Project Gutenberg's The Standard Electrical Dictionary, by T. O'Conor Slone

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: The Standard Electrical Dictionary
       A Popular Dictionary of Words and Terms Used in the Practice
              of Electrical Engineering

Author: T. O'Conor Slone

Release Date: September 5, 2008 [EBook #26535]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY ***




Produced by Don Kostuch

vii  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY

A.
Abbreviation for anode, employed in text relating to
electro-therapeutics. It is sometimes written An.


Abscissa.
In a system of plane co-ordinates (see Co-ordinates) the
distance of any point from the axis of ordinates measured parallel to
the axis of abscissas.

In the cut the abscissa of the point a is the line or distance a c.


Fig. 1. AXES OF CO-ORDINATES.


Absolute. adj.
In quantities it may be defined as referring to fixed units of quantity,
and it is opposed to "relative," which merely refers to the relation of
several things to each other. Thus the relative resistance of one wire
may be n times that of another; its absolute resistance might be 5 ohms,
when the absolute resistance of the second wire would be 5/n ohms. A
galvanometer gives absolute readings if it is graduated to read directly
amperes or volts; if not so graduated, it may by "calibration" q. v. be
made to do practically the same thing.

8   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Absolute Measurement.
Measurement based upon the centimeter, gram, and second. (See
Centimeter-Gram-Second System.)


Absolute Temperature.
Temperature reckoned from absolute zero (see "Zero, Absolute"). It is
obtained by adding for the centigrade scale 273, and for the Fahrenheit
scale 459, to the degree readings of the regular scale.


Absorption, Electric.
A property of the static charge. When a Leyden jar is being charged it
dilates a little and the capacity increases, so that it can take a
little more charge for a given potential difference existing between its
two coatings. This phenomenon occurs with other static condensers,
varying in degree with the dielectric. With shellac, paraffin, sulphur
and resin, for instance, the absorption is very slight; with
gutta-percha, stearine, and glass, the absorption is relatively great.
The term is due to Faraday. Iceland spar seems almost or quite destitute
of electric absorption.


A. C. C.
Symbol of or abbreviation for "anodic closure contraction" q. v.


Acceleration.
The rate of change of velocity. If of increase of velocity it is
positive; if of decrease, it is negative. It can only be brought about
by the exercise of force and is used as the measure of or as determining
the unit of force. It is equal to velocity (L/T) imparted, divided by
time (T); its dimensions therefore are L/(T^2). The c. g. s. unit of
acceleration is one centimeter in one second.

[Transcriber's note: The unit of acceleration is "centimeters per second
per second."]


Accumulator.
(a) A term sometimes applied to the secondary or storage battery. (See
Battery, Secondary.)
(b) See Accumulator, Electrostatic
(c) See Accumulator, Water Dropping.
(d) See Wheel, Barlow's


Accumulator, Electrostatic.
Two conducting surfaces oppositely placed, and separated by a
dielectric and arranged for the opposite charging of the two surfaces,
constitute an accumulator, sometimes termed a condenser. As this
arrangement introduces the element of a bound and of a binding charge,
the electrostatic capacity of such is greater than that of either or of
both of its component surfaces. The thinner the dielectric which
separates the conducting surfaces, and the larger the surfaces the
greater is the capacity; or the less will be the potential difference
which a given charge will establish between its two coatings. The nature
of the dielectric also determines its capacity. (See Capacity, Specific
Inductive.)


9  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 2. SIR WILLIAM THOMSON'S WATER-DROPPING ACCUMULATOR.


Accumulator, Water Dropping.
This is also known as Sir William Thomson's Water-Gravity Electric
Machine. It is an apparatus for converting the potential energy of
falling water drops, due to gravity, into electric energy. Referring to
the illustration, G represents a bifurcated water pipe whose two faucets
are adjusted to permit a series of drops to fall from each. C and F are
two metallic tubes connected by a conductor; E and D are the same. Two
Leyden jars, A and B, have their inner coatings represented by strong
sulphuric acid, connected each to its own pair of cylinders, B to D and
E, and A to F and C. The outer coatings are connected to earth, as is
also the water supply. One of the jars, say A, is charged interiorily
with positive electricity. This charge, C and F, share with it, being in
electric contact therewith. Just before the drops break off from the jet
leading into C, they are inductively charged with negative electricity,
the positive going to earth. Thus a series of negatively excited drops
fall into the metal tube D, with its interior funnel or drop arrester,
charging it, the Leyden jar B, and the tube E with negative electricity.
This excitation causes the other stream of drops to work in the converse
way, raising the positive potential of F and C and A, thus causing the
left-hand drops to acquire a higher potential. This again raises the
potential of the right-hand drops, so that a constant accumulating
action is kept up. The outer coatings of the Leyden jars are connected
to earth to make it possible to raise the potential of their inner
coatings. In each case the drops are drawn by gravity into contact with
objects similarly excited in opposition to the electric repulsion. This
overcoming of the electric repulsion is the work done by gravity, and
which results in the development of electric energy.


10   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Acidometer.
A hydrometer or areometer used to determine the specific gravity of
acid. They are employed in running storage batteries, to determine when
the charging is completed. (See Areometer.)


Aclinic Line.
A terrestrial element; the locus on the earth's surface of no
inclination of the magnetic needle; the magnetic equator. (See Magnetic
Elements.)


Acoustic Telegraphy.
The system of sound-reading in telegraphy, universally used in the Morse
system. The direct stroke of the armature of the electro-magnet and its
"back stroke" disclose to the ear the long and short strokes, dots and
lines, and long and short spaces as produced by the dispatcher of the
message. In the Morse system a special magnet and armature is used to
produce the sound called the "sounder;" in other systems, e. g.,
Steinheil's and Bright's apparatus, bells are used. (See Alphabets,
Telegraphic.)


Acoutemeter.
A Hughes audiometer or sonometer applied to determining the quality of a
person's hearing (See Hughes' Induction Balance,--Audiometer). The
central coil by means of a tuning fork and microphone with battery
receives a rapidly varying current tending to induce currents in the
other two coils. Telephones are put in circuit with the latter and pick
up sound from them. The telephones are applied to the ears of the person
whose hearing is to be tested. By sliding the outer coils back and forth
the intensity of induction and consequent loudness of the sounds in the
telephones is varied. The position when the sounds grow so faint as to
be no longer audible, gives the degree of delicacy of the person's
hearing. By using a single telephone the same apparatus affords a means
of testing the relative capacity of the right and left ears.


11  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Actinic Rays.
The rays of light at the violet end of the spectrum; also the invisible
rays beyond such end, or the ether waves of short periods which most
strongly induce chemical change.


Actinism.
The power possessed by ether waves of inducing chemical change, either
of decomposition or of combination. The violet and ultra-violet end of
the spectrum of white light, generally speaking, represent the most
highly actinic rays.


Actinometer, Electric.
Properly an apparatus for measuring the intensity of light by its action
upon the resistance of selenium. A current produced by fixed
electro-motive force passing through the selenium affects a galvanometer
more or less according to the intensity of the light. It is more
properly an electric photometer. The term has also been applied to a
combination of a thermo-electric pile and galvanometer, the light
falling on the pile affecting the motions of the galvanometer.


Action, Local.
(a) The wasteful oxydation of the zinc in a galvanic battery due to
local impurities and variations in the composition of the zinc. These
act to constitute local galvanic couples which cause the zinc to
dissolve or oxydize, without any useful result. Amalgamation of the zinc
prevents local action. Chemically pure zinc is also exempt from local
action, and can be used in an acid battery without amalgamation. (See
Amalgamation.)

(b) The same term has been employed to indicate the eddy or foucault
currents in dynamo electric machines. (Sec Current, Foucault.)


Activity.
The rate of doing work; the work done per second by any expenditure of
energy. The activity of a horse-power is 550 foot lbs. per second, or
746 volt-coulombs per second. The practical electric unit is the
volt-ampere, often called the watt. (Sec Energy, Electric.)


Adapter.
A screw coupling to engage with a different sized screw on each end; one
of the uses is to connect incandescent lamps to gas-fixtures.


A. D. C.
Abbreviation for Anodic Duration Contraction, q. v.; a term in
electro-therapeutics.


Adherence, Electro-magnetic.
The adherence between surfaces of iron due to elcctro-magnetic
attraction. It has been applied to the driving-wheels of an engine and
rail, whose grip is increased by such action. In one method a deep
groove was cut around the wheel which was wound with a magnetizing coil.
Thus one rim becomes a north and the other a south pole, and the rail
completing the circuit acts as the armature. Such an arrangement
prevents a wheel from sliding. Electro-magnetic adherence has also been
employed to drive friction gear wheels. In one arrangement the two
wheels are surrounded by a magnetizing coil, under whose induction each
attracts the other, developing high adherence between their peripheries.


12  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 3. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC CAR WHEEL.



Fig. 4. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FRICTION GEAR.


Admiralty Rule of Heating.
The British Admiralty specifications for the permissible heating of
dynamos. It holds that at the end of a run of six hours no part of the
dynamo under trial shall show a rise of temperature greater than 11º C.
(20º F.) above the temperature of the air surrounding it. This is
thought to be a very stringent and unnecessarily high requirement.


Aerial Conductor.
An electric conductor carried from housetops, poles, or otherwise so as
to be suspended in the air, as distinguished from an underground or
submarine conductor.


Affinity.
The attraction of atoms and in some cases perhaps of molecules for each
other by the force of chemical attraction. When the affinity is allowed
to act or is carried out, a chemical change, as distinguished from a
physical or mechanical change, ensues. Thus if sulphur and iron are each
finely powdered and are mixed the change and mixture are mechanical. If
slightly heated the sulphur will melt, which is a physical change. If
heated to redness the iron will combine with the sulphur forming a new
substance, ferric sulphide, of new properties, and especially
characterized by unvarying and invariable ratios of sulphur to iron.
Such change is a chemical one, is due to chemical affinity, is due to a
combination of the atoms, and the product is a chemical compound.


13  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Agir Motor.
The Anderson and Girdlestone motor. The term "agir" is made up from the
first portions of each name.


Agonic Line.
The locus of points on the earth's surface where the magnetic needle
points to the true north; an imaginary line determined by connecting
points on the earth's surface where the needle lies in the true
geographical meridian. Such a line at present, starting from the north
pole goes through the west of Hudson's Bay, leaves the east coast of
America near Philadelphia, passes along the eastern West Indies, cuts
off the eastern projection of Brazil and goes through the South Atlantic
to the south pole. Thence it passes through the west of Australia, the
Indian Ocean, Arabia, the Caspian sea, Russia and the White sea to the
North Pole. It crosses the equator at 70° W. and 55° E. approximately.
(See Magnetic Elements.)

Synonym--Agone.



[Transcriber's note: The file Earth_Declination_1590_1990.gif provided
by the U.S. Geological Survey (http://www.usgs.gov) is an animation of
the declination of the entire earth.]


Air.
Air is a dielectric whose specific inductive capacity at atmosphere
pressure is taken as 1. It is practically of exactly the same
composition in all places and hence can be taken as a standard. When dry
it has high resistance, between that of caoutchouc and dry paper.
Dampness increases its conductivity.

It is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, with a little carbonic acid gas
and other impurities. Its essential composition is:

0.9985 (Ayrton)
                                       0.99941 (Boltzman.)

The specific gravity of air under standard conditions 15.5° C (60° F.)
and 760 mm. barometric pressure (30 inches) is taken as unity as a
standard for gases.

[Transcriber's note: Argon accounts for 0.9340%. It was discovered in
1894, two years after this book.]


Air-Blast.
(a) In the Thomson-Houston dynamo an air-blast is used to blow away the
arc-producing spark liable to form between the brushes and commutator.
It is the invention of Prof. Elihu Thomson. The air is supplied by a
positive action rotary blower connected to the main shaft, and driven
thereby. The wearing of the commutator by destructive sparking is thus
prevented.

A drum H H is rotated, being mounted on the axis X of the dynamo. As it
rotates the three vanes are thrown out against the irregular shaped
periphery of the outer case T T. The arrow shows the direction of
rotation. The air is thus sent out by the apertures a a. O is the
oil-cup.

(b) The air-blast has also been used by Prof. Thomson in experiments
with high frequency currents of high potential. By directing a blast of
air against a spark discharge between ball terminals of an alternating
current, the nature of the current was changed and it became capable of
producing most extraordinary effects by induction.


14   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 5. AIR BLOWER FOR THOMSON'S DYNAMO.


Air Condenser.
A static condenser whose dielectric is air. The capacity of an air
condenser in farads is equal to
  A / ( 4.452E12 * t )
in which A is the area of one sheet or sum of the areas of one set of
connected sheets in square inches and t is the thickness of the layer of
air separating them.

A convenient construction given by Ayrton consists in a pile of glass
plates P separated by little bits of glass F of known thickness, three
for each piece. Tin-foil T is pasted on both sides of each piece of
glass and the two coatings are connected. The tin-foil on each second
plate is smaller in area than that on the others. The plates are
connected in two sets, each set comprising every second plate. For A in
the formula the area of the set of smaller sheets of tin-foil is taken.
By this construction it will be seen that the glass does not act as the
dielectric, but only as a plane surface for attachment of the tin-foil.
Posts E E keep all in position. One set of sheets connects with the
binding post A, the other with B.

The capacity of any condenser with a dielectric of specific inductive
capacity i is given by the formula:
     ( i *A^1 ) / ( 4.452E12 * t1 )

The air condenser is used for determining the value of i for different
dielectrics.



Fig. 6. AIR CONDENSER.


15  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Air Gaps.
In a dynamo or motor the space intervening between the poles of the
field magnet and the armature. They should be of as small thickness, and
of as extended area as possible. Their effect is to increase the
magnetic reluctance of the circuit, thereby exacting the expenditure of
more energy upon the field. They also, by crowding back the potential
difference of the two limbs, increase the leakage of lines of force from
limb to limb of the magnet.


Air Line Wire.
In telegraphy the portion of the line wire which is strung on poles and
carried through the air.


Air Pump, Heated.
It has been proposed to heat portions of a mercurial air pump to secure
more perfect vacua, or to hasten the action. Heating expands the air and
thus produces the above effects.


16   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Air Pump, Mercurial.
An air pump operated by mercury. The mercury acts virtually as the
piston, and the actuating force is the weight of the column of mercury,
which must exceed thirty inches in height. There are many types.
Mercurial air pumps are largely used for exhausting incandescent lamp
chambers. (See Geissler Air Pump,--Sprengel Air Pump.)


Air Pumps, Short Fall.
A mercurial air pump in which the fall of mercury or the height of the
active column is comparatively small. It is effected by using several
columns, one acting after the other. A height of ten inches for each
column suffices in some forms. Enough columns must be used in succession
to make up an aggregate height exceeding 30 inches.



Fig. 7. BURGLAR ALARM SWITCH OR CIRCUIT BREAKER.



Fig. 8. BURGLAR ALARM SWITCH OR CIRCUIT BREAKER.


Alarm, Burglar.
A system of circuits with alarm bell extending over a house or
apartments designed to give notice of the opening of a window or door.
As adjuncts to the system the treads of the stairs are sometimes
arranged to ring the bell, by completing a circuit when trod on. Door
mats are also arranged to close circuits in like manner.


17  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


For doors and windows switches are provided which are open as long as
the door or window is closed, but which, on being released by opening
the door or windows, automatically close the circuit. The circuit
includes an alarm bell and battery, and the latter begins to ring and
continues until stopped, either by the closing of the door or by a
switch being turned. The connections are sometimes so contrived that the
reclosing of the door or window will not stop the bell from ringing.

The cuts show various switches for attachment to doors and windows. It
will be seen that they normally keep the circuit closed, and that it is
only open when pressure, as from a closed door, is brought upon them. In
the case of a door a usual place for them is upon the jamb on the hinge
side, where they are set into the wood, with the striking pin
projecting, so that as the door is closed the pin is pressed in, thus
breaking the circuit.

Sometimes the connections are arranged so as to switch on the electric
lights if the house is entered. Special annunciators showing where the
house has been entered are a part of the system. A clock which turns the
alarm on and off at predetermined hours is also sometimes used.

The circuits may be carried to a central station or police station. One
form of burglar alarm device is the Yale lock switch. This is a contact
attached to a Yale lock which will be closed if the wrong key is used,
completing a circuit and ringing a bell.



Fig. 9. BURGLAR ALARM SWITCH OR CIRCUIT BREAKER.


Alarm, Electric.
An appliance for calling attention, generally by
ringing a bell. It is used to notify of water-level in boilers or tanks,
of entrance of a house, or of other things as desired. It is evident
that any number of alarms could be contrived.


18   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Alarm, Fire and Heat.
An alarm for giving notice of the existence of a conflagration. Such are
sometimes operated by a compound bar thermostat (see Thermostat), which
on a given elevation of temperature closes a circuit and rings an
electric bell. Sometimes the expansion of a column of mercury when
heated is used. This, by coming in contact with one or two platinum
points, completes a circuit, and rings the bell.

The identical apparatus may be used in living rooms, greenhouses.
factories and elsewhere, to give an alarm when the temperature rises or
falls beyond predetermined limits.


Alarm, Overflow.
An alarm to indicate an overflow of water has been suggested on the
lines of a contact completed by water, or of the elements of a battery
which would be made active by water. Thus two sheets of metal might be
separated by bibulous paper charged with salt. If these sheets were
terminals of a circuit including a bell and battery, when water reached
them the circuit would be closed and the bell would ring. It was also
proposed to use one copper and one zinc sheet so as to constitute a
battery in itself, to be thrown into action by moisture. These contacts
or inactive batteries could be distributed where water from an overflow
would be most likely to reach them.


Alarm, Water Level.
An alarm operated by a change of water level in a tank or boiler. By a
float a contact is made as it rises with the water. Another float may be
arranged to fall and close a contact as the level falls. The closing of
the contacts rings an electric bell to notify the attendant in charge.


Alcohol, Electrical Rectification of.
A current of electricity passed through impure alcohol between zinc
electrodes is found to improve its quality. This it does by decomposing
the water present. The nascent hydrogen combines with the aldehydes,
converting them into alcohols while the oxygen combines with the zinc
electrode.


Alignment.
The placing in or occupying of the same straight line. The bearings of a
shaft in dynamos, engines, and other machinery have to be in accurate
alignment.


Allotropy.
The power of existing in several modifications possessed by some
substances, notably by chemical elements. Instances of the allotropic
state are found in carbon which exists as charcoal, as graphite
(plumbago or black lead), and as the diamond. All three are the same
elemental substance, although differing in every physical and electrical
property.


19   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Alloy.
A mixture, produced almost universally by fusion, of two or more metals.
Sometimes alloys seem to be chemical compounds, as shown by their having
generally a melting point lower than the average of those of their
constituents. An alloy of a metal with mercury is termed an amalgam. An
important application in electricity is the use of fusible alloys for
fire alarms or for safety fuses. German silver is also of importance for
resistance coils, and palladium alloys are used for unmagnetizable
watches. An alloy of wrought iron with manganese is almost
unmagnetizable, and has been proposed for use in ship building to avoid
errors of the compass.

Alloys or what are practically such can be deposited by electrolysis in
the electro- plater's bath. We give the composition of some alloys
interesting to the electrician.

  Solder:   Lead   1 part   Tin   2 parts
             "      "       "    1  "
             "      "       "    2  "

German Silver: Copper, 2 parts; Nickel, 1 part;
               Zinc, 1 part (used for resistances).

Platinum, Silver Alloys: Platinum, 1 part;
                         silver, 2 parts (used for resistances.)

Palladium alloys for watch springs. (See Palladium.)


Alphabet, Telegraphic.
The combinations of sounds, of dots and dashes marked on paper, of
right-hand and left-hand deflections of a needle, of bells of different
notes, or of other symbols by which a fixed combination is expressed for
each character of the alphabet, for numerals, and for punctuation. While
the code is designed for telegraphic uses it can be used not only for
the conveyance of signals and messages by the electrical telegraphs, but
also by any semaphoric or visual system, as by flashes of light,
movements of a flag or even of the arms of the person signalling.

In the English and continental needle telegraphy in which the message is
transmitted by the movements of an index normally vertical, but
oscillating to one side or the other under the influence of the current,
the latter being controlled by the transmitter of the message, the left
hand swings of the needle are interpreted as dots, the right hand as
dashes.

This system enables one alphabet to be translated into the other, or
virtually one alphabet answers for both Morse and needle transmitters.

There are two principal telegraphic alphabets, the American Morse and
the International codes. They are very similar, their essential
distinction being that spaces are used in the American code, while they
are excluded from the International code.

In the American Morse system the message is now universally received by
sound. (See Sounder--Sound Reading.)


20   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


The two codes or telegraphic alphabets are given here.

THE INTERNATIONAL ALPHABET.
     Parenthesis,             - . - - . -
  Understand,              ... - .
  I don't understand,      ..-- ....--..
  Wait,                    .-. . .
  Erase,                   ...   ...   ...
  Call signal,             -.-.-.-
  End of message,          .-.-.-.
  Cleared out all right,   .-..-..-.
  A  .-    L  .-..  W  .--
  B  -...  M  --    X  -..-
  C  -.-.  N  -.    Y  -.--
  D  -..   O  ---   Z  --..
  E  .     P  .--.
  F  ..-.  Q  --.-  Ch ----
  G  --.   R  .-.   Ä  .-.-
  H  ....  S  ...   Ö  ---.
  I  ..    T  -     Ü  ..--
  J  .---  U  ..-   É  ..-..
  K  -.-   V  ...-  Ñ  --.--

NUMERALS
  1  .----  4  ....-  8  ---..
  2  ..---  5  .....  9  ----.
  3  ...--  6  -....  0  -----
            7  --...


[Transcriber's note: The original image of the dot/dash pattern is somewhat
ambiguous. Since there may be differences from contemporary specifications,
the original image is included.]


[Image of page 20: THE INTERNATIONAL ALPHABET.]


21  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


PUNCTUATION, ETC.,

  Period (.)         ...   ...
  Comma (,)          .-.-.-
  Query(?)           ..--..
  Exclamation (!)    --..--
  Apostrophe (')     .----.
  Hyphen (-)         -....-
  Fresh paragraph,   .-.-..
  Inverted commas,   -..-.

THE AMERICAN ALPHABET.
  A  .-       L  ----(Continuous)  W  .--
  B  -...     M  --                X  .-..
  C  ..s.     N  -.                Y  ..s..
  D  -..      O  .s.               Z  ….
  E  .        P  .....
  F  .-.      Q  ..-.              Ch ----
  G  --.      R  .s..              Ä  .-.-
  H  ....     S  ...               Ö  ---.
  I  ..       T  -                 Ü  ..--
  J  - . - .  U  ..-               É  ..-..
  K  -.-      V  ...-              Ñ  --.--

NUMERALS
  1  .--.    4  ....-     8  -....
  2  ..-..   5  ---       9  -..-
  3  ...-.   6  ... ...   0  -----(Continuous)
             7  --..

[Transcriber's Note: The "s" in the American Code indicates a "space". I
leave the following to the reader's imagination. See the original
image.]

Comma (,)
Semicolon (;)
Colon (:)
Colon Dash (:~)
Period (.)
Interrogation (?)
Exclamation (!)
Dash (-)
Hyphen (-)
Pound Sterling (£)
Shilling Mark ( )



[Image of page 21: THE AMERICAN ALPHABET.]


22   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


[Transcriber's Note: I leave these to the reader's imagination. See the
following original image.]

Dollars ($)
Decimal Point (.)
Cents (c)
Paragraph ()
Pence (d.)
Fractional Mark (--)
Capitalized Letter
Italics or Underline
Colon followed by Quotation :"
Parenthesis (   )
Brackets [   ]
Quotation Marks " "
Quotation within a Quotation " ' ' "



[Image of page 22: THE AMERICAN ALPHABET.]


The principal differences in the two codes are the use of spaces in the
American code, such being excluded from the International code. This
affects the letters C, R, Y, & Z.

The following diagram, due to Commandant Perian, enables the letter
corresponding to an International code sign to be rapidly found with the
exception of R.

             <- dot       start         dash   ->
               /                           \
              E                             T
         /          \                /             \
       I              A             N                M
    /    \          /    \        /    \         /      \
   S      U        R      W       D      K       G       O
 /  \    / \     / \    /  \    /  \     /  \    /  \    /  \
H   V   F   U   L   A   P   J   B   X   C   Y   Z    Q  Ô   CH

Fig. 10. Diagram for translating the Morse Alphabet.

In order to find what letter corresponds to a given sign, starting from
the top of the diagram, each line is traced down to a bifurcation,
taking the right hand line of each bifurcation for a dash, and the left
hand line for a dot, and stopping when the dots and dashes are used up.
Thus, for example,

the signal -.- -   leads us to the letter d,

the signal - - - - to the letter j and so on.


23  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Alternating. adj.
Term descriptive of a current changing periodically in
direction. (See Current, Alternating.)

Synonyms--Oscillatory--periodic--undulatory--harmonic.

Alternating Current Arc.
The arc produced by the alternating current. It presents several
peculiarities. With an insufficient number of alternations per second it
goes out. As the carbons wear away equally it is adopted for such lamps
as the Jablochkoff candle, (see Candle, Jablochkoff). As no crater is
formed the light is disseminated equally both up and down. For this
reason to get full downward illumination a reflector is recommended.


Alternating Current System.
A system of electric distribution employing the alternating current. For
transmission in the open air or in conduits a high potential circuit is
used, from 1,000 to 10,000 volts being maintained at the central
station. Two leads unconnected at the end lead from the station. Where
current is desired a converter or transformer (see Converter) is placed,
whose primary is connected to the two leads bridging the interval
between them. From the secondary the house leads are taken with an
initial potential in some cases of 50 volts. The converters are thus all
placed in parallel. By law or insurance rules the converters are
generally kept outside of buildings. Where no secondary current is taken
from the converters very little primary current passes them on account
of their counter-electromotive force. As more secondary current is taken
the primary increases and this accommodation of one to the other is one
of the interesting and valuable features. Street lamps are sometimes
connected in series. Each lamp in such case is in parallel with a small
coil with iron core. While the lamp is intact little current passes
through the coil. If the lamp is broken, then the converter impedes the
current by its spurious resistance, q. v., just enough to represent and
replace the resistance of the extinguished and broken lamp filament.
(See Meter, Alternating Current; Motor, Alternating Current.)


Alternation.
The change in direction of a current. The number of such changes is
expressed as number of alternations; thus a current may have a frequency
of 500 or 20,000 alternations per second.

[Transcriber's note: One alternation per second is now called one hertz.]


Alternation, Complete.
A double alternation; a change from one direction
to the other and back again to the original phase. A symbol derived from
its graphic representation by a sine curve is used to indicate it. The
symbol is  ~


24   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Alternative Path.
A second path for a current appearing as a disruptive
discharge. Where two paths are offered the discharge, as it is of
alternating or oscillatory type, selects the path of least
self-induction. Thus a thick bar of copper, with no air gap, may be
abandoned by the current in favor of a small iron wire with an air gap,
but which has less self-induction.

The lightning arresters, q. v., for the protection of telegraph offices
are sometimes based on these principles. A path of very high resistance
but of small self-induction is offered between the line and the earth.
This the lightning discharge selects in preference to the instruments
with their iron cores, as the latter are of very high self-induction.


Alternator.
A dynamo electric generator supplying an alternating current. (See
Dynamo, Alternating Current.)

Synonym--Alternating current generator or dynamo.


Alternator, Constant Current.
An alternating current dynamo supplying a current of unvarying virtual
amperage. Alternators of this type are constructed with an armature of
high self-induction. Sometimes fine winding contained in deep peripheral
notches in the core-discs is employed to magnify the self-induction.
Such generators are employed for series lighting, especially
arc-lighting.


Aluminum.
A metal; one of the elements; symbol: Al.
Atomic weight: 27.4. Equivalent: 9.13. Valency: 3.
Specific gravity: 2.6. It is a conductor of electricity.
Relative resistance annealed, (Silver = 1)  1.935
Specific resistance at 0ºC (32°F.)    2.912 microhms

Resistance of a wire at 0ºC  (32°F.)
a) 1 foot long, weighing 1 grain,     0.1074 ohms.
b) 1 foot long, 1/1000 inch thick,   17.53     "
c) 1 meter long, weighing 1 gram,     0.0749   "
d) 1 meter long, 1 millimeter thick   0.03710  "
Resistance of a 1-inch cube at 0ºC (32°F.) 1.147 microhms
Electro-chemical equivalent.    .0958 (hydrogen == .0105)


25  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Amalgam.
(a) A combination or alloy in which one of the constituents is mercury.
Usually the term is applied to an alloy of a single metal with mercury.
Some metals readily form amalgams; such metals are: Gold, zinc, silver,
lead and others; some, such as platinum and iron, form amalgams only
under exceptional circumstances.

(b) The word is also applied to compositions for application to the
cushions of frictional electric machine in which cases it is often a
misnomer. True amalgams used for this purpose are made as follows:

(a) Tin, 1 part;  Zinc, 1 part;  Mercury, 2 parts (Kienmayer).
(b) Tin, 2 parts; Zinc, 3 parts.
(c) Tin, 3 parts; Zinc, 5 parts; Mercury, 4 parts.
(d) Zinc, 1 part: Mercury, 4 parts; Mercury, 9 parts.  [sic]

The tin, if such is used, (formula a, b and c) is first melted, the zinc
is added in successive portions. The mercury, which must be heated, is
slowly poured into the melted alloy after removal of the latter from the
fire, and the mixture, while making, is constantly stirred. It is kept
stirred or rubbed in a mortar until cold. Sometimes it is poured into
water and kept in constant agitation until cold. It is thus obtained in
a granular condition, and is pounded in a mortar until reduced to
powder. It must be dried and kept in tightly stopped bottles and is
applied to the cushions after they have been greased. It is to be
noticed that it is said that alloy (d) requires no pulverization beyond
constant rubbing in a mortar as it cools. Sometimes the amalgam is
shaken about in a wooden tray with chalk while cooling. The action of
amalgams is not very clearly understood. Some claim that there is a
chemical action, others that they simply act as conductors, others that
they are more highly negative to the glass than the leather of the
cushions.

Graphite or sulphide of tin (mosaic gold) are sometimes used to coat the
cushions; it is these that are sometimes incorrectly called amalgams.


Amalgamation.
The application of mercury to a metal with which it forms an amalgam, or
with which it amalgamates. Battery zincs are amalgamated in two ways. In
the immersion method, the plate is dipped into an acid solution of
mercuric chloride or nitrate. The latter is best. In the direct
application method the plate is first wet all over with dilute acid and
a little mercury is dropped upon it and is rubbed over the surface with
a rag or, what is better, with a piece of galvanized iron. A very little
mercury answers the purpose. The whole surface of the plate should be
left as bright as silver. (See Action, Local.)


Amber.
Amber is a fossil resin, supposed to be a product of the extinct Pinites
Succinifer and other coniferous trees. Most of it is gathered on the
shores of the Baltic between Koenigsberg and Memel. It is also found in
small pieces at Gay Head, Mass., and in New Jersey green sand. It is
found among the prehistoric remains of the Swiss Lake dwellers. When
rubbed with a cloth it becomes excited with negative electricity. The
Greek word for it is electron, which gave the name electricity to the
modern science. Thales of Miletus, 600 B. C., and Theophrastus, about
300 B. C., both mention its electric properties or power of attracting
small objects when rubbed.


26   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Ammeter.
The commercial name for an ampere-meter, an instrument designed
to show by direct reading the number of amperes of current which are
passing through a circuit.

A great variety of ammeters have been invented, based on different
principles. The definitions following this one give some idea of the
lines of construction followed.

Synonym--Ampere meter.


Ammeter, Ayrton's.
A direct reading instrument for measuring current intensity.

A solenoid receives the current. In the axis of the solenoid an iron
tube is suspended by a long spiral spring that passes down within it,
and the upper end of which spring is fastened to the glass top of the
instrument. The tube is provided with proper guides so as to maintain a
vertical position, and is free to rotate. Its upper end carries an
index.

The whole operates as a magnifying device. A slight longitudinal
displacement of the tube causes it to rotate through a considerable
angle by the action of the spring. By properly proportioning the parts,
the angle of displacement of the index is directly proportional to the
current between 15º and 270º angular displacement.

The same instrument is wound for use as a volt-meter.

Its principal fault is its restricted range.


Ammeter, Commutator.
A commutator ammeter is one whose windings consist of separate strands,
each of any desired number of turns, and provided with a commutating
attachment for throwing them into series or into parallel as desired.
The essential condition is that all the wires shall be of equal
resistance and of equal number of turns. Such an instrument can be used
for heavy or light currents. Two sets of graduations are marked on its
scale if it is a calibrated instrument. (See Calibration.) Commutator
volt-meters are constructed on the same principle.


Ammeter, Cunynghame's.
A modification of the Siemens' electro-dynamometer. (See
Electro-dynamometer, Siemens'.) An electro-magnet with very massive core
is excited by the current. As the core is of small reluctance the
strength of the magnet is nearly proportional to the current strength.
Between the poles of the magnet a soft iron armature or induced magnet
is pivoted. It carries a pointer so adjusted that when the axis of the
soft iron magnet is at an angle of about 30º with the line joining the
poles of the electro-magnet the pointer will indicate zero.

The soft iron armature is so massive that the magnetism induced in it is
proportional to the strength of the electro-magnet. Hence the couple
exerted by the electro-magnet on the pivoted armature will be
proportional to the square of the current.

The armature is retained in place by a spiral spring lying in line with
its axis of rotation. The instrument is operated as a zero reading
instrument. The current is passed through it. The needle is deflected;
it is brought back to zero by turning a milled head which twists the
spring. The current will be proportional to the square root of the angle
of displacement of the milled head. A scale with index is provided,
giving directly the square roots of the angle over which the pointer is
moved.

The same instrument is wound for use as a volt-meter.


27  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Ammeter, Eccentric Iron Disc.
This ammeter comprises a cylindrical electro-magnet excited by the
current to be measured. A disc of iron free to rotate is suspended on
pivots below it. A piece is cut off the disc at one part of its
periphery so as to give more metal to one side than to the other. In its
zero position this portion of the disc swings towards the magnet. As the
latter is more and more excited the other or more projecting portion of
the disc turns towards it, being attracted like an armature, and moves
against the force of gravity, the disc rotating. An index attached to
the disc swings over the face of a graduated scale. The disc is so
counterpoised that in its natural position the index points to zero.


Ammeter, Electro-magnetic.
An ammeter depending for its working upon the action of an
electro-magnet, which is excited by the current to be measured.

Ammeter, Gravity.
An ammeter whose hand or index is drawn into the zero position by
gravity, and whose displacement therefrom is produced by the action of
the current to be measured.



Fig. 11. GRAVITY SOLENOID AMMETER.


Ammeter, Magnetic Vane.
A fixed plate of soft iron is placed within a coil. Facing it is a
second disc free to move or swing on an axis. When the field is excited
the two repel each other because like polarity is induced in each, and
the motion of the movable disc indicates the strength of the current.
The same instrument is wound for high resistance and constitutes a
Magnetic Vane Voltmeter.


28   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Ammeter, Magnifying Spring.
A solenoid ammeter in which a spiral spring is used to convert the
longitudinal motion of the armature or movable core into a rotary motion
(see Ammeter, Ayrton's) and magnify the apparent range of motion.


Ammeter, Permanent Magnet.
An ammeter with a magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet.


Ammeter, Solenoid.
An ammeter in which the attraction, when a current is passing through
it, exerted by a hollow coil of wire upon an iron bar or tube in line
with its axis, is utilized to indicate the strength of current. The bar
is drawn into the coil to different extents proportional to the
attraction. As an example see Ammeter, Ayrton's, and cut of Gravity
Ammeter.


Ammeter, Spring.
An ammeter in which the part moved by the current is controlled or
brought to the zero position by a spring.


Ammeter, Steel Yard.
A solenoid ammeter in which the solenoid core is suspended vertically
from the short end of a steel yard fitted with a sliding weight. The
current passes through the solenoid coil and attracts or draws downwards
the coil. A sliding weight is moved in and out on the long steel-yard
arm which is graduated for amperes. In use the weight is slid out until
the arm is in equipose; the divisions give the amperes.



Fig. 12. STEEL YARD AMMETER.


29  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Ammunition Hoist, Electric.
An apparatus for use on ships for hoisting ammunition to the guns by an
electric elevator. The characteristic feature of it is that a constant
motion of the switch or handle is required to keep it in action. If the
operator is shot so as to be incapacitated from taking charge of the
switch, the hoist stops until another is assigned to it.


Amperage.
Current intensity expressed in amperes, as an amperage of ten amperes.


Ampere.
The practical unit of electric current strength. It is the measure of
the current produced by an electro-motive force of one volt through a
resistance of one ohm. In electric quantity it is the rate of one
coulomb per second. It is one-tenth the absolute C. G. S. unit of
current strength. Its best analogy is derived from water. Assuming the
electric current to be represented by a current of water, the pressure,
head, or descent producing such current would be the electro-motive
force. The current might be measured in gallons (or other unit) passed
per second. In the analogy these gallons would be coulombs. But it might
be measured by reference to a standard stream, as for instance, the
stream which would pass through a hole an inch square under a given
head, say six inches of water. This unit is the miner's inch, and is the
exact analogy of the ampere. A current of water may flow at the rate of
so many miner's inches, just as a current of electricity may flow at the
rate of so many amperes. In neither case it will be noted is there any
reference to time. "An ampere per second" is a redundant expression, and
means no more than "an ampere"; an "ampere-second," on the other hand,
is a coulomb. The number of coulombs passed per second gives the amperes
of current.

For value of ampere, see Coulomb.

[Transcriber's note: The SI definition of an ampere: A current in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible
cross-section, 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce a force equal to
2E-7 newton per metre of length.]



Fig. 13. THE MINER'S INCH AS AN ANALOGY FOR THE AMPERE.


30   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Ampere, Arc.
A conductor bent into the arc of a circle, and employed in measuring the
electric current by the electric balance.


Ampere-currents.
The currents assumed to be the cause of magnetism. (See Magnetism,
Ampere's Theory of.)


Ampere-feet.
The product of amperes of current by the length, in feet, of a conductor
passing such current. It may be in empiric calculations of dynamo or
motor construction, but is little used. One ampere-foot is a current of
one ampere passing through one foot length of a conductor, or one-tenth
ampere through ten feet, and so on.


Ampere-hour.
The quantity of electricity passed by a current of one ampere in one
hour. It is used by electric power and lighting companies as the unit of
energy supplied by them, because they maintain a constant potential
difference in their leads, so that only the amperes and hours need
measuring or recording to give the energy, viz. : volt-ampere-hours.
The same unit is applied to batteries to indicate their potential
energy, because they also are assumed to be of constant voltage or
electro-motive force.


Ampere-meters.
The product of amperes of current by the length, in meters, of a
conductor carrying such current. One ampere-meter is a current of one
ampere passing through one meter of a conductor.

The term must not be confused with the identically spelled Ampere-meter,
a synonym for Ammeter.


Ampere-minute.
The quantity of electricity passed by a current of one ampere in one
minute; sixty coulombs.


Ampere Ring.
A conductor forming a ring or circle used in electric balances for
measuring currents. (See Balance, Ampere.)


Ampere-second.
The quantity of electricity passed by a current of one ampere in one
second; the coulomb, q. v.


Amperes, Lost.
In a shunt or compound-wound dynamo, part of the total amperes of
current produced in the armature coils go through the shunt, and hence,
do not appear in the outer circuit. S. P. Thompson has proposed the term
"lost amperes" for this portion of the current.


Ampere's Memoria Technica.
An expression of the effect of a current on a magnetic needle. If we
imagine the observer in the line of the current and facing the magnetic
needle, the current entering by his feet and leaving by his head, the
north pole is deflected to his left.


31  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Ampere-turns.
The amperes of current supplied to a magnet coil multiplied by the
number of turns the current makes in the coil. If the coil is wound two
or three in parallel, the virtual turns by which the amperes are
multiplied are one-half or one-third the actual turns of wire.

Synonym--Ampere Windings.


Ampere-turns, Primary.
The ampere-turns in the primary coil of an induction coil or
transformer.


Ampere-turns, Secondary.
The ampere-turns in the secondary coil of an induction coil or
transformer.


Amplitude of Waves.
Waves are distinguished by length and amplitude. The latter, in the case
of transverse waves, such as those of water and of the ether, correspond
with and measure the height from lowest to highest point, or from valley
to summit of the waves in question. In the case of longitudinal waves,
such as those of the air, due to sounding bodies, the ratio of degree of
rarefaction to degree of condensation existing in the system is the
amplitude. The latter can be graphically represented by a sinuous line,
such as would represent the section of a transverse wave. Ether waves
are produced by heated bodies and by electro-magnetic impulses, as in
the discharge of the Leyden jar.

The amplitude of a wave, other things being equal, is the measure of its
intensity. Thus, the louder a sound the greater is the amplitude of the
system of waves to which it is due. The same applies to ether waves,
whether they are perceived in the electro-magnetic, light, or
heat-giving modification. As the amplitude of ether waves cannot be
accurately known, amplitude is a relative term and is not stated
generally in any absolute unit.


Analogous Pole.
One of the elements of a pyro-electric crystalline substance, such as
tourmaline. When heated, such bodies acquire electrical properties. If
of such crystalline form that they are differently modified at the ends
of their crystalline axis, by hemihedral modifications, the ends may be
differently affected. One end may show positive electricity when the
temperature is rising, and negative when falling. Such end is then
called the analogous pole. The opposite end presents, in such cases, the
opposite phenomena; becoming negative when the temperature is rising,
and becoming positive when it is falling; such end is called the
antilogous pole.


Analysis.
The determination of the elements of a case. It may be chemical, and
consist in finding what a substance consists of; it may be mathematical,
and consist in determining the unknown quantities in a problem; or it
may belong to other branches of science. The term has a very extended
application. Where the constituents are only determined in kind it is
called qualitative analysis; where their quantity or percentage is
ascertained it is called quantitative analysis.


32   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Analysis, Electric.
Chemical analysis by electrolytic methods. (See Electrolytic  Analysis.)


Analyzer, Electric.
An apparatus used in investigations on electric ether waves. It consists
of a series of parallel metallic wires. When the electric waves have
been polarized, the analyzer will only permit them to go through it
intact, when the plane of vibration of the waves is parallel to its
wires.


Anelectrics.
(a) Bodies which do not become electrified by friction; a term
introduced by Gilbert, now little used, as all bodies develop
electricity under proper conditions by contact action; the reverse of
idioelectrtics.

(b) Also a conductor of electricity, the reverse of a dielectric, q. v.
(See Conductor.)

It will be seen that Gilbert's anelectrics were, after all, the same as
the modern anelectrics, i.e., conductors.


Anelectrotonus.
A term used in medical electricity or electro-therapeutics to indicate
the deceased functional activity induced in a nerve by the proximity of
the anode of an active electric circuit completed through the nerve. The
converse of Kathelectrotonus.


Angle of Declination.
The angle of error of the magnetic needle or compass, measuring the
extent of its deviation from the meridian in any locality. It is the
angle between the plane of the magnetic axis of a magnetic needle free
to take its natural position, and the geographical meridian, the needle
being counterpoised if necessary, so as to hold an absolutely horizontal
position. The deviation is expressed as being east or west, referring
always to the north pole. (See Magnetic Elements.)

Synonym--Variation of the Compass.

[Transcriber's note:  See Agonic Line.]


Angle of the Polar Span.
In a dynamo or motor the angle subtended by the portion of a pole piece
facing the armature, such angle being referred to the centre of the
cross-section of the armature as its centre.


33   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Angular Velocity.
The velocity of a body moving in a circular path, measured with
reference to the angle it passes over in one second multiplied by the
radius and divided by the time. A unit angle is taken (57°.29578 =
57° 17' 44".8 nearly) such that it is subtended by a portion of the
circumference equal in length to the radius. Hence, the circumference,
which is 360°, is equal to 2*PI*unit angle, PI being equal to 3.1416--.
"Unit angular velocity" is such as would in a circle of radius = 1
represent a path = 1, traversed in unit time = 1 second. If the radius
is r and the angle passed over is theta, the distance is proportional to
r*theta; if this distance is traversed in t seconds the angular velocity
is theta / t. The angular velocity, if it is multiplied by r, theta
expressing a distance, will give the linear velocity. The dimensions of
angular velocity are an angle (= arc / radius) / a Time = (L/L)/T =
(T^-1).

The velocity expressed by the rate of an arc of a circle of unit radius,
which arc subtends an angle of 57° 17' 44".8, such arc being traversed
in unit time, is unit angular velocity.


Animal Electricity.
Electricity, notably of high tension, generated in the animal system, in
the Torpedo, Gymnotus and Silurus. The shocks given by these fish are
sometimes very severe. The gymnotus, or electric eel, was elaborately
investigated by Faraday. It has the power of voluntarily effecting this
discharge. There is undoubtedly some electricity in all animals. The
contact of the spinal column of a recently killed frog with the lumbar
muscles produces contraction, showing electric excitement. Currents can
be obtained from nerve and muscle, or from muscle sides and muscle cut
transversely, in each case one thing representing positive and the other
negative elements of a couple.


Angle of Inclination or Dip.
The angle which the magnetic axis of a magnet, which magnet is free to
move in the vertical plane of the magnetic meridian, makes with a
horizontal line intersecting such axis. To observe it a special
instrument, the dipping compass, inclination compass, dipping needle, or
dipping circle, as it is called, is used. (See Elements, Magnetic,
--Dipping Needle,--Compass, Inclination.)


Angle of Lag.
The angle expressing the displacement of the magnetic axis of the
armature core of a dynamo in the direction of its rotation. (See Lag.)
Lag is due to the motion of the armature core.


Angle of Lead.
The angle expressing the displacement in the direction of rotation of
the armature of a dynamo which has to be given the brushes to compensate
for the lag. (See Lag.) This is positive lead. In a motor the brushes
are set the other way, giving a negative angle of lead or angle of
negative lead.


Anion.
The electro-negative element or radical of a molecule, such as oxygen,
chlorine or the radical sulphion. (See Ions.) It is the portion which
goes to the anode, q.v., in electrolytic decomposition.


34   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Anisotropic. (adj.)
Unequal in physical properties, as in conduction and specific inductive
capacity, along various axes or directions. An anisotropic conductor is
one whose conductivity varies according to the direction of the current,
each axis of crystallization in a crystalline body marking a direction
of different conductivity. An anisotropic medium is one varying in like
manner with regard to its specific inductive capacity. In magnetism an
anisotropic substance is one having different susceptibilities to
magnetism in different directions. The term is applicable to other than
electric or magnetic subjects.

Synonym--AEolotropic.


Annealing, Electric.
Annealing by the heat produced by the passage of the electric current
through the body to be annealed. The object is clamped or otherwise
brought into a circuit, and a current strong enough to heat it to
redness, or to the desired temperature is passed through it.


Annunciator.
An apparatus for announcing a call from any place to another, as from a
living-room to an office in a hotel, or for announcing the entering of
any given room or window in a building protected by a burglar alarm.

A usual system comprises for each annunciator an electro-magnet. Its
armature is normally held away from its poles by a spring, and when in
that position a latch connected to the armature holds a little shutter.
When by a push-button or other device a current is sent through a
circuit which includes the electro-magnet the armature is attracted,
this releases the latch and the shutter drops. In dropping it displays a
number, letter or inscription which indicates the locality of the
push-button or other circuit-closing device. Often annunciators are
connected in circuit with a bell.



Fig. 14. ANNUNCIATOR.


35  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Annunciator Clock.
A clock operating an annunciator by making contact at determined times.

Annunciator Drop.
The little shutter which is dropped by some forms of annunciators, and
whose fall discloses a number, character or inscription, indicating
whence the call was sent.



Fig. 15. DROP ANNUNCIATOR.



Fig. 16. ANNUNCIATOR DETACHING MECHANISM.


Annunciator, Gravity Drop.
An annunciator whose operations release shutters which fall by gravity.


Annunciator, Needle.
A needle annunciator is one whose indications are given by the movements
of needles, of which there is usually a separate one for each place of
calling.


Annunciator, Swinging or Pendulum.
An annunciator which gives its indications by displacing from its
vertical position a pendulum or vertically suspended arm.


36   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Anodal Diffusion.
A term in electro-therapeutics; the introduction of a medicine into the
animal system by using a sponge-anode saturated with the solution of the
drug in question. On passing a current the desired result is secured by
cataphoresis, q. v.


Anode.
The positive terminal in a broken metallic or true conducting circuit;
the terminal connected to the carbon plate of a galvanic battery or to
its equivalent in case of any other generator. In general practice it is
restricted to the positive terminal in a decomposition or electrolytic
cell, such as the nickel anode in a nickel-plating bath or the anode of
platinum in a gas voltameter. It is the terminal out of or from which
the current is supposed to flow through the decomposition cell. In
electro-therapeutics the term is used simply to indicate the positive
terminal. In an electrolytic cell the electro-negative substance or
anion goes to the anode. Hence, it is the one dissolved, if either are
attacked. The nickel, copper or silver anodes of the electroplater
dissolve in use and keep up the strength of the bath. The platinum anode
in a gas voltameter is unattacked because the anion cannot act upon it
chemically.


Anodic Closure Contraction.
A physiological change in a living subject produced by the closing of
the electric current; the muscular contraction which takes place beneath
the anode applied to the surface of the body when the circuit is closed,
the kathode being applied elsewhere; it is due, presumably, to direct
action on the motor nerve. It is a term in electro-therapeutics. It is
the converse of anodic opening contraction, q. v. An abbreviation A. C.
C. is often used to designate it.


Anodic Duration Contraction.
A term in electro-therapeutics. On the opening or closing of an electric
circuit, the anode of which is placed over a muscle, a contraction is
observed (see Anodic Closure Contraction--Anodic Opening Contraction).
The above term is used to designate the duration of such contraction. An
abbreviation A. D. C. is often used to designate it.


Anodic Opening Contraction.
The converse of Anodic Closure Contraction, q. v.; it is the contraction
of living muscle beneath or near the anode where the circuit, including
such anode and the body in its course, is closed; a physiological
phenomenon observed in electro-therapeutics to which branch of science
the term belongs. An abbreviation A. O. C. is often used to designate
it.


Anodic Reactions.
A term in electro-therapeutics; the diagnosis of disease by the actions
of the tissue near the anode of a circuit.


Anti-Induction Conductor.
A conductor constructed to avoid induction effects in the conducting
element. Many kinds have been made. A tubular metal shield or envelope
which may be grounded will protect an enclosed conductor to some extent.
Or the conductor may be a double wire twisted around itself, one branch
being used for the regular and the other for the return circuit, thus
constituting a closed metallic circuit. The inductive effects are due to
interrupted or varying currents in neighboring wires and circuits. Many
anti-induction conductors have been invented and patented.


37  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Anti-magnetic Shield.
In general terms a hollow screen of soft iron designed to protect any
mass of steel behind or enclosed by it from magnetization by any magnet
near it, such as a dynamo field magnet. This it does by concentrating
the lines of force within its own mass, so that the space within it or
enclosed by it is comparatively free from lines of force. It is often
applied to watches, and is virtually an iron case in which they are
enclosed.

Antimony.
A metal, one of the elements, atomic weight, 122:
equivalent, 40.6 and 24.4; valency, 3 and 5;
specific gravity, 6.8.
It is a conductor of electricity.
Relative resistance, compressed (silver = 1), 23.60
Specific resistance,   35.50 microhms.
Resistance of a wire,
(a) 1 foot long, weighing 1 grain,       3.418 ohms.
(b) 1 foot long, 1/1000 inch thick,    213.6     "
(c) 1 meter long, weighing 1 gram,       2.384   "
(d) 1 meter long. 1 millimeter thick,    0.4521  "

Resistance of a 1-inch cube,   13.98 microhms.

Approximate percentage resistance per degree C.
(1.8º F. at 20º C. 88º F.)   0.389 per cent.

Elcctro-chemical equivalent (hydrogen = .0105)  .2560
(See Thermo-Electric Series.)


Anvil.
An intermittent contact, or "make and break" of the current is sometimes
produced by directly pressing a key down upon a metallic surface, the
two being terminals of the circuit. The surface or stud on which such
pressure is produced is called the anvil. The ordinary telegraph key,
which makes a contact by the pressure of the operator's fingers does it
by making a contact between a contact piece upon the front end of the
key and the anvil. In the induction coil the anvil is also found. Thus
in the cut representing the end of an induction coil and its circuit
breaker in which O and O' and P and P' represent the secondary circuit
terminal connections A is the core of soft iron wires, h is the anvil;
the hammer when resting upon it so as to be in contact closes the
circuit. When the current coming from the primary to the post i, passes
through the hammer and anvil h, and emerges by m, it magnetizes the
core; this attracts the hammer, which is made of or is armed with a mass
of iron. This breaks the circuit. The hammer falls at once on the anvil,
again making the circuit, and the action is repeated with great
rapidity. Hammer and anvil or key and anvil connections should be made
of platinum.



Fig. 17. INDUCTION COIL CIRCUIT BREAKER.


38   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


A. O. C.
Abbreviation for Anodic Opening Contraction, q. v.


Aperiodic. adj.
In an oscillating apparatus, or in the oscillating member of apparatus,
the fact of having no reference to time of vibration; dead-beat.

Synonym. Dead-beat.


39  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 18. ARAGO'S DISC.


Arago's Disc.
An apparatus consisting of a disc of copper mounted horizontally, or on
a vertical spindle, and so arranged as to be susceptible of rapid
rotation. Immediately over it, and best with a pane of glass
intervening, a magnetic needle is mounted on a pivot directly over the
axis of the disc. If the disc is rotated the lines of force of the
magnet are cut by it, and consequently currents are produced in the
copper. These currents act upon the needle and cause it to rotate,
although quite disconnected. It is advisable for the needle to be strong
and close to the disc, which should rotate rapidly.


Arc v.
To form a voltaic arc.


Arc, Compound.
A voltaic arc springing across between more than two electrodes.


Arc, Metallic.
The voltaic arc produced between terminals or electrodes of metal. The
characteristics of such arc as contrasted with the more usual arc
between carbon electrodes are its greater length for the same
expenditure of energy, its flaming character and characteristic colors
due to the metals employed. It is sometimes, for the latter reason, used
in spectroscopic investigations.


Arc Micrometer.
A micrometer for measuring the distance between the electrodes of a
voltaic arc.


Arc, Simple.
A voltaic arc produced, as usual, between only two electrodes.


40   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Arc, Voltaic.
The voltaic arc is the arc between two carbon electrodes slightly
separated, which is produced by a current of sufficient strength and
involving sufficient potential difference. The pencils of carbon are
made terminals in a circuit. They are first placed in contact and after
the current is established they are separated a little. The current now
seems to jump across the interval in what sometimes appears an arch of
light. At the same time the carbon ends become incandescent. As regards
the distance of separation with a strong current and high electro-motive
force, the arc may be several inches long.

The voltaic arc is the source of the most intense heat and brightest
light producible by man. The light is due principally to the
incandescence of the ends of the carbon pencils. These are differently
affected. The positive carbon wears away and becomes roughly cupped or
hollowed; the negative also wears away, but in some cases seems to have
additions made to it by carbon from the positive pole. All this is best
seen when the rods are slender compared to the length of the arc.

It is undoubtedly the transferred carbon dust which has much to do with
its formation. The conductivity of the intervening air is due partly,
perhaps, to this, but undoubtedly in great measure to the intense
heating to which it is subject. But the coefficient of resistance of the
intervening air is so much higher than that of any other part of the
circuit that an intense localization of resistance occurs with
corresponding localization of heating effect. This is the cause of the
intense light. Thus if the carbons are but 1/32 of an inch apart as in a
commercial lamp the resistance may be 1.5 ohms. The poor thermal
conductivity of the carbon favors the concentration of heat also. The
apparent resistance is too great to be accounted for by the ohmic
resistance of the interposed air. A kind of thermoelectric effect is
produced. The positive carbon has a temperature of about 4,000° C.
(7,232° F.), the negative from 3,000° C. (5,432° F.) to 3,500° C.
(6,322° F.). This difference of temperature produces a
counter-electro-motive force which acts to virtually increase the
resistance of the arc. The carbon ends of an arc can be projected with
the lantern. Globules are seen upon them due to melted silica from the
arc of the carbon.

Fig. 19. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS FOR PRODUCING THE VOLTAIC ARC.


41  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Areometer.
An instrument for determining the specific gravity of a fluid. It
consists of an elongated body ballasted so as to float vertically and
provided with a mark or a scale. It floats deeper in a light than in a
heavy liquid. If it carries but one mark weights are added until that
mark is reached, when the weights required give the specific gravity. Or
the scale may give the reading directly based upon the depth to which it
sinks. Areometers are often made of glass, ballasted with shot or
mercury enclosed in their bottom bulb as shown. They are used in
regulating battery solutions, and in watching the charging and
discharging of storage batteries.



Fig. 20. AREOMETER



Fig. 21. BEAD AREOMETER


Areometer, Bead.
A tube of glass containing beads of different specific gravities. It has
apertures at top and bottom. When immersed in a liquid, the same fills
it, and the specific gravity within certain limits, depending on the
factors of the beads, is shown by the beads which float and those which
sink. It is used for storage batteries and other purposes where acids
and solutions have to be tested.


Argyrometry.
The method of ascertaining the weight and inferentially the thickness of
an electroplater's deposit of silver. It is done by weighing the article
before and after plating.


Arm.
The four members of a Wheatstone bridge, q. v., are termed its arms.
Referring to the diagram of a bridge, P, Q, R, S, are the arms.



Fig. 22. DIAGRAM OF WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE.


Armature.
(a.) A mass or piece of iron or steel, or a collection of pieces of iron
designed to be acted on by a magnet. While nickel or cobalt might be
used, they rarely or never are except in experimental apparatus. The
armature of a permanent horse shoe magnet is simply a little bar of soft
iron. When the magnet is not in use it is kept in contact with the poles
with the idea of retaining its magnetism. It is then said to be used as
a keeper. A bar magnet does not generally have an armature. The armature
is also used to exhibit the attraction of the magnet.

Sometimes an armature is made of steel and is permanently magnetized.
Such an armature, termed a polarized armature, is repelled when its like
poles are opposed to like poles of the magnet and otherwise is attracted
with force due to the sums of the magnetism. If the magnet is
sufficiently powerful depolarization of the armature may ensue when like
poles are opposed to like poles. Polarized armatures are used in various
appliances, magneto generators, telegraphic instruments and others.

(b) In a dynamo or Motor the mass of laminated iron or of wire which
carries the coils of insulated wires which are caused to rotate in the
field of force of the field magnets in order to establish and maintain
potential difference with its accompanying current, or which rotates
under the effects of a current in a motor. (See Dynamo Electric
Generator.)

The work of the armature core is twofold. It acts as a portion of the
magnetic circuit, conducting the lines of force, and by virtue of its
high permeability or multiplying power concentrating a number of the
lines of force through its own substance. To enable it to act with
efficiency in this direction it should be made of iron of the highest
permeability, and should approach as closely as possible to the armature
cores consistent with leaving space for the wire winding. It next acts
as a support for the wires which are to be swept through the field of
force. Thus it acts both to establish a strong field and then acts as a
carrier for the wires which are to be cut by the wires in question. In
connection with this subject the different definitions under Armature,
Dynamo, Commutator, Induction and similar topics may be consulted.

(c) See Armature of Influence Machine.

(d) See Armature of Leyden Jar or Static Condenser.


42   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Armature, Bar.
An armature in a dynamo or motor whose winding is made up of conductors
in the form of bars, round, rectangular and of other sections. This type
of armature conductor is objectionable as Foucault currents are produced
in it. It is found best to laminate or subdivide low resistance armature
windings.

[Transcriber's Note: Foucault currents are also called eddy currents.]


Armature, Bipolar.
An armature in which two poles are induced by the field. A bipolar field
magnet produces a bipolar armature.


Armature Bore.
The cylindrical space defined by the pole pieces of a dynamo or motor
within which the armature rotates.

Synonym--Armature Chamber.


43  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Armature, Closed Coil.
An armature for a motor or dynamo, the ends of all of whose coils are
united, so as to be in one closed circuit all the way around.



Fig. 23. CLOSED COIL GRAMME RING ARMATURE.


Armature Coil, or Coils.
The insulated wire wound around the core of the armature of an electric
current generator or motor.


Armature Core.
The central mass of iron on which the insulated wire, to be rotated in
the field of an electric current generator or motor, is wound. (See
Dynamo-electric Machine and Motor, Electric.)


Armature, Cylinder.
An armature of the Gramme ring type, but longer in the axial direction,
so that its core resembles a long hollow cylinder, the wire being wound
inside and outside as in the Gramme ring. (See Gramme Ring.)


Armature, Disc.
(a) An armature of a dynamo electric machine or motor in which the coils
are wound so as to be flat and are carried on the face of a disc forming
the core or part of the core of the armature. S. P. Thompson treats it
as a modified drum armature extended radially, the outer periphery
corresponding to the back end of the drum. The poles of the field are
generally placed to face the side or sides of the disc.

(b) Another type of disc armature has its wire wound on bobbins arranged
around the periphery of a disc.

In disc armatures there is often no iron core, their thinness enabling
this to be dispensed with.


44   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 24. DISC ARMATURE OF FRITSCHE MACHINE.



Fig. 25. PLAN OF WINDING PACINOTTI'S DISC ARMATURE.


Armature, Discoidal Ring.
In a dynamo an armature of the shape of a ring of considerable radial
depth of section as compared to its axial depth. It is generally made of
iron ribbon or thin band wound to the proper size.

Synonym--Flat Ring Armature.


45 STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Armature, Drum.
An armature for a dynamo or motor, consisting of a cylinder of iron
preferably made up of discs insulated from each other by thin shellacked
paper, or simply by their oxidized surfaces, and wound with wire
parallel to the axis where it lies on the cylindrical periphery and
crossing the heads approximately parallel to the diameter. It operates
practically on the same principle as a Gramme Ring Armature. (See Gramme
Ring.)

Synonym--Cylindrical Armature.


Armature Factor.
The number of conductors on an armature, counted or enumerated all
around its external periphery.


Armature, Hinged.
An armature pivoted to the end of one of the legs of an electro-magnet
so as to be free to swing and bring its other end down upon the other
pole.



Fig. 26. HINGED ARMATURES OF CLUB-FOOT ELECTRO MAGNETS.


Armature, Hole.
An armature whose core is perforated to secure cooling.

Synonym--perforated Armature.


Armature, Intensity.
An armature wound for high electro-motive force. A term little used at
the present time.


Armature Interference.
A limit to the ampere turns permissible on a given armature is found in
the increase of cross magnetizing effect, q. v., the increased lead
necessitated, and the growth of the demagnetizing power. All such
perturbing effects are sometimes expressed as armature interference.


46   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Armature, Load of.
The circumflux, q. v., of the armature, or the ampere turns of the same.
The maximum load which can be carried by an armature without sparking is
directly proportional to the radial depth of core and to the length of
the gap, and inversely proportional to the breadth of the polar span.


Armature, Multipolar.
An armature in which a number of poles greater than two is determined by
the field. A multipolar field is employed for its production.


Armature, Neutral.
An armature of a magnet or telegraph relay which is not polarized or
magnetized.

Synonym--Non-polarized Armature--Neutral Relay Armature.


Armature of Influence Machine.
Pieces of paper pasted on the stationary plate of an electric machine of
the Holtz type.


Armature of Leyden Jar or Static Condenser.
The inner and outer tin-foil coatings of a Leyden jar or other
condenser.


Armature, Open Coil.
An armature of a dynamo or motor on which the coils are not joined in
one closed circuit, but have their ends or some of them separated, and
connected each to its own commutator bar or each set to their own bar.



Fig. 27. OPEN COIL RING ARMATURE.


47  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Armature, Pivoted.
An armature for an electro-magnet mounted on a pivot, which is at right
angles to the yoke or parallel with the legs of the magnet, so as to be
free to rotate. When the magnet is excited the armature is drawn into
line or approximately so with its base or yoke. The system is used in
some telegraph apparatus.


Armature Pockets.
Spaces or recesses in armatures provided for the reception of the coils.


Armature, Polarized.
An armature made of steel or having a steel core to which permanent
magnetism has been imparted. Such are used in some forms of magneto
current generators, and in telegraphic instruments. (See Relay,
Polarized.)


Armature, Pole.
An armature having coils wound on separate poles projecting radially all
around the periphery of its central hub or disc, or projecting
internally from a ring-like frame, their ends facing the field magnet.

Synonym--Radial Armature.


Armature, Quantity.
An armature of a dynamo or motor wound for current of large quantity.
The term is now but little used.


Armature-Reactions.
When an armature is running in an active dynamo a series of
reactions is established, the more important of which are:
I. A tendency to cross-magnetize the armature.
II. A tendency to spark at the brushes.
III. A tendency for the armature current to demagnetize on account of
the lead which has to be given to the brushes.
IV. Variations in the neutral points as more or less current is taken
from the machine.
V. Heating of armature, both core and conductors, and of pole pieces,
which heating is due to Foucault currents.


Armature, Revolving, Page's.
An early form of motor. The field is produced by a permanent magnet.
Above its poles is a soft iron armature wound with a coil of insulated
wire. A two-part commutator with contact springs conveys the current to
the coil. The whole is so arranged that the polarity of the armature, as
induced by the coil, through which a current is passed, is reversed as
its ends sweep by the poles of the magnet. Then it is repelled from the
poles and swings through 180° to have its polarity reversed and to go
through the next 180°, and so on. Thus it rotates at a very high rate of
speed.

In the cut showing the elevation A, B, is the armature;  f, g, the
springs or brushes; h, the commutator with its sections o, i. In the
section of the commutator W, W, designate the springs or brushes, A, the
vertical spindle carrying the armature and commutator, and S, S, the
commutator sections.


48   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 28. PAGE'S REVOLVING ARMATURE.

Fig. 29. SECTION OF COMMUTATOR OF PAGE'S REVOLVING ARMATURE.
W, W, Brushes; A, Spindle; S, S, Armature Segments.


Armature, Ring.
An armature whose core is in the shape of a ring, as the Gramme Ring
Armature. (See Figs. 23 & 27.)


49  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Armature, Rolling.
(a) An armature for a permanent horseshoe magnet consisting of a
straight cylinder of soft iron on which a heavy wheel is mounted. When
the legs of the magnet are inclined downward and the bar is laid across
them it rolls down to the poles, across their ends, and back up the
under side. It is merely a magnetic toy or illustrative experiment.

Synonym--Wheel Armature.

(b) Another form consists of little bars of iron with brass discs
attached to the ends. On placing two of these together and bringing the
poles of a magnet near them, as shown, they become magnetized with like
polarity by induction and repel each other, rolling away in opposite
directions.



Fig. 30. ROLLING OR WHEEL ARMATURE.



Fig. 31. ROLLING ARMATURES.


Armature, Shuttle.
The original Siemens' armature, now discarded. The core was long and
narrow, and its cross section was nearly of the section of an H. The
grooves were wound full of wire, so that the whole formed almost a
perfect cylinder, long and narrow comparatively. (See Winding Shuttle.)

Synonym--Siemens' Old Armature--Girder Armature--H Armature.



Fig. 32. SHUTTLE OR H ARMATURE.


Armature, Spherical.
An armature of a dynamo which is wound on a spherical core, so as to be
almost a sphere. It is employed in the Thomson-Houston dynamo, being
enclosed in a cavity nearly fitting it, formed by the pole pieces.


Armature, Stranded Conductor.
A substitute for bar-armatures in which stranded copper wire conductors
are substituted for the solid bar conductors, to avoid Foucault
currents. (See Armature, Bar.)


50   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Armature, Unipolar.
An armature of a unipolar dynamo. (See Dynamo Unipolar.)


Armor of Cable.
The metal covering, often of heavy wire, surrounding a telegraph or
electric cable subjected to severe usage, as in submarine cables.

Synonym--Armature of Cable.


Arm, Rocker.
An arm extending from a rocker of a dynamo or motor, to which arm one of
the brushes is attached. (See Rocker.) Ordinarily there are two arms,
one for each brush.


Articulate Speech.
Speech involving the sounds of words. It is a definition which has
acquired importance in the Bell telephone litigations, one contention,
concerning the Bell telephone patent, holding that the patentee did not
intend his telephone to transmit articulations, but only sound and
music.


Astatic. adj.
Having no magnetic directive tendency due to the earth's magnetism.
Examples are given under Astatic Needle; Circuit, Astatic; and
Galvanometer Astatic.



Fig. 33. NOBILI'S PAIR.



FIG. 34. VERTICAL PAIR ASTATIC COMBINATION.


Astatic Needle.
A combination of two magnetic needles so adjusted as to
have as slight directive tendency as possible. Such a pair of needles
when poised or suspended will hardly tend to turn more to one point of
the compass than another. The combination is generally made up of two
needles arranged one above the other, with their poles in opposite
directions. This combination is usually called Nobili's pair. If of
equal strength and with parallel magnetic axes of equal length they
would be astatic. In practice this is very rarely the case. A resultant
axis is generally to be found which may even be at right angles to the
long axis of the magnets, causing them to point east and west. Such a
compound needle requires very little force to turn it one way or the
other. If one of the needles is placed within a coil of insulated wire a
feeble current will act almost as strongly to deflect the system as if
the other was absent, and the deflection will only be resisted by the
slight directive tendency of the pair of needles. This is the basis of
construction of the astatic galvanometer. Sometimes coils wound in
opposite directions and connected in series, or one following the other,
surround both needles, thus producing a still greater effect of
deflection.

Other astatic needles are shown in the cuts below. [Figures 33 to 35.]


51  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



FIG. 35. SIMPLE ASTATIC NEEDLE.


Asymptote.
A line continuously approached by a curve, but which the curve, owing to
its construction or nature of curvature, can never touch, be tangent to,
or intersect.


Atmosphere.
(a) A term applied to the atmospheric pressure as a practical unit of
pressure equal to 15 lbs. to the square inch as generally taken. It is
really about 14.7 lbs. per square inch, or 1,033 grams per square
centimeter.

(b) Air, q. v.


Atmosphere Residual.
The atmosphere left in a vessel after exhaustion. The term may be
applied to any gas. In an incandescent lamp after flashing the residual
atmosphere consists of hydro-carbons.


Atmospheric Electricity.
The electricity of the atmosphere, rarely absent, but often changing in
amount and sign. Benjamin Franklin, in a memoir published in 1749,
indicated the method of drawing electricity from the clouds by pointed
conductors. In June, 1752, he flew a kite and by its moistened cord drew
an electric spark from the clouds, confirming his hypothesis that
lightning was identical with the disruptive discharge of electricity. To
observe electricity in fine weather a gold-leaf or other electroscope
may be connected to the end of a long pointed insulated conductor. The
electricity during thunderstorms can be shown by a similar arrangement,
or burning alcohol or tinder gives an ascending current of warm air that
acts as a conductor. Quite elaborate apparatus for observing and
recording it have been devised. Atmospheric electricity is usually
positive, but occasionally negative. When the sky is cloudless it is
always positive, increasing with the elevation and isolation of the
place. In houses, streets, and under trees no positive electricity can
be found. In the Isle of Arran, Scotland, a rise of 24 to 48 volts per
foot of increase in elevation was found by Sir William Thomson. At
sunrise the electrification of the air is feeble, it increases towards
noon and decreases again to reach a second maximum a few hours after
sunset. It increases with the barometric pressure generally. In cloudy
weather it is sometimes negative and the sign often changes several
times in the same day. In a thunderstorm the changes in sign and
potential are very rapid. The cause of atmospheric electricity is far
from clear. Tait attributes it to a contact effect between air and water
vapor, Solmeke to friction of water vesicles against ice particles in
the upper atmosphere, he first showing that the two may coexist. The
cause of the enormous increase of potential producing lightning is
attributed to the decreased capacity due to the change of water from
cloud vesicles to drops, thus diminishing the electrostatic capacity of
the water in question. (See Lightning.)


52   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Atom.
The ultimate particle or division of an elementary substance; the
smallest part that can exist in combination, and one which cannot exist
alone. An elementary substance is composed of molecules just as truly as
a compound one, but the atoms in the molecule of an elementary substance
are all precisely alike. Hence atoms are the units of chemistry, they
have to do with combinations, but the physical unit, the smallest
particle of matter that can have an independent existence, is the
molecule. The two are often confounded, especially by writers of a few
years ago, so that by "atom" the molecule is often meant. There is
nothing to be said of their size or mass. All such calculations refer to
the molecule, q. v., often spoken of and called the atom.

[Transcriber's note: Yet to be discovered: electron--1897 (5 years),
proton--1920 (28 years), neutron--1932 (30 years), quark--1961 (69 years).]


Atomic Attraction.
The attraction of atoms for each other, in virtue of which they combine
into molecules; chemical affinity, q. v., treats principally of this,
although molecular attraction also plays a part in it.


Atomic Heat.
The product of the atomic weight of a substance by its specific heat.
This product is approximately the same, 6.4; this approximation is so
close that it is of use in determining the valency and atomic weights of
substances. The atomic weight of a substance therefore represents the
approximate number of gram-calories required to raise one gram-atom, q.
v., of such substance through 1° C. (1.8° F.)


Atomicity.
The quantivalence or valency of the atoms; the number of combination
bonds, or bonds of affinity, possessed by the atoms of any substance.
Thus two atoms of hydrogen combine with one atom of oxygen, and three of
oxygen with one of sulphur, forming saturated compounds. Therefore,
taking hydrogen as of single atomicity or a monad, oxygen is of double
atomicity or a dyad, and sulphur is of six-fold atomicity, or a hexad.
The elements are thus classified into seven orders of atomicities, thus:

  1, Monads or Univalent elements,   Hydrogen, etc.
 2, Dyads or Bivalent        "      Oxygen, etc.
 3, Triads or Trivalent      "      Nitrogen, etc.
 4, Tetrads or Quadrivalent  "      Lead, etc.
 5, Pentads or Quinquivalent "      Phosphorous, etc.
 6, Hexads or Sexivalent     "      Chromium, etc.
 7, Heptads or Septivalent   "      Chromium, etc.

The same element often possesses several atomicities. Barium is
generally a dyad, sometimes a tetrad; nitrogen acts as a monad, dyad,
triad, tetrad and pentad. The familiar electrolysis of water, giving two
volumes of hydrogen to one of oxygen, is one of the illustrations of the
theory indicating that two atoms of hydrogen are combined with one of
oxygen.


53  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Atomic Weight.
The number expressing the relative weight of the atom of any substance,
that of hydrogen being generally taken as unity. This is the universal
system, although any other element might be taken as the basis of the
system. The whole theory of atomic weights is based on the
indivisibility of the atom and on the theory of atomicity, q. v. (See
Equivalents.)

[Transcriber's note: The standard is now the isotope carbon-12 as
exactly 12.]


Attraction.
The tendency to approach and adhere or cohere, shown by all forms of
matter. It includes gravitation, cohesion, adhesion, chemical affinity
and other forms, and is opposed by repulsion, and is sometimes overcome
by it, although it may be assumed to be always present. See the
different kinds of attractions under their titles: Atomic Attraction,
Electro-magnetic Attraction and Repulsion, Electro Static Attraction and
Repulsion, Electro-dynamic Attraction and Repulsion; Magnetic Attraction
and Repulsion; Molar Attraction.


Audiometer.
An apparatus for obtaining a balance of induction from two coils acting
upon a third. The third is placed between the other two and is free to
move towards either. A scale is provided to show the extent of its
movement. A varying or interrupted current being passed through the two
outer coils, the preponderating current will produce the most induction
if the central coil is equidistant. It can always be moved to such a
point that there will be no inductive effect, one counteracting the
other. Thus its position measures the relative induction. A telephone is
in circuit with the intermediate coil and is used to determine when its
position is such that no current is induced in it. It is sometimes used
as a direct test of hearing. (See Hughes' Induction Balance.)

Synonym--Acoutemeter.


Aura, Electrical.
The blast of air produced at highly electrified points.


Aurora.
A luminous display seen in the northern heavens in the northern
hemisphere, where it is the Aurora Borealis, and seen in the southern
heavens in the southern hemisphere, where it is called Aurora Australis,
or indifferently for either, the Aurora Polaris. It takes the form of
pale luminous bands, rays and curtains varying in color. Near the poles
they are very numerous. A French commission observed 150 auroras in 200
days. Their height is variously estimated at from 90 to 460 miles; they
are most frequent at the equinoxes and least so at the solstices. There
is a secular variation also, they attain a maximum of occurrence every
11 years together with sun spots, with a minimum 5 or 6 years after the
maximum. There is also a period of 60 years, coincident with
disturbances in the earth's magnetism. Various attempts have been made
to account for them. They have a constant direction of arc with
reference to the magnetic meridian (q. v.) and act upon the magnetic
needle; in high latitudes they affect telegraph circuits violently.
There is a strong probability that they represent electric currents or
discharges. De la Rive considers them due to electric discharges between
the earth and atmosphere, which electricities are separated by the
action of the sun in equatorial regions. According to Balfour Stewart,
auroras and earth currents.(q. v.) may be regarded as secondary currents
due to small but rapid changes in the earth's magnetism. The subject is
very obscure. Stewart treats the earth as representing the magnetic core
of an induction coil, the lower air is the dielectric, and the upper
rarefied and therefore conducting atmosphere is the secondary coil. This
makes the aurora a phenomenon of induced currents. Then the sun may be
regarded as the instigator of the primary changes in the earth's lines
of force representing the primary of an induction coil.

[Transcriber's note: Solar wind, streams of electrons and protons,
interacting with the earth's magnetic field causes aurora. Neither
electrons (1897) nor protons (1920) were known in 1892. The Soviet
satellite Luna first measured the solar wind in 1959. Even today
increased understanding of solar and auroral phenomenon continues.]


54   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Austral Pole.
The north pole of the magnet is thus called sometimes in France; the
austral pole of a magnet is the one which points towards the north polar
regions As unlike magnetic poles attract each other, it is but rational
to call the north-seeking pole of the magnet the south or Austral Pole.
In the same nomenclature the south pole of a magnet, or the
south-seeking pole, is called the Boreal Pole.


A. W. G.
Abbreviation for American Wire Gauge, q. v.


Axis, Electric.
The electric axis of a pyroelectric crystal, such as a tourmaline
crystal; the line connecting the points of greatest pyroelectric
excitability.


Axis of Abscissa.
In a system of rectilinear, or right angle co-ordinates, the horizontal
axis. (See Co-ordinates.)

Synonym--Axis of X.


Axis of Ordinates.
In a system of rectilinear right angle co-ordinates, the vertical axis.
(See Co-ordinates.)

Synonym--Axis of Y.


Azimuth.
The angle between the plane of the meridian and the plane of an azimuth
circle, q. v.


Azimuth Circle.
A great circle, whose plane passes through the zenith or point of the
heavens directly overhead; any great circle in whose plane the vertical
at the point of observation is included.

Each celestial body has or determines an azimuth circle.

55  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


B.
(a) Abbreviation for Baumé, a hydrometer scale. (See Baumé.) Thus 10º B.
means "ten degrees Baumé."

(b) Symbol for the coefficient of induced magnetization, or the number
of lines per square centimeter induced in a magnetic circuit or in any
specified part of it.


B. A.
Abbreviation for British Association. It is prefixed to standards fixed
by the committee of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science. Thus the B. A. ohm means the British Association ohm, a measure
of resistance which is equal to the resistance of a column of mercury
104.9 centimeters long and one square millimeter area of cross-section.
(See Ohm.)


Back Induction.
A demagnetizing force produced in a dynamo armature when a lead is given
the brushes. The windings by such setting of the brushes are virtually
divided into two sets, one a direct magnetizing set, the other a cross
magnetizing set. The latter have a component due to the obliqueness of
the neutral line, which component is demagnetizing in its action.


Back Shock or Stroke of Lightning.
A lightning stroke received after the main discharge of the lightning,
and caused by a charge induced in neighboring surfaces by the main
discharge. The discharge affects the evenness of distribution of
surrounding surfaces so that a species of secondary discharge is
required to make even the distribution, or to supply charge where needed
to bind an opposite one. The effects are much lese severe as a rule than
those of the main charge, although the back stroke has caused death. The
back stroke is sometimes felt a considerable distance from the place of
the original lightning stroke.

Synonym--Return Stroke.


Back Stroke.
(a) In telegraphy the return stroke of the lever in a telegraph sounder,
striking the end of the regulating screw with a sound distinct from that
which it produces on the forward stroke as it approaches the magnet
poles. It is an important factor in receiving by ear or sound reading.

(b) See Back Shock or Stroke of Lightning.


Balance.
(a) Wheatstone's Bridge, q. v., is sometimes termed the Electric
Balance.

(b) A suspension or torsion balance is one which includes a filament or
pair of filaments to whose lower end or ends are attached a horizontal
indicator often called a needle, or a magnetic needle. (See Torsion
Balance.)

(c) See Induction Balance, Hughes'.

(d) For Thermic Balance, see Bolometer.

(e) See Balance, Ampere.


56   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Balance, Ampere.
A class of electrical measuring instruments due to Sir William Thomson
may be grouped under this head.

The instrument is a true balance or scales such as used for weighing. It
is supported by a torsional wire support in place of knife edges. At
each end it carries a circle of wire through which the current to be
tested is passed. The torsional wire support enables the current to be
carried to these wire rings. Above and below each of these rings are two
similar rings, also connected so as to receive the current. They are so
connected that the current shall go through them in opposite senses.
When a current passes, therefore, one of these rings repels and one
attracts the balanced ring.

The extent of this action measures the intensity of the current. A
sliding weight moving along a graduated scale on the balance is used to
bring the balance beam into equilibrium when the current is passing. The
degree of displacement of this weight gives the strength of the current
in amperes.

These balances are made for different currents. Thus there is a
centi-ampere balance, deka-ampere balance and others, as well as an
ampere balance.


Balata.
A gum used as an insulating material. It is the inspissated juice of a
sapotaceous tree, the bullet tree, Mimusops globosa, of tropical
America, from the Antilles to Guiana. It is intermediate in character
between caoutchouc and gutta percha. It is superior to gutta percha in
some respects, being very slightly acted on by light.

Synonym--Chicle.


B. & S.. W. G.
Abbreviation for Brown & Sharpe Wire Gauge; the regular American Wire
Gauge. (See Wire Gauge, American.)


Barad.
An absolute or fundamental unit of pressure, equal to one dyne per
square centimeter.


Barometer.
An apparatus for measuring the pressure exerted by the atmosphere. It
consists, in the mercurial form, of a glass tube, over 31 inches long,
closed at one end, filled with mercury and inverted, with its open end
immersed in a cistern of mercury. The column falls to a height
proportional to the pressure of the atmosphere from 30 to 31 inches at
the sea level. The "standard barometer" is a height of the mercury or of
the "barometric column" of 30 inches or 760 centimeters, measured from
the surface of the mercury in the cistern.

The column of mercury is termed the barometric column. Above it in the
tube is the Torricellian vacuum.

[Transcriber's note: More accurately, 29.92 inches of mercury or 14.696
PSI.]


Bars of Commutators.
The metal segments of a commutator of a dynamo or motor. They are made
of bars of copper, brass or bronze insulated from one another. (See
Commutator.)

Synonyms--Segments, Commutator Segments, Commutator Bars.


57 STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Bath.
(a) In electro-plating the solution used for depositing metal as
contained in a vat or tank; as a silver, copper, or nickel bath used for
plating articles with silver, copper, or nickel respectively.

(b) In electro-therapeutics a bath with suitable arrangements,
electrodes and connections for treating patients with electricity. It is
termed an electric bath or electro-therapeutic bath.


Bath, Bipolar Electric.
In electro-therapeutics a bath in which the electrodes are both immersed
in the water. The patient placed between them receives part of the
discharge. The electrodes are large copper plates, termed shovel
electrodes.


Bath, Electric Shower.
An electro-medical shower bath. The patient is placed on a metallic
stove or support connected to one of the electric terminals. Water
slightly alkaline is showered upon him. The other electrode is in
connection with the water. The rain of drops and streamlets is the
conductor of the current or discharge.


Bath, Multipolar Electric.
An electro-medical bath with a number of electrodes instead of two.


Bath, Stripping.
In electro-plating a solution used for dissolving and thus removing the
plating from any object. The stripping bath is of the same general type
as the plating bath for the same metal as the one to be dissolved. The
object to be "stripped" is made the anode of a plating circuit, and as
the current acts the old plating is attacked and dissolves, leaving the
body of the article bare. It is simply the operation of plating
reversed. The same term is applied to baths acting by simple solution.
Stripping baths are described under the different metals as Silver Bath,
Stripping--Gold Bath, Stripping.


Bath, Unipolar Electric.
An electro-medical bath, in which only one electrode connects with the
water of the bath. The second electrode is supported above the bath. The
patient touches this while in the water whenever electric action is
desired.



FIG. 36. THREE WIRE MOULDING OR BATTEN.



FIG. 37. TWO WIRE MOULDING OR BATTEN.


58   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Batten.
A strip of wood grooved longitudinally for holding wires in wiring
apartments for electric light or power. In use they are fastened to the
wall, grooves inward, or else grooves outward, with the wires lying in
the grooves and covered with the covering strip. For two wire work each
batten contains two grooves; for the three wire system it contains three
grooves.

Synonym--Moulding.


Battery.
A combination of parts or elements for the production of electrical
action. The term is principally applied to voltaic batteries, but there
are also magnetic batteries, batteries of Leyden jars, and other
combinations, described in their places, which come under this category.

[Transcriber's note: A group of similar items such as questions,
machines, parts, guns, or electric cells.]


Battery, Acetic Acid.
A battery whose active solution or excitant is acetic acid or vinegar.
This acid has been used by Pulvermacher in his medical battery, as being
a substance found in every household in the form of vinegar. It is now
but little used.


Battery, Alum.
A battery using as excitant a solution of alum. This battery has had
some application for electric clocks, but only to a limited extent.



Fig. 38. BALLOON OR FLASK BATTERY.


Battery, Aluminum.
A battery in which aluminum is the negative plate and aluminum sulphate
the excitant. It is mounted like the gravity battery. Its electro-motive
force is 0.2 volt.


59  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Bagration.
A battery with zinc and carbon electrodes immersed in earth sprinkled
with sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). The copper is preferably first
immersed in sal ammoniac solution and dried, until a green layer is
formed on its surface.

The battery is highly praised for its constancy by De la Rive, but may
be regarded as obsolete.


Battery, Balloon.
A form of gravity battery into whose centre a globular flask, B, is
inverted, which is filled before inversion with copper sulphate, of
which 2 lbs. are used, and water, so as to remain full. This acts as a
reservoir of copper sulphate, which it constantly supplies. The glass
jar is closed with a perforated wooden cover.


Battery, Banked.
(a) A battery arranged to feed a number of separate circuits.

(b) A battery connected in parallel or in multiple arc.


Battery, Bichromate.
A battery with amalgamated zinc and carbon plates, with an exciting
fluid composed of sulphuric acid, water, and potassium bichromate. For
formula of such solutions see Electropoion Fluid--Kookogey's
Solution--Poggendorff's Solution--Trouvé's Solution--Delaurier's
Solution, and others. (See Index.)


Battery, Bunsen.
A two fluid porous cell battery. The negative plate is carbon, the
positive plate, amalgamated zinc. The depolarizer is nitric acid or
electropoion fluid, q.v., in which the carbon is immersed. The last
named depolarizer or some equivalent chromic acid depolarizing mixture
is now universally used.  The excitant is a dilute solution of sulphuric
acid. Originally the carbon was made cylindrical in shape and surrounded
the porous cups, in which the zinc was placed. This disposition is now
generally reversed. The electro-motive force is 1.9 volts. The
depolarizing solution is placed in the compartment with the carbon. The
excitant surrounds the zinc.



Fig. 39. BUNSEN'S BATTERY.


60   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Cadmium.
A battery in which cadmium is the negative plate, sulphate of cadmium
solution the excitant and depolarizer, and zinc the positive plate.
Electro-motive force, .31 volt or about one third of a Daniell cell. It
is mounted like a gravity battery.


Battery, Callan.
A modification of Grove's battery. Platinized lead is used for the
negative plate, and as a depolarizer a mixture of 4 parts concentrated
sulphuric acid, 2 parts of nitric acid, and 2 parts of a saturated
solution of potassium nitrate. (See Battery, Grove's.)


Battery, Camacho's.
A battery with carbon negative and amalgamated zinc positive electrodes.
The carbon is contained in a porous cup, packed with loose carbon.
Electropoion or other fluid of that type serves as excitant and
depolarizer, and is delivered as shown from cell to cell by syphons.



Fig. 40. CAMACHO'S BATTERY.


Battery, Carré's.
A Daniell battery for whose porous cup a vessel or species of sack made
of parchment paper is substituted. The battery has been used for
electric light, and has been run for 200 successive hours, by replacing
every 24 hours part of the zinc sulphate solution by water.


61  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Cautery.
A battery used for heating a platinum wire or other conductor used for
cauterization in electro-therapeutics. The term is descriptive, not
generic.


Battery, Chloric Acid.
A battery of the Bunsen type in which an acidulated solution of
potassium chlorate is used as depolarizer.


Battery, Chloride of Lime.
A battery in which bleaching powder is the excitant. The zinc electrode
is immersed in a strong solution of salt, the carbon in a porous vessel
is surrounded with fragments of carbon and is packed with chloride of
lime (bleaching powder). There is no action on open circuit. It has to
be hermetically sealed on account of the odor. Its electro-motive force
is--initial, 1.65 volts; regular, 1.5 volts.

Synonym--Niaudet's Battery.


Battery, Chromic Acid.
Properly a battery in which chromic acid is used as a depolarizer. It
includes the bichromate battery. (See Battery, Bichromate.)


Battery, Closed Circuit.
A battery adapted by its construction to maintain a current on a closed
circuit for a long time without sensible polarization. The term is
merely one of degree, for any battery becomes exhausted sooner or later.
As examples the Grove, Bunsen or Daniell batteries may be cited.


62   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 41. COLUMN BATTERY.


Battery, Column.
The original Volta's pile. It consists of a series of compound circular
plates, the upper or lower half, A, copper; the other, Z, of zinc.
Between each pair of plates some flannel or cloth, u, u, is laid, which
is saturated with dilute acid. As shown in the cut, the parts are laid
up in two piles, connected at the top with a bar, c, c, and with vessels
of acidulated water, b, b, as electrodes. The great point in setting it
up is to be sure that no acid runs from one disc of flannel to the next
over the outside of the plates, as this would create a short circuit.
The plates are best compound, being made up of a zinc and a copper plate
soldered together. They may, however, be separate, and merely laid one
on the other. In such case great care must be taken to admit no acid
between them.

Volta's pile is no longer used, except occasionally. Trouvé's blotting
paper battery (see Battery, Trouvé's) is a relic of it, and the same is
to be said for Zamboni's dry pile.

It rapidly polarizes, the flannel retains but little acid, so that it is
soon spent, and it is very troublesome to set up. Great care must be
taken to have the cloth discs thoroughly saturated, and wrung out to
avoid short circuiting by squeezing out of the acid.


Battery, D'Arsonval's.
A battery of the Bunsen type, differing therefrom in the solutions. As
excitant in which the zinc electrode is immersed, the following solution
is used:

Water, 20 volumes;
Sulphuric Acid (purified by shaking with a little olive or similar oil),
1 volume;
hydrochloric acid, 1 volume.

As polarizer in which the carbon is immersed the following is used:

Nitric acid, 1 volume;
hydrochloric acid, 1 volume;
water acidulated with 1/20th sulphuric acid, 2 volumes.


Battery, de la Rue.
A battery with zinc positive and silver negative electrode; the
depolarizer is silver chloride; the excitant common salt or ammonium
chloride. The cut shows one of its forms of construction.

The right hand portion of the cut, Fig. 42, shows the zinc perforated at
C for the connection from the next silver plate. The next to it is the
negative electrode of silver around which a mass of silver chloride is
cast in cylindrical form. A is a parchment paper cylinder with two holes
near its top, through which the silver wire of the negative electrode is
threaded, as shown in B. A solution of 23 parts ammonium chloride in
1,000 parts of water is the approved excitant. Its electro-motive force
is 1.03 volts.

The jars are closed with paraffin.



Fig. 42. DE LA RUE'S BATTERY.


63   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Dry.
(a) A form of open circuit battery in which the solutions by a mass of
zinc oxychloride, gypsum, or by a gelatinous mass such as gelatinous
silica, or glue jelly, are made practically solid. Numbers of such have
been patented, and have met with considerable success.

(b) Zamboni's dry pile, q. v., is sometimes termed a dry battery.


Battery, Element of.
A term applied sometimes to a single plate, sometimes to the pair of
plates, positive and negative, of the single couple.


Battery, Faradic.
A term applied, not very correctly however, to apparatus for producing
medical faradic currents. It may be an induction coil with battery, or a
magneto-generator worked by hand.


Battery, Ferric Chloride.
A battery of the Bunsen type, in which a solution of perchloride of iron
(ferric chloride) is used for the depolarizing agent. A little bromine
is added with advantage. The depolarizing agent recuperates on standing,
by oxidation from the oxygen of the air.


Battery, Fuller's.
A battery of the Bunsen type. The zinc plate is short and conical, and
rests in the porous jar into which some mercury is poured. An insulated
copper wire connects with the zinc. A plate of carbon is in the outer
jar. The solutions are used as in the Bunsen battery.

Synonym--Mercury Bichromate Battery.


Battery, Gas.
(a) A battery whose action depends on the oxidation of hydrogen as its
generating factor. It was invented by Grove. Plates of platinum are
immersed in cups of dilute acid, arranged as if they were plates of zinc
and carbon, in an ordinary battery. Each plate is surrounded by a glass
tube sealed at the top. The plates are filled with acid to the tops.
Through the top the connection is made. A current from another battery
is then passed through it, decomposing the water and surrounding the
upper part of one set of plates with an atmosphere of oxygen and of the
other with hydrogen. Considerable quantities of these gasses are also
occluded by the plates. On now connecting the terminals of the battery,
it gives a current in the reverse direction of that of the charging
current.

This battery, which is experimental only, is interesting as being the
first of the storage batteries.

(b) Upward's Chlorine Battery and any battery of that type (see Battery,
Upward's,) is sometimes termed a gas battery.


64   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery Gauge.
A pocket or portable galvanometer for use in testing batteries and
connections.


Battery, Gravity.
A battery of the Daniell type, in which the porous cup is suppressed and
the separation of the fluids is secured by their difference in specific
gravity. A great many forms have been devised, varying only in details.
The copper plate, which is sometimes disc shaped, but in any case of
inconsiderable height, rests at the bottom of the jar. Near the top the
zinc plate, also flat or of slight depth, is supported. As exciting
liquid a strong solution of copper sulphate lies at the bottom of the
jar. This is overlaid by a solution of zinc sulphate, or sodium
sulphate, which must be of considerably less specific gravity than that
of the copper sulphate solution. In charging the jar one-tenth of a
saturated solution of zinc sulphate mixed with water is sometimes used
as the upper fluid. This may be first added so as to half fill the jar.
The strong solution of copper sulphate may then be added with a syphon
or syringe underneath the other so as to raise it up. From time to time
copper sulphate in crystals are dropped into the jar. They sink to the
bottom and maintain the copper sulphate solution in a state of
saturation.



Fig. 43. GRAVITY BATTERY OF THE TROUVÉ-CALLAUD TYPE.


If the battery is left on open circuit the liquids diffuse, and metallic
copper precipitates upon the zincs. This impairs its efficiency and
creates local action. As long as the battery is kept at work on closed
circuit work but little deposition, comparatively speaking, occurs.

From time to time, in any case, the zinc plates are removed and scraped,
so as to remove the copper which inevitably forms on their surface. Care
must be taken that the zinc sulphate solution, which is constantly
increasing in strength, does not get so strong as to become of as high
specific gravity as the copper sulphate solution. From time to time some
of the upper solution is therefore removed with a syphon or syringe and
replaced with water. An areometer is useful in running this battery.


65  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Grenet.
A plunge battery with zinc positive and carbon negative electrodes.
Electropoion or other chromic acid or bichromate solution is used as
depolarizer and excitant. The zinc plate alone is plunged into and
withdrawn from the solution.



Fig. 44. GRENET'S BATTERY.



Fig. 45. GROVE'S BATTERY.


Battery, Grove's.
A two fluid galvanic battery. A porous cup has within it a riband of
platinum, which is the negative plate; amalgamated zinc in the outer jar
is the positive plate. Dilute sulphuric acid (10 per cent. solution) is
placed in the outer jar, and strong nitric acid (40° B.) as a
depolarizer in the porous cups. Its E. M. F. is 1.96 volts.

It is objectionable, as it gives off corrosive nitrous fumes. These are
produced by the oxidation of the nascent hydrogen by the nitric acid, by
the following reaction:

3 H + H N O3 = 2 H2 O + N O. There are other reactions, one of which
results in the formation of ammonia by the reduction of the nitric acid
radical by the hydrogen. Ammonium can be detected in the spent liquids.


66   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Hydrochloric Acid.
A battery in which hydrochloric acid is used as the excitant. Many
attempts have been made to use this acid in batteries, but the volatile
nature of the acid causes the production of so much odor with corrosive
fumes that it has never come into use.


Battery, Lead Chloride.
A battery of the lead sulphate type in which lead chloride is the
depolarizer. It has had no extended use.


Battery, Lead Sulphate.
A battery similar to Marié Davy's battery or the gravity battery, but
using lead sulphate as depolarizer and excitant. Lead, copper or tin is
the material of the negative plate. Becquerel used the lead sulphate as
a solid cylindrical mass surrounding a lead rod 1/5 to 1/4 inch in
diameter. One part of common salt may be mixed with 5 parts of the lead
sulphate. The electro-motive force is about 0.5 volt. The resistance is
very high.


Battery, Leclanché.
An open circuit battery with porous cup. In the outer jar is a zinc rod;
a carbon plate is placed in the porous cup. The latter is packed with a
mixture of clean powdered manganese binoxide as depolarizer, and
graphite in equal volumes. A strong solution of ammonium chloride (sal
ammoniac) is placed in the outer jar. It is only used on open circuit
work. Its electromotive force is 1.48 volts, when not polarized.

The reaction is supposed to be about the following:

2 N H4 Cl + 2 Mn O2 + Zn = Zn Cl2 + 2 N H3 + H2 0 + M2 O3

The battery rapidly weakens on open circuit, but quickly recuperates.
There is another form of this battery, termed the agglomerate battery.
(See Battery, Leclanché Agglomerate.)



Fig. 46. LECLANCHÉ BATTERY.


Battery, Leclanché Agglomerate.
A form of the Leclanché in which the porous jar is suppressed. Cakes
made of a mixture of carbon, 52 parts; manganese binoxide, 40 parts; gum
lac, 5 parts; potassium bisulphate, 3 parts, compressed at 300
atmospheres, at a temperature of 100° C. (212° F.), are fastened by
India rubber bands or otherwise against the carbon plate. These
constitute the depolarizer. Various shapes are given the carbon and
depolarizing agglomerates.


Battery, Local.
A battery supplying a local circuit (see Circuit. Local). The current is
governed by the relay situated on the main line and operated by its
current.


Battery, Main.
The battery used in operating the main line. It is usually applied to
telegraphy. Its function is then to supply current for working relays,
which in turn actuate the local circuits.

Main and local circuits and batteries are also used in the automatic
block system of railroad signalling.


67  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Marié Davy's.
A two fluid porous cup battery with carbon negative plate, zinc positive
plate, and mercury sulphate, a nearly insoluble salt, as depolarizer and
excitant. Mercurous or mercuric sulphates have been used in it. Its
electromotive force is 1.5 volts. The local action and waste, owing to
the slight solubility of the mercury compounds, is very slight. If used
on close circuit it becomes polarized. It is also subject under extreme
circumstances to reversal of polarity, zinc becoming deposited upon the
carbon, and there forming a positive electrode.

In using the cells in series the level of liquid in all must be the
same, otherwise the cell in which it is lowest will become polarized and
exhausted.

Modifications of this battery on the lines of the gravity battery have
been constructed.

Synonym--Sulphate of Mercury Battery.


Battery, Maynooth's.
A battery of the Bunsen type, with cast iron negative plate. The iron
takes the passive form and is not attacked.


Battery, Medical.
A term applied very indiscriminately to medical current generators, and
to medical induction coils, or to any source of electricity, static or
current, for medical application.


68   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Meidinger's.
A variety of Daniell cell of the gravity type. The plates are
cylindrical. The zinc plate lies against the upper walls of the vessel.
The copper plate of smaller diameter rests on the bottom. A large tube,
with an aperture in its bottom, is supported in the centre and is
charged with copper sulphate crystals. The cup is filled with a dilute
solution of Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate) or with dilute sulphuric
acid.


Battery Mud.
A deposit of mud-like character which forms in gravity batteries and
which consists of metallic copper precipitated by the zinc. It indicates
wasteful action.


Battery, Multiple-connected.
A battery connected in parallel, all the positive plates being connected
to one electrode, and all the negative to another.


Battery, Nitric Acid.
A battery in which nitric acid is used as the excitant. Owing to its
cost and volatility this acid has been but little used in batteries,
other than as a depolarizer. In Grove's battery (see Battery, Grove's)
it has been thus used.


Battery of Dynamos.
A number of dynamos may be arranged to supply the same circuit. They are
then sometimes termed as above, a Dynamo Battery. They may be arranged
in series or in parallel or otherwise combined.


Battery of Leyden Jars.
To produce the quantity effect of a single large Leyden jar with a
number of small ones they are often connected in parallel and termed a
battery. In such case the inner coatings are all connected by regular
bar conductors, and the outside coatings are also all in connection.
They are conveniently placed in a box or deep tray whose inner surface
is lined with tinfoil, with an outside connection for grounding, etc.
The cascade, q. v., arrangement is not so generally termed a battery.


Battery, Open Circuit.
A battery adapted for use in open circuit work. Its main requirement is
that it shall not run down, or exhaust itself when left on open circuit.
The Leclanché battery is very extensively used for this work. Its action
is typical of that of most open circuit batteries. It is without any
action on open circuit. It is very quickly exhausted on closed circuit,
but recuperates or depolarizes quite soon when on open circuit. It is
always in condition for a momentary connection, but useless for steady
work.


Battery, Oxide of Copper.
A battery with zinc positive and iron negative electrodes. The excitant
is a 30 or 40 per cent. solution of sodium or potassium hydrate (caustic
soda or caustic potash). The depolarizer is copper oxide. In action the
copper is gradually reduced to the metallic state. The iron element is
often the containing vessel. The battery is practically inactive on open
circuit.

Its electro-motive force varies from .75 to .90 volt. To prevent the
formation of sodium or potassium carbonate the cell should be closed, or
else the liquid should be covered with mineral oil.

Synonyms--Lalande & Chaperon Battery--Lalande-Edison Battery.


69  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Peroxide of Lead.
A battery in which peroxide of lead (lead binoxide) is the depolarizer.
It is a sort of predecessor of the present secondary battery.


Battery, Platinized Carbon.
A modification of Smee's battery, in which platinized carbon is used for
the negative plates. Before polarization the E. M. F. is equal to that
of Smee's battery. Polarization reduces its electro-motive force
one-half.


Battery, Plunge.
A battery whose plates are mounted so as to be immersed in the battery
cups or cells, when the battery is to be used, and withdrawn and
supported out of the cups when not in use. The object is to prevent
wasting of the plates by standing in the solution. It is a construction
generally used with sulphuric acid--chromic acid solution and
amalgamated zinc and carbon plates.


Battery, Pneumatic.
A battery arranged to have air blown through the solution to assist
diffusion and depolarization. It is a construction applied to chromic
acid or bichromate batteries.


Battery, Primary.
A battery in which the current is supplied by the solution of one of the
plates by the solution. The term distinguishes it from a secondary or
storage battery.


Battery, Pulvermacher's Electro-Medical.
In this battery, the electrodes were zinc and copper wires wound upon
small pieces of wood. Dilute vinegar was used as the excitant, because
it could be found in every household. Formerly the battery had great
success. It is now little used.


Battery, Sal Ammoniac.
Batteries in which a solution of ammonium chloride is the excitant; they
are very extensively used on open circuit work. (See Battery,
Leclanché.)

The crystals formed in these batteries have been analyzed and found to
consist of ammonium zinc chloride, 3 Zn Cl2, 8 N H3, 4 H20.


Battery, Salt, or Sea Salt.
Batteries in which a solution of sodium chloride or common salt is the
excitant, have been largely used, especially for telegraphic purposes.
The Swiss telegraphs use a carbon-zinc combination with salt and water
as the excitant. The batteries are sometimes mounted as plunge
batteries. They are exhausted by short circuiting after some hours, but
recuperate on standing. The zinc is not amalgamated.


70   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Sand.
A battery whose cells are charged with sand saturated with dilute acid.
It prevents spilling of acid. It is now practically obsolete.



Fig. 47. SECONDARY BATTERY.


Battery, Secondary.
A voltaic battery whose positive and negative electrodes are formed or
deposited by a current from a separate source of electricity by
electrolysis. On disconnection the battery is ready to yield a current,
in the reverse direction of that of the charging current. The usual type
has lead plates on one of which lead binoxide and on the other of which
spongy lead is formed. The lead binoxide seems to be the negative
element, and it also acts as the depolarizer. The spongy lead is the
positive electrode. The solution is dilute sulphuric acid of specific
gravity 1.17. The action consists first in the oxidation of the spongy
lead. The hydrogen set free by the reaction, and which by electrolytic
transfer goes to the other plate, reduces the lead binoxide to
protoxide. The sulphuric acid then attacks the oxides and converts the
oxides into sulphates.

The charging process consists in sending a current in the reverse
direction through the battery. If there are several cells they are
arranged in series, so that each one receives the same intensity of
current. An electrolytic decomposition takes place, the lead sulphate on
one plate is reduced to metallic lead, and that on the other plate is
oxidized to lead binoxide. It is then ready for use.


71  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


The plates in a lead plate battery are of very large area per cell, and
are placed close together. Sometimes, as in Planté's battery, large flat
plates are laid together with a separating insulator between them, and
are then rolled into a spiral. Sometimes, the most usual arrangement,
the plates are in sets, the positive and negative ones alternating, and
each cell containing a number of plates.

To secure a good quantity of active material, the plates are sometimes
perforated, and the perforations are filled with oxide of lead. This
gives a good depth of material for the charging current to act on, and
avoids the necessity for a tedious "forming," q. v.

The electro-motive force of such a battery per cell is 2 volts. Its
resistance may only be one or two-hundredths of an ohm. An intense
current of many amperes can be supplied by it, but to avoid injuring the
cell a current far less than the maximum is taken from it.

To charge it, a slightly greater electro-motive force, the excess being
termed spurious voltage, is required.



Fig. 48. SIEMENS' AND HALSKE'S PAPER PULP BATTERY.


72   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.

Battery, Secondary, Plante's.
Plante's secondary battery is one of the earlier forms of storage
battery, but has had much success. Two lead plates, large in area and
close together but not touching, are "formed," by exposure to an
electrolyzing current of electricity in one direction, while they are
immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. This converts the surface of one
plate into binoxide. The cell is then allowed to discharge itself almost
completely, when the charging current is again turned on. This process
is repeated over and over again, until the surfaces of the plates are
considerably attacked, one plate, however, being maintained in a state
of oxidation. After a few days of this operation a period of rest is
allowed between the reversals, which sets up a local action on the
oxidized plate, between the metallic lead of the plate, and its coating
of binoxide. This causes the lead to be attacked, under the influence of
the local couple, and sulphate of lead is formed, which, ultimately, by
the charging current is converted into peroxide. These operations
produce an exceedingly good battery. The process described is termed
forming.

The plates separated by strips of insulating material are generally
wound into a double spiral.


Battery, Siemens' and Halske's.
A Daniell battery of peculiar shape. The copper, C, is at the bottom of
the glass jar, A. The inner jar, K, has the form of a bell, and supports
a mass of paper pulp, which is dampened with sulphuric acid. The zinc,
Z, rests on top of the mass of pulp. The battery is very durable, but of
high resistance.


Battery, Sir William Thomson's.
A form of Daniell battery, of the gravity type. The receptacles are
shallow wooden trays lined with lead. A thin plate of copper rests on
the bottom. The zinc plate is of gridiron shape, and rests on wooden
blocks which support it in a horizontal position above the copper. One
tray is placed on top of the other, the upper tray resting on the
corners of the zinc plate which rise above the level of the top of the
flat vessel. Thus connection is assured without wires or binding posts.
It is charged like a gravity battery. The density of the zinc sulphate
solution should be between 1.10 and 1.30. The circuit must be kept
closed to prevent deposition of metallic copper on the zinc. The entire
disposition of the battery is designed to reduce resistance.


Battery, Skrivanow.
A pocket battery of the De la Rue type, with a solution of 75 parts
caustic potash in 100 parts of water as the excitant. The silver
chloride is contained in a parchment paper receptacle. Its
electro-motive force is 1.45 to 1.5 volts.


Battery, Smee's.
A single fluid combination, with zinc positive plate, and a plate of
silver, coated with platinum black, for the negative plate. The finely
divided platinum affords a surface from which the hydrogen bubbles
instantly detach themselves, thus preventing polarization. The liquid is
a mixture of one part sulphuric acid to seven parts of water. For the
negative plate silver-plated copper, coated with platinum black, is
used. Electromotive force, .47 volt.



Fig. 49. SMEE'S BATTERY.


73  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 50. SPIRAL BATTERY, OR HARE'S DEFLAGRATOR.


Battery, Spiral.
A battery whose plates of thin zinc and copper are wound into a spiral
so as to be very close, but not touching. Dilute sulphuric acid is the
excitant. It is now practically obsolete.

Synonyms--Calorimeter--Hare's Deflagrator.


Battery, Split.
A battery of a number of voltaic cells, connected in series, with their
central portion grounded or connected to earth. This gives the ends of
opposite potentials from the earth, and of difference therefrom equal to
the product of one-half of the number of cells employed, multiplied by
their individual voltage.


Battery Solutions, Chromic Acid.
A number of formulae have been proposed for these solutions. (See
Electropoion Fluid--Kookogey's Solution--Poggendorff's Solution--
Trouvé's Solution--Delaurier's Solution--Chutaux's Solution--Dronier's
Salt--Tissandier's Solution.)


Battery, Trough.
A battery whose elements are contained in a trough, which is divided by
cross-partitions so as to represent cups. A favorite wood for the trough
is teak, which is divided by glass or slate partitions. Marine glue or
other form of cement is used to make the joints tight. For porous cup
divisions plates of porous porcelain or pottery are placed across,
alternating with the impervious slate partitions.


Battery, Trouvé's Blotting Paper.
A battery of the Daniell type in which the solutions are retained by
blotting paper. A considerable thickness of blotting paper lies between
the two plates. The upper half of the thickness of the blotting paper is
saturated with a solution of zinc sulphate, on which the zinc plate
rests.

The lower half of the paper is saturated with copper sulphate solution,
and this rests upon the copper plate.



Fig. 51. TROUVÉ'S BLOTTING PAPER BATTERY.


74   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Tyer's.
A modification, as regards the positive element, of Smee's battery, q.
v. The bottom of the battery jar contains a quantity of mercury in which
pieces of zinc are thrown, and this constitutes the positive element.

A ball of zinc at the end of an insulated copper wire affords the
connection with the zinc and mercury. Its great advantage is that the
smallest scraps of zinc can be used in it, by being dropped into the
mercury. The negative plate is platinized silver; the exciting liquid,
dilute sulphuric acid.



Fig. 52. TYER'S BATTERY.


75  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 53. SECTION OF UPWARD'S BATTERY.



Fig. 54. ELEVATION OF UPWARD'S BATTERY.


Battery, Upward's.
A primary voltaic cell, the invention of A. Renée Upward. Referring to
the cuts, the positive plate. Z, is of cast zinc; it is immersed in
water, in a porous cup, B. Outside of the porous cup and contained in
the battery jar are two carbon plates, C, C, connected together. The
rest of the space between the porous cup and battery jar is packed with
crushed carbon, and the top is cemented. Chlorine gas is led by a pipe,
D, into the outer cell. It diffuses through the fine carbon, dissolves
in the water, and so finds its way to the zinc, which it attacks,
directly combining therewith, and forming zinc chloride (Zn + 2 Cl = Zn
Cl 2). Such of the chlorine as is not absorbed finds its way by an outlet
tube, E, to the next cell. Arrangements are provided for generating
chlorine gas as required. The high specific gravity of the gas is
utilized in regulating its distribution through the cells. The
electro-motive force of the cell is 2.1 volts. A cell 11.5 by 5.5 inches
and 12.5 inches deep has a resistance of 0.2 ohm.

An overflow pipe, F, with faucet, T, is supplied to withdraw the
solution of zinc chloride as it accumulates.


76   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Varley's.
A Daniell battery of the Siemens' and Halske's type (see Battery,
Siemens' and Halske's), in which zinc oxide is substituted for the paper
pulp of the other battery. It has been very little used.


Battery, Volta's.
The original acid battery. It has a negative electrode of copper, a
positive electrode of zinc; the excitant is sulphuric acid diluted with
sixteen times its volume of water. It rapidly polarizes, and is very
little used.


Battery, Voltaic or Galvanic.
An apparatus for converting chemical energy directly into electric
energy. This is as broad a definition as can well be given. The general
conception of a battery includes the action of electrolysis, a solution
in the battery acting upon one of two conducting electrodes immersed in
such fluid, which dissolves one of them only, or one more than the
other. The best way to obtain a fundamental idea of a battery is to
start with the simplest. Dilute sulphuric acid dissolves neither pure
zinc nor copper. But it has a far stronger affinity for the first named
metal. If now we immerse in dilute acid two plates, one of pure zinc,
and one of copper, no action will be discernible. But if the plates are
brought in contact with each other a stream of bubbles of hydrogen gas
will escape from the surface of the copper and the zinc will dissolve.
By applying proper tests and deductions it will be found that the copper
and zinc are being constantly charged with opposite electricities, and
that these are constantly recombining. This recombination produces what
is known as an electric current.

To constitute a battery the zinc and copper plates must be connected
outside of the solution. This connection need not be immediate. Any
conductor which touches both plates will bring about the action, and the
current will pass through it.

The easiest way to picture the action of a battery is to accept the
doctrine of contact action. In the battery the molecules of water are
pulled apart. The hydrogen molecules go to the copper, the oxygen
molecules go to the zinc, each one, leaving its contact with the other,
comes off charged with opposite electricity. This charges the plates,
and the continuous supply of charge and its continuous discharge
establishes the current.

The accumulation of hydrogen acts to stop the action by polarization.
Its own affinity for oxygen acts against or in opposition to the
affinity of the zinc for the same element, and so cuts down the action.
A depolarizer of some kind is used in acid batteries for this reason. As
such depolarizer has only to act upon one plate, in most batteries it is
usual to surround such plate only, as far as it is possible, with the
depolarizer. The solution which dissolves the zinc is termed the
excitant or exciting solution.

To this concrete notion of a voltaic battery the different modifications
described here may be referred. Zinc, it will be seen, forms the almost
universally used dissolved plate; carbon or copper forms the most usual
undissolved plate; sulphuric acid in one form or another is the most
usual excitant.

The solution in a voltaic battery is electrolyzed (see Electrolysis).
Hence the solutions must be electrolytes. The sulphuric acid and other
ingredients play a secondary role as imparting to the battery fluids
this characteristic.

It is not necessary to have electrodes of different substances, the same
metal maybe used for both if they are immersed in different solutions
which act differentially upon them, or which act with more energy on one
than on the other. Such are only of theoretical interest.


77  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Water.
A voltaic battery, whose exciting fluid is water. They are used for
charging quadrant electrometer needles and similar purposes. They
polarize very quickly and are of high resistance. Hence very small
plates in large number can be used without impairing their advantage.

Rowland's water battery dispenses with cups and uses capillarity
instead. The zinc and platinum or copper plates of a couple are placed
very close together, while the couples are more distant. On dipping into
water each couple picks up and retains by capillarity a little water
between its plates, which forms the exciting fluid. Many hundred couples
can be mounted on a board, and the whole is charged by dipping into
water and at once removing therefrom. It then develops its full
potential difference.



Fig. 55. SECTION OF WOLLASTON BATTERY.



Fig. 56. PLATES OF WOLLASTON'S BATTERY.


78   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Battery, Wollaston.
The original plunge battery is attributed to Wollaston. He also invented
the battery known by his name, having the disposition shown in the cut,
of zinc Z, surrounded by a thin sheet of copper C; o, o', o", are the
terminals and B, B, the battery jars. Dilute sulphuric acid is used for
exciting fluid.


B. A. U.
Abbreviation for British Association unit, referring generally to the B.
A. unit of resistance.


B. A. Unit of Resistance.
The original ohm used under that name previous to 1884. The Paris
committee of that year recommended as a practical unit what is known as
the legal ohm. (See Ohm, Legal.)
  1  Legal Ohm                 =  1.0112      B. A. Units of Resistance.
  1  B. A. Unit of Resistance  =   .9889      Legal Ohms.
  1  B. A. Unit of Resistance  =   .98651E9   C. G. S. units.


B. E. adj.
British Engineering, a qualification of a set of units, the B. E. units,
having for base the foot and pound. The term is but little used.


Beaumé Hydrometer.
A hydrometer graduated on the following principle:

The zero point corresponds to the specific gravity of water for liquids
heavier than water. A solution of 15 parts of salt in 85 parts of water
corresponds in specific gravity to 15° B., and between that and zero
fifteen equal degrees are laid out. The degrees are carried down below
this point.

The zero points for liquids lighter than water correspond to the
specific gravity of a solution of 10 parts of salt in 90 parts of water.
The specific gravity of water is taken as 10° B. This gives ten degrees
which are continued up the scale.


Becquerel's Laws of Thermoelectricity.
These are stated under the heads, Law of Intermediate Metals and Law of
Successive Temperatures, q. v.


Bed Piece.
In a dynamo or motor the frame carrying it, including often the
standards in which the armature shaft is journaled, and often the yoke
or even entire field magnet core.


Bell, Automatic Electric.
A bell which rings as long as the circuit is closed, having a circuit
breaker operated by its own motion. (See Bell, Electric.)

Synonyms--Trembling Bell--Vibrating Bell.


Bell, Call.
A bell operated by electricity, designed to call attention, as to a
telephone or telegraphic receiver. (See Bell, Electric.)


79  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Bell Call.
A calling device for attracting the attention of any one, consisting of
some type of electric bell.


Bell, Circular.
A gong-shaped bell, whose clapper and general mechanism is within its
cavity or behind it.


Bell, Differentially Wound.
An electric bell, whose magnet is wound differentially so as to prevent
sparking.



Fig. 57. AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC BELL.


Bell, Electric.
A bell rung by electricity. Generally it is worked by a current exciting
an electro-magnet, attracting or releasing an armature which is attached
to the vibrating or pivoted tongue of the bell. It may be worked by a
distant switch or press-button, q. v., ringing once for each movement of
the distant switch, etc., or it may be of the vibrating bell type as
shown in the cut. When the current is turned on in this case it attracts
the armature. As this moves towards the poles of the magnet it breaks
the circuit by drawing the contact spring, q. v., away from the contact
point, q. v. This opens the circuit, to whose continuity the contact of
these two parts is essential. The hammer, however, by its momentum
strikes the bell and at once springs back. This again makes the contact
and the hammer is reattracted. This action continues as long as the
circuit is closed at any distant point to which it may be carried. The
ordinary vibrating bell is a typical automatic circuit breaker, q. v.,
this type keeping up the ringing as long as the circuit is closed. Other
bells have no electric contact and simply ring once every time the
circuit is closed. Others worked by an alternating current ring once for
each change of direction of current.


80   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Bell, Electro-mechanical.
A bell which has its striking train operated by a spring or descending
weight, and which train is thrown into action by the release of a detent
or equivalent action by the closing of an electric circuit. It rings for
any given time after being started.


Bell, Indicating.
A bell which by drop-shutter or other indicator connected in circuit
with it, indicates its number or other designation of its call.


Bell, Magneto.
An electric bell operated by the alternating current from a magneto
generator. It has a polarized armature and no circuit breaker. The
armature is attracted first in one direction and then in the other, as
the current alternates and reverses the polarity of the electro-magnet.


Bell, Relay.
A bell operated by a relay circuit.


Bias.
In polarized relay the adjustment of the tongue to lie normally against
one or the other contact. (See Relay, Polarized.)


81   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 58. RESISTANCE COILS SHOWING BIFILAR WINDING.


Bifilar Winding.
The method followed in winding resistance coils to prevent them from
creating fields of force. The wire is doubled, and the doubled wire
starting with the bend or bight is wound into a coil. The current going
in opposite senses in the two lays of the winding produces no field of
force.


Binary Compound.
A chemical compound whose molecule contains only two elements, such as
water (H2 0), lead oxide (Pb 0), and many others.


Binding.
In a dynamo or motor armature the wire wound around the coils to secure
them in place and prevent their disturbance by centrifugal action.



Fig. 59. DOUBLE BINDING POST.



Fig. 60. BINDING POST, ENGLISH PATTERN.



FIG. 61. WOOD SCREW BINDING POST.


Binding Posts or Screws.
Arrangements for receiving the loose end of a wire of an electric
circuit, and securing such end by a screw. Several constructions are
used, as shown here. Sometimes the wire is passed through a hole, and a
screw tapped in at right angles to the hole is screwed down upon the
wire. Sometimes the wire is clamped between two shoulders, one on the
screw, the other on the post. The screw is often a flat-headed thumb
screw or has a milled edge. Sometimes the screw has a slot and is turned
by a screw-driver.

Several openings are often provided in the same post for different
wires.


Binnacle.
The case containing a mariner's compass on shipboard. It is enclosed
completely; it has a glass side or window through which the compass can
be seen, and is provided with one or two lamps arranged to light the
card, while showing as little light as possible outside.


82   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Bioscopy, Electric.
The diagnosis of life and death by the action of the animal system when
subjected to an electric current or electrification.


Bismuth.
A metal, one of the elements, atomic weight, 210 ; equivalent, 70;
valency, 3; specific gravity, 9.9. It is a conductor of electricity.
Relative Resistance, compressed, (silver = 1)   87.23
Specific Resistance,   131.2 microhms
Resistance of a wire
  (a) 1 foot long,  weighing 1 grain,     18.44   ohms
  (b) 1 foot long,  1/1000 inch thick,   789.3  "
  (c) 1 meter long, weighing 1 gram,      12.88   "
  (d) 1 meter long, 1 millimeter thick,    1.670   "
Resistance of a 1-inch cube   51.65   microhms
Electro chemical equivalent,   .7350  (Hydrogen = .0105)
(See Thermo-electric Series.)



Figs. 62, 63. INCANDESCENT WIRE FUSE.  ABEL'S PATENT.



Fig. 64.  VON EBNER'S FRICTIONAL ELECTRIC MACHINE FOR
EXPLODING ELECTRIC FUSES OR DETONATORS.


Bi-telephone.
A pair of telephones arranged with a curved connecting arm or spring, so
that they can be simultaneously applied to both ears. They are
self-retaining, staying in position without the use of the hands.


83  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Blasting, Electric.
The ignition of blasting charges of powder or high explosives by the
electric spark, or by the ignition to incandescence (red or white heat)
of a thin wire immersed in or surrounded by powder. Special influence or
frictional electric machines or induction coils are used to produce
sparks, if that method of ignition is employed. For the incandescent
wire a hand magneto is very generally employed. (See Fuse, Electric.)

The cuts, Figs. 62 and 63, show one form of incandescent wire fuse. The
large wires are secured to the capsule, so that no strand can come upon
the small wire within the cavity.

The cut, Fig. 64, shows a frictional electric machine for igniting spark
fuses.


Bleaching, Electric.
Bleaching by agents produced or made available by the direct action of
electricity. Thus if a current under proper conditions is sent through a
solution of common salt (sodium chloride), the electrodes being close
together, the salt is decomposed, chlorine going to one pole and sodium
hydrate to the other. The two substances react upon each other and
combine, forming sodium hypochlorite, which bleaches the tissue immersed
in its solution.


Block System.
A system of signalling on railroads. The essence of the system consists
in having signal posts or stations all along the road at distances
depending on the traffic. The space between each two signal posts is
termed a block. From the signal posts the trains in day time are
signalled by wooden arms termed semaphores, and at night by lanterns.
The arms may be moved by hand or by automatic mechanism depending in
part on electricity for carrying out its functions. Thus in the
Westinghouse system the semaphores are moved by pneumatic cylinders and
pistons, whose air valves are opened and shut by the action of solenoid
magnets, q. v. The current of these magnets is short circuited by
passing trains, so as to let the valves close as the train passes the
signal post. The block system causes the semaphore to be set at "danger"
or "caution," as the train enters the next block. Then the following
train is not allowed to enter the block until the safety signal is
shown. The Westinghouse system provides for two semaphores on a post,
one indicating "danger" as long as the train is on the next block; the
other indicating "caution" as long as the train is on the next two
blocks. The rails form part of the circuit, their joints being bridged
by copper wire throughout the block, and being insulated where the
blocks meet.


Block Wire.
In the block system a wire connecting adjacent block-signal towers or
semaphore poles.


Blow-pipe.
A name sometimes given to an electric experiment illustrating the
repulsion of electrified air particles from a point held at high
relative potential. A metallic point, placed on the prime conductor of
an electric friction or influence machine, becomes highly electrified,
and the air becoming excited is repelled and acts upon the candle flame.
If the candle is placed on the conductor and a point held towards it the
repulsion is still away from the point.


84   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Blow-pipe, Electric Arc.
A name sometimes given to devices for using the voltaic arc to produce
local heating effects. The directive action of the magnet may be used to
force out the arc like a blow-pipe flame, or a blast of air may be
directly applied for the same purpose.


Blue-stone.
A trade name for crystallized copper sulphate, used in Daniell's and
gravity batteries.


Boat, Electric.
A boat propelled by electricity. The electricity drives a motor which
actuates a screw propeller. The current is generally supplied by a
storage battery. When used on rivers charging stations are established
at proper places. When the boat is used as a tender or launch for a
steam ship, such as a war-vessel, the battery is charged by a plant on
board the ship. From their noiselessness electric boats are peculiarly
available for nocturnal torpedo operations, and the universal equipment
of modern war-ships with electric lightning and power plants makes their
use possible at all points. This type is often termed an electric
launch, and most or all electric boats fall under this category.


Bobbins.
A spool of wood or other material wound with insulated wire. In a
tangent galvanometer the bobbin becomes a ring, with a channel to
receive the winding. As the ring is not infinitely large compared to the
needle the tangent law is not absolutely fulfilled. It is most
accurately fulfilled (S. P. Thomson) when the depth of the groove or
channel in the radial direction bears to the breadth in the axial
direction the ratio of square root of 3 to the square root of 2 or
approximately 11 : 9


Body Protector.
A metallic short circuit connected with the wrists and lower legs of the
human body, so that if by accident an active circuit is grounded by the
hands and body of the workman wearing it, most of the current will pass
through the wire conductors, thus avoiding the vital organs of the body.


Boiler Feed, Electric.
An apparatus by which an electric current acting on an electro-magnet,
or other equivalent device, opens the water supply when the water level
in a boiler sinks too low, and cuts off the water supply as the water
level rises.


Boiling.
In secondary batteries the escape of hydrogen and oxygen gas when the
battery is charged. The bubbling of the escaping gases produces the
effect of boiling.


85  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Boll.
An absolute, or c. g. s., unit of momentum; a gram moving at the rate of
one centimeter per second; a gram-kine (see Kine); a unit proposed by
the British Association.


Bolometer.
An apparatus for detecting small amounts of radiant energy (radiant
heat, so called). A coil suspended by a fine wire or filament so as to
be free to rotate under the effect of force is made up of two parallel
and equal wires, insulated from each other, but connected so that
parallel currents sent through them go in opposite direction through
each. This coil is hung in a strong electro-magnetic field produced by a
large coil surrounding it. When a current passes through the suspended
coil no effect will follow, because the oppositely wound portions
counteract each other exactly. In the circuit with one half of the
suspended coil is an exceedingly thin strip of platinum wire. The other
half of the coil has no strips. Both halves unite after leaving the
coil. If now the strip of platinum is heated its conductivity is
affected and its half of the coil receives less current than the other
half. This disturbs the balance and the coil swings through a small arc.
This apparatus may be made very sensitive, so that an increase of
temperature of 1/1400º F., 9/70000°C. (1/14000º F.) will be perceptible.
Another construction takes the form of a Wheatstone Bridge, q. v., in
whose arms are introduced resistances consisting of bands of iron, .5
Millimeter wide (.02 inches), .004 millimeter (.00016 inch) thick, and
folded on themselves 14 times so as to make a rectangular grating, 17 x
12 millimeters (.68 x .48 inch). The least difference of heat applied to
the grating affects the galvanometer.

Synonym-Thermic Balance.


Boreal Pole.
The south pointing pole of the magnet. (See Austral Pole.)


Bot.
A colloquial expression for the English Board of Trade unit of
Electrical Supply. It is formed of the initials of the words "Board of
Trade." (See Unit, Board of Trade.)


Box Bridge.
A constriction of Wheatstone's Bridge in which the necessary resistance
coils are contained in a single box with plugs for throwing the coils in
and out of circuit, and connections to bring the coils into the
different arms of the system. The cut shows a box bridge. Connections
for the galvanometer, battery wires, and terminals of the unknown
resistance are provided, by which its resistances and the connections
are brought into the exact relations indicated in the conventional
diagram of Wheatstone's bridge. (See Wheatstone's Bridge.)

Referring to the cut, the battery wire, say from the zinc plate,
connects at A1, thereby reaching A, its true connecting point. To B1 one
end of the galvanometer circuit or lead is attached, thereby reaching B,
its true connecting point. To C are connected the other end from the
galvanometer and one end of the unknown resistance. The other end of the
unknown resistance, and the other end of the battery wire, in this case
from the carbon plate, connect to D. At G is an infinity plug, as it is
called. When out it breaks the circuit.

In use after the connections are made the key is depressed and the
galvanometer observed. The resistance is changed until no action of the
galvanometer is produced by closing the circuit when the ratio of the
resistances of the arms gives the proportion for calculating the unknown
resistances.

Synonym--Commercial Wheatstone Bridge, or commercial form of same.



Fig. 65. TOP OF BOX BRIDGE.


86   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Boxing the Compass.
Naming the thirty-two points of the compass in order, and in sequence to
any point called out at random. There are many exercises in the relative
sailing points and bearings that come under the same head. Thus the
direction of two given points being given by names of the compass
points, it may be required to state the number of points intervening.


Brake, Electro-magnetic.
A brake to stop a wheel from rotating. It comprises a shoe, or sometimes
a ring, which by electro-magnetic attraction is drawn against the
rotating wheel, thus preventing it from turning, or tending to bring it
to rest. (See Electro-magnet, Annular.)



Fig. 66. ELECTRIC BRAKE.


87  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Branch.
A conductor branching from a main line. Sometimes the term is restricted
to a principal conductor, from which current is distributed.


Branch Block.
In electric wiring of buildings, a block of porcelain or other material
with grooves, holes and screws for the connection of branch wires to a
main wire. Its functions are not only to afford a basis for connecting
the wires, but also to contain safety fuses. As when a branch wire is
taken off, fuses have to be put in its line, the branch block carries
these also. One end of each fuse connects with a main wire, the other
end connects with one of the wires of the branch leader or wire.

Porcelain is a favorite material for them, as the fusing or "blowing
out" of the safety fuses cannot set it on fire.


Branch Conductor.
A parallel or shunt conductor.


Brazing, Electric.
Brazing in which the spelter is melted by means of electricity; either
current incandescence or the voltaic arc may be used. It is identical in
general with electric welding. (See Welding, Electric.)


Branding, Electric.
A system of branding in which the heat of electrically ignited or
incandescent conductors is used to produce or burn in the marks upon the
surface. For the alternating current a small transformer is connected to
or forms part of the tool.


88   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Brassing.
The deposition of a coating of brass by electrolysis. The plating bath
contains both copper and zinc. As anode a plate of brass is used. The
operation must be constantly watched. The deposition of both metals goes
on simultaneously, so  that a virtual alloy is deposited. By changing
the depth of immersion of the anode the color of the deposit is varied.

As a formula for a brassing bath the following are typical. They are
expressed in parts by weight.

(a) For iron and steel.
I.
  Sodium Bisulphate,                 200
  Potassium Cyanide, 70 per cent.,   500
  Sodium Carbonate,                1,000
  Water,                           8,000
II.
  Copper Acetate,                    125
  Zinc Chloride,                     100
  Water,                           2,000
Add the second solution to the first.

(b) For zinc.
I.
  Sodium Bisulphate,                 700
  Potassium Cyanide, 70 per cent., 1,000
  Water,                          20,000
II.
  Copper Acetate,                    350
  Zinc Chloride,                     350
  Aqua Ammoniae,                     400
  Water,                           5,000
Add the second solution to the first.

Use a brass anode; add more zinc to produce a greenish color; more
copper for a red color. A weak current gives a red color; a strong
current lightens the color. The battery power can be altered, a larger
or smaller anode can be used, or a copper or zinc anode can be used to
change the color of the deposit. The bath may vary from 1.036 to 1.100
sp. gr., without harm.


Break.
A point where an electric conductor is cut, broken, or opened by a
switch or other device, or simply by discontinuity of the wires.


Break-down Switch.
A switch used in the three-wire system to provide for the discontinuance
of the running of one of the dynamos.

By connecting the positive and negative bus wires to one terminal of the
active dynamo, and the neutral bus wire to the other terminal, one
dynamo will supply the current and the system operates like a two-wire
system, but can only be used for half its normal capacity.


Breaking Weight.
The weight which, applied in tension, will break a prism or cylinder, as
an electric current conductor.


89  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Breath Figures, Electric.
If a conductor is electrified and placed upon a piece of glass, it will
electrify the glass in contact with it by conduction or discharge. On
removing the conductor the glass remains electrified. The localized
electrification is shown by breathing gently on the glass, when a
species of image of the conductor is produced by the condensed moisture.
A coin is often used for conductor.


Breeze, Electric.
A term in medical electricity, used to designate the silent or brush
discharge of high tension electricity. As an instance of its employment,
the electric head bath (see Bath, Electric Head,) may be cited. The
patient forming one electrode, being insulated and connected to one of
the conductors, the other conductor, on being brought near his person,
discharges into his body.


Bridge.
(a) A special bar of copper connecting the dynamos to the bus wire, q. v.,
in electric lighting or power stations.

(b) Wheatstone's bridge, q. v., and its many modifications, all of which
may be consulted throughout these pages.


British Association Bridge.
The type of Wheatstone bridge used by the committee of the association
in determining the B. A. ohm; the meter bridge, q. v.


Broadside Method.
A method of determining the magnetic moment of a magnet. The magnet, n,
s, under examination is fixed so that it is at right angles to the
magnetic meridian, M, R, which passes through its own center and that of
a compass needle. From the deflection of the latter the moment is
calculated.



Fig. 67. BROADSIDE METHOD.


Bronzing.
In electro-plating the deposition of a mixture or virtual alloy of
copper and tin. In general manipulation it resembles the operation of
depositing gold and silver alloy, or of brassing.

For bronzing the following bath is recommended:

Prepare each by itself (a) a solution of copper phosphate and (b) a
solution of stannous chloride in a solution of sodium pyrophosphate. For
a, dissolve recently precipitated copper phosphate in concentrated
solution of sodium pyrophosphate. For b, add to a saturated solution of
sodium pyrophosphate solution of stannous chloride as long as the
precipitate which is formed dissolves. Of these two solutions add to a
solution of sodium pyrophosphate which contains about 1.75 oz. of the
salt to the quart, until the precipitate appears quickly and of the
desired color. For anodes use cast bronze plates. Sodium phosphate must
be added from time to time; if the deposit is too light add copper
solution, if too dark add tin solution. (W. T. Brannt.)


90   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Brush.
In electric current generators and motors, the pieces of copper or other
material that bear against the cylindrical surface of the commutator are
thus termed. Many different constructions have been employed. Some have
employed little wheels or discs bearing against and rotating on the
surface of the commutator. A bundle of copper strips is often employed,
placed flatwise. Sometimes the same are used, but are placed edgewise.
Wire in bundles, soldered together at their distant ends have been
employed. Carbon brushes, which are simply rods or slabs of carbon, are
used with much success.

Synonym--Collecting Brush.


Brush, Carbon.
A brush for a dynamo or motor, which consists of a plate or rod of
carbon, held in a brush holder and pressed against the commutator
surface.


Brushes, Adjustment of.
In electric current generators and motors, the brushes which bear upon
the commutator when the machine is in action need occasional adjustment.
This is effected by shifting them until sparking between them and the
commutator is nearly or quite suppressed.



Fig. 68. BRUSH HOLDER.


Brushes, Lead of.
In a dynamo electric generator, the lead or displacement in advance of
or beyond the position at right angles to the line connecting the poles
of the field magnet, which is given the brushes. In a motor the brushes
are set back of the right angle position, or are given a negative lead.
(See Lag.)


91  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Brush Holders.
The adjustable (generally) clutch or clamps for holding the commutator
brushes of a dynamo, which keep them in contact with the commutator, and
admit of adjustment by shifting backward and forward of the brushes to
compensate for wear. They are connected to and form part of the rocker,
q. v. By rotating the latter the brush-holders and brushes are carried
in one direction or other around the commutator, so as to vary the lead
as required.


Brush, Pilot.
A third brush, used for application to different parts of a revolving
armature commutator to determine the distribution of potential
difference between its different members. (See Curve of Distribution of
Potential in Armature.) One terminal of a volt-meter is connected to one
of the regular brushes, A, of a dynamo; the other to a third brush, p,
which is pressed against different portions of the commutator of the
dynamo. The readings of the volt-meter are plotted in a curve of
distribution of potential.



Fig. 69. PILOT BRUSH.


Brush, Rotating.
Brushes for taking off the current from dynamo commutators, or giving
current connection to motors, whose ends are in the form of rollers
which rotate like little wheels, and press against the commutator
surface.


Brush, Third.
A third brush is sometimes provided in a dynamo for regulating purposes.
Applied to a series machine it adjoins one of the regular brushes and
delivers its current to a resistance, to whose further end the regular
circuit is connected. By a sliding connection the resistance is divided
between the third brush circuit and the regular circuit, and by varying
the position of this contact regulation is obtained.

It is to be distinguished from the pilot brush used for determining the
characteristic of the commutator, although based on the same general
principles.



Fig. 70. THIRD BRUSH REGULATION.


92   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Brush, Wire Gauze.
A collecting or commutator brush for a dynamo or motor, which brush is
made of wire gauze rolled up and compressed into shape.


Buckling.
The bending up and distortion of secondary battery plates. It is largely
due to over-exhausting the batteries. Where the E. M. F. is never
allowed to fall below 1.90 volt it is far less liable to occur.


Bug.
Any fault or trouble in the connections or working of electric
apparatus.


Bug Trap.
A connection or arrangement for overcoming a "bug." It is said that the
terms "bug" and "bug trap" originated in quadruplex telegraphy.


Bunsen Disc.
In photometry, the Bunsen Disc is a piece of paper upon whose centre a
spot is saturated with melted paraffin, or a ring of paraffined surface
surrounds an untouched central spot. If placed in such a position that
it receives an equal illumination on each side, the spot almost
disappears. It is used on the bar photometer. (See Photometer, Bar.)

Synonym--Grease Spot.


93  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Buoy, Electric.
A buoy for use to indicate channels or dangers in harbors and elsewhere,
which carries an electric light, whose current is supplied by cable from
shore. It has been proposed to use glass tubes exhausted of air and
containing mercury, which, as moved by the waves, would produce a
luminous effect. A fifty-candle power incandescent lamp is an approved
source of light.


Burner, Electric Gas.
A gas burner arranged for the flame to be lighted by electricity. It
takes a great variety of forms. In some cases a pair of terminals are
arranged near the flame or a single terminal is placed near the metal
tip, the latter forming one of the terminals. The spark is generally
produced by an induction coil, or a spark coil. The gas may first be
turned on and the spark then passed. Sometimes the turning of the gas
cock of an individual burner makes and breaks a contact as it turns, and
thereby produces simultaneously with the turning on of the gas a spark
which lights it.

Another form is wholly automatic. A pair of electro-magnets are attached
below the base of the burner, one of which, when excited, turns on the
gas, and the other one when it is excited turns it off. At the same time
a spark is produced with the turning on of the gas so that it is
lighted. Thus, by use of a automatic burner, a distant gas burner can be
lighted by turning an electric switch. An out-door lamp may be lighted
from within a house.

The increasing use of electric incandescent lamps, lighted by the
turning of a switch, tends to displace electric gas burners. The latter
have been classified into a number of types depending on their
construction.

Burners are sometimes connected in series with leads from an induction
coil. Then the gas is turned on all at once, and a succession of sparks
passed until the gas is all lighted. The ignition is practically
instantaneous.


Button, Push.
A species of switch which is actuated by the pressure of a button. In
its normal position the button is pressed outwards by a spring, and the
circuit is open. When pressed inwards, it closes the circuit. When
released it springs backward and opens the circuit again.

They are principally used for ringing bells. If the latter are of the
automatic type, they ring as long as the button is pressed.

For door-bells and room-bells, the button often occupies the center of a
rosette of wood or bronze or other ornamental piece. Sometimes, as shown
in the cut, they are constructed for use on floors to be pressed by the
foot. The general principle of their construction is shown, although the
method of making the contact varies.

Synonym--Press Button.



Fig. 71. FLOOR PUSH BUTTON.


94   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Burning.
(a) In a dynamo, the production of shifting and temporary arcs between
the commutator and brushes, which arcs produce heat enough to injure the
parts in question.

(b) In electro-plating, a defect due to too strong a current in
proportion to the strength of solution and area of electrodes. This
gives a black or badly-colored deposit.


Bus Rod.
A copper conductor used in electric lighting or power stations, to
receive the current from all the dynamos. The distributing leads are
connected to the bus wires.

In the three-wire system there are three; in the two-wire system there
are two bus wires.

The name is undoubtedly derived from "omnibus."

The bus wires may be divided into positive, negative, and, in the
three-wire system, neutral bus wires.

Synonyms--Omnibus Rod, Wire, or Bar--Bus Bar, or Wire.


Buzzer.
An electric alarm or call produced by a rapid vibration of electric make
and break mechanism, which is often magnified by enclosure in a
resonating chamber, resembling a bell, but which is not struck or
touched by the vibrating parts. Sometimes a square wooden box is used as
resonator.



Fig. 72. BUZZER.


95  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


B. W. G.
Abbreviation for Birmingham Wire Gauge. (See Wire Gauge, Birmingham.)

C.
(a) Abbreviation for Centigrade, as 100 C., meaning 100 Centigrade. (See
Centigrade Scale.)

(b) A symbol of current or of current strength. Thus in the expression
of Ohm's law C = E/R. C indicates current strength or intensity, not in
any fixed unit, but only in a unit of the same order in which E and R
are expressed; E Indicating electro-motive force and R resistance.


Cable.
(a) Abbreviation for Cablegram, q. v.

(b) v. It is also used as a verb, meaning to transmit a message by
submarine cable.

(c). An insulated electric conductor, of large diameter. It often is
protected by armor or metallic sheathing and may be designed for use as
an aerial, submarine, subterranean or conduit cable. A cable often
contains a large number of separately insulated conductors, so as to
supply a large number of circuits.


Cable, Aerial.
A cable usually containing a large number of separately insulated wires,
and itself insulated. It is suspended in the air. As its weight is
sometimes so great that it could not well sustain it, a suspending wire
is in such cases carried along with it, to which it is suspended by
cable hangers, q. v.


Cable Box.
A box for receiving underground cable ends and connecting the separate
wires of the cable to air-line wires. It is often mounted on a pole,
which forms the starting point of the air-line portion of the system.


Cable, Bunched.
A cable containing a number of separate and individual conductors. In
some forms it consists virtually of two or more small cables laid
tangent to each other and there secured. Thus each in section represents
two or more tangent circles with the interstice solidly filled with the
metal sheathing.


Cable, Capacity of.
The electrostatic capacity of a cable. A cable represents a Leyden jar
or static condenser. The outer sheathing or armor, or even the more or
less moist coating, if it is unarmored, represents one coating. The wire
conductors represent the other coating, and the insulator is the
dielectric.

The capacity of a cable interferes with its efficiency as a conductor of
broken or interrupted currents, such as are used in telegraphy or
telephoning. As each impulse or momentary current is sent into the line,
it has to charge the cable to at least a certain extent before the
effects of the current are perceptible at the other end. Then the cable
has to discharge itself. All this creates a drag or retardation.

The capacity of a cable is used to determine the locality of breaks in
the continuity of the conductors. The capacity per unit of length being
accurately known, it is obvious that, if the conductor breaks without
disturbance of the insulator, the distance of the break from the end can
be ascertained by determining the capacity of the cable from one end.
This capacity will be in proportion to the capacity of a mile, a knot or
any fixed unit, as the distance to the break is to the length used as
standard.


96   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Cable Core.
The conductors of a cable. They are generally copper wire. In a
telephone cable they may be very numerous and insulated from each other.
In ocean cables they may be a group of bare wires twisted or laid
together. Sometimes the conductors are arranged for metallic circuits,
each pair being distinguished by special colored windings.


Cable, Duplex.
A cable containing two wires, each with separate insulation, so as to be
virtually two cables, laid and secured parallel and side by side.


Cable, Flat.
A cable, flat in shape, so as to lie closely against a wall or ceiling.


Cablegram.
A message which has been transmitted or is to be transmitted by a
submarine cable. It is sometimes called a cable.


Cable Grip.
A grip for holding the end of a cable, when the cable is to be drawn
into a conduit in a subway. It is an attachment to provide the cable
with an eye or loop. Its end is a split socket and embraces the end of
the cable, and is secured thereto by bolts driven through the cable end.
In drawing a cable into a conduit a capstan and rope are often used, and
the rope is secured to the cable end by the grip.



Fig. 73. CABLE HANGER, CABLE, AND SUSPENDING WIRE.



Fig. 74. CABLE HANGER, OPEN.


Cable Hanger.
When a heavy electric cable is suspended from poles it often would be
unsafe to trust to its longitudinal strength to support or sustain its
own weight unless the poles were very near together. In such case an
auxiliary or sustaining wire is run along with it, and by clips or
hangers the cable is connected thereto at as frequent intervals as seem
desirable. The contrivance may take the form of a strip of metal
surrounding the cable and carrying a hook or eye through which the
supporting wire passes.

Synonym--Cable Clip.


97  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY


Cable Hanger Tongs.
Tongs for attaching cable hangers, q.v. They have long handles so as to
be worked from the ground at the middle of a span.


Cable, Suspending Wire of.
A wire by which an aerial cable is in part or entirely suspended. The
cable, being incapable of sustaining its own weight, is secured by clips
or hangers to a wire, strong from pole to pole immediately above it.
(See Cable Hanger.)


Cable Tank.
A tank in which a submarine cable is coiled away on board a cable-laying
ship, or in the factory on shore for the purpose of testing or
watching its insulation. Sometimes, in order to test it under pressures
approximating to those it will be subjected to in practice, the tank is
closed and the portion of cable within it is subjected to hydraulic
pressure. This represents the pressure it will be exposed to in deep
water.


Calamine.
A mineral; zinc silicate; formula Zn2 Si 03, crystalline system,
Orthorhombic; specific gravity, 3.16-3.9.

The crystals often show strong pyroelectric properties.


Calibration.
The determination by experiment or calculation of the value of the
readings of an instrument, such as a galvanometer or eudiometer. Thus if
a tangent galvanometer has its circle graduated in degrees, a table of
the value of tangents corresponding to every reading occurring in
practice would represent a calibration by calculation. A determination
of the current required to produce each deflection would be a
calibration in the more usual sense. Calibration is generally absolute,
as referring to some fixed unit, but it may be relative, as between two
things both of unknown absolute value.


Calibration, Absolute.
The determination of the absolute value of currents producing given
deflections in a galvanometer, or in other instruments the determination
of corresponding values, as the instrument may be a magnetometer,
quadrant electrometer, or other apparatus.


Calibration, Invariable.
Calibration applicable to specially constructed galvanometers, which is
unaffected by the proximity of masses of iron or field magnets. Such
galvanometers must have a constant controlling field. Such is given by a
powerful permanent magnet, whose field is practically unaffected by the
causes named. Or else, in place of a controlling field, a spring maybe
used to which the needle is attached, and which tends to hold it in one
position.


98   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Calibration, Relative.
The determination of the law connecting the various indications of an
instrument, such as the deflections of the needle of a galvanometer,
with the relative causes; in the case of a galvanometer, the strength of
the currents or the electro-motive forces producing them directly or
indirectly.


Call Bell.
A bell rung by pressing a button or otherwise to call the attention of a
person in a distant place. They can be classified into a great variety
of types according to their uses or construction.


Call Button.
A push button used for ringing a call bell, sounding a buzzer, working
an annunciator and for similar purposes. (See Push Button.)

Synonym--Push Button.


Calling Drop.
In a telephone exchange or telegraph office a drop shutter annunciator,
which falls to call the attention of the operator, notifying him that
the line connected to such drop is to be connected to some other
circuit.


Calorie or Calory.
A practical unit of heat. There are two calories, respectively called
the great and the small calorie, or the kilogram and the gram calorie.
The first is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
one kilogram of water one degree centigrade. The second is the quantity
of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one
degree centigrade.


Calorimeter.
An apparatus for measuring the quantity of heat evolved or produced by
or under different conditions. Dulong's water calorimeter consists of a
water jacket, and by the increase of temperature of the water and
enclosing vessels the amount of heat produced by anything in the inner
vessels is determined. The amount of ice a heated body will melt is
sometimes made the basis of a calorimeter. The expansion of a fluid, as
water, may be used. In the calorimeter shown in the cut the heat
produced in a conductor by the passage of an electric current is caused
to heat water whose temperature is shown by a thermometer immersed
therein. The increase of temperature and the weight of the water give
the basis for a determination of the heat produced by the current.
Knowing the resistance of the conductor immersed, the watts can be
calculated. This gives the bases for the determination of the
heat-equivalent of electric energy. This is but an imperfect
calorimeter, as it constantly would lose heat by the surrounding
atmosphere, and would cease to operate as a calorimeter when the water
was as hot as the wire normally would be, for then it would not absorb
all the heat.



Fig. 75. CALORIMETER.


99 STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Candle.
The generally accepted unit of illuminating power; there are
three kinds in use as standards. (See Candle, Decimal--Candle, German
Standard--Candle, Standard.)


Candle, Concentric.
An electric candle of the Jablochkoff type, having a small solid carbon
inside of an outside tubular carbon, the space between being filled with
refractory material corresponding to the colombin, q. v., of the
ordinary type. The arc springs across from one carbon to the other.


Candle, Debrun.
An arc lamp with approximately parallel carbons. A transverse priming
connects their bases, and the arc starting there at once flies out to
the end.


Candle, Decimal.
A standard of illuminating power, proposed to the Congress of
Electricians of 1889 by Picou. It is one-twentieth of a Viole, or almost
exactly one standard candle. (See Viole's Standard of Illuminating
Power.)

Candle, Electric.
An arc lamp regulated by simple gravity, or without any feed of the
carbons or special feeding apparatus, generally for the production of an
arc light of low intensity. This definition may be considered too
elastic, and the word may be restricted to parallel carbon lamps in
which the arc springs across from carbon to carbon. For the latter class
an alternating current is used to keep the carbons of equal length. They
are but little used now. Various kinds have been invented, some of which
are given here.


Candle, German Standard.
A standard of illuminating power used in Germany. It is a paraffin
candle, 6 to the pound, 20 millimeters diameter; flame, 56 millimeters
high; rate of consumption, 7.7 grams per hour. Its value is about two
per cent. lower than the English standard candle.


100   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Candle Holder.
A clamp for holding electric candles of the Jablochkoff type. The ones
shown in the cut designed for Jablochkoff  candles comprise a pair of
metallic clamps, each member insulated from the other, and connected as
terminals of the circuit. When the candle is placed in position the
metal pieces press against the carbons of the candle and thus convey the
current. Below each member of the clamps is a binding screw for the line
wire terminals.



Fig. 76. JABLOCHKOFF CANDLE HOLDERS.



Fig. 77. JABLOCHKOFF CANDLE.


Candle, Jablochkoff.
An arc lamp without regulating mechanism, producing an arc between the
ends of parallel carbons. It consists of two parallel rods of carbon,
between which is an insulating layer of non-combustible material called
the colombin. Kaolin was originally employed for this part; later, as
the fusion of this material was found to short- circuit the arc, a
mixture of two parts of calcium sulphate and one of barium sulphate was
used. The carbons are 4 millimeters (.16 inch) thick, and the colombin
is 3 millimeters (.12 inch) wide and two-thirds as thick. A little slip
of carbon is placed across the top, touching both carbons to start the
arc. Once started the candle burns to the end, and cannot be restarted
after ignition, except by placing a short conductor across the ends, as
at first. The Jablochkoff candle may now be considered as virtually
extinct in this country. In France at one time a great number were in
use.

To keep the carbons of equal length an alternating current must always
be used with them. Special alternating combinations were employed in
some cases where a direct current had to be drawn upon.


Candle, Jamin.
An arc lamp with approximately parallel carbons, one of which oscillates
and is controlled by an electro-magnet and armature. A coil of wire is
carried around the carbons to keep the arc steady and in place. The
frame and wire coils have been found unsatisfactory, as causing a
shadow.


Candle Power.
The amount of light given by the standard candle. The legal English and
standard American candle is a sperm candle burning two grains a minute.
It should have burned some ten minutes before use, and the wick should
be bent over and have a red tip. Otherwise its readings or indications
are useless. A sixteen candle power lamp means a lamp giving the light
of sixteen candles. The candle power is a universal unit of illuminating
power.


101  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Candle Power, Rated.
The candle power of arc lamps is always stated in excess of the truth,
and this may be termed as above. A 2000 candle power lamp really gives
about 800 candles illumination.

Synonym--Nominal Candle Power.


Candle Power, Spherical.
The average candle power of a source of light in all directions. An arc
lamp and an incandescent lamp vary greatly in the intensity of light
emitted by them in different directions. The average of a number of
determinations at various angles, the lamp being moved about into
different positions, is taken for the spherical candle power.


Candle, Standard.
A standard of illuminating power. Unless otherwise expressed the English
standard sperm candle is indicated by this term. (See Candle Power.)


Candle, Wilde.
An arc lamp with approximately parallel carbons. One of the carbons can
rotate through a small arc being pivoted at its base. This oscillation
is regulated by an electro-magnet at its base, and the carbons touch
when no current is passing. They separate a little when the current
passes, establishing an arc. The regulation is comparable to that of a
regular arc lamp.



Fig. 78. WILDE CANDLE.


Caoutchouc.
India rubber; a substance existing in an emulsion or solution in the
juice of certain trees and vines of the tropics, whence it is obtained
by coagulation and drying. The name "rubber" is due to the fact that one
of its earliest uses was for erasing pencil marks by rubbing. It has a
very high value as an insulator. The unworked crude rubber is called
virgin gum; after working over by kneading, it is termed masticated or
pure gum rubber; after mixture with sulphur and heating, it is termed
vulcanized rubber. If enough sulphur is added it becomes hard, and if
black, is termed ebonite; if vermilion or other pigment is also added to
produce a reddish color, it is termed vulcanite. The masticated gum
dissolves more or less completely in naphtha (sp. gr., .850) benzole,
turpentine, chloroform, ether and other similar liquids.. The resistance
per centimeter cube of "Hooper's" vulcanized India rubber, such as is
used in submarine cables is 1.5E16 ohms. The specific inductive capacity
of pure India rubber is 2.34--of vulcanized 2.94 (Schiller).

Synonyms--India Rubber--Rubber.


102   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Capacity, Dielectric.
The capacity of a dielectric in retaining an electrostatic charge; the
same as Specific Inductive Capacity. 'The number expressing it is
sometimes called the dielectric constant. (See Capacity, Specific
Inductive.)


Capacity, Electric, or Electrostatic.
The relative capacity of a conductor or system to retain a charge of
electricity with the production of a given difference of potential. The
greater the charge for a given change of potential, or the less the
change of potential for a given charge the greater the capacity. The
measure of its capacity is the amount of electricity required to raise
the potential to a stated amount. The unit of capacity is the farad, q.
v. Electric capacity is comparable to the capacity of a bottle for air.
A given amount of air will raise the pressure more or less, and the
amount required to raise its pressure a stated amount might be taken as
the measure of capacity, and would be strictly comparable to
electrostatic charge and potential change. The capacity, K, is obviously
proportional to the quantity, Q, of the charge at a given potential, E,
and inversely proportional to the potential, E, for a given quantity, Q,
or,
  (1) K == Q/E
  and
  (2) Q = K * E,
or, the quantity required to raise a conductor by a given potential is
equal to the capacity of the conductor or system multiplied by the rise
of potential. The capacity of a conductor depends upon its environments,
such as the nature of the dielectric surrounding it, the proximity of
oppositely charged bodies and other similar factors. (See
Dielectric-Condenser-Leyden jar.)

The dimensions of capacity are found by dividing a quantity of
electricity by the potential produced in the conductor by such
quantity.

Quantity ( ((M^.5)*(L^1.5)) / T ) / potential ( ((M^.5)*(L^.5)) / T ) = L.


Capacity, Instantaneous.
The capacity of a condenser when connected only for an instant to a
source of electricity. This is in contrast to electric absorption (see
Absorption, Electric), and is capacity without such absorption taking
part in the action.


103  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Capacity of a Telegraph Conductor.
The electric capacity of a telegraphic conductor is identical in quality
with that of any other conductor. It varies in quantity, not only for
different wires, but for the same wire under different environments, as
the wire reacting through the surrounding air or other dielectric upon
the earth, represents one element of a condenser, the earth, in general,
representing the other. Hence, a wire placed near the earth has greater
capacity than one strung upon high poles, although the wires may be
identical in length, material and diameter. The effect of high capacity
is to retard the transmission of intermitting signals. Thus, when--as in
the Morse system--a key is depressed, closing a long telegraph current
and sending a signal into a line, it is at least very probable that a
portion of the electricity travels to the end of the wire with the
velocity of light. But as the wire has to be charged, enough current to
move the relay may not reach the end for some seconds.


Capacity of Polarization of a Voltaic Cell.
The relative resistance to polarization of a voltaic cell, measured by
the quantity of electricity it can supply before polarization. A
counter-electromotive force may be developed, or the acid or other
solution may become exhausted. The quantity of electricity delivered
before this happens depends on the size and type of cell and other
factors.


Capacity, Residual.
When two insulated conductors are separated by a dielectric, and are
discharged disruptively by being connected or nearly connected
electrically, on removing the discharger it is found that a slight
charge is present after a short interval. This is the residual charge.
(See Charge, Residual.) Shaking or jarring the dielectric facilitates
the complete discharge. This retaining of a charge is a phenomenon of
the dielectric, and as such, is termed residual capacity. It varies
greatly in different substances. In quartz it is one-ninth what it is in
air. Iceland spar (crystalline calcite) seems to have no residual
capacity. The action of shaking and jarring in facilitating a discharge
indicates a mechanical stress into which the electrostatic polarization
of the conductor has thrown the intervening dielectric.


Capacity, Specific Inductive.
The ratio of the capacity of a condenser when its plates are separated
by any substance to the capacity of the same condenser when its plates
are separated by air.

A static accumulator consists of two conducting surfaces separated by an
insulator. It is found that the capacity of an accumulator for an
electric charge, which varies with or may be rated by the potential
difference to which its conductors will be brought by the given charge,
varies with the nature of the interposed dielectric, and is proportional
to a constant special to each substance. This constant is the specific
inductive capacity of the dielectric.

The same condenser will have a higher capacity as the dielectric is
thinner, other things being equal. But different dielectrics having
different specific inductive capacities, the constant may be determined
by ascertaining the relative thicknesses of layers having the same total
inductive capacity. The thicker the layer, the higher is its specific
inductive capacity.

Thus it is found that 3.2 units thickness of sulphur have the same total
inductive capacity as 1 unit thickness of air. In other words, if
sulphur is interposed between two conducting plates, they may be
separated to over three times the distance that would be requisite to
retain the same capacity in air. Hence, sulphur is the better
dielectric, and air being taken as unity, the specific inductive
capacity of sulphur is 3.2.


104   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


The specific inductive capacity of a dielectric varies with the time and
temperature. That of glass rises 2.5 per cent. between 12° C. (53.6° F.)
and 83° C. (181.4° F.). If a condenser is discharged disruptively, it
retains a small residual charge which it can part with later. If a
metallic connection is made between the plates, the discharge is not
instantaneous. Vibration shaking and jarring facilitate the complete
discharge. All this shows that the charge is a phase of the dielectric
itself, and indicates a strained state into which it is brought.

The following table gives the specific inductive capacity of various
substances:

                         Specific Inductive Capacity.
Substance                                         Specific
                                                  Inductive   Authority
                                                  Capacity.
Vacuum, air at about 0.001 millimeters pressure   0.94 about  Ayrton
Vacuum, air at about 5 millimeters                0.9985      Ayrton
                                                  0.99941     Boltzmann
Hydrogen at about 760 millimeters pressure        0.9997      Boltzmann
                                                  0.9998      Ayrton
Air at about 760 millimeters pressure             1.0         Taken as the
                                                              standard
Carbon Dioxide at about 760 millimeters pressure  1.000356    Boltzmann
                                                  1.0008      Ayrton
Olefiant Gas at about 760 millimeters pressure    1.000722    Boltzmann
Sulphur Dioxide at about 760 millimeters pressure 1.0037      Ayrton
Paraffin Wax, Clear                               1.92        Schiller
                                                  1.96        Wüllner
                                                  1.977   Gibson and Barclay
                                                  2.32        Boltzmann
Paraffin Wax, Milky                               2.47        Schiller
India Rubber, Pure                                2.34        Schiller
India Rubber, Vulcanized                          2.94        Schiller
Resin                                             2.55        Boltzmann
Ebonite                                           2.56        Wüllner
                                                  2.76        Schiller
                                                  3.15        Boltzmann
Sulphur                                           2.88 to 3.21  Wüllner
                                                  3.84        Boltzmann
Shellac                                           2.95 to 3.73  Wüllner
Gutta percha                                      4.2
Mica                                              5
Flint Glass, Very light                           6.57        J. Hopkinson
Flint Glass, Light                                6.85        J. Hopkinson
Flint Glass, Dense                                7.4         J. Hopkinson
Flint Glass, Double extra dense                  10.1         J. Hopkinson


105  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Capacity, Unit of.
The unit of capacity is the capacity of a surface which a unit quantity
will raise to a unit potential. The practical unit is the surface which
a coulomb will raise to one volt, and is called the farad, q. v.


Capacity, Storage.
In secondary batteries the quantity of electrical current which they can
supply when charged, without undue exhaustion. It is expressed in
ampere-hours. The potential varies so little during the discharge that
it is assumed to be constant.


Capillarity.
The reaction between liquid surfaces of different kinds or between
liquid and solid surfaces due to surface tension. Its phenomena are
greatly modified by electric charging, which alters the surface tension.
Capillarity is the cause of solutions "creeping," as it is termed. Thus
in gravity batteries a crust of zinc sulphate often formed over the edge
of the jar due to the solution creeping and evaporating. As a liquid
withdraws from a surface which it does not wet, creeping as above is
prevented by coating the edge with paraffin wax, something which water
does not moisten. It also causes the liquids of a battery cell to reach
the connections and injure them by oxidation. The solutions creep up in
the pores of the carbons of a battery and oxidize the clamps. To give
good connections a disc of platinum or of lead is used for the contact
as not being attacked. Another way is to dip the upper ends of the dry
and warm carbons into melted paraffin wax, or to apply the wax to the
hot carbons at the top, and melt it in with a hot iron.


106   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Carbon.
(a) One of the elements; atomic weight, 12. It exists in three
allotropic modifications, charcoal, graphite and diamond. In the
graphitic form it is used as an electric current conductor, as in
batteries and for arc lamp, electrodes and incandescent lamp filaments.
It is the only substance which conducts electricity and which cannot be
melted with comparative ease by increase of current. (See Resistance.)

(b) The carbon plate of a battery or rod of an arc lamp. To secure
greater conductivity in lamp carbons, they are sometimes plated with
nickel or with copper.

(c) v. To place carbons in arc lamps. This has generally to be done once
in twenty-four hours, unless the period of burning is very short.


Carbon, Artificial.
For lamps, carbons and battery plates carbons are made by igniting,
while protected from the action of the air, a mixture of carbon dust and
a cementing and carbonizable substance. Lamp black may be added also.
Powdered coke or gas carbon is mixed with molasses, coal tar, syrup, or
some similar carbonaceous liquid. It is moulded into shape. For lamp
carbons the mixture is forced from a vessel through a round aperture or
die, by heavy pressure, and is cut into suitable lengths. For battery
plates it may be simply pressed into moulds. The carbons are ignited in
covered vessels and also covered with charcoal dust, lamp black or its
equivalent. They are heated to full redness for some hours. After
removal and cooling they are sometimes dipped again into the liquid used
for cementing and reignited. Great care in securing pure carbon is
sometimes necessary, especially for lamps. Fine bituminous coal is
sometimes used, originally by Robert Bunsen, in 1838 or 1840;
purification by different processes has since been applied; carbon from
destructive distillation of coal tar has been used. The famous Carré
carbons are made, it is said, from 15 parts very pure coke dust, five
parts calcined lamp-black, and seven or eight parts sugar--syrup mixed
with a little gum. Five hours heating, with subsequent treatment with
boiling caramel and reignition are applied. The latter treatment is
termed "nourishing." Napoli used three parts of coke to one of tar.
Sometimes a core of different carbon than the surrounding tube is
employed.


107  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


The following are the resistances of Carré's carbons per meter (39.37
inches):

Diameter in     Diameter in  Resistance in Ohms.
Millimeters.    Inches.      @ 20° C. (98° F.)
    1           .039           50.000
    2           .078           12.5
    3           .117            5.55
    4           .156            3.125
    5           .195            2.000
    6           .234            1.390
    8           .312             .781
   10           .390             .5
   12           .468             .348
   15           .585             .222
   18           .702             .154
   20           .780             .125

At high temperatures the resistance is about one-third these amounts. A
layer of copper may increase the conductivity one hundred times and
prolong the duration 14 per cent. Thus a layer of copper 1/695
millimeter (1/17300 inch) thick increases the conductivity 4.5 times; a
coating 1/60 millimeter (1/1500 inch) thick increases the conductivity
one hundred and eleven times.


Carbon, Cored.
A carbon for arc lamps with a central core of softer carbon than the
exterior zone. It fixes the position of the arc, and is supposed to give
a steadier light.

Synonym--Concentric Carbon.


Carbon Holders.
In arc lamps, the fixed clamps for holding the ends of the carbons.


Carbonization.
The igniting in a closed vessel, protected from air, of an organic
substance so as to expel from it all the constituents except part of
the carbon; destructive distillation. (See Carbonized Cloth.)


Carbonized Cloth.
Cloth cut in discs and heated in vessels protected from the air, until
reduced to carbon. The heating is sometimes conducted in vacuo. They are
placed in a pile in a glass or other insulating tube, and offer a
resistance which can be varied by pressure. The greater the pressure the
less will be the resistance, and vice versa.

Carbon Dioxide.
A compound gas, CO2. It is composed of
  Carbon, 12 parts by weight.
  Oxygen. 32  "
  Specific gravity, 1.524 (Dulong and Berzelins).
  Molecular weight, 44.

It is a dielectric of about the resistance of air. Its specific
inductive capacity at atmospheric pressures is
  1.000356 (Boltzmann).
  1.0008 (Ayrton).

Synonyms--Carbonic Acid--Carbonic Acid Gas.


108   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY


Carbon, Volatilization of.
In arc lamps the heat is so intense that it is believed that part of the
carbon is volatilized as vapor before being burned or oxidized by the
oxygen of the air. The same volatilization may take place in
incandescent lamps which are overheated.


Carcel.
The standard of artificial illumination used in France. It is the light
yielded by a standard lamp burning 42 grams (648 grains) of colza oil
per hour, with a flame 40 millimeters (1.57 inch) in height. One carcel
is equal to 9.5 to 9.6 candles.


Carcel Lamp.
The lamp giving the standard of illuminating power. The wick is
cylindrical, giving an Argand or central draft flame. It is woven with
75 strands, and weighs 3.6 grams (55.5 grains) per decimeter (3.9
inches) of length. The chimney is 29 centimeters (11.3 inches) high, 47
millimeters (1.88 inch) in diameter at the bottom, contracting just
above the wick to 34 millimeters (1.36 inch).


Carcel Gas Jet.
A standard Argand gas burner, made with proper rating to give the light
of a definite number of carcels illuminating power. Cognizance must be
taken of the quality of the gas as well as of the burner used.


Carrying Capacity.
In a current conductor, its capacity for carrying a current without
becoming unduly heated. It is expressed in amperes. (See Wire Gauge,
American.)


Cascade.
The arrangement of Leyden jars in series on insulating supports, as
described below.


Cascade, Charging and Discharging Leyden Jars In.
An arrangement of Leyden jars in series for the purpose of charging and
discharging. They are placed on insulating supports, the inner coating
of one connected with the outer coating of the next one all through the
series. The actual charge received by such a series, the outer coating
of one end jar being grounded, and the inner coating of the other being
connected to a source of high potential, or else the same being
connected to electrodes of opposite potentials is no greater than that
of a single jar, but a much higher potential difference can be developed
without risk of perforating the glass of a jar. The difference of
potential in each jar of the series is equal to the total potential
difference divided by the number of jars. The energy of discharge is
equal to the same fraction of the energy of a single jar charged with
the same quantity.

[Transcriber's note: The equal distribution of potential assumes all the
jars have the same capacity. The charge on all jars is the same since
they are in series.]


109  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Case-hardening, Electric.
The conversion of the surface of iron into steel by applying a proper
carbonaceous material to it while it is heated by an electric current.
It is a superficial cementation process.


Cataphoresis.
Electric osmore; the transfer of substances in solution through porous
membranes under the influence probably of electrolysis, but without
themselves being decomposed.


Cautery, Electric.
An electro-surgical appliance for removing diseased parts, or arresting
hemorrhages, taking the place of the knife or other cutting instrument.
The cautery is a platinum wire heated to whiteness by an electric
current, and when in that condition used to cut off tumors, stop the
flow of blood and parallel operations. The application is painful, but
by the use of anaesthetics pain is avoided, and the healing after the
operation is greatly accelerated.

The heated wire of the cautery can be used for cutting operations in
many cases where excision by a knife would be almost impracticable.

Synonyms--Galvano-cautery--Galvano-caustry--Galvano-electric,
do.--Galvano-thermal, do.


C. C.
A contraction of cubic centimeter. It is often written in small letters,
as 100 c.c., meaning 100 cubic centimeters.


Cell, Constant.
A cell which yields a constant and uniform current under unvarying
conditions. This implies that neither the electro-motive force or the
resistance of the cell shall vary, or else that as the electro-motive
forces run down the resistance shall diminish in proper proportion to
maintain a constant current. There is really no constant cell. The
constancy is greatest when the external resistance is high in proportion
to the internal resistance.


Cell, Electrolytic.
A vessel containing the electrolyte, a liquid decomposable by the
current, and electrodes, arranged for the passage of a decomposing
current. The voltameter, q. v., is an example.


Cell, Standard Voltaic.
A cell designed to be a standard of electro-motive force; one in which
the same elements shall always be present under the same conditions, so
as to develop the same electro-motive force. In use the circuit is
closed only for a very short time, so that it shall not become altered
by polarization or exhaustion.


Cell, Standard Voltaic, Daniell's.
A zinc-copper-copper sulphate couple.
Many forms are used. Sometimes a number of pieces of blotting paper are
interposed between two plates, one of copper--the other of zinc. The
paper next the copper is soaked in copper sulphate solution, and those
next the zinc in zinc sulphate solution, of course before being put
together. Sometimes the ordinary porous cup combination is employed. The
cut shows a modification due to Dr. Fleming (Phil. Mag. S. 5, vol. xx,
p. 126), which explains itself. The U tube is 3/4-inch diameter, and 8
inches long. Starting with it empty the tap A is opened, and the whole U
tube filled with zinc sulphate solution, and the tap A is closed. The
zinc rod usually kept in the tube L is put in place, tightly corking up
its end of the U tube. The cock C is opened, which lowers the level of
the solution in the right-hand limb of the U tube only. The tap B is
opened and the copper sulphate solution is run in, preserving the line
of separation of the two solutions. The copper rod is taken out of its
tube M, and is put in place. India rubber corks are used for both rods.
As the liquids begin to mix the mixture can be drawn off at C and the
sharp line of demarcation re-established. In Dr. Sloane's standard cell
two test tubes are employed for the solutions and a syphon is used to
connect them.

Oxidation of the zinc lowers the E. M. F.; oxidation of the copper
raises it. With solutions of equal sp. gr. the E. M. F. is 1.104 volts.
If the copper sulphate solution is 1.100 sp. gr. and the zinc sulphate
solution 1.400 sp. gr., both at 15° C. (59°F.), the E. M. F. will be
1.074 volt. Clean pure zinc and freshly electrolyzed copper should be
used.



Fig. 79 STANDARD DANIELL CELL--FLEMING'S FORM.


110   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Cell, Standard Voltaic, Latimer Clark's.
A mercury and zinc electrode couple with
mercurous sulphate as excitant and depolarizer. The positive
element is an amalgam of zinc, the negative is pure mercury. Each
element, in a representative form, the H form, is contained in a
separate vessel which communicate by a tube. Over the pure mercury some
mercurous sulphate is placed. Both vessels are filled to above the level
of the connecting tube with zinc sulphate solution, and kept saturated.
It is tightly closed or corked. The E. M. F. at 15° C (59° F.) is 1.438.
Temperature correction

(1 -  (.00077 *(t - 15° C) ) )

t being expressed in degrees centigrade (Rayleigh). A diminution in
specific gravity of the zinc solution increases the E. M. F. The cell
polarizes rapidly and the temperature coefficient is considered too
high.



Fig. 80. LATIMER CLARK'S STANDARD CELL.


111   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Cements, Electrical.
A few cements find their use in electrical work. Marine glue,
Chatterton's compound, and sealing wax may be cited.


Centi-.
Employed as a prefix to indicate one-hundredth, as centimeter, the
one-hundredth of a meter; centi-ampere, the one-hundredth of an ampere.


Centigrade-scale.
A thermometer scale in use by scientists of all countries and in general
use in many. The temperature of melting ice is 0º; the temperature of
condensing steam is 100° ; the degrees are all of equal length. To
reduce to Fahrenheit degrees multiply by 9 and divide by 5, and add 32
algebraically, treating all readings below 0º as minus quantities. For
its relations to the Reamur scale, see Reamur Scale. Its abbreviation is
C., as 10º C., meaning ten degrees centigrade.


Centimeter.
A metric system unit of length; one-hundredth of a meter; 0.3937 inch.
The absolute or c. g. s. unit of length.


Centimeter-gram-second System.
The accepted fundamental or absolute system of units, called the C. G.
S. system. It embraces units of size, weight, time, in mechanics,
physics, electricity and other branches. It is also called the absolute
system of units. It admits of the formation of new units as required by
increased scope or classification. The following are basic units of the
system :

Of length, centimeter;
of mass, gram;
of time, second:
of force, dyne:
of work or energy, erg.

See Dyne, Erg., and other units in general.


112   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Central Station Distribution or Supply.
The system of supplying electric energy in current form from a main
generating plant to a district of a number of houses, factories, etc. It
is in contrast with the isolated plant system in which each house or
factory has its own separate generating installment, batteries or
dynamos.


Centre of Gravity.
A point so situated with respect to any particular body, that the
resultant of the parallel attracting forces between the earth and the
several molecules of the body always passes through it. These are
resultants of the relative moments of the molecules. If a body is
suspended, as by a string, the centre of gravity always lies vertically
under its point of suspension. By two trials the point of intersection
of plumb lines from the point of suspension being determined the centre
of gravity is known. The vertical from the point of support coincides
with the line of direction.


Centre of Gyration.
The centre of gyration with respect to the axis of a rotating body is a
point at which if the entire mass of the body were concentrated its
moment of inertia would remain unchanged. The distance of this point
from the axis is the radius of gyration.


Centre of Oscillation.
The point referred to in a body, suspended or mounted to swing like a
pendulum, at which if all the mass were concentrated, 1t would complete
its oscillations in the same time. The distance from the axis of support
to this point gives the virtual length of the pendulum which the body
represents.


Centre of Percussion.
The point in a suspended body, one free to swing like a pendulum, at
which an impulse may be applied, perpendicular to the plane through the
axis of the body and through the axis of support without shock to the
axis. It is identical with the centre of oscillation, q. v., when such
lies within the body.


Centrifugal Force.
The force which draws a body constrained to move in a curved path away
from the centre of rotation. It is really due to a tangential impulse
and by some physicists is called the centrifugal component of tangential
velocity. It has to be provided against in generator and motor
armatures, by winding them with wire or bands to prevent the coils of
wire from spreading or leaving their bed upon the core.


113  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Centrifugal Governor.
The usual type of steam-engine governor. The motion of the engine
rotates a system of weights, which are forced outward by centrifugal
force, and are drawn inwards by gravity or by springs. Moving outwards
they shut off steam, and moving inwards they admit it, thus keeping the
engine at approximately a constant speed. The connections between them
and the steam supply and the general construction vary widely in
different governors.


C. G. S.
Abbreviation or symbol for Centimeter-gram-second, as the C. G. S.
system. (See Centimeter-gram-second System.) It is sometimes expressed
in capitals, as above, and sometimes in small letters, as the c. g. s.
unit of resistance.


Chamber of Incandescent Lamp.
The interior of the bulb of an incandescent lamp. (See Lamp,
Incandescent.)



Fig. 81. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DYNAMO.



FIG. 82. DROOPING CHARACTERISTIC.


Characteristic Curve.
A curve indicating the variations in electro-motive force developed
during the rotations of the armature of a dynamo or other generator of
E. M. F. The term as used in the electrical sense is thus applied,
although the indicator diagram of a steam engine may be termed its
characteristic curve, and so in many other cases. As the amperes taken
from a series generator are increased in number, the E. M. F. rises, it
may be very rapidly up to a certain point, and thereafter more slowly.
To construct the curve coordinates, q. v., are employed. The resistance
of the dynamo and of the outer circuit being known, the current
intensity is measured. To obtain variations in electro-motive force the
external resistance is changed. Thus a number of ampere readings with
varying known resistance are obtained, and for each one an
electro-motive force is calculated by Ohm's law. From these data a curve
is plotted, usually with volts laid off on the ordinate and amperes on
the abscissa.

By other methods other characteristic curves may be obtained, for which
the titles under Curve may be consulted.


114   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Characteristic, Drooping.
A characteristic curve of a dynamo which indicates a fall in voltage
when an excessive current is taken from the dynamo in question. It is
shown strongly in some Brush machines, and is partly due to the
arrangements for cutting out two of the coils as they approach the
neutral line. It is an advantage, as it protects from overheating on
short circuit.


Characteristic, External.
In a dynamo the characteristic curve in which the relations of volts
between terminals to amperes in the outer circuit are plotted. (See
Curve, External Characteristic.)


Characteristic, Internal.
A characteristic curve of a shunt dynamo, in which the relations of
volts to amperes in the shunt circuit is plotted.


Characteristics of Sound.
Of interest, electrically, as affecting the telephone, they comprise:

(1) Pitch, due to frequency of vibrations.

(2) Intensity or loudness, due to amplitude of waves of sound.

(3) Quality or timbre, the distinguishing characteristics of any
specific sound due to overtones, discords, etc., by which the sound is
recognizable from others. The telephone is held by the U. S. courts to
be capable of reproducing the voice by means of the undulatory current.
(See Current, Undulatory.)


Charge.
The quantity of electricity that is present on the surface of a body or
conductor. If no electricity is supplied, and the conductor is connected
to the earth, it is quickly discharged. A charge is measured by the
units of quantity, such as the coulomb. The charge that a conductor can
retain at a given rise of potential gives its capacity, expressible in
units of capacity, such as the farad. A charge implies the stretching or
straining between the surface of the charged body, and some
complimentary charged surface or surfaces, near or far, of large or
small area, of even or uneven distribution.


Charge. v.
(a) To introduce an electrostatic charge, as to charge a condenser.

(b) To decompose the elements of a secondary battery, q. v., so as to
render it capable of producing a current. Thus, a spent battery is
charged or recharged to enable it to do more work.

Synonyms--Renovate--Revivify--Recharge.


115  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Charge, Bound.
A charge of electricity borne by the surface of a body so situated with
reference to another oppositely charged body, that the charge is
imperceptible to ordinary test, will not affect an electroscope nor
leave the surface if the latter is connected to the earth. To discharge
such a body it must be connected to its complimentarily charged body.
The bound charge was formerly called dissimulated or latent electricity.
(See Charge, Free.)

The charge or portion of a charge of a surface which is neutralized
inductively by a neighboring charge of opposite kind. The degree of
neutralization or of binding will depend on the distance of the two
charged surfaces from one another and on the electro-static nature of
the medium intervening, which must of necessity be a dielectric. A
charge not so held or neutralized is termed a free charge. Thus a
surface may be charged and by the approach of a surface less highly
charged may have part of its charge bound. Then if connected to earth.
it will part with its unbound or free charge, but will retain the other
until the binding surface is removed, or until the electricity of such
surface is itself bound, or discharged, or until connection is made
between the two surfaces. Thus a body may have both a bound and a free
charge at the same time.


Charge, Density of.
The relative quantity of electricity upon a given surface. Thus a
charged surface may have an evenly distributed charge or one of even
density, or an unevenly distributed charge or one of uneven density. In
a thunderstorm the earth has a denser charge under the clouds than
elsewhere.

Synonym--Electrical Density.


Charge, Dissipation of.
As every body known conducts electricity, it is impossible so to
insulate a surface that it will not lose its charge by leakage. An
absolute vacuum might answer, and Crookes in a high vacuum has retained
a charge against dissipation for years. The gradual loss is termed as
above.


Charge, Distribution of.
The relation of densities of charge on different parts of a charged
body. On a spherical conductor the charge is normally of even
distribution; on other conductors it is unevenly distributed, being of
greatest density at points, edges, and parts of smallest radius of
curvature. Even distribution can also be disturbed by local induction,
due to the presence of oppositely charged bodies.


116   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Charge, Free.
The charge borne by an insulated body, independent of surrounding
objects. Theoretically it is an impossibility. A charge always has its
compliment somewhere in surrounding objects. As a matter of convenience
and convention, where the complimentary charge is so distributed that
its influence is not perceptible the charge is called a free charge. If
connected to earth the free charge will leave the body. If the body is
connected with an electroscope the free charge will affect the same.
(See Charge, Bound.)


Charge, Residual.
When a Leyden jar or other condenser is discharged by the ordinary
method, after a few minutes standing a second discharge of less amount
can be obtained from it. This is due to what is known as the residual
charge. It seems to be connected in some way with the mechanical or
molecular distortion of the dielectric. The jarring of the dielectric
after discharge favors the rapidity of the action, diminishing the time
required for the appearance of the residual charge. The phenomenon, it
will be seen, is analogous to residual magnetism. This charge is the
reciprocal of electric absorption and depends for its amount upon the
nature of the dielectric. (See Absorption, Electric, and Capacity,
Residual.)

Synonym--Electric Residue.


Chatterton's Compound.
A cement used for cementing together layers or sheets of gutta percha,
and for similar purposes in splicing telegraph cables. Its formula is:
  Stockholm Tar,   1 part.
  Resin,           1 part.
  Gutta Percha,    3 parts.
All parts by weight.


Chemical Change.
When bodies unite in the ratio of their chemical equivalents, so as to
represent the satisfying of affinity or the setting free of thermal or
other energy, which uniting is generally accompanied by sensible heat
and often by light, as in the ignition of a match, burning of a candle,
and, when the new compound exhibits new properties distinct from those
of its components, a chemical combination is indicated. More definitely
it is a change of relation of the atoms. Another form of chemical change
is decomposition, the reverse of combination, and requiring or absorbing
energy and producing several bodies of properties distinct from those of
the original compound. Thus in a voltaic battery chemical combination
and decomposition take place, with evolution of electric instead of
thermal energy.


Chemical Equivalent.
The quotient obtained by dividing the atomic weight, q. v., of an
element by its valency, q. v. Thus the atomic weight of oxygen is 16,
its valency is 2. its chemical equivalent is 8. It is the weight of the
element corresponding to a unit weight of hydrogen, either as replacing
it, or combining with it. In electro-chemical calculations the chemical
equivalent is often conveniently used to avoid the necessity of dividing
by the valency when atomic weights are used. The latter is really the
better practice. The atomic weights in the old system of chemical
nomenclature were chemical equivalents.


117  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Chemical Recorder.
A form of telegraphic recorder in which the characters, often of the
Morse alphabet or some similar one, are inscribed on chemically prepared
paper by decomposition affecting the compound with which the paper is
charged. In the original chemical recorder of Bain, the instrument was
somewhat similar to the Morse recorder, except that the motionless
stylus, S, always pressing against the paper was incapable of making any
mark, but being of iron, and the paper strip being impregnated with
potassium ferrocyanide, on the passage of a current a stain of Prussian
blue was produced where the stylus touched the paper. The current passes
from the line by way of the iron stylus, through the paper, and by way
of a brass surface, M, against which the paper is held and is pressed by
the stylus, to the earth. This recorder is extremely simple and has no
part to be moved by the current. The solution in which the paper is
dipped contains a mixture of potassium ferrocyanide and ammonium
nitrate. The object of the latter is to keep the paper moist. In recent
recorders a solution of potassium iodide has been used, which gives a
brown stain of free iodine, when the current passes. This stain
disappears in a few days.



Fig. 83. BAIN'S TELEGRAPH EMPLOYING CHEMICAL RECORDER.


In the cut, R is the roll of paper, B is a tank of solution with roll,
W1, for moistening the paper; M is the brass surface against which the
stylus, S, presses the paper, P P; W, W are feed rollers; T is the
transmitting key, and zk the battery; Pl, Pl are earth plates. The
apparatus is shown duplicated for each end.


118   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Chemistry.
The science treating of atomic and molecular relations of the elements
and of chemical compounds of the same.


Chimes, Electric.
An apparatus employed to illustrate the principles of the electrostatic
charge, involving the ringing of bells by electrostatic attraction and
repulsion. It is used in connection with a frictional, or influence
electric machine. Two bells are employed with a button or clapper
suspended between them. One bell is connected to one of the prime
conductors, q. v., of the machine. The other insulated therefrom is
connected to earth, or if an influence machine is used, to the other
prime conductor. The clappers are hung by a silk thread, so as to be
entirely insulated. On working the machine the bells become oppositely
excited. A clapper is attracted to one, then when charged is repelled
and attracted to the other, it gives up its charge and becoming charged
with similar electricity to that of the bell it touches, is repelled and
attracted to the other, and this action is kept up as long as the
excitement continues, the bells ringing continuously.



Fig. 84. ELECTRIC CHIMES.


Chronograph, Electric.
An apparatus for indicating electrically, and thereby measuring, the
lapse of time. The periods measured may be exceedingly short, such as
the time a photographic shutter takes to close, the time required by a
projectile to go a certain distance, and similar periods.

A drum rotated with even and known velocity may be marked by a stylus
pressed upon it by the action of an electro-magnet when a key is
touched, or other disturbance. Then the space between two marks would
give the period elapsing between the two disturbances of the circuit. As
it is practically impossible to secure even rotation of a drum, it is
necessary to constantly measure its rate of rotation. This is effected
by causing a tuning-fork of known rate of vibration to be maintained in
vibration electrically. A fine point or bristle attached to one of its
arms, marks a sinuous line upon the smoked surface of the cylinder. This
gives the basis for most accurately determining the smallest intervals.
Each wave drawn by the fork corresponds to a known fraction of a second.

For projectiles, the cutting of a wire opens a circuit, and the opening
is recorded instead of the closing. By firing so as to cut two wires at
a known distance apart the rate is obtained by the chronograph.

Synonym--Chronoscope.


119  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Chutaux's Solution.
A solution for bichromate batteries. It is composed as follows:
  Water,                1,500 parts
  Potassium bichromate,   100 parts
  mercury bisulphate,     100 parts
  66° sulphuric acid,      50 parts.

Circle, Galvanic or Voltaic.
A term for the voltaic circuit; obsolete.



Fig. 85. MAGIC CIRCLE.


Circle, Magic.
A form of electro-magnet. It is a thick circle of round iron and is used
in connection with a magnetizing coil, as shown, to illustrate
electro-magnetic attraction.


120   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Circuit.
A conducting path for electric currents properly forming a complete path
with ends joined and including generally a generating device of some
kind. Part of the conduction may be true and part electrolytic. (See
Electrolytic Conduction.) The term has become extended, so that the term
is often applied to any portion of a circuit conveniently considered by
itself. The simplest example of a complete circuit would be a circular
conductor. If rotated in the earth's field so as to cut its lines of
force a current would go through it, and it would be an electric
circuit. Another example is a galvanic battery with its ends connected
by a wire. Here the battery generates the current which, by electrolytic
conduction, goes through the battery and by true conduction through the
wire. For an example of a portion of a circuit spoken of as "a circuit"
see Circuit, Astatic.


Circuit, Astatic.
A circuit so wound with reference to the direction of the currents
passing through it that the terrestrial or other lines of force have no
directive effect upon it, one member counteracting the other. It may be
produced by making the wire lie in two closed curves, A and B, each
enclosing an equal area, one of identical shape and disposition with the
other, and with the current circulating in opposite directions in each
one. Thus each circuit represents a magnetizing turn of opposite
polarity and counteracting each other's directive tendency exhibited in
a field of force with reference to an axis a c. Another form of astatic
circuit is shown in Fig. 86. The portions C, D, lying on opposite sides
of the axis of rotation a c, are oppositely acted on by the earth's
directive force as regards the direction of their rotation.



Figs. 86 and 87. ASTATIC CIRCUITS.


Circuit, Branch.
A circuit dividing into two or more parts in parallel with each other.


121  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Circuit Breaker.
Any apparatus for opening and closing a circuit is thus termed, but it
is generally applied to automatic apparatus. A typical circuit breaker
is the hammer and anvil of the induction coil. (See Induction Coil;
Anvil.) Again a pendulum connected to one terminal of a circuit may
swing so as to carry a point on its lower end through a globule of
mercury as it swings, which globule is connected to the other terminal.
A great many arrangements of this character have been devised.

Synonym.--Contact Breaker.


Circuit Breaker, Automatic.
A circuit breaker worked by the apparatus to which it is attached, or
otherwise automatically. (See Induction Coil; Anvil; Bell, Electric.)


Circuit Breaker, File.
A coarsely cut file, forms one terminal of an electric circuit, with a
straight piece of copper or steel for the other terminal. The latter
terminal drawn along the teeth makes and breaks the contact once for
every tooth. The movable piece should have an insulated handle.


Circuit Breaker, Mercury.
A circuit breaker which may be identical in principle, with the
automatic circuit breaker of an induction coil, but in which in place of
the anvil, q. v., a mercury cup is used, into which the end of a wire
dips and emerges as it is actuated by the impulses of the current. Each
dip makes the contact, which is broken as the wire springs back. The
mercury should be covered with alcohol to protect it from oxidation.


Circuit Breaker, Pendulum.
A circuit breaker in which a pendulum in its swing makes and breaks a
contact. It may be kept in motion by clockwork, or by an electro-magnet,
attracting intermittently an armature attached to its rod, the
magnet circuit being opened and closed by the pendulum or circuit
breaker itself. A mercury contact may be used with it.



Fig. 88. PENDULUM CIRCUIT BREAKER.


122   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Circuit Breaker, Tuning Fork.
A circuit breaker in which a tuning fork makes and breaks the circuit.
Each vibration of one of the prongs in one direction makes a contact,
and the reverse vibration breaks a contact. The adjustment is
necessarily delicate, owing to the limited amplitude of the motion of
the fork. The fork is kept in vibration sometimes by an electro-magnet,
which is excited as the circuit is closed by the fork. One leg of the
fork acts as the armature of the magnet, and is attracted according to
its own natural period.


Circuit Breaker, Wheel.
A toothed wheel with a spring bearing against its teeth. One terminal of
a circuit connects with the wheel through its axle, the other connects
with the spring. When the wheel is turned the circuit is opened and
closed once for each tooth. The interstices between teeth on such a
wheel may be filled with insulating material, giving a cylindrical
surface for the contact spring to rub on.



Fig. 89--TOOTHED WHEEL CIRCUIT BREAKER.


Circuit, Closed.
A circuit whose electric continuity is complete; to make an open circuit
complete by closing a switch or otherwise is to close, complete, or make
a circuit.

Synonyms--Completed Circuit--Made Circuit.


Circuit, Compound.
A circuit characterized by compounding of generating or receiving
devices, as including several separate batteries, or several motors, or
other receiving devices. It is sometimes used to indicate a circuit
having its battery arranged in series. It should be restricted to the
first definition.


123  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Circuit, Derived.
A partial circuit connected to two points of another circuit, so as to
be in parallel with the portion thereof between such two points; a shunt
circuit.

Synonyms--Shunt Circuit--Derivative Circuit--Parallel Circuit.


Circuit, Electric, Active.
A circuit through which a current passes. The circuit itself need only
be a conducting ring, or endless wire. Generally it includes, as part of
the circuit, a generator of electro-motive force, and through which
generator by conduction, ordinary or electrolytic, the same current goes
that passes through the rest of the circuit. One and the same current
passes through all parts of a series circuit when such current is
constant.

A current being produced by electro-motive force, and electromotive
force disappearing in its production in an active circuit, there must be
some source of energy which will maintain electromotive force against
the drain made upon it by the current.

The simplest conception of an active electric circuit is a ring or
endless conductor swept through a field of force so as to cut lines of
force. A simple ring dropped over a magnet pole represents the
simplification of this process. In such a ring a current, exceedingly
slight, of course, will be produced. In this case there is no generator
in the circuit. An earth coil (see Coil, Earth,) represents such a
circuit, with the addition, when experimented with, of a galvanometer in
the circuit.

In practice, a circuit includes a generator such as a battery or dynamo,
and by conductors is led through a continuous path. Electric lamps,
electrolytic cells, motors and the like may be included in it.

The term "circuit" is also applied to portions of a true circuit, as the
internal circuit, or external circuit. A certain amount of elasticity is
allowed in its use. It by no means necessarily indicates a complete
through circuit.


Circuit, Electrostatic.
(a) A circuit through which an electrostatic or high tension discharge
takes place. It is virtually an electric circuit.

(b) The term is applied also to the closed paths of electrostatic lines
of force.


Circuit, External.
The portion of a circuit not included within the generator.


Circuit, Grounded.
A circuit, one of whose members, the return circuit, is represented by
the earth, so that the earth completes the circuit. In telegraphy each
end of the line is grounded or connected to an earth-plate, q. v., or to
the water or gas-pipes, and the current is assumed to go through the
earth on its return. It really amounts to a discharging at one end, and
charging at the other end of the line. The resistance of the earth is
zero, but the resistance of the grounding or connection with the earth
may be considerable.

Synonyms--Ground Circuit--Earth Circuit--Single Wire Circuit.

[Transcriber's note: The resistance of the earth is high enough that
large power system return currents may produce dangerous voltage
gradients when a power line is shorted to the ground. Don't walk near
downed lines!]


124   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Circuit Indicator.
A pocket compass, decomposition apparatus, galvanometer or other device
for indicating the condition of a wire, whether carrying a current or
not, and, if carrying one, its direction, and sometimes roughly
indicating its strength.


Circuit, Internal.
The portion of an electric circuit included within the generator.


Circuit, Line.
The portion of a circuit embracing the main line or conductor, as in a
telegraph circuit the line carried on the poles; distinguished from the
local circuit (see Circuit, Local,) in telegraphy.


Circuit, Local.
In telegraphy, a short circuit with local generator or battery included,
contained within the limits of the office or station and operated by a
relay, q. v. This was the original local circuit; the term is applicable
to any similar arrangement in other systems. Referring to the cut, the
main line circuit includes the main battery, E, Key, P, Relay, R, ground
plates, G, G1. The relay magnet opens and closes the local circuit with
its local battery, L, and sounder magnet, H, with its armature, B. The
minor parts, such as switches, are omitted.



Fig. 90. LOCAL CIRCUIT OF TELEGRAPH SYSTEM.


Circuit, Local Battery.
A local circuit worked by and including a local battery in its course.


125   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Circuit, Loop.
A minor circuit introduced in series into another circuit by a cut-out,
or other device, so as to become a portion of the main circuit.


Circuit Loop Break.
A supporter or bracket with two arms for carrying insulators. Its use is
to enable a loop connection to be introduced into a line which is cut,
so as to enable the connection of the ends of the loop to be made, one
to each end of the through wire, which ends are attached, one to each of
the two insulators.


Circuit, Main.
The circuit including the main line and apparatus supplied by the main
battery, as distinguished from the local circuit. (See Circuit, Local.)


Circuit, Main Battery.
The main circuit, including the main or principal battery in its course.


Circuit, Metallic.
A circuit in which the current outside the generator, or similar parts,
is carried on a metallic conductor; a circuit without any ground
circuit. The including of a galvanic battery or electro plating bath
would not prevent the application of the term; its essential meaning is
the omission of the earth as the return circuit.


Circuit, Negative Side of.
The side of a circuit opposite to the positive side. (See Circuit,
Positive Side of) It is defined as the half of a circuit leading to the
positive terminal of the generator.


Circuit, Open.
A circuit with its continuity broken, as by disconnecting a wire from
the battery, or opening a switch; a broken circuit is its synonym. To
open a switch or disconnect or cut the wire is termed opening or
breaking the circuit.

Synonyms--Incomplete Circuit--Broken Circuit.


Circuit, Positive Side of.
This side is such that an observer standing girdled by the current with
his head in the positive side or region, would see the current pass
around him from his right toward his left hand. It is also defined as
the half of the circuit leading to the negative terminal of the
generator.


Circuit, Recoil.
The portion of a parallel circuit presenting an alternative path, q. v.,
for a disruptive discharge.


Circuit, Return.
(a) The part of a circuit extending from the generator to the extreme
point in general, upon which no apparatus is placed. In telegraph
systems the ground generally forms the return circuit. The distinction
of return and working circuit cannot always be made.

(b) It may also be defined as the portion of a circuit leading to the
negative terminal of the generator.


126   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY


Circuits, Forked.
Circuits starting in different paths or directions from one and the same
point.


Circuit, Simple.
A circuit containing a single generator, and single receiver of any
kind, such as a motor or sounder, with a single connecting conductor. It
is also used to indicate arrangement in multiple arc, but not generally,
or with approval.


Circuits, Parallel.
Two or more conductors starting from a common point and ending at
another common point are termed, parallel circuits, although really but
parts of circuits. If of equal resistance their joint resistance is
obtained by dividing the resistance of one by the number of parallel
circuits. If of unequal resistance r, r', r" , etc., the formula for
joint resistance, R, of two is

R = ( r * r' ) / ( r + r' )

This resistance may then be combined with a third one by the same
formula, and thus any number may be calculated.

Synonym--Shunt Circuit.


Circuit, Voltaic.
Properly a circuit including a conductor and voltaic couple.

It is also applied to the electric circuit, q. v., or to any circuit
considered as a bearer of current electricity.


Circular Units.
Units of area, usually applied to cross sectional area of conductors, by
whose use area is expressed in terms of  circle of unit diameter,
usually a circular mil, which is the area of a circle of one-thousandth
of an inch diameter, or a circular millimeter, which is the area of a
circle of one millimeter diameter. Thus a wire one-quarter of an inch
in diameter has an area of 250 circular mils; a bar one centimeter in
diameter has an area of ten circular millimeters.

[Transcriber's Note: Area is the diameter squared. A 1/4 inch wire has
62500 circular mils of area. A one centimeter (10 millimeter) wire has
100 circular millimeters of area. Actual area = circular mils * (PI/4).]


Circumflux.
The product of the total number of conductor turns on the armature of a
dynamo or motor, into the current carried thereby. For two pole machines
it is equal to twice the armature ampere-turns; for four pole machines
to four times such quantity, and so on.


Clamp.
The appliance for grasping and retaining the end of the rod that holds a
carbon in the arc lamp.

Clark's Compound.
A cement used for the outside of the sheath of telegraph cables.
Its formula is:
  Mineral Pitch,   65 parts.
  Silica,          30 parts.
  Tar,              5 parts.
All parts by weight.


127  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Cleats.
A support; a short block of wood, grooved transversely, for holding
electric wires against a wall. For the three wire system three grooves
are used. The entire wiring of apartments is sometimes done by the
"cleat system," using cleats instead of battens, q. v., or mouldings.
The cleats are secured against the wall with the grooves facing it, and
the wires are introduced therein.



Fig. 91. TWO WIRE CLEAT.



Fig. 92. THREE WIRE CLEAT.


Cleat, Crossing.
A cleat with grooves or apertures to support wires which cross each
other. Two or three grooves are transverse, and on the under side, as
above; one groove is longitudinal and on the upper side.


Cleavage, Electrification by.
If a mass of mica is rapidly split in the dark a slight flash is
perceived. Becquerel found that in such separation the two pieces came
away oppositely charged with electricity. The splitting of mica is its
cleavage.


Clock, Controlled.
In a system of electric clocks, the clocks whose movements are
controlled by the current, regulated by the master or controlling clock.

Synonym--Secondary Clock.


Clock, Controlling.
In a system of electric clocks the master clock which controls the
movements of the others, by regulating the current.

Synonym--Master Clock.


Clock, Electric Annunciator.
A clock operating any form of electric annunciator, as dropping
shutters, ringing bells, and the like. It operates by the machinery
closing circuits as required at any desired hour or intervals.


128   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Clock, Electrolytic.
A clock worked by the electrolytic deposition and resolution of a
deposit of metal upon a disc. It is the invention of Nikola Tesla. A
metallic disc is mounted on a transverse axis, so as to readily rotate.
It is immersed in a vessel of copper sulphate. A current is passed
through the bath, the terminals or electrodes being near to and facing
the opposite edges of the disc, so that the line connecting the
electrodes lies in the plane of the disc. If a current is passed through
the solution by the electrodes, copper is deposited on one side of the
disc, and as it rotates under the influence of the weight thus
accumulated on one side, the same metal as it is brought to the other
side of the disc is redissolved. Thus a continuous rotation is
maintained. The cause of the deposition and solution is the position of
the disc; one-half becomes negative and the other positive in their
mutual relations.


Clock, Self-winding Electric.
A clock which is wound periodically by an electric motor and battery.


Clockwork, Feed.
In arc-lamps the system of feeding the carbon or carbons by clockwork
whose movements are controlled by the resistance of the arc. This system
is employed in the Serrin, and in the Gramme regulators, among others.
The carbons, if they approach, move clockwork. The movement of this is
stopped or freed by an electro-magnet placed in shunt around the arc
and carbons.


Cloisons.
Partitions or divisions; applied to the winding of electro-magnets and
coils where the winding is put on to the full depth, over single
sections of the core, one section at a time, until the whole core is
filled up.


Closure.
The closing or completion of a circuit by depressing a key or moving a
switch.


Clutch.
In arc lamps a device for the feed of the upper carbons. In its simplest
form it is simply a plate or bar pierced with a hole through which the
carbon passes loosely. The action of the mechanism raises or lowers one
end of the plate or bar. As it rises it binds and clutches the carbon,
and if the action continues it lifts it a little. When the same end is
lowered the carbon and clutch descend together until the opposite end of
the clutch being prevented from further descent, the clutch approaches
the horizontal position and the rod drops bodily through the aperture.
The cut shows the clutches of the Brush double carbon lamp. In practice
the lifting and releasing as regulated by an electro-magnet are so very
slight that practically an almost absolutely steady feed is secured. A
similar clutch is used in the Weston lamp.


129  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Clutch, Electro-magnetic.
A clutch or appliance for connecting a shaft to a source of rotary
motion while the latter is in action. In one form a disc, in whose face
a groove has been formed, which groove is filled with a coil of wire, is
attached to the loose wheel, while the shaft carries a flat plate to act
as armature. On turning on the current the flat plate is attached,
adheres, and causes its wheel to partake of the motion of the shaft.
Contact is made by brushes and collecting rings.

In the cut, A A is the attracted disc; the brushes, B B, take current to
the collecting rings, C. The magnetizing coil is embedded in the body of
the pulley, as shown.



Fig. 93. CLUTCH OF BRUSH LAMP.



Fig. 94. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC CLUTCH.


130   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Coatings of a Condenser or Prime Conductor.
The thin conducting coatings of tinfoil, gold leaf or other conducting
substance, enabling the surface to receive and part with the electric
charge readily. Without such a coating the charge and discharge would be
very slow, and would operate by degrees only, as one part of a
non-conducting surface might be densely charged and another part be
quite devoid of sensible charge.


Code, Cipher.
A code of arbitrary words to designate prearranged or predetermined
words, figures or sentences. The systems used in commerce have single
words to represent whole sentences or a number of words of a sentence.
This not only imparts a degree of secrecy, but makes the messages much
shorter. Codes are used a great deal in cable transmission.


Code, Telegraphic.
A telegraphic alphabet. (See Alphabets, Telegraphic.)


Coefficient.
In algebra, the numerical multiplier of a symbol, as in the expression
"5x," 5 is the coefficient. In physics, generally a number expressing
the ratio or relation between quantities, one of which is often unity,
as a standard or base of the set of coefficients. Thus the coefficient
of expansion by heat of any substance is obtained by dividing its volume
for a given degree of temperature by its volume at the standard
temperature as 0º C., or 32º F. This gives a fraction by which if any
volume of a substance, taken at 0º C., or at whatever may be taken as
the basic temperature, is multiplied, the expanded volume for the given
change of temperature will be obtained as the product. A coefficient
always in some form implies the idea of a multiplier. Thus the
coefficient of an inch referred to a foot would be 1/12 or .833+,
because any number of inches multiplied by that fraction would give the
corresponding number of feet.

[Transcriber's note: 1/12 is 0.0833+]


Coefficient, Economic.
In machinery, electric generators, prime motors and similar structures,
the number expressing the ratio between energy absorbed by the device,
and useful, not necessarily available, work obtained from it. It is
equal to work obtained divided by energy absorbed, and is necessarily a
fraction. If it exceeded unity the doctrine of the conservation of
energy would not be true. The economic coefficient expresses the
efficiency, q. v., of any machine, and of efficiencies there are several
kinds, to express any one of which the economic coefficient may be used.
Thus, let W--energy absorbed, and w = work produced ; then w/W is the
economic coefficient, and for each case would be expressed numerically.
(See Efficiency, Commercial--Efficiency, Electrical--Efficiency of
Conversion.)

The distinction between useful and available work in a dynamo is as
follows: The useful work would include the work expended by the field,
and the work taken from the armature by the belt or other mechanical
connection. Only the latter would be the available work.


131  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Coercive or Coercitive Force.
The property of steel or hard iron, in virtue of which it slowly takes
up or parts with magnetic force, is thus termed ("traditionally";
Daniell). It seems to have to do with the positions of the molecules, as
jarring a bar of steel facilitates its magnetization or accelerates its
parting, when not in a magnetic field, with its permanent or residual
magnetism. For this reason a permanent magnet should never be jarred,
and permitting the armature to be suddenly attracted and to strike
against it with a jar injures its attracting power.

Coercive force is defined also as the amount of negative magnetizing
force required to reduce remnant magnetism to zero.

By some authorities the term is entirely rejected, as the phenomenon
does not seem directly a manifestation of force.


Coil and Coil Plunger.
A device resembling the coil and plunge, q. v., except that for the
plunger of iron there is substituted a coil of wire of such diameter as
to enter the axial aperture of the other, and wound or excited in the
same or in the opposite sense, according to whether attraction or
repulsion is desired.


Coil and Plunger.
A coil provided with a core which is free to enter or leave the central
aperture. When the coil is excited, the core is drawn into it. Various
forms of this device have been used in arc lamp regulators.

Synonym--Sucking coil.



Fig. 95. COIL AND COIL PLUNGER OF MENGIES ARC LAMP.



Fig. 96. COIL AND PLUNGER EXPERIMENT.


132   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Coil and Plunger, Differential.
An arrangement of coil and plunger in which two plungers or one plunger
are acted on by two coils, wound so as to act oppositely or
differentially on the plunger or plungers. Thus one coil may be in
parallel with the other, and the action on the plunger will then depend
on the relative currents passing through the coils.


Coil, Choking.
A coil of high self-induction, used to resist the intensity of or
"choke" alternating currents. Any coil of insulated wire wound around
upon a laminated or divided iron core forms a choking coil. The iron
coil is usually so shaped as to afford a closed magnetic circuit.

A converter or transformer acts as a choking coil as long as its
secondary is left open. In alternating current work special choking
coils are used. Thus for theatrical work, a choking coil with a movable
iron core is used to change the intensity of the lights. It is in
circuit with the lamp leads. By thrusting in the core the self-induction
is increased and the current diminishes, lowering the lamps; by
withdrawing it the self-induction diminishes, and the current increases.
Thus the lamps can be made to gradually vary in illuminating power like
gas lights, when turned up or down.

Synonyms--Kicking Coil--Reaction Coil.



Fig. 97. DIFFERENTIAL COILS AND PLUNGERS.



Fig. 98. BISECTED COILS.


133    STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Coils, Bisected.
Resistance coils with connections at their centers, as shown in the
diagram. They are used for comparing the resistances of two conductors.
The connections are arranged as shown in the coil, each coil being
bisected. For the wires, movable knife-edge contacts are employed. The
principle of the Wheatstone bridge is used in the method and
calculations.


Coil, Earth.
A coil of wire mounted with commutator to be rotated so as to cut the
lines of force of the earth's magnetic field, thereby generating
potential difference. The axis of rotation may be horizontal, when the
potential will be due to the vertical component of the earth's field, or
the axis may be horizontal, when the potential will be due to the
vertical component, or it may be set at an intermediate angle.

Synonym--Delezenne's Circle.



Fig. 99. DELEZENNE'S CIRCLE OR EARTH COIL.


Coil, Electric.
A coil of wire used to establish a magnetic field by passing a current
through it. The wire is either insulated, or so spaced that its
convolutions do not touch.


Coil, Flat.
A coil whose windings all lie in one plane, making a sort of disc, or an
incomplete or perforated disc.


Coil, Induction.
A coil in which by mutual induction the electromotive force of a portion
of a circuit is made to produce higher or lower electro-motive force, in
an adjoining circuit, or in a circuit, part of which adjoins the
original circuit, or adjoins part of it.

An induction coil comprises three principal parts, the core, the primary
coil and the secondary coil. If it is to be operated by a steady
current, means must be provided for varying it or opening and closing
the primary circuit. A typical coil will be described.


134   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


The core is a mass of soft iron preferably divided to prevent extensive
Foucault currents. A cylindrical bundle of soft iron wires is generally
used. Upon this the primary coil of reasonably heavy wire, and of one or
two layers in depth, is wrapped, all being carefully insulated with
shellac and paper where necessary. The secondary coil is wrapped upon or
over the primary. It consists of very fine wire; No. 30 to 36 is about
the ordinary range. A great many turns of this are made. In general
terms the electro-motive force developed by the secondary stands to that
of the primary terminals in the ratio of the windings. This is only
approximate.

The greatest care is required in the insulating. The secondary is
sometimes wound in sections so as to keep those parts differing greatly
in potential far from each other. This prevents sparking, which would
destroy the insulation.

A make and break, often of the hammer and anvil type, is operated by the
coil. (See Circuit Breaker, Automatic.) As the current passes through
the primary it magnetizes the core. This attracts a little hammer which
normally resting on an anvil completes the circuit. The hammer as
attracted is lifted from the anvil and breaks the circuit. The soft iron
core at once parts with its magnetism and the hammer falls upon the
anvil again completing the circuit. This operation goes on rapidly, the
circuit being opened and closed in quick succession.

Every closing of the primary circuit tends to produce a reverse current
in the secondary, and every opening of the primary circuit tends to
produce a direct current in the secondary. Both are of extremely short
duration, and the potential difference of the two terminals of the
secondary may be very high if there are many times more turns in the
secondary than in the primary.

The extra currents interfere with the action of an induction coil. To
avoid their interference a condenser is used. This consists of two
series of sheets of tin foil. Leaves of paper alternate with the sheets
of tin-foil, the whole being built up into a little book. Each sheet of
tin-foil connects electrically with the sheet next but one to it. Thus
each leaf of a set is in connection with all others of the same set, but
is insulated from the others. One set of leaves of tin-foil connects
with the hammer, the other with the anvil. In large coils there may be
75 square feet of tin-foil in the condenser.

The action of the condenser is to dispose of the direct extra current.
When the primary circuit is opened this current passes into the
condenser, which at once discharges itself in the other direction
through the coil. This demagnetizes the core, and the action intensifies
and shortens the induced current. The condenser prevents sparking, and
in general improves the action of the coil.

Many details enter into the construction of coils, and many variations
in their construction obtain. Thus a mercury cup into which a plunger
dips often replaces the anvil and hammer.


135   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


The induction coil produces a rapid succession of sparks, which may
spring across an interval of forty inches. The secondary generally ends
in special terminals or electrodes between which the sparking takes
place. A plate of glass, two inches in thickness, can be pierced by
them. In the great Spottiswoode coil there are 280 miles of wire in the
secondary, and the wire is about No. 36 A.W.G.



Fig. 100. VERTICAL SECTION OF INDUCTION COIL.



Fig. l01. PLAN OF INDUCTION COIL CONNECTIONS.


Induction coils have quite extended use in electrical work. They are
used in telephone transmitters, their primary being in circuit with the
microphone, and their secondary with the line and receiving telephone.
In electric welding, and in the alternating current system they have
extended application. In all these cases they have no automatic circuit
breaker, the actuating current being of intermittent or alternating
type.


136   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


In the cuts the general construction of an induction coil is shown. In
the sectional elevation, Fig. 100, A, is the iron core; B is the primary
of coarse wire; C is a separating tube, which may be of pasteboard; D is
the secondary of fine wire; E, E are the binding posts connected to the
secondary; H, H are the heads or standards; K, K are the terminals of
the primary; F is the vibrating contact spring; G, a standard carrying
the contact screw; J is the condenser with wires, L, M, leading to it.

Referring to the plan, Fig. 101, H represents the primary coil; B and A
are two of the separate sheets of the condenser, each sheet with
projecting ears; G, G are the heads of the coil; the dark lines are
connections to the condenser. One set of sheets connects with the
primary coil at C, and also with the vibrating spring shown in plan and
in the elevation at F. The other set of sheets connects with the post,
carrying the contact screw. The other terminal of the primary runs to a
binding post E. F, in the plan is a binding post in connection with the
standard and contact screw.


Coil, Induction, Inverted.
An induction coil arranged to have a lower electro-motive force in the
secondary than in the primary. This is effected by having more
convolutions in the primary wire than in the secondary. Such coils in
practice are used with the alternating current and then do not include a
circuit breaker or condenser. They are employed in alternating current
system and in electric welding. (See Welding, Electric--Converter.)

In the cut an inverted coil, as constructed for electric welding is
shown. In it the primary coil is marked P; the secondary, merely a bar
of metal, is marked E, with terminals S, S; the heavy coils, I, of iron
wire are the core; K is a screw for regulating the clamps; J, Z is a
second one for the same purpose, while between D and D' the heat is
produced for welding the bars, B, B', held in the clamps, C, C'. It will
be seen how great may be the difference in turns between the single
circle of heavy copper rod or bar which is the secondary of the coil,
and the long coil of wire forming the primary.



Fig. 102. INVERTED INDUCTION COIL FOR ELECTRIC WELDING.


137   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Coil, Induction, Telephone.
An induction coil used in telephone circuits. It is placed in the box or
case near the transmitter. The primary is in circuit with the
microphone. The secondary is in circuit with the line and receiving
telephone. In the Bell telephone apparatus the primary of the induction
coil is wound with No. 18 to 24 A. W. G. wire to a resistance of 1/2
ohm; the secondary, with No. 36 wire to a resistance of 80 ohms. The
Edison telephone induction coil was wound with similar wires to a
resistance of 3 to 4 ohms and of 250 ohms respectively.


Coil, Magnetizing.
A coil of insulated wire for making magnets; and for experimental uses;
it has a short axis and central aperture of as small size as consistent
with the diameter of the bar to be magnetized, which has to pass through
it readily. The wire may be quite heavy, 2 or 3 millimeters (.08--.12
inch) thick, and is cemented together with carpenter's glue, or with
shellac or ethereal solution of gum copal. In use it is passed over the
bar a few times while a heavy current is going through it. It is used
for magic circles also. (See Circle, Magic.)



Fig. 103. MAGNETIZING COIL.


Coil, Resistance.
A coil constructed for the purpose of offering a certain resistance to a
steady current. This resistance may be for the purpose of carrying out
quantitative tests, as in Wheatstone bridge work (see Wheatstone's
Bridge), or simply to reduce the intensity of a current. For the first
class of work the coils are wound so as to prevent the creation of a
magnetic field. This is effected by first doubling the wire without
breaking it, and then starting at the bend the doubled wire, which is
insulated, is wound on a bobbin or otherwise until a proper resistance
is shown by actual measurement. The coils are generally contained or set
in closed boxes with ebonite tops. Blocks of brass are placed on the
top, and one end from one coil and one end from the next connect with
the same block. By inserting a plug, P, so as to connect any two blocks,
which have grooves reamed out for the purpose, the coil beneath will be
short circuited. German silver, platinoid or other alloy, q. v., is
generally the material of the wire. A great object is to have a wire
whose resistance will be unaffected by heat.


138   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 104. RESISTANCE COILS AND CONNECTIONS, SHOWING PLUG.


Coil, Rhumkorff.
The ordinary induction coil with circuit breaker, for use with original
direct and constant current, is thus termed. (See Coil, Induction.)

Synonym--Inductorium.


Coil, Ribbon.
A coil made of copper ribbon wound flatwise, often into a disc-like
shape, and insulated by tape or strips of other material intervening
between the successive turns.


Coils, Compensating.
Extra coils on the field magnets of dynamos or motors, which coils are
in series with the armature windings for the purpose of keeping the
voltage constant. In compound wound machines the regular series-wound
coil is thus termed. In a separately excited dynamo a coil of the same
kind in circuit with the armature may be used as a compensator.


Coils, Henry's.
An apparatus used in repeating a classic experiment in electro-magnetic
induction, due to Prof. Henry. It consists in a number of coils, the
first and last ones single, the intermediate ones connected in pairs,
and one of one pair placed on the top of one of the next pair. On
opening or closing the circuit of an end coil the induced effect goes
through the series and is felt in the circuit of the other end coil.
Prof. Henry extended the series so as to include seven successive
inductions, sometimes called inductions of the first, second, third and
other orders. Frequently ribbon coils (see Coil, Ribbon,) are used in
these experiments.


Coils, Sectioned.
A device for prolonging the range of magnetic attraction. It consists of
a series of magnetizing coils traversed by an iron plunger. As it passes
through them, the current is turned off the one in the rear or passing
to the rear and turned into the next one in advance. The principle was
utilized in one of Page's electric motors about 1850, and later by
others. The port-electric railroad, q. v., utilizes the same principle.


139  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Collecting Ring.
In some kinds of generators instead of the commutator a pair of
collecting rings of metal, insulated from the machine and from each
other, are carried on the armature shaft. A brush, q. v., presses on
each, and the circuit terminals connect to these two brushes. Such rings
are employed often on alternating current generators, where the current
does not have to be changed or commuted. Collecting rings with their
brushes are used also where a current has to be communicated to a
revolving coil or circuit as in the magnetic car wheel, the cut of which
is repeated here. The coil of wire surrounding the wheel and rotating
with it has to receive current. This it receives through the two
stationary brushes which press upon two insulated metallic rings,
surrounding the shaft. The terminals of the coil connect one to each
ring. Thus while the coil rotates it constantly receives current, the
brushes being connected to the actuating circuit.



Fig. 105. MAGNETIC CAR WHEEL SHOWING
COLLECTING RINGS AND BRUSHES.


Collector.
(a) A name for the brush, q. v., in mechanical electric generators, such
as dynamos, a pair of which collectors or brushes press on the
commutator or collecting rings, and take off the current.

(b) The pointed connections leading to the prime conductor on a static
machine for collecting the electricity; often called combs. The points
of the combs or collectors face the statically charged rotating glass
plate or cylinder of the machine.


Colombin.
The insulating material between the carbons in a Jablochkoff candle or
other candle of that type. Kaolin was originally used. Later a mixture
of two parts calcium sulphate (plaster of Paris) and one part barium
sulphate (barytes) was substituted.

The colombin was three millimeters (.12 inch) wide, and two millimeters
(.08 inch) thick. (See Candle, Jablochkoff.)


Column, Electric.
An old name for the voltaic pile, made up of a pile of discs of copper
and zinc, with flannel discs, wet with salt solution or dilute acid,
between each pair of plates.


140   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Comb.
A bar from which a number of teeth project, like the teeth of a comb. It
is used as a collector of electricity from the plate of a frictional or
influence electric machine; it is also used in a lightning arrester to
define a path of very high resistance but of low self-induction, for the
lightning to follow to earth.


Communicator.
The instrument by which telegraph signals are transmitted is sometimes
thus termed.


Commutator.
In general an apparatus for changing. It is used on electric current
generators, and motors, and on induction coils, and elsewhere, for
changing the direction of currents, and is of a great variety of types.

Synonym--Commuter (but little used).



Fig. 106. DYNAMO OR MOTOR COMMUTATOR.


Commutator Bars.
The metallic segments of a dynamo or motor commutator.


Commutator, Flats in.
A wearing away or lowering in level of one or more metallic segments of
a commutator. They are probably due in many cases to sparking, set up by
periodic springing in the armature mounting, or by defective commutator
connections.


Commutator of Current Generators and Motors.
In general a cylinder, formed of alternate sections of conducting and
non-conducting material, running longitudinally or parallel with the
axis. Its place is on the shaft of the machine, so that it rotates
therewith. Two brushes, q. v., or pieces of conducting material, press
upon its surface.


141  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


As a part of electric motors and generators, its function is to collect
the currents produced by the cutting of lines of force so as to cause
them all to concur to a desired result. The cut shows the simplest form
of commutator, one with but two divisions. Its object may be to enable a
current of constant direction to be taken from a rotating armature, in
which the currents alternate or change direction once in each rotation.
It is carried by the shaft A of the armature and rotates with it. It
consists of two leaves, S S, to which the terminals of the armature are
connected. Two springs, W W, the terminals of the outer circuit, press
against the leaves. The springs which do this take off the current. It
is so placed, with reference to the springs and armature, that just as
the current changes in direction, each leaf changes from one spring to
the other. Thus the springs receive constant direction currents. The
changing action of this commutator appears in its changing the character
of the current from alternating to constant. Were two insulated
collecting rings used instead of a commutator, the current in the outer
circuit would be an alternating one. On some dynamos the commutator has
a very large number of leaves.

Taking the Gramme ring armature, there must be as many divisions of the
commutator as there are connections to the coils. In this case the
function of the commutator is simply to lessen friction, for the brushes
could be made to take current from the coils directly outside of the
periphery of the ring.


Commutator, Split Ring.
A two-division commutator for a motor; it consists of two segments of
brass or copper plate, bent to arcs of a circle, and attached to an
insulating cylinder. They are mounted on the revolving spindle, which
carries the armature, and acts as a two part commutator. For an example
of its application, see Armature, Revolving, Page's. (See also Fig.
107.)



Fig. 107. SECTION OF SPLIT RING COMMUTATOR, WITH BRUSHES.


Compass.
An apparatus for utilizing the directive force of the earth upon the
magnetic needle. It consists of a circular case, within which is poised
a magnetized bar of steel. This points approximately to the north, and
is used on ships and elsewhere to constantly show the direction of the
magnetic meridian. Two general types are used. In one the needle is
mounted above a fixed "card" or dial, on which degrees or points of the
compass, q. v., are inscribed. In the other the card is attached to the
needle and rotates with it. The latter represents especially the type
known as the mariner's compass. (See Compass, Mariner's--Compass,
Spirit, and other titles under compass, also Magnetic Axis--Magnetic
Elements.) The needle in good compasses carries for a bearing at its
centre, a little agate cup, and a sharp brass pin is the point of
support.


Compass, Azimuth.
A compass with sights on one of its diameters; used in determining the
magnetic bearing of objects.


142   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Compass Card.
The card in a compass; it is circular in shape, and its centre coincides
with the axis of rotation of the magnetic needle; on it are marked the
points of the compass, at the ends generally of star points. (See
Compass, Points of the.) It may be fixed, and the needle may be poised
above it, or it may be attached to the needle and rotate with it.


Compass, Declination.
An instrument by which the magnetic declination of any place may be
determined. It is virtually a transit instrument and compass combined,
the telescope surmounting the latter. In the instrument shown in the
cut, L is a telescope mounted by its axis, X, in raised journals with
vernier, K, and arc x, for reading its vertical angle, with level n. The
azimuth circle, Q, R, is fixed. A vernier, V is carried by the box, A,
E, and both turn with the telescope. A very light lozenge-shaped
magnetic needle, a, b, is pivoted in the exact centre of the graduated
circles, Q R, and M. The true meridian is determined by any convenient
astronomical method, and the telescope is used for the purpose. The
variation of the needle from the meridian thus determined gives the
magnetic declination.



FIG. 108. DECLINATION COMPASS.


Compass, Inclination.
A magnetic needle mounted on a horizontal axis at its centre of gravity,
so as to be free to assume the dip, or magnetic inclination, when placed
in the magnetic meridian. It moves over the face of a vertical graduated
circle, and the frame also carries a spirit level and graduated
horizontal circle. In use the frame is turned until the needle is
vertical. Then the axis of suspension of the needle is in the magnetic
meridian. The vertical circle is then turned through 90° of the horizon,
which brings the plane of rotation of the needle into the magnetic
meridian, when it assumes the inclination of the place.


143  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Compass, Mariner's.
A compass distinguished by the card being attached to and rotating with
the needle. A mark, the "lubber's mark" of the sailors is made upon the
case. This is placed so that the line connecting it, and the axis of
rotation of the card is exactly in a plane, passing through the keel of
the ship. Thus however the ship may be going, the point of the card
under or in line with the "lubber's mark," shows how the ship is
pointing. The case of the mariner's compass is often bowl-shaped and
mounted in gimbals, a species of universal joint, so as to bc always
horizontal. (See Compass, Spirit-Gimbals.)



FIG. 109. MARINER'S COMPASS.


Compass, Points of the.
The circle of the horizon may bc and is best referred to angular
degrees. It has also been divided into thirty-two equiangular and named
points. A point is 11.25°. The names of the points are as follows:
North, North by East, North North-east, North-east by North, North-east,
North-east by East, East North-east, East by North, East, East by South,
East South-east, South-east by East, South-east, South-east by South,
South South-east, South by East, South, South by West, South South-west,
South-west by South, South-west, South-west by West, West South-west,
West by South, West, West by North, West North-west, North-west by West,
North-west, North West by North, North North-west, North by West. They
are indicated by their initials as N. N. W., North North-west, N. by W.,
North by West.


Compass, Spirit.
A form of mariner's compass. The bowl or case is hermetically sealed and
filled with alcohol or other nonfreezing liquid. The compass card is
made with hollow compartments so as nearly to float. In this way the
friction of the pivot or point of support is greatly diminished, and the
compass is far more sensitive.


Compass, Surveyor's.
A species of theodolite; a telescope with collimation lines, mounted
above a compass, so as to be applicable for magnetic surveys. Its use is
to be discouraged on account of the inaccuracy and changes in
declination of the magnetic needle.


144   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Compensating Resistances.
In using a galvanometer shunt the total resistance of the circuit is
diminished so that in some cases too much current flows through it; in
such case additional resistance, termed as above, is sometimes
introduced in series. The shunt in parallel with the galvanometer is
thus compensated for, and the experimental or trial circuit does not
take too much current.


Complementary Distribution.
Every distribution of electricity has somewhere a corresponding
distribution, exactly equal to it of opposite electricity; the latter is
the complimentary distribution to the first, and the first distribution
is also complimentary to it.


Component.
A force may always be represented diagrammatically by a straight line,
terminating in an arrow-head to indicate the direction, and of length to
represent the intensity of the force. The line may always be assumed to
represent the diagonal of a parallelogram, two of whose sides are
represented by lines starting from the base of the arrow, and of length
fixed by the condition that the original force shall be the diagonal of
the parallelogram of which they are two contiguous sides; such lines are
called components, and actually represent forces into which the original
force may always be resolved. The components can have any direction.
Thus the vertical component of a horizontal force is zero; its
horizontal component is equal to itself. Its 450 component is equal to
the square root of one-half of its square.


Condenser.
An appliance for storing up electrostatic charges: it is also called a
static accumulator. The telegraphic condenser consists of a box packed
full of sheets of tinfoil. Between every two sheets is a sheet of
paraffined paper, or of mica. The alternate sheets of tinfoil are
connected together, and each set has its own binding post. (See
Accumulator, Electrostatic.)


Condenser, Sliding.
An apparatus representing a Leyden jar whose coatings can be slid past
each other. This diminishes or increases the facing area, and
consequently in almost exactly similar ratio diminishes or increases the
capacity of the condenser.


Conductance.
The conducting power of a given mass of specified material of specified
shape and connections. Conductance varies in cylindrical or prismatic
conductors, inversely as the length, directly as the cross-section, and
with the conductivity of the material. Conductance is an attribute of
any specified conductor, and refers to its shape, length and other
factors. Conductivity is an attribute of any specified material without
direct reference to its shape, or other factors.


Conduction.
The process or act of conducting a current.


145  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Conductivity.
The relative power of conducting the electric current possessed by
different substances. A path for the current through the ether is opened
by the presence of a body of proper quality, and this quality, probably
correlated to opacity, is termed conductivity. There is no perfect
conductor, all offer some resistance, q. v., and there is hardly any
perfect non-conductor. It is the reverse and reciprocal of resistance.


Conductivity, Specific.
The reciprocal of specific resistance. (See Resistance--Specific.)


Conductivity, Unit of.
The reciprocal of the ohm; it is a more logical unit, but has never been
generally adopted; as a name the title mho (or ohm written backwards)
has been suggested by Sir William Thomson, and provisionally adopted.


Conductivity, Variable.
The conductivity for electric currents of conductors varies with their
temperature, with varying magnetization, tension, torsion and
compression.


Conductor.
In electricity, anything that permits the passage of an electric
current. Any disturbance in the ether takes the form of waves because
the ether has restitutive force or elasticity. In a conductor, on the
other hand, this force is wanting; it opens a path through the ether and
a disturbance advances through it from end to end with a wave front, but
with no succession of waves. This advance is the beginning of what is
termed a current. It is, by some theorists, attributed to impulses given
at all points along the conductor through the surrounding ether, so that
a current is not merely due to an end thrust. If ether waves preclude a
current on account of their restitutive force, ether waves cannot be
maintained in a conductor, hence conductors should be opaque to light,
for the latter is due to ether waves. This is one of the more practical
every day facts brought out in Clerk Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of
light. The term conductor is a relative one, as except a vacuum there is
probably no substance that has not some conducting power. For relative
conducting power, tables of conductivity, q. v., should be consulted.
The metals beginning with silver are the best conductors, glass is one
of the worst.

[Transcriber's note: See "ether" for contemporary comments on this now
discarded concept.]


Conductor, Anti-Induction.
A current conductor arranged to avoid induction from other lines. Many
kinds have been invented and made the subject of patents. A fair
approximation may be attained by using a through metallic circuit and
twisting the wires composing it around each other. Sometimes concentric
conductors, one a wire and the other a tube, are used, insulated, one
acting as return circuit for the other.


Conductor, Conical.
A prime conductor of approximately conical shape, but rounded on all
points and angles. Its potential is highest at the point.


146   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Conductor, Imbricated.
A conductor used in dynamo armatures for avoiding eddy currents, made by
twisting together two or more strips of copper.


Conductor, Prime.
A body often cylindrical or spherical in shape, in any case with no
points or angles, but rounded everywhere, whose surface, if the
conductor itself is not metallic, is made conducting by tinfoil or gold
leaf pasted over it. It is supported on an insulating stand and is used
to collect or receive and retain static charges of electricity.


Conductors, Equivalent.
Conductors of identical resistance. The quotient of the length divided
by the product of the conductivity and cross-section must be the same in
each, if each is of uniform diameter.


Conjugate. adj.
Conjugate coils or conductors are coils placed in such relation that the
lines of force established by one do not pass through the coils of the
other. Hence variations of current in one produce no induced currents in
the other.


Connect. v.
To bring two ends of a conductor together, or to bring one end of a
conductor in connection with another, or in any way to bring about an
electrical connection.


Connector.
A sleeve with screws or other equivalent device for securing the ends of
wires in electrical contact. A binding-post, q. v., is an example.
Sometimes wire spring-catches are used, the general idea being a device
that enables wires to be connected or released at will without breaking
off or marring their ends. The latter troubles result from twisting
wires together.


Consequent Poles.
A bar magnet is often purposely or accidentally magnetized so as to have
both ends of the same polarity, and the center of opposite polarity. The
center is said to comprise two consequent poles. (See Magnet,
Anomalous.)


Conservation of Electricity.
As every charge of electricity has its equal and opposite charge
somewhere, near or far, more or less distributed, the sum of negative is
equal always to the sum of positive electrical charges. For this
doctrine the above title was proposed by Lippman.


Contact Breaker.
Any contrivance for closing a circuit, and generally for opening and
closing in quick succession. An old and primitive form consisted of a
very coarsely cut file. This was connected to one terminal, and the
other terminal was drawn over its face, making and breaking contact as
it jumped from tooth to tooth. (See Circuit Breaker--do. Automatic,
etc.--do. Wheel-do. Pendulum.)


147   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Contact, Electric.
A contact between two conductors, such that a current can flow through
it. It may be brought about by simple touch or impact between the ends
or terminals of a circuit, sometimes called a dotting contact, or by a
sliding or rubbing of one terminal on another, or by a wheel rolling on
a surface, the wheel and surface representing the two terminals.

There are various descriptions of contact, whose names are
self-explanatory. The term is applied to telegraph line faults also, and
under this, includes different descriptions of contact with neighboring
lines, or with the earth.


Contact Electricity.
When two dissimilar substances are touched they assume different
electric potentials. If conductors, their entire surfaces are affected;
if dielectrics, only the surfaces which touch each other. (See Contact
Theory.)


Contact Faults.
A class of faults often called contacts, due to contact of the conductor
of a circuit with another conductor. A full or metallic contact is where
practically perfect contact is established; a partial contact and
intermittent contact are self-explanatory.


Contact Point.
A point, pin or stud, often of platinum, arranged to come in contact
with a contact spring, q. v., or another contact point or surface, under
any determined conditions.


Contact Potential Difference.
The potential difference established by the contact of two dissimilar
substances according to the contact theory, q. v.


Contact Series.
An arrangement or tabulation of substances in pairs, each intermediate
substance appearing in two pairs, as the last member of the first, and
first member of the succeeding pair, with the statement of the potential
difference due to their contact, the positively electrified substance
coming first. The following table of some contact potentials is due to
Ayrton and Perry:
CONTACT SERIES.
Difference of Potential in Volts.
Zinc--Lead        .210
Lead--Tin         .069
Tin--Iron         .313
Iron--Copper      .146
Copper--Platinum  .238
Platinum-Carbon   .113

The sum of these differences is 1.089, which is the contact potential
between zinc and carbon.

Volta's Law refers to this and states that--
  The difference of potential produced by the contact of any two
  substances is equal to the sum of the differences of potentials
  between the intervening substances in the contact series.

It is to be remarked that the law should no longer be restricted to or
stated only for metals.


148   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Contact-spring.
A spring connected to one lead of an electric circuit, arranged to press
against another spring, or contact point, q. v., under any conditions
determined by the construction of the apparatus. (See Bell,
Electric--Coil, Induction.)


Contact Theory.
A theory devised to explain electrification, the charging of bodies by
friction, or rubbing, and the production of current by the voltaic
battery. It holds that two bodies, by mere contact become oppositely
electrified. If such contact is increased in extent by rubbing together,
the intensity of their electrification is increased. This
electrification is accounted for by the assumption of different kinetic
energy, or energy of molecular motion, possessed by the two bodies;
there being a loss and gain of energy, on the two sides respectively,
the opposite electrifications are the result. Then when separated, the
two bodies come apart oppositely electrified.

The above accounts for the frictional production of electricity. In the
voltaic battery, a separation of the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen, and
their consolidation into molecules occurs, and to such separation and
the opposite electrification of the electrodes by the oxygen and
hydrogen, the current is attributed, because the hydrogen goes to one
electrode, and the oxygen to the other, each giving up or sharing its
own charge with the electrodes to which it goes. If zinc is touched to
copper, the zinc is positively and the copper negatively electrified. In
the separation of hydrogen and oxygen, the hydrogen is positively and
the oxygen negatively electrified. In the battery, the current is due to
the higher contact difference of oxygen and hydrogen compared to that
between zinc and copper. It will be seen that the two contact actions in
a battery work against each other, and that the current is due to a
differential contact action. The zinc in a battery is electrified
negatively because the negative electrification of the oxygen is greater
in amount than its own positive electrification due to contact with the
copper.


Contractures.
A muscular spasm or tetanus due to the passage of a current of
electricity; a term in electro-therapeutics.


Controlling Field.
The magnetic or electro-magnetic field, which is used in galvanometers
to control the magnetic needle, tending to restore it to a definite
position whenever it is turned therefrom. It may be the earth's field or
one artificially produced.


Controlling Force.
In galvanometers and similar instruments, the force used to bring the
needle or indicator back to zero. (See Controlling
Field--Electro-Magnetic Control--Gravity Control--Magnetic
Control--Spring Control.)


149   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Convection, Electric.
The production of blasts or currents of air (convection streams) from
points connected to statically charged conductors. The term is sometimes
applied to electric convection of heat. (See Convection of Heat,
Electric.)


Convection, Electrolytic.
The resistance of acidulated water as a true conductor is known to be
very, almost immeasurably, high. As an electrolytic, its resistance is
very much lower. Hence the current produced between immersed electrodes
is theoretically almost null, unless the difference of potential between
them is high enough to decompose the liquid. Yet a feeble current too
great for a true conduction current is sometimes observed when two
electrodes with potential difference too low to cause decomposition are
immersed in it. Such a current is termed an electrolytic convection
current. It is supposed to be due to various causes. Some attribute it
to the presence of free oxygen from the air, dissolved in the water with
which the hydrogen combines. Others attribute it to the diffusion of the
gases of decomposition in the solution; others assume a partial
polarization of the molecules without decomposition. Other theories are
given, all of which are unsatisfactory. The term is due to Helmholtz.


Convection of Heat, Electric.
The effect of a current upon the distribution of heat in an unevenly
heated conductor. In some, such as copper, the current tends to equalize
the varying temperatures; the convection is then said to be positive, as
comparable to that of water flowing through an unequally heated tube. In
others, such as platinum or iron, it is negative, making the heated
parts hotter, and the cooler parts relatively cooler.

The effect of the electric current in affecting the distribution of heat
in unequally heated metal (Thomson's effect. q. v.), is sometimes so
termed. If a current passes through unequally heated iron it tends to
increase the difference of temperature, and the convection is negative;
in copper it tends to equalize the temperature, and the convection is
positive.


Converter.
An induction coil used with the alternating current for changing
potential difference and inversely therewith the available current. They
generally lower the potential, and increase the current, and are placed
between the primary high potential system that connects the houses with
the central station, and the secondary low potential system within the
houses. A converter consists of a core of thin iron sheets, wound with a
fine primary coil of many convolutions, and a coarse secondary coil of
few convolutions. The ratio of convolutions gives the ratio of maximum
potential differences of their terminals between the primary and
secondary coils. The coil may be jacketed with iron to increase the
permeance. (See Alternating Current System.)



Fig. 110. FERRANTI'S CONVERTER OR TRANSFORMER.



Fig. 111.   SWINBURNE'S HEDGEHOG TRANSFORMER.


150   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Co-ordinates, System of.
A system for indicating the position of points in space by reference to
fixed lines, intersecting at a determined and arbitrary point 0, termed
the origin of co-ordinates. In plane rectangular co-ordinates two lines
are drawn through the origin, one horizontal, termed the axis of
abscissas, or axis of X. All distances measured parallel to it, if
unknown, are indicated by x, and are termed abscissas. The other axis is
vertical, and is termed the axis of ordinates, or axis of Y. All
distances measured parallel to it, if unknown, are indicated by y and
are termed ordinates. Thus by naming its abscissa and ordinate a point
has its position with reference to the axes determined, and by
indicating the relation between a point, line or curve, and a system of
abscissas and ordinates, the properties of a line or curve can be
expressed algebraically. Co-ordinates may also be inclined to each other
at any other angles, forming oblique co-ordinates; relations may be
expressed partly in angles referred to the origin as a centre, giving
polar co-ordinates. For solid geometry or calculations in three
dimensions, a third axis, or axis of Z, is used, distances parallel to
which if unknown are indicated by z.



Fig. 112. AXES OF CO-ORDINATES.


151   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Cooling Box.
In a hydroelectric machine, q. v., a conduit or chest through which the
steam passes on its way to the nozzles. Its object is to partially
condense the steam so as to charge it with water vesicles whose friction
against the sides of the nozzles produces the electrification .


152   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Copper.
A metal; one of the elements. Symbol, Cu; atomic weight, 63.5;
equivalent, 63.5 and 31.75; valency, 1 and 2; specific gravity, 8.96.
It is a conductor of electricity, whose conductivity is liable to
vary greatly on account of impurities.

                                                                  Annealed.   Hard drawn.
Relative resistance (Silver = 1),     1.063      1.086
Specific resistance,                  1.598      1.634 microhms.

Resistance of a wire at 0° C. (32° F.),
                                     Annealed.     Hard Drawn.
(a) 1 foot long, weighing 1 grain,     .2041  ohms   .2083  ohms.
(b) 1 foot long, 1/1000 inch thick,   9.612   "     9.831    "
(c) 1 meter long, weighing 1 gram,     .1424  "      .1453   "
(d) 1 meter long, 1 millimeter thick,  .02034 "      .02081  "

                                            microhm.   microhm.
Resistance of 1 inch cube at 0°C. (32° F.)   .6292     .6433

Percentage of resistance change,
per 1° C. (1.8° F.) at about 20° C. (68° F.) = 0.388 per cent.

Electro-chemical Equivalent (Hydrogen = .0105)   Cuprous  .6667
                                                 Cupric   .3334

In electricity it has been very extensively used as the negative plate
of voltaic batteries. It has its most extensive application as
conductors for all classes of electrical leads.


Copper Bath.
A solution of copper used for depositing the metal in the electroplating
process. For some metals, such as zinc or iron, which decompose copper
sulphate solution, special baths have to be used.

The regular bath for copper plating is the following:

To water acidulated with 8 to 10 percent. of sulphuric acid as much
copper sulphate is added as it will take up at the ordinary temperature.
The saturated bath should have a density of 1.21. It is used cold and is
kept in condition by the use of copper anodes, or fresh crystals may be
added from time to time.

For deposition on zinc, iron, tin and other metals more electropositive
than copper, the following baths may be used, expressed in parts by
weight:

                          Tin
                     Iron and Steel.   Cast Iron
                     Cold     Hot.     and Zinc.   Zinc.
Sodium Bisulphate,    500     200         300      100
Potassium Cyanide,    500     700         500      700
Sodium Carbonate,    1000     500         ---      ---
Copper Acetate,       475     500         350      450
Aqua Ammoniae,        350     300         200      150
Water,               2500    2500        2500     2500

These are due to Roseleur.


153  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Copper Stripping Bath.
There is generally no object in stripping copper from objects. It can be
done with any of the regular copper baths using the objects to be
stripped as anode. The danger of dissolving the base itself and thereby
injuring the article and spoiling the bath is obvious.


Cord Adjuster.
A device for shortening or lengthening the flexible cord, or flexible
wire supplying the current, and by which an incandescent lamp is
suspended. It often is merely a little block of wood perforated with two
holes through which the wires pass, and in which they are retained in
any desired position by friction and their own stiffness.



Fig. 113. FLEXIBLE CORD ADJUSTER.


Cord, Flexible.
A pair of flexible wire conductors, insulated lightly, twisted together
and forming apparently a cord. They are used for minor services, such as
single lamps and the like, and are designated according to the service
they perform, such as battery cords, dental cords (for supplying dental
apparatus) and other titles.


Core.
(a) The conductor or conductors of an electric cable. (See Cable Core.)

(b) The iron mass, generally central in an electro-magnet or armature,
around which the wire is coiled. It acts by its high permeance to
concentrate or multiply the lines of force, thus maintaining a more
intense field. (See Armature--Magnet, Electro--Magnet, Field--Core,
Laminated). In converters or transformers (See Converter) it often
surrounds the wire coils.


Core-discs.
Discs of thin wire, for building up armature cores. (See Laminated
Core.) The usual form of core is a cylinder. A number of thin discs of
iron are strung upon the central shaft and pressed firmly together by
end nuts or keys. This arrangement, it will be seen, gives a cylinder as
basis for winding the wire on.


Core-discs, Pierced.
Core-discs for an armature of dynamo or motor, which are pierced around
the periphery. Tubes of insulating material pass through the peripheral
holes, and through these the conductors or windings are carried. The
conductors are thus embedded in a mass of iron and are protected from
eddy currents, and they act to reduce the reluctance of the air gaps.
From a mechanical point of view they are very good. For voltages over
100 they are not advised.

Synonym--Perforated Core-discs.


154   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Core-discs, Segmental.
Core-discs made in segments, which are bolted together to form a
complete disc or section of the core. The plan is adopted principally on
large cores. The discs thus made up are placed together to form the core
exactly as in the case of ordinary one piece discs.



Fig. 114. PIERCED OR PERFORATED CORE-DISC.


Core-discs, Toothed.
Core-discs of an armature of a dynamo or motor, which discs are cut into
notches on the periphery. These are put together to form the armature
core, with the notches corresponding so as to form a series of grooves
in which the wire winding is laid. This construction reduces the actual
air-gaps, and keeps the wires evenly spaced. Distance-pieces of
box-wood, m, m, are sometimes used to lead the wires at the ends of the
armature.



Fig. 115. TOOTHED CORE-DISC.


Core, Laminated.
A core of an armature, induction coil or converter or other similar
construction, which is made up of plates insulated more or less
perfectly from each other. The object of lamination is to prevent the
formation of Foucault currents. (See Currents, Foucault.) As insulation,
thin shellacked paper may be used, or sometimes the superficial
oxidation of the plates alone is relied on. The plates, in general, are
laid perpendicular to the principal convolutions of the wire, or
parallel to the lines of force. The object is to break up currents, and
such currents are induced by the variation in intensity of the field of
force, and their direction is perpendicular to the lines of force, or
parallel to the inducing conductors.

A core built up of core discs is sometimes termed a tangentially
laminated core. Made up of ribbon or wire wound coil fashion, it is
termed a radially laminated core.


155  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Core Ratio.
In a telegraph cable the ratio existing between the diameter of the
conducting core and the insulator. To get a ratio approximately accurate
in practical calculations, the diameter of the core is taken at 5 per
cent. less than its actual diameter. The calculations are those
referring to the electric constants of the cable, such as its static
capacity and insulation resistance.


Core, Ribbon.
For discoidal ring-shaped cores of armatures, iron ribbon is often used
to secure lamination and prevent Foucault currents.

Synonym--Tangentially Laminated Core.


Core, Ring.
A core for a dynamo or motor armature, which core forms a complete ring.


Core, Stranded.
In an electric light cable, a conducting core made up of a group of
wires laid or twisted together.


Core, Tubular.
Tubes used as cores for electro-magnets. For very small magnetizing
power, tubular cores are nearly as efficient as solid ones in straight
magnets, because the principal reluctance is due to the air-path. On
increasing the magnetization the tubular core becomes less efficient
than the solid core, as the reluctance of the air-path becomes
proportionately of less importance in the circuit.


Corpusants.
The sailors' name for St. Elmo's Fire, q. v.


Coulomb.
The practical unit of quantity of electricity. It is the quantity passed
by a current of one ampere intensity in one second. It is equal to 1/10
the C. G. S. electro-magnetic unit of quantity, and to 3,000,000,000 C.
G. S. electrostatic units of quantity. It corresponds to the
decomposition of .0935 milligrams of water, or to the deposition of
1.11815 milligrams of silver.

[Transcriber's note: A coulomb is approximately 6.241E18 electrons. Two
point charges of one coulomb each, one meter apart, exerts a force of
900,000 metric tons.]


Coulomb's Laws of Electrostatic Attraction and Repulsion.
1. The repulsions or attractions between two electrified bodies are in
the inverse ratio of the squares of their distance.

2. The distance remaining the same, the force of attraction or repulsion
between two electrified bodies is directly as the product of the
quantities of electricity with which they are charged.


156   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Counter, Electric.
A device for registering electrically, or by electro-magnetic machinery,
the revolutions of shafts, or any other data or factors.


Counter-electro-motive Force.
A potential difference in a circuit opposed to the main potential
difference, and hence, resisting the operation of the latter, and
diminishing the current which would be produced without it. It appears
in electric motors, which, to a certain extent, operate as dynamos and
reduce the effective electro-motive force that operates them. It
appears in the primary coils of induction coils, and when the secondary
circuit is open, is almost equal to the main electro-motive force, so
that hardly any current can go through them under such conditions. It
appears in galvanic batteries, when hydrogen accumulates on the copper
plate, and in other chemical reactions. A secondary battery is charged
by a current in the reverse direction to that which it would normally
produce. Its own potential difference then appears as a
counter-electro-motive force.

Synonym--Back Electro-motive Force.


Counter-electro-motive Force of Polarization.
To decompose a solution by electrolysis, enough electro-motive force is
required to overcome the energy of composition of the molecule
decomposed. A part of this takes the form of a counter-electromotive
force, one which, for a greater or less time would maintain a current in
the opposite direction if the original source of current were removed.
Thus in the decomposition of water, the electrodes become covered, one
with bubbles of oxygen, the others with bubbles of hydrogen; this
creates a counter E. M. F. of polarization. In a secondary battery, the
working current may be defined as due to this cause.

Synonym--Back Electro-motive Force of Polarization.


Couple.
Two forces applied to different points of a straight line, when opposed
in direction or unequal in amount, tend to cause rotation about a point
intermediate between their points of application and lying on the
straight line. Such a pair constitute a couple.


Couple, Voltaic or Galvanic.
The combination of two electrodes, and a liquid or liquids, the
electrodes being immersed therein, and being acted on differentially by
the liquid or liquids. The combination constitutes a source of
electro-motive force and consequently of current. It is the galvanic or
voltaic cell or battery. (See Battery, Voltaic--Contact
Theory--Electro-motive Force--Electro-motive Series.)


Coupling.
The joining of cells of a galvanic battery, of dynamos or of other
devices, so as to produce different effects as desired.


157  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY


Couple, Astatic.
An astatic couple is a term sometimes applied to astatic needles, q.v.


C. P.
(a) An abbreviation of or symbol for candle power, q. v.

(b) An abbreviation of chemically pure. It is used to indicate a high
degree of purity of chemicals. Thus, in a standard Daniell battery, the
use of C. P. chemicals may be prescribed or advised.


Crater.
The depression that forms in the positive carbon of a voltaic arc. (See
Arc, Voltaic.)


Creeping.
A phenomenon of capillarity, often annoying in battery jars. The
solution, by capillarity, rises a little distance up the sides,
evaporates, and as it dries more creeps up through it, and to a point a
little above it. This action is repeated until a layer of the salts may
form over the top of the vessel. To avoid it, paraffine is often applied
to the edges of the cup, or a layer of oil, often linseed oil, is poured
on the battery solution,


Crith.
The weight of a litre of hydrogen at 0º C. (32º F.), and 760 mm. (30
inches) barometric pressure. It is .0896 grams. The molecular weight of
any gas divided by 2 and multiplied by the value of the crith, gives the
weight of a litre of the gas in question. Thus a litre of electrolytic
gas, a mixture of two molecules of hydrogen for one of oxygen, with a
mean molecular weight of 12, weighs (12/2) * .0896 or .5376 gram.


Critical Speed.
(a) The speed of rotation at which a series dynamo begins to excite its
own field.

(b) In a compound wound dynamo, the speed at which the same potential is
generated with the full load being taken from the machine, as would be
generated on open circuit, in which case the shunt coil is the only
exciter. The speed at which the dynamo is self-regulating.

(c) In a dynamo the rate of speed when a small change in the speed of
rotation produces a comparatively great change in the electro-motive
force. It corresponds to the same current (the critical current) in any
given series dynamo.


Cross.
(a) A contact between two electric conductors; qualified to express
conditions as a weather cross, due to rain, a swinging cross when a wire
swings against another, etc.

(b) vb. To make such contact.


Cross-Connecting Board.
A special switch board used in telephone exchanges and central telegraph
offices. Its function is, by plugs and wires, to connect the line wires
with any desired section of the main switchboard. The terminals of the
lines as they enter the building are connected directly to the
cross-connecting board.


158   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Cross Connection.
A method of disposing of the effects of induction from neighboring
circuits by alternately crossing the two wires of a metallic telephone
circuit, so that for equal intervals they lie to right and left, or one
above, and one below.

[Transcriber's note: Also used to cancel the effect of variations in the
ambient magnetic field, such as solar activity.]


Crossing Wires.
The cutting out of a defective section in a telegraph line, by carrying
two wires from each side of the defective section across to a
neighboring conductor, pressing it for the time into service and cutting
the other wire if necessary.


Cross-magnetizing Effect.
A phase of armature interference. The current in an armature of a dynamo
or motor is such as to develop lines of force approximately at right
angles to those of the field. The net cross-magnetizing effect is such
component of these lines, as is at right angles to the lines produced by
the field alone.


Cross-over Block.
A piece of porcelain or other material shaped to receive two wires which
are to cross each other, and hold them so that they cannot come in
contact. It is used in wiring buildings, and similar purposes. (See
Cleat, Crossing.)

Cross Talk.
On telephone circuits by induction or by contact with other wires sound
effects of talking are sometimes received from other circuits; such
effects are termed cross talk.


Crucible, Electric.
A crucible for melting difficultly fusible substances, or for reducing
ores, etc., by the electric arc produced within it. Sometimes the
heating is due more to current incandescence than to the action of an
arc.



Fig. 116. ELECTRIC FURNACE OR CRUCIBLE.


Crystallization, Electric.
Many substances under proper conditions take a crystalline form. The
great condition is the passage from the fluid into the solid state. When
such is brought about by electricity in any way, the term electric
crystallization may be applied to the phenomenon. A solution of silver
nitrate for instance, decomposed by a current, may give crystals of
metallic silver.


159     STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Cup, Porous.
A cup used in two-fluid voltaic batteries to keep the solutions separate
to some extent. It forms a diaphragm through which diffusion inevitably
takes place, but which is considerably retarded, while electrolysis and
electrolytic convection take place freely through its walls. As
material, unglazed pottery is very generally used.

In some batteries the cup is merely a receptacle for the solid
depolarizer. Thus, in the Leclanché battery, the cup contains the
manganese dioxide and graphite in which the carbon electrode is
embedded, but does not separate two solutions, as the battery only uses
one. Nevertheless, the composition of the solution outside and inside
may vary, but such variation is incidental only, and not an essential of
the operation.


Current.
The adjustment, or effects of a continuous attempt at readjustment of
potential difference by a conductor, q. v., connecting two points of
different potential. A charged particle or body placed in a field of
force tends to move toward the oppositely charged end or portion of the
field. If a series of conducting particles or a conducting body are held
so as to be unable to move, then the charge of the field tends, as it
were, to move through it, and a current results. It is really a
redistribution of the field and as long as such redistribution continues
a current exists. A current is assumed to flow from a positive to a
negative terminal; as in the case of a battery, the current in the outer
circuit is assumed to flow from the carbon to the zinc plate, and in the
solution to continue from zinc to carbon. As a memoria technica the zinc
may be thought of as generating the current delivering it through the
solution to the carbon, whence it flows through the wire connecting
them. (See Ohm's Law--Maxwell's Theory of Light--Conductor-Intensity.)

[Transcriber's note: Supposing electric current to be the motion of
positive charge causes no practical difficulty, but the current is
actually the (slight) motion of negative electrons.]


Current, After.
A current produced by the animal tissue after it has been subjected to a
current in the opposite direction for some time. The tissue acts like a
secondary battery. The term is used in electro-therapeutics.


Current, Alternating.
Usually defined and spoken of as a current flowing alternately in
opposite directions. It may be considered as a succession of currents,
each of short duration and of direction opposite to that of its
predecessor. It is graphically represented by such a curve as shown in
the cut. The horizontal line may denote a zero current, that is no
current at all, or may be taken to indicate zero electro-motive force.
The curve represents the current, or the corresponding electro-motive
forces. The further from the horizontal line the greater is either, and
if above the line the direction is opposite to that corresponding to the
positions below the line. Thus the current is alternately in opposite
directions, has periods of maximum intensity, first in one and then in
the opposite sense, and between these, passing from one direction to the
other, is of zero intensity. It is obvious that the current may rise
quickly in intensity and fall slowly, or the reverse, or may rise and
fall irregularly. All such phases may be shown by the curve, and a curve
drawn to correctly represent these variations is called the
characteristic curve of such current. It is immaterial whether the
ordinates of the curve be taken as representing current strength or
electromotive force. If interpreted as representing electro-motive
force, the usual interpretation and best, the ordinates above the line
are taken as positive and those below as negative.

Synonyms--Reversed Current--Periodic Currents.



Fig. 117. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT.


160   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Current, Atomic.
A unit of current strength used in Germany; the strength of a current
which will liberate in 24 hours (86,400 seconds) one gram of hydrogen
gas, in a water voltameter. The atomic current is equal to 1.111
amperes. In telegraphic work the milliatom is used as a unit, comparable
to the milliampere. The latter is now displacing it.


Current, Charge.
If the external coatings of a charged and uncharged jar are placed in
connection, and if the inner coatings are now connected, after
separating them they are both found to be charged in the same manner. In
this process a current has been produced between the outside coatings
and one between the inner ones, to which Dove has given the name Charge
Current, and which has all the properties of the ordinary discharge
current. (Ganot.)


Current, Circular.
A current passing through a circular conductor; a current whose path is
in the shape of a circle.


Current, Commuted.
A current changed, as regards direction or directions, by a commutator,
q. v., or its equivalent.


Current, Constant.
An unvarying current. A constant current system is one maintaining such
a current. In electric series, incandescent lighting, a constant current
is employed, and the system is termed as above. In arc lighting systems,
the constant current series arrangement is almost universal.


161  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Current, Continuous.
A current of one direction only; the reverse of an alternating current.
(See Current, Alternating.)


Current, Critical.
The current produced by a dynamo at its critical speed; at that speed
when a slight difference in speed produces a great difference in
electro-motive force. On the characteristic curve it corresponds to the
point where the curve bends sharply, and where the electro-motive force
is about two-thirds its maximum.


Current, Daniell/U.S. , Daniell/Siemens' Unit.
A unit of current strength used in Germany. It is the strength of a
current produced by one Daniell cell in a circuit of the resistance of
one Siemens' unit. The current deposits 1.38 grams of copper per hour.
It is equal to 1.16 amperes.


Current, Demarcation.
In electro-therapeutics, a current which can be taken from an injured
muscle, the injured portion acting electro-negatively toward the
uninjured portion.


Current Density.
The current intensity per unit of cross-sectional area of the conductor.
The expression is more generally used for electrolytic conduction, where
the current-density is referred to the mean facing areas of the
electrodes, or else to the facing area of the cathode only.

The quality of the deposited metal is intimately related to the current
density. (See Burning.)

              Proper Current Density for Electroplating
           Amperes Per Square Foot of Cathode.--(Urquhart.)
Copper, Acid Bath.                               5.0  to 10.0
"       Cyanide Bath,                            3.0  "   5.0
Silver, Double Cyanide,                          2.0  "   5.0
Gold, Chloride dissolved in Potassium Cyanide,   1.0  "   2.0
Nickel, Double Sulphate,                         6.6  "   8.0
Brass, Cyanide,                                  2.0  "   3.0


Current, Diacritical.
A current, which, passing through a helix surrounding an iron core,
brings it to one-half its magnetic saturation, q. v.


Current, Diaphragm.
If a liquid is forced through a diaphragm, a potential difference
between the liquid on opposite sides of the diaphragm is maintained.
Electrodes or terminals of platinum may be immersed in the liquid, and a
continuous current, termed a diaphragm current, may be taken as long as
the liquid is forced through the diaphragm. The potential difference is
proportional to the pressure, and also depends on the nature of the
diaphragm and on the liquid.


162   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Current, Direct.
A current of unvarying direction, as distinguished from an alternating
current. It may be pulsatory or intermittent in character, but must be
of constant direction.


Current, Direct Induced.
On breaking a circuit, if it is susceptible of exercising
self-induction, q. v., an extra current, in the direction of the
original is induced, which is called "direct" because in the same
direction as the original. The same is produced by a current in one
circuit upon a parallel one altogether separated from it. (See
Induction, Electro-Magnetic-Current, Extra.)

Synonym--Break Induced Current.


Current, Direction of.
The assumed direction of a current is from positively charged electrode
to negatively charged one; in a galvanic battery from the carbon or
copper plate through the outer circuit to the zinc plate and back
through the electrolyte to the carbon or copper plate. (See Current.)

[Transcriber's note: Current is caused by the motion of negative
electrons, from the negative pole to the positive. The electron was
discovered five years after this publication.]


Current, Displacement.
The movement or current of electricity taking place in a dielectric
during displacement. It is theoretical only and can only be assumed to
be of infinitely short duration. (See Displacement, Electric.)


Currents, Eddy Displacement.
The analogues of Foucault currents, hypothetically produced in the mass
of a dielectric by the separation of the electricity or by its
electrification. (See Displacement.)


Current, Extra.
When a circuit is suddenly opened or closed a current of very brief
duration, in the first case in the same direction, in the other case in
the opposite direction, is produced, which exceeds the ordinary current
in intensity. A high potential difference is produced for an instant
only. These are called extra currents. As they are produced by
electro-magnetic induction, anything which strengthens the field of
force increases the potential difference to which they are due. Thus the
wire may be wound in a coil around an iron core, in which case the extra
currents may be very strong. (See Induction, Self-Coil, Spark.)


Current, Faradic.
A term in medical electricity for the induced or secondary alternating
current, produced by comparatively high electro-motive force, such as
given by an induction coil or magneto-generator, as distinguished from
the regular battery current.


163   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Current, Foucault.
A current produced in solid conductors, and which is converted into heat
(Ganot). These currents are produced by moving the conductors through a
field, or by altering the strength of a field in which they are
contained. They are the source of much loss of energy and other
derangement in dynamos and motors, and to avoid them the armature cores
are laminated, the plane of the laminations being parallel to the lines
of force. (See Core, Laminated.)

The presence of Foucault currents, if of long duration, is shown by the
heating of the metal in which they are produced. In dynamo armatures
they are produced sometimes in the metal of the windings, especially if
the latter are of large diameter.

Synonyms--Eddy Currents--Local Currents--Parasitical Currents.


Current, Franklinic.
In electro-therapeutics the current produced by a frictional electric
machine.


Current, Induced.
The current produced in a conductor by varying the conditions of a field
of force in which it is placed; a current produced by induction.


Current Induction.
Induction by one current on another or by a portion of a current on
another portion of itself. (See Induction.)


Current Intensity.
Current strength, dependent on or defined by the quantity of electricity
passed by such current in a given time. The practical unit of current
intensity is the ampere, equal to one coulomb of quantity per second of
time.


Current, Inverse Induced.
The current induced in a conductor, when in a parallel conductor or in
one having a parallel component a current is started, or is increased in
strength. It is opposite in direction to the inducing current and hence
is termed inverse. (See Induction, Electro-magnetic.) The parallel
conductors may be in one circuit or in two separate circuits.

Synonyms--Make-induced Current--Reverse-induced Current.


Current, Jacobi's Unit of.
A current which will liberate one cubic centimeter of mixed gases
(hydrogen and oxygen) in a water voltameter per minute, the gases being
measured at 0º C. (32º F.) and 760 mm. (29.92 inches) barometric
pressure. It is equal to .0961 ampere.


Current, Joint.
The current given by several sources acting together. Properly, it
should be restricted to sources connected in series, thus if two battery
cells are connected in series the current they maintain is their joint
current.


Current, Linear.
A current passing through a straight conductor; a current whose path
follows a straight line.


164   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Current, Make and Break.
A succession of currents of short duration, separated by absolute
cessation of current. Such current is produced by a telegraph key, or by
a microphone badly adjusted, so that the circuit is broken at intervals.
The U. S. Courts have virtually decided that the telephone operates by
the undulatory currents, and not by a make and break current. Many
attempts have been made to produce a telephone operating by a
demonstrable make and break current, on account of the above
distinction, in hopes of producing a telephone outside of the scope of
the Bell telephone patent.

[Transcriber's note: Contemporary long distance telephone service is
digital, as this item describes.]


Current-meter.
An apparatus for indicating the strength of current. (See Ammeter.)


Current, Negative.
In the single needle telegraph system the current which deflects the
needle to the left.


Current, Nerve and Muscle.
A current of electricity yielded by nerves or muscles. Under proper
conditions feeble currents can be taken from nerves, as the same can be
taken from muscles.


Current, Opposed.
The current given by two or more sources connected in opposition to each
other. Thus a two volt and a one volt battery may be connected in
opposition, giving a net voltage of only one volt, and a current due to
such net voltage.


Current, Partial.
A divided or branch current. A current which goes through a single
conductor to a point where one or more other conductors join it in
parallel, and then divides itself between the several conductors, which
must join further on, produces partial currents. It produces as many
partial currents as the conductors among which it divides. The point of
division is termed the point of derivation.

Synonym--Derived Current.


Current, Polarizing.
In electro-therapeutics, a constant current.


Current, Positive.
In the single needle telegraph system the current which deflects the
needle to the right.


Current, Pulsatory.
A current of constant direction, but whose strength is constantly
varying, so that it is a series of pulsations of current instead of a
steady flow.

Current, Rectified.
A typical alternating current is represented by a sine curve, whose
undulations extend above and below the zero line. If by a simple two
member commutator the currents are caused to go in one direction, in
place of the sine curve a series of short convex curves following one
another and all the same side of the zero line results. The currents all
in the same direction, become what is known as a pulsating current.

Synonym--Redressed Current.


165  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Current, Rectilinear.
A current flowing through a rectilinear conductor. The action of
currents depending on their distance from the points where they act,
their contour is a controlling factor. This contour is determined by the
conductors through which they flow.


Current Reverser.
A switch or other contrivance for reversing the direction of a
current in a conductor.


Currents, Ampérian.
The currents of electricity assumed by Ampere's theory to circulate
around a magnet. As they represent the maintenance of a current or of
currents without the expenditure of energy they are often assumed to be
of molecular dimensions. As they all go in the same sense of rotation
and are parallel to each other the result is the same as if a single set
of currents circulated around the body of the magnet. More will be found
on this subject under Magnetism. The Ampérian currents are purely
hypothetical and are predicated on the existence of a field of force
about a permanent magnet. (See Magnetism, Ampére's Theory of.)

If the observer faces the north pole of a magnet the Ampérian currents
are assumed to go in the direction opposite to that of a watch, and the
reverse for the south pole.



Figs. 118-119 DIRECTION OF AMPÉRIAN CURRENTS.


Currents, Angular.
Currents passing through conductors which form an angle with each other.


Currents, Angular, Laws of.
1. Two rectilinear currents, the directions of which form an angle with
each other, attract one another when both approach to or recede from the
apex of the angle.

2. They repel one another, if one approaches and the other recedes from
the apex of the angle.


166   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY


Currents, Earth.
In long telegraph lines having terminal grounds or connected to earth
only at their ends, potential differences are sometimes observed that
are sufficient to interfere with their working and which, of course, can
produce currents. These are termed earth-currents. It will be noted that
they exist in the wire, not in the earth. They may be of 40 milliamperes
strength, quite enough to work a telegraph line without any battery.
Lines running N. E. and S. W. are most affected; those running N.W. and
S. E. very much less so. These currents only exist in lines grounded at
both ends, and appear in underground wires. Hence they are not
attributable to atmospheric electricity. According to Wilde they are the
primary cause of magnetic storms, q. v., but not of the periodical
changes in the magnetic elements. (See Magnetic Elements.)

Synonym--Natural Currents.


Current, Secondary.
(a) A current induced in one conductor by a variation in the current in
a neighboring one; the current produced in the secondary circuit of an
induction coil or alternating current converter.

(b) The current given by a secondary battery. This terminology is not to
be recommended.


Current, Secretion.
In electro-therapeutics, a current due to stimulation of the secretory
nerves.


Current Sheet.
(a) If two terminals of an active circuit are connected to two points of
a thin metallic plate the current spreads over or occupies practically a
considerable area of such plate, and this portion of the current is a
current sheet.

The general contour of the current sheet can be laid out in lines of
flux. Such lines resemble lines of force. Like the latter, they are
purely an assumption, as the current is not in any sense composed  of
lines.

(b) A condition of current theoretically brought about by the Ampérian
currents in a magnet. Each molecule having its own current, the
contiguous portions of the molecules counteract each other and give a
resultant zero current. All that remains is the outer sheet of electric
current that surrounds the whole.


Current, Sinuous.
A current passing through a sinuous conductor.


Currents, Multiphase.
A term applied to groups of currents of alternating type which
constantly differ from each other by a constant proportion of periods of
alternation. They are produced on a single dynamo, the winding being so
contrived that two, three or more currents differing a constant amount
in phase are collected from corresponding contact rings. There are
virtually as many windings on the armature as there are currents to be
produced. Separate conductors for the currents must be used throughout.

Synonyms--Polyphase Currents--Rotatory Currents.


167  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Currents of Motion.
In electro-therapeutics, the currents produced in living muscle or
nerves after sudden contraction or relaxation.


Currents of Rest.
In electro-therapeutics, the currents traversing muscular or nervous
tissue when at rest. Their existence is disputed.


Currents, Orders of.
An intermittent current passing through a conductor will induce
secondary alternating currents in a closed circuit near it. This
secondary current will induce a tertiary current in a third closed
circuit near it, and so on. The induced currents are termed as of the
first, second, third and other orders. The experiment is carried out by
Henry's coils. (See Coils, Henry's.)


Currents, Thermo-electric.
These currents, as produced from existing thermo-electric batteries,
are generated by low potential, and are of great constancy. The opposite
junctions of the plates can be kept at constant temperatures, as by
melting ice and condensing steam, so that an identical current can be
reproduced at will from a thermopile.

Thermo-electric currents were used by Ohm in establishing his law. (See
Ohm's Law.)


Current, Swelling.
In electro-therapeutics, a current gradually increasing in strength.


Current, Undulatory.
A current varying in strength without any abrupt transition from action
to inaction, as in the make and break current. The current may be
continually changing in direction (see Current, Alternating), and hence,
of necessity, may pass through stages of zero intensity, but such
transition must be by a graduation, not by an abrupt transition. Such
current may be represented by a curve, such as the curve of sines. It is
evident that the current may pass through the zero point as it crosses
the line or changes direction without being a make and break current.
When such a current does alternate in direction it is sometimes called a
"shuttle current." The ordinary commercial telephone current and the
alternating current is of this type. (See Current, Make and Break.)


Current, Unit.
Unit current is one which in a wire of unit length, bent so as to form
an arc of a circle of unit length of radius, would act upon a unit pole
(see Magnetic Pole, Unit,) at the center of the circle with unit force.
Unit length is the centimeter; unit force is the dyne.

[Transcriber's note: The SI definition of an ampere: A current in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible
cross-section, 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce a force equal to
2E-7 newton per metre of length.]


168   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Current, Wattless.
Whenever there is a great difference in phase in an alternating current
dynamo between volts and current, the true watts are much less than the
product of the virtual volts and amperes, because the the watts are
obtained by multiplying the product of the virtual volts and amperes by
the cosine of the angle of lag (or lead). Any alternating current may be
resolved into two components in quadrature with each other, one in phase
with the volts, the other in quadrature therewith, the former is termed
by S. P. Thompson the Working Current, the latter the Wattless Current.
The greater the angle of lag the greater will be the wattless current.


Curve, Arrival.
A curve representing the rate of rise of intensity of current at the end
of a long conductor when the circuit has been closed at the other end.
In the Atlantic cable, for instance, it would require about 108 seconds
for the current at the distant end to attain 9/10 of its full value. The
curve is drawn with its abscissa representing time and its ordinates
current strength.


Curve, Characteristic.
A curve indicating, graphically, the relations between any two factors,
which are interdependent, or which vary simultaneously. Thus in a
dynamo, the voltage increases with the speed of rotation, and a
characteristic curve may be based on the relations between the speed of
rotation and voltage developed. The current produced by a dynamo varies
with the electro-motive force, and a curve can express the relations
between the electro-motive force and the current produced.

A characteristic curve is usually laid out by rectangular co-ordinates
(see Co-ordinates). Two lines are drawn at right angles to each other,
one vertical, and the other horizontal. One set of data are marked off
on the horizontal line, say one ampere, two amperes, and so on, in the
case of a dynamo's characteristic curve.

For each amperage of current there is a corresponding voltage in the
circuit. Therefore on each ampere mark a vertical is erected, and on
that the voltage corresponding to such amperage is laid off. This gives
a series of points, and these points may be connected by a curve. Such
curve will be a characteristic curve.

The more usual way of laying out a curve is to work directly upon the
two axes. On one is laid off the series of values of one set of data; on
the other the corresponding series of values of the other dependent
data. Vertical lines or ordinates, q. v., are erected on the horizontal
line or axis of abscissas at the points laid off; horizontal lines or
abscissas, q. v., are drawn from the points laid off on the vertical
line or axis of ordinates. The characteristic curve is determined by the
intersections of each corresponding pair of abscissa and ordinate.


169  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Variations exist in characteristic curve methods. Thus to get the
characteristic of a commutator, radial lines may be drawn from a circle
representing its perimeter. Such lines may be of length proportional to
the voltage developed on the commutator at the points whence the lines
start. A cut giving an example of such a curve is given in Fig. 125.
(See Curve of Distribution of Potential in Armature.)

There is nothing absolute in the use of ordinates or abscissas. They may
be interchanged. Ordinarily voltages are laid off as ordinates, but the
practise may be reversed. The same liberty holds good for all
characteristic curves. Custom, however, should be followed.

Synonym--Characteristic.



Fig. 120. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DYNAMO
WITH HORSE POWER CURVES.


Curve, Characteristic, of Converter.
The characteristic curve of the secondary circuit of an alternating
current converter. It gives by the usual methods (see Curve,
Characteristic,) the relations between the electro-motive force and the
current in the secondary circuit at a fixed resistance. If connected in
parallel a constant electro-motive force is maintained, and the curve is
virtually a straight line. If connected in series an elliptical curve is
produced.


170   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Curve, Charging.
In secondary battery manipulation, a curve indicating the increase of
voltage as the charging is prolonged. The rise in voltage with the
duration of the charging current is not uniform. In one case, shown in
the cut, there was a brief rapid rise of about 0.1 volt; then a long
slow rise for 0.15 volt; then a more rapid rise for nearly 0.40 volt,
and then the curve became a horizontal line indicating a cessation of
increase of voltage. The charging rate should be constant.

The horizontal line is laid off in hours, the vertical in volts, so that
the time is represented by abscissas and the voltage by ordinates of the
curve.



Fig. 121. CHARGING CURVE OF A SECONDARY BATTERY.


Curve, Discharging.
A characteristic curve of a storage battery, indicating the fall in
voltage with hours of discharge. The volts may be laid off on the axis
of ordinates, and the hours of discharging on the axis of abscissas. To
give it meaning the rate of discharge must be constant.


Curve, Electro-motive Force.
A characteristic curve of a dynamo. It expresses the relation between
its entire electromotive force, as calculated by Ohm's Law, and the
current intensities corresponding thereto. To obtain the data the dynamo
is driven with different resistances in the external circuit and the
current is measured for each resistance. This gives the amperes. The
total resistance of the circuit, including that of the dynamo, is known.
By Ohm's Law the electro-motive force in volts is obtained for each case
by multiplying the total resistance of the circuit in ohms by the
amperes of current forced through such resistance. Taking the voltages
thus calculated for ordinates and the corresponding amperages for
abscissas the curve is plotted. An example is shown in the cut.


171  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Curve, External Characteristic.
A characteristic curve of a dynamo, corresponding to the electro-motive
force curve, except that the ordinates represent the voltages of the
external circuit, the voltages as taken directly from the terminals of
the machine, instead of the total electro-motive force of the circuit.
The dynamo is run at constant speed. The resistance of the external
circuit is varied. The voltages at the terminals of the machine and the
amperages of current corresponding thereto are determined. Using the
voltages thus determined as ordinates and the corresponding amperages as
abscissas the external characteristic curve is plotted.

This curve can be mechanically produced. A pencil may be moved against a
constant force by two electro-magnets pulling at right angles to each
other. One must be excited by the main current of the machine, the other
by a shunt current from the terminals of the machine. The point of the
pencil will describe the curve.



Fig. 122. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DYNAMO.


Curve, Horse Power.
Curves indicating electric horse power. They are laid out with
co-ordinates, volts being laid off on the axis of ordinates, and amperes
on the axis of abscissas generally. The curves are drawn through points
where the product of amperes by volts equals 746. On the same diagram 1,
2, 3 .... and any other horse powers can be plotted if within the
limits. See Fig. 120.


Curve, Isochasmen.
A line drawn on the map of the earth's surface indicating the locus of
equal frequency of auroras.


172   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Curve, Life.
A characteristic curve showing the relations between the durability and
conditions affecting the same in any appliance. It is used most for
incandescent lamps. The hours of burning before failure give ordinates,
and the rates of burning, expressed indirectly in volts or in
candle-power, give abscissas. For each voltage or for each candle-power
an average duration is deducible from experience, so that two dependent
sets of data are obtained for the construction of the curve.


Curve, Load.
A characteristic curve of a dynamo, expressing the relation between its
voltage and the amount of excitation under a definite condition of
ampere load, at a constant speed. The ordinates represent voltage, the
abscissas ampere turns in the field, and the curves may be constructed
for a flow of 0, 50, 100, or .. , or any other number of amperes.



Fig. 123. LOAD CURVES.


Curve, Magnetization.
A characteristic curve of an electromagnet, indicating the relation of
magnetization to exciting current. Laying off on the axis of ordinates
the quantities of magnetism evoked, and the corresponding strengths of
the exciting current on the axis of abscissas, the curve can be plotted.
It first rises rapidly, indicating a rapid increase of magnetization,
but grows nearly horizontal as the iron becomes more saturated. The
effect due to the coils alone, or the effect produced in the absence of
iron is a straight line, because air does not change in permeability.


Curve of Distribution of Potential in Armature.
A characteristic curve indicating the distribution of potential
difference between adjoining sections of the commutator of an armature
in different positions all around it. The potential differences are
taken by a volt-meter or potential galvanometer, connection with the
armature being made by two small metal brushes, held at a distance apart
equal to the distance from centre to centre of two adjoining commutator
bars. The curve is laid out as if by polar co-ordinates extending around
the cross-section of the commutator, with the distances from the
commutator surface to the curve proportional to the potential
differences as determined by shifting the pair of brushes all around the
commutator.

The above is S. P. Thompson's method. Another method of W. M. Mordey
involves the use of a pilot brush. (See Brush, Pilot.) Otherwise the
method is in general terms identical with the above.


173  STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.



Fig. 124. MAGNETIZATION CURVE.



Fig. 125. ARMATURE: CURVE.

Fig. 126. DEVELOPMENT OF ARMATURE CURVE.


Curve of Dynamo.
The characteristic curve of a dynamo. (See Curve, Characteristic.)


Curve of Sines.
An undulating curve representing wave motion. It is produced by
compounding a simple harmonic motion, or a two and fro motion like that
of an infinitely long pendulum with a rectilinear motion. Along a
horizontal line points may be laid off to represent equal periods of
time. Then on each point a perpendicular must be erected. The length of
each must be equal to the length of path traversed by the point up to
the expiration of each one of the given intervals of time. The abscissas
are proportional to the times and the ordinates to the sines of angles
proportional to the times. Thus if a circle be drawn upon the line and
divided into thirty-two parts of equal angular value, the sines of these
angles may be taken as the ordinates and the absolute distance or length
of arc of the angle will give the abscissas.

Synonyms--Sine Curve--Sinusoidal Curve--Harmonic Curve.



Fig. 127. CURVE OF SINES.


174   STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Curve of Saturation of the Magnetic Circuit.
A characteristic curve whose ordinates may represent the number of
magnetic lines of force induced in a magnetic circuit, and whose
abscissas may represent the ampere turns of excitation or other
representative of the inducing force.

Curve of Torque.
A characteristic curve showing the relations between torque, q. v., and
current in a dynamo or motor.


Curve, Permeability Temperature.
A characteristic curve expressing the changes in permeability of a
paramagnetic substance as the temperature changes. The degrees of
temperature may be abscissas, and the permeabilities corresponding
thereto ordinates of the curve.


Cut In. v.
To connect any electric appliance, mechanism or conductor, into a
circuit.


Cut Out. v.
The reverse of to cut in; to remove from a circuit any conducting
device, and sometimes so arranged as to leave the circuit completed in
some other way.


Cut Out.
An appliance for removing any apparatus from an electric circuit, so
that no more current shall pass through such apparatus, and sometimes
providing means for closing the circuit so as to leave it complete after
the removal of the apparatus.


175    STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.


Cut Out, Automatic.
(a) A mechanism for automatically shunting an arc or other lamp when it
ceases to work properly. It is generally worked by an electro-magnet of
high resistance placed in parallel with the arc. If the arc grows too
long the magnet attracts its armature, thereby completing a shunt of
approximately the resistance of the arc, and which replaces it until the
carbons approach again to within a proper distance. Sometimes a strip or
wire of fusible metal is arranged in shunt with the arc. When the arc
lengthens the current through the wire increases, melts it and a spring
is released which acts to complete or close a shunt circuit of
approximately arc-resistance.

(b) See Safety Device--Safety Fuse.

(c) See below.


Cut-out, Magnetic.
A magnetic cut-out is essentially a coil of wire with attracted core or
armature. When the coil is not excited the core, by pressing down a
strip of metal or by some analogous arrangement, completes the circuit.
When the current exceeds a certain strength the core rises as it is
attracted and the circuit is opened.


Cut-out, Safety.
A block of porcelain or other base carrying a safety fuse, which melts
and breaks the circuit before the wire connected to it is dangerously
heated.

Synonyms--Fuse Block--Safety Catch--Safety Fuse.


Cut Out, Wedge.
A cut out operated by a wedge. The line terminals consist of a spring
bearing against a plate, the circuit being completed through their point
of contact. A plug or wedge composed of two metallic faces insulated
from each other is adapted to wedge the contact open. Terminals of a
loop circuit are connected to the faces of the wedge. Thus on sliding it
into place, the loop circuit is brought into series in the main circuit.

Synonym--Plug Cut Out--Spring Jack.


Cutting of Lines of Force.
A field of force is pictured as made up of lines of force; a conductor
swept through the field is pictured as cutting these lines. By so doing
it produces potential difference or electro-motive force in itself with
a current, if the conductor is part of a closed circuit.


Cycle of Alternation.
A full period of alternation of an alternating current. It begins
properly at the zero line, goes to a maximum value in one sense and
returns to zero, goes to maximum in the other sense and returns to zero.


Cystoscopy.
Examination of the human bladder by the introduction of a special
incandescent electric lamp. The method is due to Hitze.