
    these.”--_Daily Sketch._ “He can conjure up possibilities of a new
    Atlantis.”--_Clarion._

 =Midas=, or the United States and the Future. By C. H. BRETHERTON,
    author of “The Real Ireland,” etc.

    A companion volume to _Atlantis_. “Full of astute observations and
    acute reflections ... this wise and witty pamphlet, a provocation to
    the thought that is creative.”--_Morning Post._ “A punch in every
    paragraph. One could hardly ask for more ‘meat.’”--_Spectator._

 =Nuntius=, or Advertising and its Future. By GILBERT RUSSELL.

    “Expresses the philosophy of advertising concisely and
    well.”--_Observer._ “It is doubtful if a more straightforward
    exposition of the part advertising plays in our public and private
    life has been written.”--_Manchester Guardian._

 =Birth Control and the State=: a Plea and a Forecast. By C. P.
    BLACKER, _M.C._, M.A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

    “A very careful summary.”--_Times Literary Supplement._ “A
    temperate and scholarly survey of the arguments for and against the
    encouragement of the practice of birth control.”--_Lancet._ “He
    writes lucidly, moderately, and from wide knowledge; his book
    undoubtedly gives a better understanding of the subject than any
    other brief account we know. It also suggests a policy.”--_Saturday
    Review._

 =Ouroboros=, or the Mechanical Extension of Mankind. By GARET GARRETT.

    “This brilliant and provoking little book.”--_Observer._ “A
    significant and thoughtful essay, calculated in parts to make our
    flesh creep.”--_Spectator._ “A brilliant writer, Mr Garrett is a
    remarkable man. He explains something of the enormous change the
    machine has made in life.”--_Daily Express._

 =Artifex=, or the Future of Craftsmanship. By JOHN GLOAG, author of
    “Time, Taste, and Furniture.”

    “An able and interesting summary of the history of craftsmanship
    in the past, a direct criticism of the present, and at the end his
    hopes for the future. Mr Gloag’s real contribution to the future of
    craftsmanship is his discussion of the uses of machinery.”--_Times
    Literary Supplement._

 =Plato’s American Republic.= By J. DOUGLAS WOODRUFF. _Fourth
    impression._

    “Uses the form of the Socratic dialogue with devastating success. A
    gently malicious wit sparkles in every page.”--_Sunday Times._
    “Having deliberately set himself an almost impossible task, has
    succeeded beyond belief.”--_Saturday Review._ “Quite the liveliest
    even of this spirited series.”--_Observer._

 =Orpheus=, or the Music of the Future. By W. J. TURNER, author of
    “Music and Life.” _Second impression._

    “A book on music that we can read not merely once, but twice or
    thrice. Mr Turner has given us some of the finest thinking upon
    Beethoven that I have ever met with.”--_Ernest Newman_ in _Sunday
    Times_. “A brilliant essay in contemporary philosophy.”--_Outlook._
    “The fruit of real knowledge and understanding.”--_New Statesman._

 =Terpander=, or Music and the Future. By E. J. DENT, author of
    “Mozart’s Operas.”

    “In _Orpheus_ Mr Turner made a brilliant voyage in search of first
    principles. Mr Dent’s book is a skilful review of the development of
    music. It is the most succinct and stimulating essay on music I have
    found....”--_Musical News._ “Remarkably able and
    stimulating.”--_Times Literary Supplement._ “There is hardly another
    critic alive who could sum up contemporary tendencies so
    neatly.”--_Spectator._

 =Sibylla=, or the Revival of Prophecy. By C. A. MACE, University of
    St. Andrew’s.

   “An entertaining and instructive pamphlet.”--_Morning Post._ “Places
    a nightmare before us very ably and wittily.”--_Spectator._
    “Passages in it are excellent satire, but on the whole Mr Mace’s
    speculations may be taken as a trustworthy guide ... to modern
    scientific thought.”--_Birmingham Post._

 =Lucullus=, or the Food of the Future. By OLGA HARTLEY and MRS C. F.
    LEYEL, authors of “The Gentle Art of Cookery.”

    “This is a clever and witty little volume in an entertaining series,
    and it makes enchanting reading.”--_Times Literary Supplement._
    “Opens with a brilliant picture of modern man, living in a
    vacuum-cleaned, steam-heated, credit-furnished suburban mansion
    ‘with a wolf in the basement’--the wolf of hunger. This banquet of
    epigrams.”--_Spectator._

 =Procrustes=, or the Future of English Education. By M. ALDERTON PINK.

    “Undoubtedly he makes out a very good case.”--_Daily Herald._ “This
    interesting addition to the series.”--_Times Educational
    Supplement._ “Intends to be challenging and succeeds in being so.
    All fit readers will find it stimulating.”--_Northern Echo._

 =The Future of Futurism.= By JOHN RODKER.

    “Mr Rodker is up-to-the-minute, and he has accomplished a
    considerable feat in writing on such a vague subject, 92 extremely
    interesting pages.”--_T. S. Eliot_, in _Nation_. “There are a good
    many things in this book which are of interest.”--_Times Literary
    Supplement._

 =Pomona=, or the Future of English. By BASIL DE SÉLINCOURT, author of
    “The English Secret”, etc.

    “The future of English is discussed fully and with fascinating
    interest.”--_Morning Post._ “Full of wise thoughts and happy
    words.”--_Times Literary Supplement._ “His later pages must stir
    the blood of any man who loves his country and her poetry.”--_J. C.
    Squire_, in _Observer_. “His finely-conceived essay.”--_Manchester
    Guardian._

 =Balbus=, or the Future of Architecture. By CHRISTIAN BARMAN.

    “A really brilliant addition to this already distinguished series.
    The reading of _Balbus_ will give much data for intelligent
    prophecy, and incidentally, an hour or so of excellent
    entertainment.”--_Spectator._ “Most readable and reasonable. We can
    recommend it warmly.”--_New Statesman._ “This intriguing little
    book.”--_Connoisseur._

 =Apella=, or the Future of the Jews. By A QUARTERLY REVIEWER.

    “Cogent, because of brevity and a magnificent prose style, this book
    wins our quiet praise. It is a fine pamphlet, adding to the value
    of the series, and should not be missed.”--_Spectator._ “A notable
    addition to this excellent series. His arguments are a provocation
    to fruitful thinking.”--_Morning Post._

 =The Dance of Çiva=, or Life’s Unity and Rhythm. By COLLUM.

    “It has substance and thought in it. The author is very much alive
    and responsive to the movements of to-day.”--_Spectator._ “A very
    interesting account of the work of Sir Jagadis Bose.”--_Oxford
    Magazine._ “Has caught the spirit of the Eastern conception of world
    movements.”--_Calcutta Statesman._

 =Lars Porsena=, or the Future of Swearing and Improper Language. By
    ROBERT GRAVES. _Third impression._

    “Goes uncommonly well, and deserves to.”--_Observer._ “Not for
    squeamish readers.”--_Spectator._ “No more amusingly unexpected
    contribution has been made to this series. A deliciously ironical
    affair.”--_Bystander._ “His highly entertaining essay is as full
    as the current standard of printers and police will allow.”--_New
    Statesman._ “Humour and style are beyond criticism.”--_Irish
    Statesman._

 =Socrates=, or the Emancipation of Mankind. By H. F. CARLILL.

    “Devotes a specially lively section to the herd instinct.”--_Times._
    “Clearly, and with a balance that is almost Aristotelian, he
    reveals what modern psychology is going to accomplish.”--_New
    Statesman._ “One of the most brilliant and important of a remarkable
    series.”--_Westminster Gazette._

 =Delphos=, or the Future of International Language. By E. SYLVIA
    PANKHURST.

    “Equal to anything yet produced in this brilliant series. Miss
    Pankhurst states very clearly what all thinking people must soon
    come to believe, that an international language would be one of the
    greatest assets of civilization.”--_Spectator._ “A most readable
    book, full of enthusiasm, an important contribution to this
    subject.”--_International Language._

 =Gallio=, or the Tyranny of Science. By J. W. N. SULLIVAN, author of
    “A History of Mathematics.”

    “So packed with ideas that it is not possible to give any adequate
    _résumé_ of its contents.”--_Times Literary Supplement._ “His
    remarkable monograph, his devastating summary of materialism, this
    pocket _Novum Organum_.”--_Spectator._ “Possesses a real distinction
    of thought and manner. It must be read.”--_New Statesman._

 =Apollonius=, or the Future of Psychical Research. By E. N. BENNETT,
    author of “Problems of Village Life,” etc.

    “A sane, temperate and suggestive survey of a field of inquiry
    which is slowly but surely pushing to the front.”--_Times Literary
    Supplement._ “His exposition of the case for psychic research is
    lucid and interesting.”--_Scotsman._ “Displays the right temper,
    admirably conceived, skilfully executed.”--_Liverpool Post._

 =Aeolus=, or the Future of the Flying Machine. By OLIVER STEWART.

    “Both his wit and his expertness save him from the
    nonsensical-fantastic. There is nothing vague or sloppy in these
    imaginative forecasts.”--_Daily News._ “He is to be congratulated.
    His book is small, but it is so delightfully funny that it is well
    worth the price, and there really are sensible ideas behind the
    jesting.”--_Aeroplane._

 =Stentor=, or the Press of To-Day and To-Morrow. By DAVID OCKHAM.

    “A valuable and exceedingly interesting commentary on a vital phase
    of modern development.”--_Daily Herald._ “Vigorous and well-written,
    eminently readable.”--_Yorkshire Post._ “He has said what one
    expects any sensible person to say about the ‘trustification’ of the
    Press.”--_Spectator._

 =Rusticus=, or the Future of the Countryside. By MARTIN S. BRIGGS,
    F.R.I.B.A.

    “Few of the 50 volumes, provocative and brilliant as most of them
    have been, capture our imagination as does this one.”--_Daily
    Telegraph._ “The historical part is as brilliant a piece of packed
    writing as could be desired.”--_Daily Herald._ “Serves a national
    end. The book is in essence a pamphlet, though it has the form and
    charm of a book.”--_Spectator._

 =Janus=, or the Conquest of War. By WILLIAM MCDOUGALL, M.B., F.R.S.

    “Among all the booklets of this brilliant series, none, I think is
    so weighty and impressive as this. It contains thrice as much matter
    as the other volumes and is profoundly serious.”--Dean Inge, in
    _Evening Standard_. “A deeply interesting and fair-minded study of
    the causes of war and the possibilities of their prevention. Every
    word is sound.”--_Spectator._

 =Vulcan=, or the Future of Labour. By CECIL CHISHOLM.

    “Of absorbing interest.”--_Daily Herald._ “No one, perhaps, has ever
    condensed so many hard facts into the appearance of agreeable
    fiction, nor held the balance so nicely between technicalities and
    flights of fancy, as the author of this excellent book in a
    brilliant series. _Vulcan_ is a little book, but between its covers
    knowledge and vision are pressed down and brimming
    over.”--_Spectator._

 =Hymen=, or the Future of Marriage. By NORMAN HAIRE.

    This candid and unprejudiced survey inquires why the majority
    of marriages to-day seem to be so unsatisfactory, and finds the
    answer in the sexual ethic of our civilization which is ill adapted
    to our social and economic needs. The problems of sex-morality,
    sex-education, prostitution, in-breeding, birth-control,
    trial-marriage, and polygamy are all touched upon.

 =The Next Chapter=: the War against the Moon. By ANDRÉ MAUROIS, author
    of ‘Ariel’, etc.

    This imaginary chapter of world-history (1951-64) from the pen of
    one of the most brilliant living French authors mixes satire and
    fancy in just proportions. It tells how the press of the world is
    controlled by five men, how world interest is focussed on an attack
    on the moon, how thus the threat of world-war is averted. But when
    the moon retaliates....

 =Galatea=, or the Future of Darwinism. By W. RUSSELL BRAIN.

    This non-technical but closely-reasoned book is a challenge to the
    orthodox teaching on evolution known as Neo-Darwinism. The author
    claims that, although Neo-Darwinian theories can possibly account
    for the evolution of forms, they are quite inadequate to explain the
    evolution of functions.

 =Scheherazade=, or the Future of the English Novel. By JOHN CARRUTHERS.

    A survey of contemporary fiction in England and America lends to the
    conclusion that the literary and scientific influences of the last
    fifty years have combined to make the novel of to-day predominantly
    analytic. It has thus gained in psychological subtlety, but lost its
    form. How this may be regained is put forward in the conclusion.

 =Caledonia=, or the Future of the Scots. By G. M. THOMSON.

    Exit the Scot! Under this heading the Scottish people are revealed
    as a leaderless mob in whom national pride has been strangled. They
    regard, unmoved, the spectacle of their monstrous slum-evil, the
    decay of their industries, the devastation of their countryside.
    This is the most compact and mordant indictment of Scottish policy
    that has yet been written.

 =Albyn=, or Scotland and the Future. By C. M. GRIEVE, author of
    ‘Contemporary Scottish Studies’, etc.

    A vigorous answer, explicit and implicit, to _Caledonia_, tracing
    the movements of a real Scottish revival, in music, art, literature,
    and politics, and coming to the conclusion that there is a chance
    even now for the regeneration of the Scottish people.

 =Lares et Penates=, or the Future of the Home. By H. J. BIRNSTINGL.

    All the many forces at work to-day are influencing the planning,
    appearance, and equipment of the home. This is the main thesis of
    this stimulating volume, which considers also the labour-saving
    movement, the ‘ideal’ house, the influence of women, the servant
    problem, and the relegation of aesthetic considerations to the
    background. Disconcerting prognostications follow.


_NEARLY READY_

 =Archon=, or the Future of Government. By HAMILTON FYFE.

    A survey of the methods of government in the past leads the author
    to a consideration of conditions in the world of to-day. He then
    indicates the lines along which progress may develop.

 =Hermes=, or the Future of Chemistry. By T. W. JONES, B.Sc., F.C.S.

    Chemistry as the means of human emancipation is the subject of this
    book. To-day chemistry is one of the master factors of our
    existence; to-morrow it will dominate every phase of life, winning
    for man the goal of all his endeavour, economic freedom. It may also
    effect a startling change in man himself.

 =The Future of Physics.= By L. L. WHYTE.

    The last few years have been a critical period in the development
    of physics. We stand on the eve of a new epoch. Physics, biology,
    and psychology are converging towards a scientific synthesis of
    unprecedented importance whose influence on thought and social
    custom will be so profound as to mark a stage in human evolution.
    This book interprets these events and should be read in connexion
    with _Gallio_, by J. W. N. Sullivan, in this series.

 =Ikonoclastes=, or the Future of Shakespeare. By HUBERT GRIFFITHS.

    Taking as text the recent productions of classical plays in modern
    dress, the author, a distinguished dramatic critic, suggests that
    this is the proper way of reviving Shakespeare and other great
    dramatists of the past, and that their successful revival in modern
    dress may perhaps be taken as an indication of their value.


_IN PREPARATION_

 =Bacchus=, or the Future of Wine. By P. MORTON SHAND.

 =Mercurius=, or the World on Wings. By C. THOMPSON WALKER.

 =The Future of Sport.= By G. S. SANDILANDS.

 =The Future of India.= By T. EARLE WELBY.

 =The Future of Films.= By ERNEST BETTS.

       *       *       *       *       *




Transcriber’s note


Minor punctuation errors have been changed without notice.

Other spelling has been retained as originally published except
for the changes below.

  Page 92: “be effectively exercized”     “be effectively exercised”
  Page 105: “Mr Colvin has the”           “Mr McColvin has the”
  Page 113: “their montrous slum-evil”    “their monstrous slum-evil”





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