*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40617 ***

  Transcriber's Notes:

Minor punctuation inconsistencies have been silently corrected. A list
of other changes made can be found at the end of the book. Footnotes
were sequentially numbered and placed at the end of each chapter. The
page headers of the book on the odd numbered pages have been marked as
[Header]. For this text version, diacritical marks that cannot be
represented in plain text are shown in the following manner:

  Ligature [oe] is encoded as oe.
  p. 87: [O] o with macron above (dOucement).
         [E] e with macron above (doucemEnt).
  p. 283: [^] upside down V.

  Mark up: _italics_
           =bold=




PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER


FRENCH SERIES No. III


THE FRENCH LANGUAGE IN ENGLAND




   Published by the University of Manchester at THE UNIVERSITY PRESS (H.
   M. McKECHNIE, Secretary) 12 LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD, MANCHESTER

  LONGMANS, GREEN & CO.

  LONDON: 39 Paternoster Row

  NEW YORK: 443-449 Fourth Avenue and Thirtieth Street

  CHICAGO: Prairie Avenue and Thirty-fifth Street

  BOMBAY: 8 Hornby Road

  CALCUTTA: 6 Old Court House Street

  MADRAS: 167 Mount Road




  THE TEACHING AND CULTIVATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE IN ENGLAND DURING
  TUDOR AND STUART TIMES

  WITH AN INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ON THE PRECEDING PERIOD

  BY

  KATHLEEN LAMBLEY, M.A.

  _Lecturer in French in the University of Durham_

  _Sometime Assistant Lecturer in French in the University of Manchester_


  MANCHESTER
  AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
  12 LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD
  LONGMANS, GREEN & CO.
  LONDON, NEW YORK, BOMBAY, ETC.
  1920




  PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER No. CXXIX


_All rights reserved._




PREFACE


The present work, begun during the author's tenure of a Faulkner
Fellowship in the University of Manchester, and completed in subsequent
years, is an endeavour to trace the history of the teaching and use of
French in England during a given epoch, ending with the Revocation of
the Edict of Nantes and the Revolution of 1689, which events mark the
beginning of a new period in the study of the French language in this
country. No attempt has been made to treat the wider topic of French
influence in England in its literary and social aspects (this has
already been done by competent hands), though this side of the question
is naturally touched upon occasionally by way of reference or
illustration.

I gladly take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude to Professor
L. E. Kastner, at whose suggestion this investigation was undertaken,
for his generous assistance, and the unfailing interest he has shown in
my work during the whole course of its preparation. I am likewise
considerably indebted to Dr. Phoebe Sheavyn for helpful criticism and
advice, to Professor Tout for kindly reading through the introductory
chapter, and to Mr. J. Marks for a careful revision of the proofs and
many useful indications. I owe a great deal to my father also, whose
sympathetic advice and encouragement did much to lighten my task. Nor
can I close this list of acknowledgments without recording my obligation
to the Secretary of the Press, Mr. H. M. McKechnie, for the valuable
assistance he has so freely given me during the progress of this volume
through the Press.

     KATHLEEN LAMBLEY.

  DURHAM, _January 1920_.




TABLE OF CONTENTS


  PART I

  INTRODUCTORY

  CHAPTER I                                                         PAGE

  THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES                              3

   French grammars in mediaeval England--The use of the French
   language--Latin, French, and English vocabularies--French at the
   Universities--Popularity of French in the thirteenth century--Ceases
   to be a vernacular in England--Treatises for teaching French--A
   treatise on French verbs--The _Orthographia Gallica_--The _Tractatus
   Orthographiae_--T. H. Parisiis studentis--Walter de
   Bibbesworth--French in the schools and Universities--The fourteenth
   century--Treatises on French--The _Nominale_--Model letters--Recovery
   of English in the second half of the fourteenth
   century--Deterioration of Anglo-French--English in official documents
   and correspondence--Decline in use of French.

  CHAPTER II

  THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY                                               26

   Triumph of continental French over Anglo-French--"Doux françois de
   Paris" a foreign language--Standard of French taught in
   England--_Femina_--Treatises on Grammar--Barton's
   _Donait_--Epistolaries--Books of conversation in French--The
   Cambridge manuscript in French and English--First printed books for
   teaching French--Dialogues in French and English--Caxton, Wynkyn de
   Worde, and Pynson--French by conversation--Approaching improvement in
   the standard of French taught in England--Palsgrave's Grammar.

  PART II

  TUDOR TIMES

  CHAPTER I

  THE FRENCH LANGUAGE AT COURT AND AMONG THE NOBILITY                 61

   French at the Court of the Tudors--English neglected by
   foreigners--Latin a spoken language--Defective pronunciation of the
   English--Interest in modern languages awakened--French holds the
   first place--Its use in correspondence and in official documents--The
   French of Henry VIII., his courtiers, and the ladies--Of Anne Boleyn
   and the other Queens--Of the royal family, Edward, Mary, and
   Elizabeth--French tutors--Bernard André--French Grammars--Alexander
   Barclay's _Introductory_--Practice and Theory--Pierre Valence, tutor
   to the Earl of Lincoln--His _Introductions in French_--Fragment of a
   Grammar at Lambeth--French Humanists as Language masters--Bourbon and
   Denisot--England and the _Pléiade_.

  CHAPTER II

  FRENCH TUTORS AT COURT--GILES DUWES--JOHN PALSGRAVE--JEAN BELLEMAIN  86

   French tutors at Court--John Palsgrave and Giles Duwes--Palsgrave's
   _Esclarcissement_--The pronunciation of French--His second and third
   books--The vocabulary--The _Introductorie_ of Duwes--His
   Dialogues--The methods of the two teachers--Dates of composition and
   editions--Attitude of the two teachers to each other--Duwes on
   English teachers of French--Palsgrave's claims--Palsgrave's
   acquaintance with French literature--Incidents in Duwes's career in
   England--His royal pupils--Palsgrave's teaching career--Mary Tudor
   his pupil--The Duke of Richmond, Gregory Cromwell, etc.--Palsgrave in
   the North, at Oxford, and in London--Jean Bellemain, tutor to Edward
   VI.--The King's French exercises--Intercourse with Calvin--Bellemain
   on French orthography--French tutor to Elizabeth--Her translations
   from the French--A. R. Chevallier.

  CHAPTER III

  THE INFLUENCE OF RELIGIOUS REFUGEES ON THE TEACHING OF FRENCH IN
  ENGLAND--OPENINGS FOR THEM AS TEACHERS--DEMAND FOR TEXT-BOOKS--FRENCH
  SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND                                    114

   Effects of the persecution of the Protestants on the teaching of
   French in England--Protestant refugees--Registers and returns of
   aliens--French churches in London--Reception and treatment of
   foreigners--Incivility of the common people--Courtesy of the
   gentry--Refugees received into English families--French in polite
   education--French tutors and text-books--Converse with
   foreigners--Shakespeare's French--Professional schoolmasters--No
   opening in the grammar schools--French schools--Du Ploich's
   school--His Treatise in French and English and method of
   teaching--His works in manuscript--Claude Holyband--His _French
   Schoolemaister_ and _French Littleton_--His French school--Holyband
   as private tutor--His method of teaching--Schools in connection with
   the French churches--Schools at Canterbury and elsewhere--Saravia's
   school at Southampton--Joshua Sylvester--Place of French in the
   public schools of Scotland--In the parish and private schools--No
   French grammars produced in Scotland.

  CHAPTER IV

  HUGUENOT TEACHERS OF FRENCH--OTHER CLASSES OF FRENCH TEACHERS--RIVALRIES
  IN THE PROFESSION--THE "DUTCH" AND ENGLISH TEACHERS                155

   Importance of the Huguenot teachers in London--St. Paul's Churchyard
   the centre of the profession--The group of Normans--Robert
   Fontaine--Jacques Bellot--His French and English grammars, and
   _Jardin de Vertu_--The _French Methode_--G. de La Mothe--His French
   Alphabet and method of teaching--French teachers from the
   Netherlands--Roman Catholic schoolmasters--Objections raised against
   French teachers--The right of the English to teach French--John
   Eliote--His attack on French teachers--His love of Rabelais and debt
   to French literature--His 'merrie vaine'--The _Ortho-Epia Gallica_
   and his other works.

  CHAPTER V

  METHODS OF TEACHING FRENCH--LATIN AND FRENCH--FRENCH AND ENGLISH
  DICTIONARIES--STUDY OF FRENCH LITERATURE                           179

   Usual methods of learning French--Reading and
   translation--Pronunciation--Rules of grammar--Importance of
   'practice'--Latin and French text-books--Contrast of methods--Grammar
   and Practice--Books in French and English--French by
   translation--French dictionaries--Holyband's Dictionaries--Dictionary
   printed by Harrison--A place given to French in some Latin
   dictionaries--Veron--Baret--John Higgins--French-Latin
   dictionaries--Cotgrave's great French-English Dictionary--Sherwood's
   English-French Dictionary--Howell's editions of Cotgrave--The reading
   of French literature--Attitude of French teachers--Favourite
   authors--Histories and Memoirs of military life for soldiers and
   statesmen.

  CHAPTER VI

  FRENCH AT THE UNIVERSITIES                                         198

   Latin the language of the Universities--Retention of the use of
   French formulae--Modern languages read--French a relaxation from
   'severer studies'--French tutors and French grammars--Morlet's
   _Janitrix_--French grammars written in Latin--Antonio de Corro--John
   Sanford--Wye Saltonstall--Henry Leighton--French grammarians and
   teachers at Oxford--Robert Farrear--Pierre Bense--French teachers at
   Cambridge--Gabriel du Grès at Cambridge and Oxford--On the teaching
   of French--French at the Universities at the time of the
   Restoration--The French of the Universities and of the fashionable
   world--French at the Inns of Court--One-sidedness of the University
   curriculum--Steps taken to supplement it.

  CHAPTER VII

  THE STUDY OF FRENCH BY ENGLISH TRAVELLERS ABROAD                   211

   Travel in France and on the Continent--In the suite of
   ambassadors--Children in France--Course of studies--Girls in
   France--Objections to children being sent to France--France and
   Italy--Protests against travel--Prejudices against travel--Preference
   for France--Necessity of the French language--The travelling
   tutor--The age for travel--Literati as travelling tutors--Travel
   without a governor--Books on travel--'Methods' of travel--The study
   of French--Dallington and Moryson--Study of French before
   travel--French 'by rote'--Language masters for travellers--French
   grammars for travellers--Charles Maupas of Blois and his son--Antoine
   Oudin--Other grammars--Père Chiflet--The 'exercises'--Travellers at
   the Universities--At the Protestant Academies--Geneva--Isaac
   Casaubon--The 'idle traveller'--The 'beau'--Affectations of newly
   returned travellers--Commendation and censure of travel.

  CHAPTER VIII

  THE STUDY OF FRENCH AMONG MERCHANTS AND SOLDIERS                   239

   Merchants and the study of French--Text-books for
   merchants--Relations with the Netherlands--The 'book from
   Anvers'--Barlement's book of dialogues--Meurier's manuals for
   teaching French to the English in Antwerp--The study of French in the
   Netherlands--French for soldiers--The Verneys--John Wodroeph--The
   difficulty of the French language--Necessity of rules as well as
   practice--_The Marrow of the French Tongue_.

  PART III

  STUART TIMES

  CHAPTER I

  FRENCH AT THE COURTS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I.--FRENCH STUDIED BY THE
  LADIES--FRENCH PLAYERS IN LONDON--ENGLISH GENERALLY IGNORED BY
  FOREIGNERS                                                         259

   The French language in England in the time of the early Stuarts--In
   the royal family--French tutors--John Florio--Guy Le
   Moyne--Massonet--Sir Robert Le Grys--French among the
   ladies--Erondelle's _French Garden_ for English ladies--His
   dialogues--His career as a teacher--His earlier works--The French
   Queen of England--French plays in London--The English language
   neglected by foreigners--English literature ignored in
   France--English players abroad--The study of English--English
   grammars for foreigners in England--French teachers and merchants
   further the study of English--Provision for teaching English in the
   Netherlands and in France.

  CHAPTER II

  FRENCH GRAMMARS--BOOKS FOR TEACHING LATIN AND FRENCH--FRENCH IN PRIVATE
  INSTITUTIONS                                                       281

   Robert Sherwood, teacher of French and English--His school and
   _French Tutour_--William Colson, another English teacher--His
   'method' and writings--Maupas's French grammar in England--William
   Aufeild--How to study French--The _Flower de Luce_--Laur du Terme on
   the teaching of French--Paul Cogneau's French grammar--His
   method--Continued use of the sixteenth-century French grammars--Latin
   and French--Latin school-books adapted to teaching French--Books for
   teaching Latin and French together--The _Janua_ of Comenius--Wye
   Saltonstall--De Grave--French in private institutions--The _Museum
   Minervae_--Gerbier's Academy--French in schools for ladies.

  CHAPTER III

  THE "LITTLE BLOIS" IN LONDON                                       301

   The Blois group of French teachers--Claude Mauger and his French
   grammar--Its popularity and development--Mauger's Letters--Other
   writings--Life in London--Teaches English--Mauger's method of
   teaching--Mauger at Paris--The demand for his grammar abroad--Paul
   Festeau--His French and English grammars--Editions and
   contents--Pierre Lainé--His French grammar--Encouragement of the
   study of French literature.

  CHAPTER IV

  THE FRENCH TEACHING PROFESSION AND METHODS OF STUDYING THE
  LANGUAGE                                                           319

   Vogue of French romances in England--Dorothy Osborne--Pepys on French
   literature--His French books--French text-books and the _précieux_
   spirit--William Herbert--His criticism of the French teaching
   profession--Rivalry among teachers--Need for protection--Herbert's
   later works--His early career in England--Quarrels with a minister of
   the French church--English gentry at the French church--Pepys a
   regular attender--French teachers encourage the practice--The method
   of 'grammar and rote'--French 'by rote'--Examples of how French was
   studied--Latin by grammar--Calls for reform--The case against
   grammar--French taught on the 'right method'--Attempts to teach Latin
   on the same lines as French--Contrast between the learning of Latin
   in England 'by grammar' and of French in France 'by rote.'

  CHAPTER V

  THE TOUR IN FRANCE                                                 341

   The Protestant schools and Academies--A group of English students at
   Saumur--Travellers at the French Universities--A method of
   travel--Attitude of the French teachers to the tour in France--Guide
   books--Routes followed--Favourite resorts for study--_Auberges_ and
   _pensions_--Language masters in France--Grammars for
   travellers--Howell's instructions for travellers--Suitable books for
   students--The 'Grand' and 'Petit' Tour in
   France--Paris--Inexperienced young travellers--Sir John Reresby in
   France.

  CHAPTER VI

  GALLOMANIA AFTER THE RESTORATION                                   361

   Gallomania in England after the Restoration--The royal family in
   France--Their knowledge of the language--English courtiers and gentry
   in France--Men of letters in France--French and the French at the
   English court after the Restoration--French 'salons' London--French
   valets, cooks, dancing masters, tailors--The French language--French
   among the ladies--The 'Frenchified' lady--The 'beaux' or English
   'monsieurs'--French influence at the theatre--Popularity of French
   actors in London.

  CHAPTER VII

  THE TEACHING OF FRENCH AND ITS POPULARITY AFTER THE RESTORATION    381

   French grammars after the Restoration--Pierre de Lainé, tutor to the
   children of the Duke of York--The _Princely Way to the French
   Tongue_--Guy Miège--His Dictionaries--His French Grammars--His method
   of teaching--Rote and grammar--Miège's other works--Other French
   Grammars--Pierre Berault--The universality of French--Supremacy over
   Latin in the world of fashion and diplomacy--Position of French in
   the educational world--The classics read in French--'All learning now
   in French'--French recognized by writers on education--Projects for
   reformed schools--Numerous French schools in and about
   London--Villiers' school at Nottingham--Academies for
   ladies--Academies for training gentlemen in the necessary social
   accomplishments and for business--Effects of the Revocation of the
   Edict of Nantes.

  APPENDICES

  I

  CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF MANUALS AND GRAMMARS FOR TEACHING FRENCH TO THE
  ENGLISH                                                            403

  II

  BIBLIOGRAPHY, ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY, OF MANUALS FOR TEACHING THE
  FRENCH LANGUAGE TO THE ENGLISH, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH
  CENTURY TO THE END OF THE STUART PERIOD                            410

  INDEX                                                              429




PART I

INTRODUCTORY




CHAPTER I

    THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES


The first important grammar of the French language was printed in
England and written by an Englishman. This enterprising student was John
Palsgrave, "natyf de Londres et gradué de Paris," whose work, entitled
_L'Esclarcissement de la langue francoyse_, was published in 1530. It is
an enormous quarto of over a thousand pages, full of elaborate, detailed
and often obscure rules, written in English in spite of the French
title. It was no doubt the solid value and exhaustiveness of Palsgrave's
work which won for it the reputation of being the earliest grammar of
the French language.[1] Yet Palsgrave himself informs us that such was
not the case, though he claims to be the first to lay down 'absolute'
rules for the language.

The kings of England, he declares, have never ceased to encourage "suche
clerkes as were in theyr tymes, to prove and essay what they by theyr
dylygence in this matter myght do." "This like charge," he continues,
"have dyvers others had afore my dayes ... many sondrie clerkes have for
their tyme taken theyr penne in hande.... Some thyng have they in
writing lefte behynde them concerning into this mater, for the ease and
furtheraunce as well of suche as shilde in lyke charge after them
succede, as of them whiche from tyme to tyme in that tong were to be
instructed ... takyng light and erudition of theyr studious labours
whiche in this matter before me have taken paynes to write.... I dyd my
effectuall devoire to ensertche out suche bokes as had by others of this
mater before my tyme ben compyled, of which undouted, after enquery and
ensertche made for them dyvers came into my handes as well suche whose
authors be yet amongst us lyveng, as suche whiche were of this mater by
other sondrie persons longe afore my dayes composed."

The living predecessors to whom Palsgrave refers--authors of short works
of small philological value, but of great interest to-day as evidence of
the wide use of the French language in England--were likewise acquainted
with earlier works on the subject. Giles Duwes, tutor in French to Henry
VIII. and other members of the royal family, frequently invokes the
authority of the 'olde grammar.' The poet Alexander Barclay, in his
French Grammar of 1521, informs us that "the said treatyse hath ben
attempted of dyvers men before my dayes," and that he had "sene the
draughtes of others" made before his time; moreover, in times past, the
French language "hath ben so moche set by in England that who hath ben
ignorant in the same language hath not ben reputed to be of gentyll
blode. In so moche that, as the cronycles of englande recorde, in all
the gramer scoles throughout englande small scolars expounded theyr
construccyons bothe in Frenche and Englysshe."

Thus the French grammarians in England in the early sixteenth century
were acquainted with, and to some extent indebted to, a series of
mediaeval treatises on the French language,--a type of work which, even
at the time they wrote, was unknown on the Continent.[2] That England,
before other countries, took on herself the study of the French
language, was the result of events which followed the Conquest. From
that time French had taken its place by the side of English as a
vernacular. It was the language of the upper classes and landed gentry,
the cultivated and educated; English was used by the masses, while all
who read and wrote knew Latin, the language of clerks and scholars. For
nearly three centuries after the Conquest almost all writings of any
literary value produced in England were in French, though the bulk of
composition was in Latin; English never ceased to be written, but was
used in minor works for the most part.

It is not surprising, therefore, to find that from an early date Latin
was at times construed or translated into French[3] as well as English
in the grammar schools, both languages serving as vernaculars. There are
still extant examples of this custom,[4] dating from the twelfth
century; for instance, a version of the psalter, in which the French
words are placed above the Latin without any regard to the order of the
French sentence.[5] Others are found in some of the first vocabularies
written for the purpose of teaching Latin,[6] which consist of lists of
words grouped round subjects and arranged, as a rule, in sentence form.
Two of these works seem to have been particularly well known, judging
from the number of manuscripts still in existence--those of the English
scholars, Alexander Neckam (1157-1217) and John de Garlande, both of
whom were indebted to France for most of their learning. Neckam, who in
1180 had attained celebrity as a Professor of the University of Paris,
was the author of a Latin Vocabulary--_De Utensilibus_--which was
glossed in Anglo-French.[7] In this he enumerates the various parts of a
house and the occupations and callings of men, and gives scenes from
feudal and agricultural life. The _Dictionarius_ (_c._ 1220) of John de
Garlande, a student of Oxford and Paris, and one of the first professors
of Toulouse University, deals roughly with the same topics.[8] It is
glossed in both French and English--the sign of a later period--as was
also a Latin vocabulary or _nominale_ of the names of plants,[9] dating
from a little later in the same century, though probably existing in
earlier manuscripts.

At the universities a decided preference for French was shown in the
rare occasions on which the use of a vernacular was allowed. The
speaking of French was encouraged in some of the colleges at both Oxford
and Cambridge, chiefly those belonging to the second set of
foundations.[10] The scholars and fellows of Oriel could use either
Latin or French in their familiar conversation and at meals. Similar
injunctions were in force at Exeter and Queen's. Among the Cambridge
colleges[11] the statutes of Peterhouse allow French to be used for
"just and reasonable cause"; at King's it was permitted on occasion, and
at Clare Hall French was countenanced only if foreigners were present as
visitors. At Pembroke, founded by a Frenchwoman, Mary de Valence,
special favour was shown to Frenchmen in the election of Fellows,
provided that their total number did not exceed a quarter of the whole
body.[12] The cosmopolitanism of the mediaeval centres of learning
encouraged a number of such French students to come to England. In 1259,
for instance, owing to the disturbed state of the University of Paris,
Henry III. invited the Paris students to come to England and take up
their abode wheresoever they pleased;[13] no doubt those who accepted
his invitation settled at one or other of the two English universities.
We also find in the Treaty of Bretigny (1360) a clause to the effect
that the subjects of the French and English kings should henceforth be
free to resume their intercourse and to enjoy mutually the privileges of
the universities of the two countries, "comme ils povoient faire avant
ces presentes guerres et comme ils font a present."[14] On the other
hand, the English frequented the French universities in large numbers;
at Paris in the thirteenth century they formed one of the four nations
which composed the University.[15] The authors of the early Latin
vocabularies, Alexander Neckam and John de Garlande, were both
connected with the University of Paris, while most of the other English
scholars of the period were indebted for much of their learning to the
same great centre. Many, no doubt, could have written with Garlande:

    Anglia cui mater fuerat, cui Gallia nutrix
    Matri nutricem praefero mente meam.[16]

In the thirteenth century French was still widely used in England. The
fact that the fusion between conquerors and conquered was then
complete,[17] and that at the same time French was very popular on the
Continent undoubtedly helped to make its position in England stronger.
It was then that the Italian Brunetto Latini wrote his _Livres dou
Tresor_ (1265), in French rather than in his native tongue, because
French was "plus delitable et plus commune à toutes gens." During the
same century French came to be used in correspondence on both sides of
the Channel.[18] Little by little it was recognized as the most
convenient medium for official uses, and the language most generally
known in these sections of society which had to administer justice.[19]
In the second half of the thirteenth century Robert of Gloucester
complained that there was no land "that holdeth not to its kindly speech
save Englonde only," admitting at the same time, however, that ignorance
of French was a serious disadvantage. An idea of the extent to which the
language was current in England may be gathered from the fact that in
1301 Edward I. caused letters from the Pope to be translated into French
so that they might be understood by the whole army,[20] and in the
previous year the author of the _Miroir des Justices_ wrote in French as
being the language "le plus entendable de la comun people." French,
indeed, appears to have been used among all classes, save the very
poorest;[21] some of the French literature of the time was addressed
more particularly to the middle classes.[22]

Nevertheless, as the thirteenth century advanced, French began to hold
its own with some difficulty. While it was in the unusual position of a
vernacular gradually losing its power as such, there appeared the
earliest extant treatise on the language. This, and those that followed
it, were to some extent lessons in the vernacular; yet not entirely, as
may be judged from the fact that they are set forth and explained in
Latin, the language of all scholarship. The first work on the French
language, dating from not later than the middle of the thirteenth
century, is in the form of a short Latin treatise on French
conjugations,[23] in which a comparison of the French with the Latin
tenses is instituted.[24] As it appeared at a time when French was
becoming the literary language of the law, and was being used freely in
correspondence, it may have been intended mainly for the use of clerks.
A treatise of considerably more importance composed towards the end of
the century, appears to have had the same purpose. That he did not
intend it exclusively for clerks, however, the author showed by adding
rules for pronunciation, syntax and even morphology as well as for
orthography. Like most of the early grammatical writings on the French
language, this _Orthographia Gallica_ is in Latin. The obscurity of many
of its rules, however, called forth commentaries in French which
appeared during the fourteenth century, and exceed the size of the
original work. The _Orthographia_ was a very popular work, as the number
of manuscripts extant and the French commentary prove. The different
copies vary considerably, and there is a striking increase in the number
of rules given; from being about thirty in the earliest manuscript, they
number about a hundred in the latest.[25]

It opens with a rule that when the first or middle syllable of a French
word contains a short _e_, _i_ must be placed before the _e_, as in
_bien_, _rien_, etc.--a curious, fumbling attempt to explain the
development of Latin free short _e_ before nasals and oral consonants
into _ie_. On the other hand, continues the author, _e_ acute need not
be preceded by _i_, as _tenez_. It is not surprising that these early
writers, in spite of much patient observation, should almost always have
failed to grasp fundamental laws, and group a series of corresponding
facts into the form of a general rule. We continually find rules drawn
up for a few isolated examples, with no general application. The most
striking feature in the treatment of French orthography in this work is
the continual reference to Latin roots, and the clear statement of the
principle that, wherever possible, the spelling of French words should
be based on that of Latin.

The _Orthographia_ does not by any means limit its observations to
spelling; there are also rules for pronunciation, a subject which in
later times naturally held a very important place in French grammars
written for the use of Englishmen, while orthography became one of the
chief concerns of French grammarians. That orthography received so much
attention at this early period in this country, is explained by the fact
that these manuals were partly intended for "clerks," who would
frequently have to write in French. As to the pronunciation, we find,
amongst others, the familiar rule that when a French word ending in a
consonant comes before another word beginning with a consonant, the
first consonant is not pronounced. An _s_ occurring after a vowel and
before an _m_, writes the author, in another rule, is not pronounced, as
in _mandasmes_, and _l_ coming after _a_, _e_, or _o_, and followed by a
consonant is pronounced like _u_, as in _m'almi_, _loialment_, and the
like. A list of synonyms[26] is also given, which throws some light on
the English pronunciation of French at this period, and there are also a
few hints for the translation of both Latin and English into French.

Nor are syntax and morphology neglected; rules concerning these are
scattered among those on orthography and pronunciation, with the lack of
orderly arrangement characteristic of the whole work. Thus we are told
to use _me_ in the accusative case, and _moy_ in all other cases; that
we should form the plural of verbs ending in _t_ in the singular by
adding _z_, as _il amet_, _il list_ become _vous amez_, _vous lisez_;
that when we ask any one for something, we may say _vous pri_ without
_je_, but that, when we do this, we should write _pri_ with a _y_, as
_pry_, and so on.

The claim of the _Orthographia Gallica_ to be the first extant work on
French orthography, has been disputed by another treatise, also written
in Latin, and known as the _Tractatus Orthographiae_. More methodically
arranged than the _Orthographia_, this work deals more particularly with
pronunciation and orthography.[27] It opens with a short introduction
announcing that here are the means for the youth of the time to make
their way in the world speedily and learn French pronunciation and
orthography. Each letter of the alphabet is first treated in turn,[28]
and then come a few more general observations. Like the author of the
_Orthographia_, the writer of the _Tractatus_ would have the spelling of
French words based on that of Latin whenever possible. He claims that
his own French is "secundum dulce Gallicum" and "secundum usum et modum
modernorum tam partibus transmarinis quam cismarinis." Though he
apparently places the French of England and the French of France on the
same footing, it is noteworthy that he carefully distinguishes between
the two.

The _Tractatus Orthographiae_ bears a striking resemblance to another
work of like nature, which is better known--the _Tractatus Orthographiae_
of Canon M. T. Coyfurelly, doctor in Law of Orleans[29]--and for some
time it was thought to be merely a rehandling of Coyfurelly's treatise
which did not appear till somewhere about the end of the fourteenth
century, if not later. But Coyfurelly admits that his work was based on
the labours of one 'T. H. Parisii Studentis,' and there appears, on
examination,[30] to be no doubt as to the priority of the anonymous
_Tractatus_ described above, which, on the contrary, is evidently the
treatise rehandled by Coyfurelly, and the work of 'T. H. Student of
Paris.' Besides being the original which Coyfurelly recast in his
_Tractatus_, it also appears that T. H. may reasonably dispute with the
author of the _Orthographia Gallica_, the honour of being the first in
the field. His work shows no advance on the rules given for
pronunciation in the _Orthographia_, while the orthography is of a
decidedly older stamp.

At about the same time as these two treatises on orthography, probably a
few years earlier, there was composed a work of similar purpose but very
different character. It is of particular interest, and shows that,
towards the end of the thirteenth century, French was beginning to be
treated as a foreign language; the French is accompanied by a partial
English gloss, and the author states that "touz dis troverez-vous primes
le Frauncois et pus le Engleys suaunt." The author, Gautier or Walter de
Bibbesworth,[31] was an Englishman, and appears to have mixed with the
best society of the day. He was a friend of the celebrated statesman of
the reign of Edward I., Henry de Lacy, Earl of Lincoln. The only work by
which his name is known to-day, in addition to the treatise in question,
is a short piece of Anglo-Norman verse,[32] written on the occasion of
the expedition of Edward I. to the Holy Land in 1270, shortly before he
came to the throne. We gather from letters of protection granted him in
that year that Bibbesworth himself took part in this venture. In this
poem he is pictured discussing the Crusade with Lacy, and trying to
persuade his friend to take part in it. The name of Bibbesworth also
occurs several times[33] in official documents of no special interest,
and as late as 1302 a writ of Privy Seal was addressed to the Chancellor
suing for a pardon under the Great Seal to W. de Bibbesworth, in
consideration of his good services rendered in Scotland, for a breach of
the park of Robert de Seales at Ravenhall, and of the king's prison at
Colchester.[34]

Bibbesworth, however, interests us less as a crusader or a disturber of
public order, than as the author of a treatise for teaching the French
language, entitled _Le Treytyz qe mounsire Gauter de Bibelesworthe fist
a ma dame Dyonisie de Mounchensy[35] pur aprise de langwage_. The large
number of manuscripts still in existence[36] suggest that it was a
popular text-book among the children of the higher classes of society.
The treatise reproduces, as might be expected, the chief characteristics
of the vocabularies for teaching Latin. In addition to giving a
collection of words and phrases arranged in the form of a narrative, it
also incidentally aims at imparting some slight grammatical information.
Its contents are of a very practical character, and deal exclusively
with the occurrences and occupations of daily life. Beginning with the
new-born child, it tells in French verses how it is to be nursed and
fed. Rime was no doubt introduced to aid the memory, as the pupil would,
in all probability, have to learn the whole by heart. The French is
accompanied by a partial interlinear English gloss, giving the
equivalent of the more difficult French words. This may, perhaps, be
taken as an indication of the extent to which French was regarded as a
foreign language.[37]

After describing the life of the child during its earliest infancy,
Bibbesworth goes on to tell how it is to be taught French as soon as it
can speak, "that it may be better learned in speach and held up to scorn
by none":

    Quaunt le enfes ad tel age
    Ke il set entendre langage,
    Primes en Fraunceys ly devez dire
    Coment soun cors deyt descrivere,
    Pur le ordre aver de moun et ma,
    Toun et ta, soun et sa,
                      _better lered_
    Ke en parlole seyt meut apris
                    _scorned_
    E de nul autre escharnys.

In accordance with this programme the parts of the human body, which
almost invariably forms the central theme in this type of manual, are
enumerated. Special care is taken to distinguish the genders and cases,
to teach the children "Kaunt deivunt dire _moun_ et _ma_, _soun_ et
_sa_, _le_ et _la_, _moy_ et _jo_ . . .," and to explain how the meaning
of words of similar sound often depends on their gender:

                _lippe and an hare_
    Vous avet la levere et le levere,
     _a pound_     _a book_
    Et la livere et le livere.
    La levere si enclost les dens;
    Le levere en boys se tent dedens;
    La livere sert en marchaundye;
    Le livere nous aprent clergye.

Throughout Bibbesworth seizes every opportunity to point out
distinctions of gender of this kind, regardless, it appears, of the
difference between the definite and indefinite articles. When the pupil
can describe his body, the teacher proceeds to give him an account of
"all that concerns it both inside and out" ("kaunt ke il apent dedens et
deores"), that is of its clothing and food:

    Vestet vos draps mes chers enfauns,
    Chaucez vos brays, soulers, e gauns;
    Mettet le chaperoun, covrez le chef, etc.

--a passage which illustrates the practical nature of the treatise,
Bibbesworth's aim being to teach children to know the properties of the
things they see ("les propretez des choses ke veyunt").

When the child is clothed, Bibbesworth next feeds him, giving a full
account of the meals and the food which is provided, and, by way of
variety, at the end of the dinner, he teaches his pupil the names given
to groups of different animals, and of the verbs used to describe their
various cries. ("Homme parle, cheval hennist," etc.). By this time the
child is ready to observe Nature, and to learn the terms of
husbandry,[38] and the processes by which his food is produced. From the
fields he passes to the woods and the river, where he learns to hunt and
to fish, subjects which naturally lead to the introduction of the French
names of the seasons, and of the beasts and birds that are supposed to
present themselves to his view.

During the whole of this long category the verse form is maintained, and
the intention of avoiding a vocabulary pure and simple is manifest. How
superior this method was to the more modern lists of words separated
from the context is also evident. Besides giving a description of all
the objects with which the child comes in contact, and of all the
actions he has to perform, as well as examples for the distinctions of
genders and of _moy_ and _jo_--difficulties for which he makes no
attempts to draw up rules--Bibbesworth claims for his work that it
provides gentlemen with adequate instruction for conversational purposes
("tot le ordre en parler e respoundre ke checun gentyshomme covent
saver"). And as he did not wish to neglect any of the items of daily
life, he finally gives a description of the building of a house and
various domestic arrangements, ending with a description of an old
English feast with its familiar dish, the boar's head:

        Au primer fust apporté
                 _a boris heued_
        La teste de un sengler tot armé,
           _the snout_         _wit baneres of flurs_
        E au groyn le colere en banere;
        E pus veneysoun, ou la fourmenté;
        Assez par my la mesoun
                 _tahen of gres tyme_
        De treste du fermeyson.
        Pus avyent diversetez en rost,
        Eit checun autre de cost,
        _Cranes_, _pokokes_, _swannes_
        Grues, pounes, e cygnes,
        _Wilde ges_, _gryses_ (_porceaus_), _hennes_,
        Owes, rosées, porceus, gelyns;
        Au tercez cours avient conyns en gravé,
        Et viaunde de Cypre enfundré,
        De maces, e quibibes, e clous de orré,
        Vyn blanc e vermayl a graunt plenté.
                             _wodekok_
        Pus avoyunt fesauns, assez, et perdriz,
        _Feldefares larkes_
        Grives, alowes, e pluviers ben rostez;
        E braoun, e crispes, e fritune;
        Ke soucre roset poudra la temprune.
        Apres manger avyunt a graunt plenté
        Blaunche poudre, ou la grosse dragé,
        Et d'autre nobleie a fusoun,
        Ensi vous fynys ceo sermoun;
        Kar de fraunceis i ad assez,
        De meynte manere dyversetez,
        Dount le vous fynys, seynurs, ataunt
        A filz Dieu vous comaund.
    Ici finest la doctrine monsire Gauter De Byblesworde.

As time went on a conscious effort was made to retain the use of the
French language in England. Higden, writing at about the middle of the
fourteenth century,[39] informs us that English was then neglected for
two reasons: "One is bycause that children than gon to schole lerne to
speke first Englysshe and then ben compelled constrewe ther lessons in
Frenssh"; "Also gentilmens children ben lerned and taught from theyr
yougthe to speke frenssh.[40] And uplandish men will counterfete and
likene them self to gentilmen and arn besy to speke frensshe for to be
more sette by. Wherefor it is sayd by a common proverbe Jack wold be a
gentilmen if he coude speke frensshe."

At the University of Oxford, likewise, the Grammar masters were enjoined
to teach the boys to construe in English and in French, "so that the
latter language be not forgotten."[41] The same university gave some
slight encouragement to the study of French. There were special teachers
who, although not enjoying the privileges of those lecturing in the
usual academic subjects, were none the less recognised by the
University. They had to observe the Statutes, and to promise not to give
their lessons at times which would interfere with the ordinary lectures
in arts. The French teachers were under the superintendence of the
masters of grammar, and had to pay thirteen shillings a year to the
Masters in Arts to compensate them for any disadvantage they might
suffer from any loss of pupils; if there was only one teacher of French
he had to pay the whole amount himself. As for those learning "to
write, to compose, and speak French," they had to attend lectures in
rhetoric and grammar--the courses most akin to their studies[42]--and to
contribute to the maintenance of the lecturers in these subjects, there
being no ordinary lectures in French.

In the meantime, more treatises for teaching French appeared;
Bibbesworth's book soon found imitators, and early in the new century an
anonymous author, clearly an Englishman, made free use of Bibbesworth in
a treatise called _The Nominale sive Verbale in Gallicis cum expositione
ejusdem in Anglicis_.[43] This anonymous writer[44] however, thought it
necessary to make the interlinear English gloss much fuller than
Bibbesworth had done, which shows that French had become more of a
foreign language in the interval between the two works. He also placed
the English rendering after the French, instead of above it. The later
work differs further from the earlier in the order of the subject
headings, as well as by the introduction of a few new topics.
Enumerating the parts of the body,[45] as Bibbesworth had done, the
author proceeds to make his most considerable addition to the subjects
introduced by Bibbesworth in describing "la noyse et des faitz que homme
naturalment fait":

        Homme parle et espire:
        _Man spekyth & vndyth._
        Femme teinge et suspire:
        _Woman pantyth & syketh._
        Homme bale et babeie:
        _Man dravelith & wlaffyth._
        Femme bale et bleseie:
    _Woman galpyth & wlispyth._

He then describes all the daily actions and occupations of men:

    Homme va a la herce:
    _Man goth at the harewe._
    Femme bercelet berce:
    _Woman childe in cradel rokkith...._
    Enfant sa lessone reherce:
             _His lessone recordeth_,

and so on for about 350 lines. Other additions are of little
importance, and, for the rest, the author treats subjects first
introduced by Bibbesworth, though the wording often differs to a certain
extent.[46]

When, towards the end of the thirteenth century, French began to be used
in correspondence, need for instruction in French epistolary art arose;
and early in the fourteenth century guides to letter-writing in French,
in the form of epistolaries or collections of model letters, were
produced.[47] The letters themselves are given in French, but the
accompanying rules and instructions for composing them are in Latin.
French and Latin have changed rôles; in earlier times Latin had been
explained to school children by means of French. Forms for addressing
members of the different grades of society are supplied, from epistles
to the king and high state and ecclesiastical dignitaries down to
commercial letters for merchants, and familiar ones for private
individuals. Women, too, were not forgotten; we find similar examples
covering the same range--from the queen and the ladies of the nobility
to her more humble subjects. Each letter is almost invariably followed
by its answer, likewise in French. Some contain interesting references
to the great men or events of the day, but those of a more private
nature possess a greater attraction, and throw light on the family life
of the age. A letter from a mother to her son at school may be
quoted:[48]

    Salut avesque ma beniçon, tres chier filz. Sachiez que je desire
    grandement de savoir bons nouelles de vous et de vostre estat: car
    vostre pere et moy estions a la faisance de ces lettres en bon
    poynt le Dieu merci. Et sachiez que je vous envoie par le portour
    de ces lettres demy marc pur diverses necessaires que vous en avez
    a faire sans escient de vostre pere. Et vous pri cherement, beau
    tres doulz filz, que vous laissez tous mals et folyes et ne hantez
    mye mauvaise compagnie, car si vous le faitez il vous fera grant
    damage, avant que vous l'aperceiverez. Et je vous aiderai selon mon
    pooir oultre ce que vostre pere vous donnra. Dieus vous doint sa
    beniçon, car je vous donne la mienne. . . .

From about the middle of the fourteenth century a feeling of discontent
with the prerogative of the French language in England becomes
prominent. The loss of the greater part of the French possessions, and
the continued state of hostilities with France during the reign of
Edward III. brought home forcibly to the English mind the fact that the
French were a distinct nation, and French a foreign tongue. This tardy
recovery is sufficient proof of the strong resistance which had to be
overcome. Chaucer is the greatest representative of the new movement.
"Let Frenchmen endite their quaint terms in French," he exclaims, "for
it is kindly to their mouths, but let us show our fantaisies in suche
words as we learned from our dames' tongues." His contemporary, Gower,
was less quick to discern the signs of the times. Of the four volumes of
his works, two are in Latin, one in French, and one in English; but the
order in which he uses these languages is instructive--first French,
then Latin, and lastly English. Some writers made a compromise by
employing a mixture of French and English.[49] French, however,
continued to hold an important place in prose writings until the middle
of the fifteenth century; but such works are of little literary value.
The reign of French as the literary language of England, as Chaucer had
been quick to discern, was approaching its end.

The same period is marked by a growing disrespect for Anglo-French as
compared with the French of France. The French of England, cut off from
the living source, had developed apart, and often with more rapidity
than the other French dialects on the Continent. What is more, the
language brought by the invaders was not a pure form of the Norman
dialect; men from various parts of France had joined in William's
expedition. The invaders, always called 'French' by their contemporaries,
brought in a strong Picard element; and in the twelfth century there
was a similar Angevin influence. Moreover, during Norman and Angevin
times, craftsmen and others immigrated to England, each bringing with
him the dialectal peculiarities of his own province.[50] Thus no regular
development of Anglo-French was possible, and it can hardly be regarded
as an ordinary dialect, notwithstanding its literary importance.[51]
This disparity in the quality of Anglo-French is illustrated in a
remarkable way by the literature of the period. Those who had received
special educational advantages, or had travelled on the Continent, spoke
and wrote French correctly; others used forms which contrasted pitiably
with continental French. Moreover, the fourteenth century saw the
triumph of the Île de France dialect in France; the other dialects
ceased, as a rule, to be used in literature,[52] and this change was not
without effect on Anglo-French, which shared their degradation. Chaucer
lets us know the poor opinion he had of the French of England; his
Prioress speaks French "full fayre and fetisly," but

    After the scole of Stratford atte Bowe,
    For French of Paris was to her unknowe.

William Langland admits that he knew "no frenche in feith, but of the
ferthest ende of Norfolke."[53] As early as the thirteenth century
English writers had felt bound to apologize as Englishmen for their
French. Nor were their excuses superfluous in many cases; William of
Wadington, the author of the _Manuel des Pechiez_, for example,
wrote:[54]

    De le françois ne del rimer
    Ne me doit nuls hom blamer,
    Car en Engleterre fu né
    Et nurri lenz et ordiné.

Such apologies became all the more necessary as time went on. Even
Gower, whose French was comparatively pure,[55] owing no doubt to travel
in France in early life, deemed it advisable to explain that he wrote in
French for "tout le monde en general," and to ask pardon if he has not
"de François la faconde":

    Jeo suis Englois si quier par tiele voie
    Estre excusé.

At about the same time the anonymous author of the _Testament of Love_
finds fault with the English for their persistence in writing in bad
French, "of which speech the Frenchmen have as good a fantasy as we have
in hearing of Frenchmen's English."[56]

The notoriety of the French of Englishmen reached France. Indeed this
was a time when the English were more generally known in France than
they were to be for several hundreds of years afterwards--until the
eighteenth century. Englishmen filled positions in their possessions in
France, and during the long wars between the two countries in the reign
of Edward III., many of the English nobility resided in that country
with their families. Montaigne refers to traces of the English in
Guyenne, which still remained in the sixteenth century: "Il est une
nation," he writes in one of his Essays, "a laquelle ceux de mon
quartier ont eu autrefois si privée accointance qu'il reste encore en ma
maison aucune trace de leur ancien cousinage."[57] The opinions formed
by the French of the English were naturally anything but flattering. We
find them expressed in songs of the time.[58] But the recriminations
were mutual, and the English had already hit upon the epithet which for
centuries they applied to Frenchmen, and most other foreigners
indiscriminately:

    Franche dogue dit un Anglois.
    Vous ne faites que boire vin,
    Si faisons bien dist le François,
    Mais vous buvez le lunnequin. (bière.)[59]

Even in the _Roman de Renart_ we come across traces of familiarity with
English ways, and also of the English language.[60]

It is not surprising, then, that Anglo-French was a subject of remark in
France, especially when we remember that already in the thirteenth
century the provincial accents of the different parts of France herself
had been the object of some considerable amount of raillery.[61] The
English, says Froissart, a good judge, for he spent many years in
England, "disoient bien que le françois que ils avoient apris chies eulx
d'enfance n'estoit pas de telle nature et condition que celluy de France
estoit."[62] And this 'condition' was soon recognized as a plentiful
store for facetious remarks and parodies of all kinds. In the _Roman de
Jehan et Blonde_, the young Frenchman's rival, the Duke of Gloucester,
is made to appear ridiculous by speaking bad French; and one of the
tricks played by Renart on Ysengrin, in the _Roman de Renart_, is to
pretend he is an Englishman:[63]

    Ez vos Renart qui le salue:
    "Godehelpe," fait il, "bel Sire!
    Non saver point ton reson dire."

And Ysengrin answers:

    Et dex saut vos, bau dous amis!
    Dont estes vos? de quel pais?
    Vous n'estes mie nés de France,
    Ne de la nostre connoissance.

A _fabliau_ of the fourteenth century[64] pictures the dilemma of two
Englishmen trying to make their French understood in France; one of them
is ill and would have some lamb:

    Si tu avez un anel cras
    Mi porra bien mengier ce croi.

His friend sets out to try to get the 'anel' or 'lamb'; but no one
understands him, and he becomes the laughing-stock of the villagers. At
last some one gives him a 'small donkey' instead of the desired 'agnel,'
and out of this he makes a dish for the invalid who finds the bones
rather large. In the face of a reputation such as this it is no wonder
that the English found additional encouragement to abandon the foreign
language and cultivate their own tongue.

English was also beginning to make its way into official documents.[65]
In 1362 the King's Speech at the opening of Parliament was pronounced
in English, and in the following year it was directed that all pleas in
the courts of justice should be pleaded and judged in English, because
French was "trope desconue en ledit realme." Despite that, the act was
very tardily obeyed, and English progressed but slowly, French
continuing to be written long after it ceased to be spoken in the Law
Courts. There were a few public documents issued in English at the end
of the century, but the Acts and Records of Parliament continued to be
written in French for many years subsequently. English first made its
way into the operative parts of the Statutes, and till 1503 the formal
parts were still written in French and Latin. Protests were made to
Henry VIII. against the continued use of French, "as thereby ys
testyfied our subjectyon to the Normannys"; yet it was not before the
eighteenth century that English was exclusively used in the Law Courts,
and for many years French, in its corrupt form, remained the literary
language of the English law. Till the seventeenth century works on
jurisprudence and reports on cases were mainly written in French. _Les
Cases de Gray's Inn_ shows French in accounts of discussions on
difficult legal cases as late as 1680.[66] Sir John Fortescue
(1394?-1476), Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench, in his _De
Laudibus Legum Angliae_, suggests that this Law French is more correct
at bottom than ordinary spoken French, which, he contends, is much
"altered by common use, whereas Law French is more often writ than
spoken." In later times no such illusions prevailed. Swift thus
estimates the value of the three languages of the English Law:[67]

    Then from the bar harangues the bench,
    In English vile, and viler French,
    And Latin vilest of the three.

At about the same time as Swift wrote, the 'frenchified' Lady, then in
fashion, who prided herself on her knowledge of the "language à la mode"
is described as being able to "keep the field against a whole army of
Lawyers, and that in their own language, French gibberish."[68] And long
after French ceased to be used in the Law many law terms and legal and
official phrases remained, and are still in use to-day.[69]
Anglo-French also lingered in some of the religious houses after it had
fallen into discredit elsewhere, and continued to do so in some cases
till the time of their dissolution. The rules and accounts of the
nunneries were more often in French than not.[70] And John ap Rhys,
visitor of monasteries in the reign of Henry VIII., wrote to Cromwell
regarding the monastery of Laycock in Wiltshire, that he had observed
one thing "worthy th'advertisement; the ladies have their Rule,
th'institutes of their Religion and the ceremonies of the same written
in the Frenche tongue, which they understand well and are very perfyt in
the same, albeit that it varieth from vulgar Frenche that is now used,
and is moche like the Frenche that the common Lawe is written in."[71]

During this same period English began to be used occasionally in
correspondence; but here again its progress was slow. Some idea of the
extent to which French was utilized for that purpose may be gathered
from the fact that three extant letters of William de Wykeham, addressed
to Englishmen, are all in that tongue. Not till the second and third
decades of the fifteenth century were English and French employed in
correspondence to an almost equal extent, and during the following
years, especially in the reign of Henry VI., English gradually became
predominant.[72] French remained in use longer in correspondence of a
public and official nature, but became more and more restricted to
foreign diplomacy.

Towards the middle of the fourteenth century, at the beginning of the
long wars with France, French lost ground in England in yet another
direction. Edward III. is said to have found it necessary to proclaim
that all lords, barons, knights, burgesses, should see that their
children learn French for political and military reasons;[73] and when
Trevisa translated Higden's _Polychronicon_, he wrote in correction of
the earlier chronicler's description of the teaching of French in the
grammar schools of England:[74] "This maner was moche used before the
grete deth (1349). But syth it is somdele chaunged. Now (_i.e._ 1387)
they leave all Frensch in scholes, and use all construction in Englisch.
Wherin they have advantage on way that they lerne the soner ther gramer.
And in another disadvantage. For nowe they lerne no Frenssh ne can none,
whiche is hurte for them that shall passe the see," and thus children of
the grammar schools know "no more French than knows their lefte heele."

Thus the custom of translating Latin into French passed out of use early
in the second half of the fourteenth century. No doubt there had been
signs of the approaching change in the preceding period, and it is of
interest here to notice that while Neckham's Latin vocabulary, which
dates from the second half of the twelfth century, is glossed in French
alone, that of Garlande, which belongs approximately to the third decade
of the following century, is accompanied by translations in both French
and English. In the universities, however, where French had been slower
in gaining a foothold, it remained longer; in the fifteenth century
teachers of French were still allowed to lecture there as they had done
previously, but it is to be noticed that in all the colleges founded
after the Black Death (1349), from which the change in the grammar
schools is dated, the regulations encouraging the speaking of French in
Hall are absent. The change appears also to have affected the higher
classes, who did not usually frequent the grammar schools and
universities, but depended on more private methods of instruction.
Trevisa here again adds a correction to the earlier chronicle, and
informs us that "gentylmen haveth now myche lefte for to teach their
children Frensch."

We thus witness the gradual disappearance of the effects of the Norman
Conquest in the history of the use of the French language in England.
The Conquest had made Norman-French the language of the Court, and to
some extent, of the Church; it had brought with it a French literature
which nearly smothered the national literature and replaced it
temporarily; it had led to the system of translating Latin into French
as well as into English in the schools. In the later fourteenth century
French was no longer the chief language of the Court, and the king spoke
English and was addressed in the same tongue. In the Church the
employment of French had been restricted and transitory, though, as has
been mentioned, it lingered in some of the monasteries until the
sixteenth century; yet Latin never found in it a serious rival in this
sphere, and the ecclesiastical department of the law never followed the
civil in the adoption of the use of French. How French lost ground in
the other spheres has already been traced: in all these cases its
employment may be regarded as a direct result of the Conquest.

This great event had also indirect results. French became the official
language of England, and the favourite medium of correspondence in the
thirteenth century, when the fusion between the two races was complete.
But it is highly improbable that French would have spread in these
directions if the Conquest had not in the first place made French the
vernacular of a considerable portion of Englishmen, and that the most
influential. With its use in official documents and in correspondence,
may be classed the slight encouragement French received at Oxford. In
all these spheres it remained longer than it had done where its status
had been a more direct result of the Conquest.

Meanwhile the desire to cultivate and imitate the French of France had
been growing stronger and stronger; and when, towards the end of the
fourteenth century, the older influences were getting feebler, and in
some cases had passed away, the influence of the continental French,
especially the French of Paris, now supreme over the other dialects,
became more and more marked. And it is this language which henceforth
Englishmen strove to learn, gradually relinquishing the corrupt idiom
with which for so long their name had been associated.


FOOTNOTES:

[1] This was the opinion of Ames: "This seems to be the first grammar of
the French language in our own country, if not in Europe." Dibdin,
Herbert Ames's _Typographical Antiquities_, 1819, iii. p. 365.

[2] The grammar of Jacques Sylvius or Dubois appeared in 1531, a year
after Palsgrave's. No attempt at a theoretical treatment of the French
language appeared in France in the Middle Ages. There are, however, two
Provençal ones extant. (F. Brunot, "Le Français à l'étranger," in L.
Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la langue et de la littérature
française_, ii. p. 528.)

[3] One of the chief effects of the Conquest in the schools is said to
have been the substitution of Norman for English schoolmasters (Leach,
_Schools of Mediaeval England_, 1915, p. 103).

[4] The majority of early Latin vocabularies extant, however, are
accompanied by English translations (cp. T. Wright, _Volume of
Vocabularies_, 2 vols., 1857), as was also the comparatively well-known
_Promptorium Parvulorum_ (_c._ 1440), Camden Soc., 1865.

[5] The text is given in L. E. Menger's _Anglo-Norman Dialect_, Columbia
University Press, 1904, p. 14. The psalms, together with Cato, Ovid, or
possibly Virgil, formed the usual reading material in the Grammar
Schools. Cp. Rashdall, _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_,
Oxford, 1895, ii. p. 603.

[6] Adam du Petit Pont (_d._ 1150) wrote an epistle in Latin, many words
of which were glossed in French. But there is no evidence that it was
used in England. It was published by E. Scheler in his _Trois traités de
lexicographie latine du 12e et 13e siècles_, Leipzig, 1867.

[7] Ed. T. Wright, _Volume of Vocabularies_, i. 96, and Scheler, _op.
cit._ Both editions are deemed unsatisfactory by Paul Meyer (_Romania_,
xxxvi. 482).

[8] It has been published five times: (1) At Caen by Vincent Correr in
1508 (_Romania_, _ut supra_); (2) H. Géraud, in _Documents inédits sur
l'histoire de France_: "Paris sous Philippe le Bel d'après les documents
originaux," 1837; (3) Kervyn de Lettenhove, 1851; (4) T. Wright, _Volume
of Vocabularies_, i. pp. 120 _sqq._; (5) Scheler, _Trois traités de
lexicographie latine_.

[9] Wright, _op. cit._ pp. 139-141.

[10] _Statutes of the Colleges of Oxford_, 3 vols., Oxford and London,
1853; A. Clark, _Colleges of Oxford_, 1891, p. 140; H. C. Maxwell Lyte,
_History of the University of Oxford_, 1880, pp. 140-151.

[11] _Documents relating to the Universities and Colleges of Cambridge_,
1852, ii. p. 33; J. Bass Mullinger, _The University of Cambridge_, 1873;
G. Peacock, _Observations on the Statutes of the University of
Cambridge_, 1841, p. 4.

[12] J. Heywood, _Early Cambridge University and College Statutes_,
1885, ii. p. 182.

[13] C. H. Cooper, _Annals of Cambridge_, Cambridge, 1852, i. p. 40.

[14] Rashdall, _op. cit._ ii. p. 519 _n._

[15] Rashdall, _op. cit._ i. pp. 319 _et seq._ Later the English nation
was known as the German; it included all students from the north and
east of Europe. On the English in the University of Paris see Ch.
Thurot, _De l'organisation de l'enseignement dans l'Université de
Paris_, Paris, 1850; and J. E. Sandys, "English Scholars of Paris, and
Franciscans of Oxford," in _The Cambridge History of English
Literature_, i., 1908, chap. x. pp. 183 _et seq._

[16] Quoted, E. J. B. Rathery, _Les Relations sociales et
intellectuelles entre la France et l'Angleterre_, Paris, 1856, p. 11.

[17] A writer of about 1180 says it was impossible to tell who were
Normans and who English ("Dialogus de Scaccario": Stubbs, _Select
Charters_, 4th ed., 1881, p. 168).

[18] "Discours sur l'état des lettres au 13e siècle," in the _Histoire
littéraire de la France_, xvi. p. 168.

[19] D. Behrens, in H. Paul's _Grundiss der germanischen Philologie_,
Strassbourg, 1901, pp. 953-55; Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, v. 1876, pp.
528 _sqq._; Maitland, "Anglo-French Law Language," in the _Cambridge
History of English Literature_, i. pp. 407 _sqq._, _History of English
Law_, 1895, pp. 58 _sqq._, and _Collected Papers_, 1911, ii. p. 436. At
the universities, where Latin was the usual language of correspondence,
letters and petitions were often drawn up in French (Oxford Hist. Soc.,
_Collectanea_, 1st series, 1885, pp. 8 _sqq._).

[20] Bateson, _Mediaeval England_, 1903, p. 319.

[21] Maitland, _Collected Papers_, 1911, ii. p. 437.

[22] Such are Bozon's _Contes moralisés_ (_c._ 1320), ed. P. Meyer, in
the _Anciens Textes Français_, 1889. In his Introduction Meyer lays
stress on the widespread use of French in England at this time, and its
chance of becoming the national language of England, an eventuality
which, he thinks, might have been a benefit to humanity.

[23] MS. at Trinity Col. Cambridge (R. 3. 56).

[24] Paul Meyer calls it the work of a true grammarian (_Romania_,
xxxii. p. 65).

[25] There are four MSS. extant. These have been collated and published
by J. Sturzinger in the _Altfranzösische Bibliothek_, vol. viii.,
Heilbronn, 1884; cp. _Romania_, xiv. p. 60. The earliest MS. is in the
Record Office, and was published by T. Wright in Haupt and Hoffman's
_Altdeutsche Blaetter_ (ii. p. 193). Diez quoted from this edition in
his _Grammaire des langues romanes_, 3rd ed. i. pp. 415, 418 _sqq._ The
three other MSS. are in the Brit. Mus., Camb. Univ. Libr. and Magdalen
Col. Oxon., and belong to the three succeeding centuries. Portions of
the Magdalen Col. MS. are quoted by A. J. Ellis, in his _Early English
Pronunciation_, pp. 836-839, and by F. Génin, in his preface to the
French Government reprint of Palsgrave's Grammar, 1852. It is the
British Museum copy, made in the reign of Edward III., which contains
the French commentary.

[26] Early English writers on the French tongue were fond of drawing
attention to the opportunities for punning afforded by the language.

[27] Edited by Miss M. K. Pope in the _Modern Language Review_ (vol. v.,
1910, pt. ii. pp. 188 _sqq._), from the Brit. Mus. Addit. MS. 17716, ff.
88-91; it also exists at All Souls, Oxford (MS. 182 f. 340), and at
Trinity Col. Cambridge (MS. B 14. 39, 40); in the last MS. the
introduction of the two preceding ones is lacking (cp. Meyer, _Romania_,
xxxii. p. 59).

[28] For instance, we are told that _a_ is sounded almost like _e_ as in
_savez vous faire un chauncoun . . ._; that the phrases _a_, _en a_, _i
a_ which mean one and the same thing when they come from the Latin
_habet_, should be written without _d_; that _aura_, _en array_ should
be written without _e_ in the middle, and sounded without _u_, as
_aray_, _en array_, though the English include the _e_.

[29] Published by Stengel, in the _Zeitschrift für neufranzösische
Sprache und Literatur_, 1879, pp. 16-22.

[30] Miss Pope, _ut supra_.

[31] His name has provoked some discussion as to its correct form. It is
frequently written as Biblesworth, and one MS. gives it the form of
Bithesway; the correct form, however, is Bibbesworth, the name of a
manor in the parish of Kempton (Herts), of which Walter was the owner
(P. Meyer, _Romania_, xv. p. 312, and xxx. p. 44 _n._; W. Aldis Wright,
_Notes and Queries_, 1877, 4th Series, viii. p. 64).

[32] Printed from the MS. in the Bodleian, in Wright and Halliwell's
_Reliquiae Antiquae_, i. p. 134.

[33] _Calendar of Patent Rolls, 1247-58_, pp. 58, 103, 187. He received
exemption from being put on assizes or juries in 1249.

[34] _Calendar of Patent Rolls, 1301-1307_, p. 39.

[35] She died in 1304; her father was one of the leaders on the king's
side at the battle of Lewes (1264).

[36] There are many MSS. in the British Museum; others at Oxford and
Cambridge, and one in the Library of Sir Th. Phillips at Cheltenham. The
best-known edition of the vocabulary is that of T. Wright, _Volume of
Vocabularies_, i. pp. 142-174, which is the one here quoted, and which
reproduces Arundel MS. 220, collated with Sloane MS. 809. P. Meyer has
given a critical edition of the first eighty-six lines in his _Recueil
d'anciens textes--partie française_, No. 367 (cp. _Romania_, xiii. p.
500).

[37] In the vocabularies written in imitation of Bibbesworth at later
dates, the English gloss is fuller, and in the latest one complete, as
French became more and more a foreign language.

[38] "Pus to le frauncoys com il en court en age de husbonderie, com pur
arer, rebiner, waretter, semer, sarcher, syer, faucher, carier, batre,
moudre, pestrer, briser," etc.

[39] _Polychronicon_, lib. 1, cap. 59 (ed. Babington and Lumly, Rolls
Publications, 41, 1865-66, vol. ii. pp. 159 _sqq._).

[40] Cp. the thirteenth-century romance in which Jehan de Dammartin
teaches French to Blonde of Oxford (ed. Le Roux de Lincy, Camden Soc.,
1858).

[41] F. Anstey, _Monumenta Academica_, 1868, p. 438.

[42] Anstey, _op. cit._, 1868, p. 302.

[43] Published from a MS. in Cambridge University Library (Ee 4, 20), by
Skeat, in the _Transactions of the Philological Society_ (1903-1906).

[44] The MS. in which the work is preserved dates from about 1340, but
is probably copied from an earlier one.

[45]

    "Corps teste et hanapel
    _Body heuede and heuedepanne_
    Et peil cresceant sur la peal.
    _And here growende on the skyn_," etc.

[46] How close the resemblance is between the two works may be judged by
the following quotations:

    Par le gel nous avons glas,
    Et de glas vient verglas. (NOMINALE.)

    Pur le gel vous avomus glas,
    Et pluvye e gele fount vereglas. (BIBBESWORTH.)

And it is in words almost identical with those of Bibbesworth that the
author describes the difference in the meaning of some words according
to their gender:

    La levere deit clore les dentz.
    _The lippe._
    Le levere en boys se tient de deynz.
    _The hare._
    La livre sert a marchauntz.
    _The pounde._
    Le livere aprent nous enfauntz.
    _The boke._

[47] The earliest of these MSS. dates from the second decade of the
fourteenth century. These epistolaries are found in the following MSS.:
Harleian 4971 and 3988, Addit. 17716, in the Brit. Mus.; Ee 4, 20 in
Cantab. Univ. Library; B 14. 39, 40 in Trinity Col. Camb.; 182 at All
Souls, Oxford, and 188 Magdalen Col. Oxford (cp. Stürzinger,
_Altfranzösiche Bibliothek_), viii. pp. xvii-xix. The Introductions to
these letters were edited in a Griefswald Dissertation (1898), by W.
Uerkvitz.

[48] Stengel, _op. cit._ pp. 8-10.

[49] _Romania_, iv. p. 381, xxxii. p, 22.

[50] W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_,
Cambridge, 1896, pp. 635 _sqq._

[51] L. Menger, _Anglo-Norman Dialect_; Behrens, _art. cit._ pp. 960
_sqq._; Brunot, _Histoire de la langue française_, i. pp. 319 _sqq._,
369.

[52] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 331.

[53] Jusserand, _Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, 1896. p. 240 n.

[54] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 369.

[55] P. Meyer commends Gower's French (_Romania_, xxxii. p. 43).

[56] T. R. Lounsbury, _Studies in Chaucer_, London, 1892, p. 458.

[57] Livre ii. ch. xii.

[58] As in those of Olivier Basselin.

[59] Eustache Deschamps, _Oeuvres_, ed. Crapelet, p. 91, quoted by
Rathery, _op. cit._ p. 181 (cp. also _English Political Songs_, ed. T.
Wright. Camden Soc., 1839).

[60] Jusserand, _op. cit._ p. 153 n. The fourteenth branch of the
_Roman_ is specially mentioned: cp. Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 369, n. 4.

[61] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. 330. It is not rare to find English
pronunciation of French ridiculed in France, and Englishmen represented
as talking a sort of gibberish; cp. _Romania_, xiv. pp. 99, 279, and
Brunot, _op. cit._ p. 369 n.

[62] Behrens, _op. cit._ p. 957.

[63] Ed. E. Martin, 1882, l. 2351 _sqq._

[64] _Recueil général et complet des fabliaux_, ed. Montaiglon et
Raynaud, ii. p. 178.

[65] Maitland, _Collected Papers_, 1911, ii. p. 436; Freeman, _op. cit._
p. 536; Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 373.

[66] F. Watson, _Religious Refugees and English Education_, London,
1911, p. 6. There are numerous entries of such works in the _Stationers'
Register_.

[67] Answer to Dr. Lindsey's epigram, _Works_, ed. 1841, i. p. 634.

[68] [H. Dell], _The Frenchified Lady never in Paris_, London, 1757.

[69] Pepys in his Diary notes the use of French in such phrases, and the
Abbé Le Blanc (_Lettres d'un Français sur les Anglais_, à la Haye, 1745)
was also struck by the custom.

[70] Bateson, _Mediaeval England_, p. 342; Warton, _History of English
Poetry_, p. 10 n.

[71] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series, 1846, i. p. xi.

[72] M. A. E. Green (_née_ Wood), _Letters of Royal and Illustrious
Ladies_, London, 1846; _The Paston Letters_, new edition by J. Gairdner,
3 vols., London, 1872-75; H. Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series,
London, 1846; J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, _Letters of the Kings of
England_, London, 1846; C. L. Kingsford, _English Historical Literature
in the Fifteenth Century_, Oxford, 1893, pp. 193 _et seq._; Hallam,
_Literature of Europe_, 6th ed., London, 1860, i. p. 54.

[73] "Que tout seigneur, baron, chevalier et honestes hommes de bonnes
villes mesissent cure et dilligence de estruire et apprendre leurs
enfans le langhe françoise, par quoy il en fuissent plus avec et plus
costumier ens leurs gherres" (Froissart, quoted by Behrens, _op. cit._
p. 957 n.).

[74] Higden, _ut supra_.




CHAPTER II

    THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY


These great changes which took place in the status of French in England
did not, however, affect fundamentally the popularity of the language:
they had to do with Anglo-French alone. French, as distinct from this
and as a foreign language, received more attention than ever before,
especially from the higher classes, and from travellers and merchants.
It was the language of politeness and refinement in the eyes of
Englishmen, not only as a result of the Conquest, but for its inherent
qualities; and so it retained this position when it gave way to English
or Latin in other spheres where its predominance had been due, either
directly or indirectly, to the Conquest. French had enjoyed a social
reputation in England before the arrival of the invaders,[75] and had
already made some progress towards becoming the language which the
English loved and cultivated above all modern foreign tongues, and to
which they devoted for a great many years more care than they did to
their own. "Doulz françois," writes an Englishman at the end of the
fourteenth century in a treatise for teaching the language,[76] is the
most beautiful and gracious language in the world, after the Latin of
the schools,[77] "et de tous gens mieulx prisée et amée que nul autre;
quar Dieu le fist se doulce et amiable principalement a l'oneur et
loenge de luy mesmes. Et pour ce il peut bien comparer au parler des
angels du ciel, pour la grant doulceur et biaultée d'icel"--a more
eloquent tribute even than the more famous lines of Brunetto Latini.
Another writer of the same period informs us that "les bones gens du
Roiaume d'Engleterre sont embrasez a scavoir lire et escrire, entendre
et parler droit François," and that he himself thinks it is very
necessary for the English to know the "droict nature de François," for
many reasons.[78] For instance, that they may enjoy intercourse with
their neighbours, the good folk of the kingdom of France; that they may
better understand the laws of England, of which a great many are still
written in French; and also because "beaucoup de bones choses sont misez
en François," and the lords and ladies of England are very fond of
writing to each other in the same tongue.[79]

As a result of the altered circumstances which were modifying the
attitude of the English, there is a corresponding change in the standard
of the French which the manuals for teaching that language sought to
attain. All the best text-books of the end of the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries endeavour with few exceptions to impart a knowledge
of the French of Paris, "doux françois de Paris" or "la droite language
de Paris," as it was called, in contrast with the French of
Stratford-atte-Bowe and other parts of England. Those authors of
treatises for teaching French of whose lives we have any details, had
studied French in France, at Paris, Orleans, or some other University
town. The fact that many of their productions still contain numbers of
words belonging to the Norman and other dialects does not diminish the
importance and significance of their more ambitious aims. These pioneer
works on the French language, written in England by Englishmen without
the guidance of any similar work produced in France, were bound to
contain archaisms as well as anglicisms.[80]

Fluency in speaking French was the chief need of the classes of society
in which the demand for instruction was greatest. Correctness in detail
was only of secondary importance, and grammar, though desirable, was not
considered indispensable. The importance of speaking French naturally
brought the subject of pronunciation to the fore. No doubt most of the
early teachers shared the opinions of their successors, that rules and
theoretical information were of little avail in teaching the sounds of
the language, compared with the practice of imitation and repetition;
nevertheless, many of them attempted to supply some information on the
subject. When, in the second decade of the fifteenth century, another
writer based a new treatise for teaching French on the vocabulary of
Bibbesworth, which had then been current for well over a century, the
chief point in which it differed from its original was precisely in the
provision of guidance to facilitate pronunciation.

This new treatise was styled _Femina_,[81] because just as the mother
teaches her young child to speak his native tongue, so does this work
teach children to speak French naturally.[82] It covers almost exactly
the same ground as the vocabulary of Bibbesworth, but, as in the case of
the earlier imitation of the same work, the _Nominale_, the order of
arrangement varies, and the whole is permeated with a lively humour
which makes it at least equal in interest to the work on which it is
based. The French lines are octosyllabic and arranged in distichs, each
pair being followed by an English translation, which is given in full,
contrary to the practice in the earlier works of the same kind. The
author endeavours to teach the French of France[83] as distinguished
from that of England, and, although he lavishes provincialisms from the
local dialects of France--Norman, Picard, Walloon--in the main they are
French provincialisms, and many of them may be due to errors on the part
of the scribe. To assist pronunciation notes are provided at the bottom
of the page, giving pseudo-English equivalents of the sounds of words
written otherwise in the text.

The treatise opens with an exhortation to the child to learn French that
he may speak fairly before wise men, for "heavy is he that is not
taught":

Cap: primum docet rethorice loqui de assimilitudine bestiarum.

      a     b
    Beau enfaunt pur apprendre
           c           d
    En franceis devez bien entendre
    Ffayre chyld for to lerne
    In french ye schal wel understande

                           e
    Coment vous parlerez bealment,
    Et devaunt les sagez naturalment.
    How ye schal speke fayre,
    And afore ye wysemen kyndly.

     f   g
    Ceo est veir que vous dy,
            h        i
    Hony est il qui n'est norry.
    That ys soth that y yow say
    Hevy ys he that ys not taugth

              k              l
    Parlez tout ditz com affaites
                       m
    Et nenny come dissafaites
    Spekep alway as man ys tauth
    And not as man untauth.

    Parlez imprimer de tout assemblé
          n         o
    Dez bestez que Dieu ad formé.
    Spekep fyrst of manere assemble alle
    Of bestes that God hath y maked.

    (_a_) beau debet legi bev, (_b_) enfaunt, (_c_) fraunceys, (_d_) bein,
    (_e_) belement, (_f_) ce, (_g_) cet vel eyztt, (_h_) Iil, (_i_) neot,
    (_k_) toutdiz, (_l_) afetes, (_m_) dissafetes, (_n_) beetez, (_o_) dv
    et non Dieu.

The subsequent chapters deal with the same subjects as in Bibbesworth,
and sometimes the wording is almost identical. The concluding chapter,
"De moribus infantis," is taken from another source, and gives
admonitions for discreet behaviour, quoting the moral treatise of the
pseudo-Cato, the Proverbs of Solomon, and the like. The passage in which
_Femina_ deals with the upbringing of the child may be of interest, as
showing how the later author repeats the earlier, while altering the
wording; and as throwing some light on the way French was then learnt:

    Et quaunt il court en graunt age
    Mettez ly apprendre langage.
    And when he runs in great age[84]
    Put him to learn language.

    En fraunceys a luy vous devez dire
    Comez il doit soun corps discrire.
    In French to him ye shall say
    How first he shall his body describe.

    Et pur ordre garder de moun et ma,
    Toun et ta, son et sa, masculino et feminino.
    And for order to kepe of mon and ma,
    Toun and ta, soun and sa, for ma souneth.

    Quia ma sonat feminino moun masculino.
    To femynyn gender and moun to masculyn.

    Cy que en parle soit bien apris,
    Et de nule homme escharnis.
    So that in speach he be well learned,
    And of no man scorned.

At the end is a 'calendar,' or table of words arranged alphabetically in
three parallel columns. The first gives the orthography of the word, the
second the pronunciation, and the third the explanation of its meaning
and construction, which usually takes the form of an English equivalent.

In the meanwhile the grammatical study of French was not neglected.
There are still extant numerous small treatises[85] dealing with
different aspects of French grammar, chiefly the flexions, and belonging
to the end of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The conjugation of
verbs receives special attention, and there are several manuscripts
providing paradigms and lists of the chief parts of speech--often very
incorrect, and of more value as showing the interest taken in French in
England than as illustrating any development in the history of the
conjugations of French verbs. The usual verbs described in these
fragmentary works[86] are _amo_, _habeo_, _sum_, _volo_, _facio_, and
the French paradigms are generally accompanied by Latin ones, on which
they are naturally based, and which were intended to help the student to
understand the French ("cum expositione earundem in Latinis"). The two
most considerable of these works known add many verbs to the list
mentioned above. Of these the first, the _Liber Donati_,[87] gives
examples of law French rather than literary French;[88] but the other,
written in French, endeavours to teach "douce françois de Paris"--_cy
comence le Donait soloum douce franceis de Paris_.[89] The _Donait_
belongs to the fifteenth century, and is the work of one R. Dove, who
also wrote some _Regulae de Orthographia Gallica_ in Latin,[90] which
show considerable resemblance to those of the earlier _Orthographia
Gallica_. The same is true of some of the rules devoted to orthography
in the _Liber Donati_, which also owes something to the work of 'T. H.,
Student of Paris,' either in the original form, or, more probably, in
the recast, due to Canon Coyfurelly. In this respect, Coyfurelly
continues the efforts of the earlier writer to purify English spelling
of French--efforts which at this time would meet with more success than
was the case earlier.[91]

Another topic touched on in the _Regulae_ of R. Dove is the formation of
the plural of nouns, and of the feminine of adjectives. The substance of
one of these rules may be quoted, as an example of the failure of these
early writers to grasp general principles. All nouns ending in _ge_,
like _lange_, says the grammarian, take _s_ in the plural, as _langes_;
all nouns ending in _urc_, as _bourc_, have _z_ or _s_ in the plural and
drop the _c_, as _bours_; all nouns ending in _nyn_, as _conyn_, take
_s_ in the plural, as _chemyns_; all nouns ending in _eyn_, as _peyn_,
form their plural by adding _s_, as _peyns_. Such is the rule for the
formation of the plural of nouns, and that for the feminine of
adjectives, which follows, is on the same lines. Pronouns also received
some attention from these early grammarians. The _Liber Donati_[92]
contains a few remarks on the personal, demonstrative and possessive
pronouns, giving the different forms for the singular and plural and the
various cases; thus it tells us that _jeo_ and sometimes _moy_ are used
for _I_ (_ego_) in the nominative case, and in other cases _moy_ or _me_
in the singular, while _nous_ is used for the plural in all cases, and
so forth.

We thus see that the verbs, nouns and pronouns received consideration,
varying in degree, at the hands of these pioneers in French grammar.
Neither were the indeclinable parts of speech neglected; at the end of
the _Liber Donati_ there is a list of some of these as well as of the
ordinal and cardinal numbers in both Latin and French, while the
_Donait_ gives the numbers only. Some manuscripts contain lists of
adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions in Latin and French.[93] Others
give lists of the cardinal and ordinal numbers in French, and one adds
to these a nomenclature of the different colours.[94] The names of the
days, months, and feast-days were another favourite subject.

Of these small treatises that which nearest approaches the form of a
comprehensive grammar is the _Liber Donati_, which includes observations
on the orthography and pronunciation, on verbs and pronouns, and lists
of adverbs, conjunctions, and numerals. But there appeared at the
beginning of the fifteenth century, before 1409, a more comprehensive
treatise of some real value--the _Donait françois pur briefment
entroduyr les Anglois en la droit langue du Paris et de pais la
d'entour_,[95] a work which but for its very many anglicisms might be
placed on a level with some of the similar grammars of the sixteenth
century.[96] The origin of this _Donait_ is interesting. A certain
Englishman, John Barton, born and bred in the county of Cheshire, but a
student of Paris, and a passionate lover of the French language, engaged
some good clerks to compose the _Donait_, at his own great cost and
trouble, for the benefit of the English, who are so eager ("embrasez")
to learn French.[97] Judging from the lines with which Barton closes his
short but communicative preface, the work was intended mainly for the
use of young people--the "chers enfants" and "tres douces pucelles,"
'hungering' to learn French: "Pur ce, mes chiers enfantz et tresdoulcez
puselles," he writes, "que avez fam d'apprendre cest Donait scachez
qu'il est divisé en belcoup de chapiters si come il apperera cy avale."
Barton then retires to make way for his 'clerks,' whose remarks are
entirely confined to grammatical teaching and who, like Barton, write in
French.

Most of the early treatises on French grammar which appeared in England
are written in Latin. Latin appears to have been the medium through
which French was learnt and explained to a large extent, although in the
case of the riming vocabularies English was used for teaching the young
children for whom these nomenclatures were chiefly written. But grammar,
probably intended to be learnt by older students, was usually studied in
Latin, which was also found to be a help in learning French. Students
are told to base French orthography on that of Latin, and there are
constant references from French words to their Latin originals. The
_Donait soloum douce franceis de Paris_ is apparently the only work of
any importance written in French before that of Barton. English was not
used for this purpose before the sixteenth century, when it was almost
invariably employed, even by Frenchmen. A grammar such as Barton's
would, no doubt, be read and translated with the help of a tutor; and it
is highly probable that the children for whom it was intended would have
previously acquired some practical knowledge of French from some such
elementary treatise as Bibbesworth's vocabulary. Moreover, French was so
generally in use in the higher classes of society, and had been for so
long a kind of semi-national tongue, that it would hardly be approached
as an entirely foreign language, as in later times. In writing a French
grammar in French, Barton and those who followed the same course merely
adopted for the teaching of French a method in common use in the
teaching of Latin. The advisability of writing French grammars in French
was a question, as we shall see, much discussed in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries as well as in much more recent times.

The clerks employed by Barton made free use of the observations on
French grammar which had appeared previously. But their work had an
additional value; the rules are stated with considerable clearness and
are usually correct.[98] The opening chapters deal with the letters and
their pronunciation, set forth, like the rest of the grammar, in a
series of questions and answers:

    Quantez letters est il? Vint. Quellez? Cinq voielx et quinse
    consonantez. Quelx sont les voielx et ou seroit ils sonnés? Le
    premier vouyel est _a_ et serra sonné en la poetrine, la seconde
    est _e_ et serra sonné en la gorge, le tiers est _i_ et serra sonné
    entre les joues, le quart est _o_ et serra sonné du palat de la
    bouche, le quint est _u_ et serra sonné entre les levres.

To these observations on the vowels are added a few on the consonants,
and "belcoup de bones rieules" (six in all) treating the avoidance of
hiatus between two consonants and the effects of certain vowels and
consonants on each other's pronunciation. Next come a few observations
on the parts of speech; for "apres le Chapitre des lettres il nous fault
dire des accidens." Instead of giving a number of isolated instances as
rules for the formation of the plural, the general rule for the addition
of _s_ to the singular is evolved and emphasized by this advice: "Pour
ceo gardez vous que vous ne mettez pas le singuler pour le pulier
(pluriel) ne a contraire, si come font les sots." Further, we must avoid
imitating the 'sottez gens,' to whom frequent reference is made, in
using one person of a tense for another, and saying _je ferra_ for _je
ferray_.[99] In this section of the work the rules follow each other
without any orderly arrangement.[100]

At about the same time an English poet is said to have written a French
grammar, as another poet, Alexander Barclay, actually did later. An
early bibliographer[101] includes in his list of Lydgate's works one
entitled _Praeceptiones Linguae Gallicae_, in one book, of which no
further trace remains to-day. Lydgate, however, was well acquainted with
French; he made the customary foreign tour, besides visiting Paris again
on a later occasion in attendance on noble patrons, and put his
knowledge of the language to the test by translating or adapting several
works from the French, like most contemporary writers.[102] The same
early authority informs us that, as soon as Lydgate returned from his
travels, he opened a school for the sons of noblemen, possibly at Bury
St. Edmunds. Probably Lydgate wrote a French grammar for the use of
these young noblemen, who would certainly have to learn the language;
and, after serving their immediate purpose, these rules, we may surmise,
were lost and soon forgotten.

In the fifteenth century, instruction in French epistolary style of all
degrees continued to be supplied in collections of model letters; and at
the end of the fourteenth century a new kind of book for teaching French
appeared--the _Manière de Langage_ or model conversation book, intended
for the use of travellers, merchants, and others desiring a
conversational and practical rather than a thorough and grammatical
knowledge of French. Contrary to the custom, prevalent at this later
period, of providing English translations, the earliest of these contain
no English gloss, but simply the French text without any attempt at even
the slight grammatical instruction provided in the vocabularies. Their
sole purpose was to give the traveller or wayfarer a supply of phrases
and expressions on the customary topics; grammatical instruction could
be sought elsewhere.

The earliest of these[103] is the first work for teaching French to
which a definite date can be assigned. A sort of dedication at the end
is dated from Bury St. Edmunds, "la veille du Pentecote, 1396." We have
not the same definite information as to the author.[104] The anglicisms
make it clear that he was an Englishman, while the references to Orleans
and its university, and the trouble there between the students and the
townspeople in 1389, suggest that he was a student of that university,
then much frequented by the English and other foreigners, especially law
students. He may have been Canon M. T. Coyfurelly, Doctor of Law of
Orleans,[105] and author of the contemporary recasting of T. H.'s
treatise on French orthography. The author tells us he undertook his
task at the request of a "tres honoré et tres gentil sire"; that he had
learnt French "es parties la mere," and that he wrote according to the
knowledge he acquired there, which, he admits, may not be perfect.
Indeed his French is full of anglicisms; _que homme_ is written for
'that man'; _oeuvrer_ for 'worker'; _que_ for 'why,' and so on; there
are also many grammatical mistakes such as wrong genders, _au homme_,
_de les_ for _des_, _de le_ for _du_. This "manière" must have enjoyed a
very considerable popularity, judging from the number of manuscripts, of
various dates, still in existence. And, in modern times, it presents a
greater interest to the reader than any of the treatises mentioned
before, partly from the naïveté and quaintness of its style, partly
owing to the vivid picture it gives us of the life of the time at which
it was written.

It opens in a religious strain, with a prayer that the students of the
book may have "sens naturel" to learn to speak, pronounce, and write
"doulz françois":

    A noster commencement nous dirons ainsi: en nom du pere, filz et
    Saint Esperit, amen. Ci comence la Maniere de Language qui
    t'enseignera bien a droit parler et escrire doulz françois selon
    l'usage et la coustume de France. Primiers, au commencement de
    nostre fait et besogne nous prierons Dieu devoutement et nostre
    Dame la benoite vierge Marie sa tres douce mere, et toute la
    glorieuse compaigne du Saint reaume de Paradis celeste, ou Dieux
    mette ses amis et ses eslus, de quoi vient toute science, sapience,
    grace et entendement et tous manieres vertuz, qu'il luy plaist de
    sa grande misericorde et grace tous les escoliers estudianz en cest
    livre ainsi abruver et enluminer de la rousée de sa haute sapience
    et entendement, qu'ils pouront avoir sens naturel d'aprendre a
    parler, bien soner et a droit escrire doulz françois.

Then, because man is the noblest of all created things, the author
proceeds to give a list of the parts of his body, which recalls the old
riming vocabularies. This, however, is the only portion in which
conversation is sacrificed to vocabulary. In the rest of the work,
though the vocabulary is increased by alternative phrases wherever
possible, it is never allowed to encroach too much on the conversation.

The second chapter presents a scene between a lord and his page, in
which the page receives minute instructions for commissions to the
draper, the mercer, and upholsterer--an excellent opportunity of
introducing a large choice of words. Conversation for travellers is the
subject of the third chapter, the most important, and certainly the most
interesting in the whole book. It tells, "Coment un homme chivalchant ou
cheminant se doit contenir et parler sur son chemin qui voult aler bien
loin hors de son pais." After witnessing the preparations for the
journey, the reader accompanies the lord and his page through an
imaginary journey in France. Dialogue and narrative alternate, and the
lord talks with his page Janyn or whiles away the time with songs:

    Et quant il aura achevée sa chanson il comencera a parler a son
    escuier ou a ses escuiers, ainsi disant: "Mes amys, il est bien pres
    de nuyt," vel sic: "Il sera par temps nuyt." Doncques respont Janyn
    au son signeur bien gentilment en cest maniere: "Vrayement mon
    seigneur, vous ditez verité"; vel sic: "vous ditez voir"; vel sic:
    "vous dites vray"--"Je panse bien qu'il feroit mieux pour nous
    d'arester en ce ville que d'aller plus avant maishuy. Coment vous
    est avis?"--"Ainsi comme vous vuillez, mon seigneur." "Janyn!"--"Mon
    signeur?"--"Va devant et prennez nostre hostel par temps."--"Si
    ferai-je, mon seigneur." Et s'en vait tout droit en sa voie, et
    quant il sera venu a l'ostel il dira tout courtoisement en cest
    maniere. "Hosteler, hosteler," etc.

The page then proceeds to make hasty preparations for the coming of his
master to the inn, and we next assist at the arrival of the lord and his
evening meal and diversions--another opportunity for the introduction of
songs--and his departure in the morning towards Étampes and Orleans.

More humble characters appear in the next chapter: "Un autre manière de
parler de pietalle, comme des labourers et oeuvrers de mestiers." Here
we have conversations between members of the working classes. A gardener
and a ditcher discuss their respective earnings, describe their work,
and finally go and dine together; a baker talks with his servant, and so
gives us the names of the chief things used in his trade, just as the
gardener gave a list of flowers and fruits. A merchant scolds his
apprentice for various misdemeanours, and then sends him off to market:

    Doncques l'apprentiz s'en vait au marchié pour vendre les danrées de
    son maistre et la vienment grant cop des gens de divers pais de les
    achater: et apprentiz leur dit tout courtoisement en cest
    maniere,--'Mes amis venez vous ciens et je vous monstrerai de aussi
    bon drap comme vous trouverez en tout ce ville, et vous en aurez de
    aussi bon marché comme nul autre. Ore regardez, biau sire, comment
    vous est avis; vel sic: comment vous plaist il;

and after some bargaining he sells his goods.

In the next "manière de parler" a servant brings a torn doublet to a
mender of old clothes, and enlists his services. A chapter of more
interest and importance is that dealing with greetings and salutations
to be used at different times of the day to members of the various ranks
of society:

    Quant un homme encontrera aucun au matinée il luy dira tout
    courtoisement ainsi: "Mon signour Dieux vous donne boun matin et
    bonne aventure," vel sic: "Sire Dieux vous doint boun matin et bonne
    estraine, Mon amy, Dieux vous doint bon jour et bonne encontre." Et
    a midi vous parlerez en cest maniere: "Monsieur Dieux vous donne bon
    jour et bonnes heures"; vel sic: "Sire, Dieu vous beneit et la
    compaignie!" A peitaille vous direz ainsi: "Dieux vous gart!" . . .
    Et as oeuvrers et labourers vous direz ainsi: "Dieux vous ait, mon
    amy,"

and so on. One traveller asks another whence he comes and where he was
born, and the other says he comes from Orleans, where there is a fierce
quarrel between the students and the townspeople; and was born in
Hainaut, where they love the English well, and there is a saying that
"qui tient un Henner (Hennuyer) par la main, tient un Englois par le
cuer." We are next taught how to speak to children: "Quant vous verez un
enfant plorer et gemir, vous direz ainsi: Qu'as tu, mon enfant," and
comfort him, and when a poor man asks you for alms, you shall answer,
"Mon amy, se je pourroi je vous aidasse tres volantiers. . . ."

From this we return to subjects more suited to merchants and
wayfarers--how to inquire the road, and to go on a pilgrimage to the
tomb of St. Thomas-à-Becket. The work closes with a gathering of
companions in an inn, which, like the rest of the chapters, is full of
life and interest. Last of all, a sort of supplement is added in the
form of a short poem on the drawbacks of poverty:

    Il est hony qui pouveres est,

and a _fatrasie_ in prose.

Another treatise of the same kind, written about three years later, was
intended chiefly for the use of children, _Un petit livre pour enseigner
les enfantz de leur entreparler comun françois_.[106] It was not the
first of its kind. The metrical vocabularies of Bibbesworth and his
successors were chiefly intended for the use of children. There is also
some evidence to show that the grammatical treatises were used by
children; the commentary was added to the _Orthographica Gallica_
because the rules were somewhat obscure "pour jeosne gentz," and Barton,
in his introduction, mentions the "chiers enfantz" and "tresdoulez
puselles," as those whom his grammar particularly concerns.

In the _Petit livre_, however, the teaching is of the simplest kind, and
specially suited to children. The dialogue lacks the interest of the
earlier 'manière,' and inclines, in places, to become a list of phrases
pure and simple. The work opens abruptly with the words: "Pour ce sachez
premierement que le an est divisé en deux, c'est asscavoir le yver et
la esté. Le yver a six mois et la esté atant, que vallent douse," and so
on to the other divisions of the year and time. The children are then
taught the numbers in French, the names of the coins, and those of the
persons and things with which they come into daily contact. Then follow
appropriate terms for addressing and greeting different persons, and the
author even goes so far as to provide the child with a stock of
insulting terms for use in quarrels. The rest of the treatise does not
appear to be intended for children. There are conversations in a tavern,
lists of salutations, familiar talk for the wayside and for buying and
selling, all of which has little special interest, and is designed
apparently to meet the needs of merchants more than any other class. In
the chatter on the events of the day there occurs a passage which
enables us to date the work. The traveller tells the hostess of the
captivity of Richard II. as a recent event:

    "Dieu, dame, j'ay ouy dire que le roy d'Angleterre est osté."--"Quoy
    desioie!"--"Par ma alme voir."--"Et les Anglois n'ont ils point de
    roy donques?"--"Marie, ouy, et que celuy que fust duc de Lancastre,
    que est nepveu a celluy que est osté."--"Voire?"--"Voire
    vraiement."--"Et le roygne que fera elle?"--"Par dieu dame, je ne
    sçay, je n'ay pas esté en conceille."--"Et le roy d'Angleterre ou
    fust il coronné?"--"A Westmynstre."--"Fustez vous la
    donques?"--"Marie, oy, il y avoit tant de presse que par un pou que
    ne mouru quar a paine je eschapey a vie."--"Et ou serra il a
    nouvel?"--"Par ma foy je ne sçay, mais l'en dit qu'il serra en
    Escoce."

The authorship is not so easy to ascertain. The manual may be due to
Canon T. Coyfurelly, probable author of the earlier and better-known
work also.[107] The many mistakes and anglicisms, such as _quoy_ for
_quelle_ ('what') and the exclamatory 'Marie' in the quotation just
given, show it to be the work of an Englishman.

Another book of conversation appeared in 1415,[108] as may be gathered
from its first two chapters, in which a person fresh from the wars in
France tells of the siege of Harfleur and the battle of Agincourt, and
announces the return of the victorious English army. The rest of the
dialogues are represented as taking place in and about Oxford. There is
the usual tavern scene. Travellers from Tetsworth arrive at an Oxford
inn, and are present at the evening meal and diversions. The hostess
describes the fair at Woodstock and the articles bought and sold there;
her son, a boy of twelve years, wants to be apprenticed in London; he
goes to the school of Will Kyngesmylle, where writing, counting, and
French are taught. One of the merchants calls the lad and questions him
as to his knowledge of French: "Et que savez vous en fraunceys
dire?--Sir je say moun noun et moun corps bien descrire.--Ditez moy
qu'avez a noun.--J'ay a noun Johan, bon enfant, beal et sage et bien
parlant engleys, fraunceys et bon normand, beneyt soit la verge que
chastie l'enfant et le bon maistre qui me prist taunt! Je pri a Dieu
tout puissant nous graunte le joye tous diz durant!" The lad then
proceeds to give proof of his knowledge by naming the parts of his body
and his clothing, always, it appears, the first things learnt.

This reference to the teaching of French in the school of an Oxford
pedagogue shows that, though French had at this time lost all
standing in the Grammar Schools, it was still taught in private
establishments.[109] It seems highly probable that Will Kyngesmylle was
the author of this work, and that he used his text-book as a means of
self-advertisement, a method very common among later teachers of French.
At the close comes a chapter belonging to another work of the same type,
which is only preserved in this fragment; no doubt other such works
existed and have been entirely lost.

It is likely that in the fifteenth century these conversational manuals
supplanted, to a considerable extent, the earlier type of practical
manual for teaching French--the metrical vocabulary--with which they had
something in common. At any rate, there is no copy of such nomenclatures
extant after _Femina_ (1415). The 'manières' provided in their dialogues
much of the material found in the vocabularies, giving, wherever
possible, groups of words on the same topics--the body, its clothing,
houses, and men's occupations. Further, the vocabularies, which had
never departed from the type instituted by Bibbesworth in the thirteenth
century, dealt more with the feudal and agricultural life of the Middle
Ages, and so had fallen behind the times. The 'Manières de Langage' were
more in keeping with the new conditions. Towards the end of the century
(and perhaps at the beginning of the sixteenth century) we come to a
manual,[110] which, while resembling the 'manières' in most points,
reproduces some of the distinctive external marks of the vocabularies.
For instance, the French is arranged in short lines, which, however, do
not rime, and vary considerably in the number of syllables they contain;
and these are followed by a full interlinear English gloss, as in the
later vocabularies. The subject matter, however, is similar to that of
the early conversation books. First comes gossip at taverns and by the
wayside:

    Ditez puisse ie savement aler?
    Saie may I saufly goo?
    Ye sir le chemyn est sure assez.
    Yes sir the wey is sure inough.
    Mes il convent que vous hastez.
    But it behoveth to spede you.
    Sir dieu vous donne bon aventure.
    Sir god geve you good happe.
    Sir a dieu vous commaunde.
    Sir to god I you betake.

    Sir dieu vous esploide.
    Sir god spede you.
    Sir bon aventure avez vous.
    Sir good chaunce have ye.
    Sir par saint Marie cy est bon servise.
    Sir by saint Marie her is good ale.
    Sir pernes le hanappe, vous comenceres.
    Sir take the coppe, ye shal beginne.
    Dame ie ne feray point devaunt vous.
    Dame I wil not doo bifor you.
    Sir vous ferrez verrement.
    Sir ye shal sothely.

After some disconnected discourse on inquiring the time, asking the way,
etc., we again return to the tavern:

    Dame dieu vous donne bon jour.
    Dame god geve you good daie.
    Dame avez hostel pour nous trois compaignons?
    Dame have ye hostel for us iij felowes?
    Sir quant longement voudrez demourer?
    Sir how long wol ye abide?
    Dame nous ne savons point.
    Dame we wote not.
    Et que vouldrez donner le iour pour vostre table?
    And what wil ye geve a daie for your table?
    Dame que vouldrez prendr pour le iour?
    Dame what wol ye take for the daie?
    Sir non meynns que vj deniers le iour.
    Sir noo lesse thenne vj d. the day ... etc.

Next comes the usual scene between buyers and sellers, followed by
another inn scene of greater length. After attending to their horses,
the travellers sup and spend the night at the inn, and set out the next
morning after reckoning with their hostess. The manuscript ends abruptly
in the midst of a list of salutations. The nature of the French[111]
betrays the author's nationality; he was evidently an Englishman. As to
the English, the quaint turn given to many of the phrases is usually
explained by the writer's desire to give a literal translation of the
French; many of the inaccuracies in both versions are probably due to
careless work on the part of the scribe.

Merchants thus appear to have been one of the chief classes among which
there was a demand for instruction in French. In addition to the large
part assigned to them in the 'Manières de Langage,' and in the
epistolaries, where letters of a commercial nature are a usual feature,
there exist collections of model forms for drawing up bills, indentures,
receipts and other documents of similar import. They are usually called
'cartularies,' are accompanied by explanations in Latin, and may be
looked upon as the first text-books of commercial French.[112] One
author explains their origin and aim by this introductory remark:[113]
"Pour ceo qe j'estoie requis par ascunz prodeshommez de faire un
chartuarie pour lour enfantz enformer de faire chartours, endenturs,
obligations, defesance, acquitancez, contuaries, salutaries, en Latin et
Franceys ensemblement . . . fesant les chartours, escripts munimentz a
de primes en Latyn et puis en Franceys."

More emphasis is laid on the demand for instruction in French among the
merchant class by the fact that the earliest printed text-books were
designed chiefly for their use. The first of these may be classed with
the new development of the 'Manières de Langage,' comprising dialogues
in French and English, although it does not exactly answer to this
description.[114] It was issued from the press of William Caxton in
about 1483, and at least one other edition appeared at a later
date.[115] In form it is a sort of narrative in French, with an English
translation opposite. The aim of the work is stated clearly in an
introductory passage which informs the reader that "who this book shall
learn may well enterprise merchandise from one land to another and to
know many wares which to him shall be good to be bought, or sold for
rich to become." Caxton thus recommends the book to the learner:

  Tres bonne doctrine                  Rygt good lernyng
  Pour aprendre                        For to lerne
  Briefment fransoys et engloys.       Shortly frenssh & englyssh.
  Au nom du pere                       In the name of the fadre
  Et du filz                           And of the soone
  Et du sainte esperite                And of the holy ghost
  Veul comnencier                      I wyll begynne
  Et ordonner ung livre,               And ordeyne this book,
  Par le quel on pourra                By the which men shall mowe
  Raysonnablement entendre             Resonably understande
  Françoys et Anglois,                 Frenssh and Englissh,
  Du tant comme cest escript           Of as moche as this writing
  Pourra contenir et estendre,         Shall conteyne & stratche,
  Car il ne peut tout comprendre.      For he may not all comprise.
  Mais ce qu'on n'y trouvera           But that which cannot be founden
  Declairé en cestui                   Declared in this
  Pourra on trouver ailleurs           Shall be founde somwhere els
  En aultres livres.                   In other bookes.
  Mais sachies pour voir               But knowe for truthe
  Que es lignes de cest aucteur        That in the lynes of this auctour
  Sount plus de parolles et de raysons Ben moo wordes & reasons
  Comprinses, et de responses          Comprised, & of answers
  Que en moult d'aultres livres.       Than in many other bookes.
  Qui ceste livre vouldra aprendre     Who this booke shall wylle lerne
  Bien pourra entreprendre             May well enterprise
  Merchandises d'un pays a             Marchandise fro one land to
  l'autre,                             anoothir,
  Et cognoistre maintes denrées        And to know many wares
  Que lui seroient bon                 Which to him shall be good to be
  achetés                              bought
  Ou vendues pour riche devenir.       Or sold for rich to become.
  Aprendes ce livre diligement,        Lerne this book diligently,
  Grande prouffyt y gyst vrayement.    Grete prouffyt lieth therein truly.

The 'doctrine' itself opens with a list of salutations with the
appropriate answers. A house and all its contents come next, then its
inhabitants, which introduces the subject of degrees of kinship:

    Or entendes petys et grands,
    Je vous dirai maintenant
    Dune autre matere
    La quele ie commence.
    Se vous estes mariés
    Et vous avez femme
    Et vous ayez marye,
    Se vous maintiens paisiblement
    Que vos voisins ne disent
    De vous fors que bien:
    Ce seroit vergoigne.
    Se vous aves pere et mere,
    Si les honnourés tousiours;
    Faictes leur honneur;. . .
    Si vous aves enfans,
    Si les instrues
    De bonnes meurs;
    Le temps qu'ilz soient josnes
    Les envoyes a l'escole
    Aprendre lire et escripre. . . .

At the end of the category come the servants and their occupations,
which affords an opportunity of bringing in the different shops to which
they are sent and of specifying the meat and drink they purchase there.
We then pass to buying, selling, and bargaining in general, and to
merchandise of all kinds, with a list of coins, popular fairs, and
fête-days.

After an enumeration of the great persons of the earth comes the main
chapter of the work, giving a fairly complete list of crafts and trades.
This takes the form of an alphabetical list of Christian names, each of
which is made to represent one of the trades, beginning with Adam the
ostler: "For this that many words shall fall or may fall which be not
plainly heretofore written, so shall I write you from henceforth divers
matters of all things, first of one thing, then of another, in which
chapter I will conclude the names of men and women after the order of a,
b, c." The baker may be selected as a fair example:

  Ferin le boulengier            Fierin the baker
  Vend blanc pain et brun.       Selleth whit brede and brown.
  Il a sour son grenier gisant   He hath upon his garner lieng
  Cent quartiers de bled.        One hundred quarters of corn.
  Il achete a temps et a heure,  He byeth in tyme and at hour,
  Si qu'il n'a point             So that he hath not
  Du chier marchiet.             Of the dere chepe (high buying prices).

At last the author, "all weary of so many names to name, of so many
crafts, so many offices, so many services," finds relief in certain
considerations of a religious order: "God hath made us unto the likeness
of himself, he will reward those who do well and punish those who do not
repent of their sins, and attend the holy services: If ye owe any
pilgrimages, so pay them hastily; when you be moved for to go your
journey, and ye know not the waye, so axe it thus." The usual
directions for inquiring the way follow with the description of the
arrival at an inn, and the customary gossip. The reckoning and departure
on the following morning afford an opportunity of including a further
list of Flemish and English coins together with the numerals; and Caxton
concludes his work by commending it to the reader with a prayer that
those who study it may persevere sufficiently to profit by it:

    Cy fine ceste doctrine,        Here endeth this doctrine,

    A Westmestre les Loundres      At Westmestre by London
    En formes impressée,           In fourmes enprinted,
    En le quelle ung chaucun       In the whiche one everish
    Pourra briefment aprendre      May shortly lerne
    François et Engloys.           French and English.
    La grace de sainct esperit     The grace of the holy ghosst
    Veul enluminer les cures       Wylle enlyghte the hertes
    De ceulx qui le aprendront,    Of them that shall lerne it,
    Et nous doinst perseverance    And us gyve perseverans
    En bonnes operacions,          In good werkes,
    Et apres cest vie transitorie  And after lyf transitorie
    La pardurable ioye et glorie!  The everlasting ioye and glorie!

The short introduction and epilogue were most probably the composition
of Caxton himself. The rest of the book is drawn from a set of dialogues
in French and Flemish, first written at the beginning of the fourteenth
century, called _Le Livre des Mestiers_ in reference to its main
chapter.[116] This would possibly be known to merchants trading with
Bruges and other centres of the Low Countries; and when we notice the
numerous points of resemblance between it and the English manuals of
conversation, the first of which did not appear before the end of the
same century, it seems very probable that the Flemish original had some
influence on the works produced in England. Caxton was a silk mercer of
London, and his business took him to the towns of the Low Countries,
especially Bruges, where the English merchants had a large commercial
connexion. There, no doubt, he became acquainted with the _Livre des
Mestiers_, and probably improved his knowledge of French by its help,
for he studied and read the language a good deal during his long sojourn
abroad. There also he probably added an English column to his copy of
the French-Flemish phrase-book, as a sort of exercise rather than with
any serious intention of publication; and when he had set up his press
at Westminster, remembering the need he had felt for French, in his own
commercial experience, and the little book which had assisted him, he
would decide to print it. Caxton's copy of the _Livre des Mestiers_
belonged, no doubt, to a later date than the one extant to-day,[117]
probably to the beginning of the fifteenth century. It must have been
fuller, and have had different names attached to the characters, so
that, as the names are still arranged in alphabetical order, it is
difficult, at a glance, to distinguish the identity of the two texts.

Caxton's rendering of the French is often inaccurate, owing perhaps to
the influence of the Flemish version from which he seems to have made
his translation.[117] Moreover, at the early date at which Caxton,
probably, added the English column to the _Livre des Mestiers_, his
knowledge of French had not yet reached that state of thoroughness which
was to enable him to translate such a remarkable number of French works
into English. He himself tells us in the prologue to the _Recuyell of
the Histories of Troy_ of Raoul le Fèvre (Bruges, 1475)--the first of
his translations from the French, and, indeed, the first book to be
printed in English--that his knowledge of French was not by any means
perfect. With the exception of the introductory and closing sentences,
Caxton made few additions to his original. He did indeed supply the
names of English towns, coins, bishoprics, and so on; but, on the whole,
the setting of the work is foreign; Bruges, not London, is the centre of
the action, and no doubt the place where the original was composed.

Not long after the publication of Caxton's doctrine another work of like
character and purpose appeared. It claims to be "a good book to learn to
speak French for those who wish to do merchandise in France, and
elsewhere in other lands where the folk speak French." The atmosphere is
entirely English, and consequently its contents bear a closer
resemblance to its English predecessors. In the arrangement of the
dialogue it is identical with the Cambridge conversation book, except
that the English lines come before the French, and not the French before
the English.[118] The four subjects round which the dialogue turns,
namely, salutations, buying and selling, inquiring the way, and
conversation at the inn, were all favourites in the early "Manières de
Langage." For the rest it follows in the steps of its English
predecessors in confining itself to dialogue pure and simple, while
Caxton's 'doctrine' adopted the narrative form. In one point, however,
the work differs from the latest development of the old "Manière de
Langage," as preserved in the Cambridge Dialogues in French and English;
the dialogues are followed by a vocabulary, then a reprint of one of the
old books on courtesy and demeanour for children, with a French version
added, and finally commercial letters in French and English. The work is
thus made much more comprehensive than any of its type which had as yet
appeared, and includes samples, so to speak, of all the practical
treatises for teaching French which had appeared in the Middle Ages.

It was printed separately by the two chief printers of the time, both
foreigners: Richard Pynson, a native of Normandy and student of Paris,
who came to England and began printing on his own account about
1590-1591; and Wynkyn de Worde, a native of Alsace, and apprentice to
Caxton, with whom he probably came to England from Bruges in 1476, and
to whose business he succeeded in 1491.[119] Although neither of the
printers dated their work, it seems probable that the earliest edition
was issued by Pynson. There is a unique copy of his edition in the
British Museum; it is without title-page, pagination, or catch-words,
and the colophon reads simply "Per me Ricardum Pynson." The colophon of
Wynkyn's work, of which there is a complete copy in the Grenville
Library (British Museum),[120] and a fragment of two leaves in the
Bodleian, is slightly more instructive and runs as follows: "Here endeth
a lytyll treatyse for to lern Englyshe and Frensshe. Emprynted at
Westmynster by my Wynken de Worde." Now as Wynkyn moved from Westminster
in 1500 to set up his shop in the centre of the trade in Fleet Street,
opposite to that of his rival Pynson, his edition of the work must have
appeared before that date, because it was issued from what had been
Caxton's house in Westminster. On the other hand, the type used by
Pynson is archaic,[121] and the work is evidently one of the earliest
issued from his press. It is inferior to Wynkyn's edition from the
technical point of view. A headline is all there is by way of title;
while in Wynkyn's copy we find a separate title-page, containing the
words, "Here begynneth a lytell treatyse for to lern Englishe and
Frensshe," and a woodcut of a schoolmaster seated in a large chair, with
a large birch-rod in his left hand, and, on a stool at his feet, three
small boys holding open books. This particular woodcut was a favourite
in school-books of the period;[122] it appears, for instance, in a
little treatise entitled _Pervula_, giving instructions for turning
English into Latin, which Wynkyn de Worde printed about 1495.[123]
Moreover, each page of Wynkyn's edition has a descriptive headline,
"Englysshe and Frensshe," which is not found in Pynson's. The text also
is in many places more accurate than that of the Norman printer, and
gives the impression of having been corrected here and there. It is
therefore probable that Pynson first printed the treatise shortly after
1490,[124] and that another edition was issued by Wynkyn de Worde during
the period intervening between the date of the issue of Pynson's edition
and the end of the century. A remnant, consisting of one page of yet
another edition, is preserved in the British Museum, and shows some
variations in spelling from the two other texts.

This little book, then, seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity
during its short life. On the whole it is more elementary in character
than the 'doctrine' of Caxton. The first things taught are the numbers
and a list of ordinary mercantile phrases. The opening passage is very
much like that written by Caxton for his work:

    Here is a good boke to lerne to speke Frenshe.
    Vecy ung bon livre apprendre parler françoys.
    In the name of the fader and the sone
    En nom du pere et du filz
    And of the holy goost, I wyll begynne
    Et du saint esperit, je vueil commencer
    To lerne to speke Frensshe,
    A apprendre a parler françoys,
    Soo that I maye doo my marchandise
    Affin que je puisse faire ma marchandise
    In Fraunce & elles where in other londes,
    En France et ailieurs en aultre pays,
    There as the folk speke Frensshe.
    La ou les gens parlent françoys.
    And fyrst I wylle lerne to reken by lettre.
    Et premierement je veux aprendre a compter par lettre. . . .

Next come the cardinal numbers and a vocabulary of words "goode for
suche as use marchaundyse":

    Of gold & sylver.
    D'or et d'argent.
    Of cloth of golde.
    De drap d'or.
    Of perles & precyous stones.
    De perles et Pieres precieuses.
    Of velvet & damaskes.
    De velours et damas etc. . . .

and so on for nearly a page, in which the names of various cloths,
spices, and wines are provided.

Then follows another "manner of speeche" in a list of salutations
arranged in dialogue form:

    Other maner of speche in frensshe.
    Autre magniere de langage en françoys.
    Syr, God gyve you good daye.
    Sire, Dieu vous doint bon iour.
    Syr, God gyve you goode evyn.
    Sire, Dieu vous doint bon vespere.
    Syr, God gyve you goode nyght & goode reste.
    Sire, Dieu vous doint bon nuyt et bon repos.
    Syr, how fare ye?
    Sire, comment vous portez vous?
    Well at your commaundement.
    Bien a vostre commandement.
    How fare my lorde & my lady?
    Coment se porte mon seigneur et ma dame?
    Ryght well blessyd be God.
    Tres bien benoit soit Dieu.

    Syr, whan go ye agayne to my lorde,
    Sire, quant retournez vous a mon seigneour,
    I praye you that ye wyll recommaunde me unto hym,
    Je vous prie que me recomandez a lui,
    And also to my lady his wyfe.
    Et aussi a ma dame sa femme.
    Syr, God be wyth you.
    Sire, Dieu soit avecques vous.

Yet another favourite subject is next introduced--a conversation on
buying and selling:

    Other maner of speche to bye and selle.
    Aultre magniere de langage pour vendre et achatter.
    Syr, God spede you.
    Sire, Dieu vous garde.
    Syr, have ye not good cloth to sell?
    Sire, n'avez vous point de bon drapt a vendre?
    Ye syr ryght good.
    Ouy sire tres bon.
    Now lette me see it and it please you.
    Or le me laisses voir s'il vous plest.
    I shall doo it with a good wyll.
    Je le feray voulentiers.
    Holde, here it is.
    Tenez sire, le veez cy.
    Now saye how moche the yerde is worthe
    Or me dites combyen l'aune vault.
    Ten shelynges.
    Dix solz.
    Forsothe ye set it to dere.
    Vrayment vous le faictez trop cher.
    I shall gyve you eyght shelynges.
    Je vous en donneray huyt soulz.
    I wyll not, it is to lytell.
    Non feroy, cest trop pou.
    The yerde shall coste you nyne shelynges,
    L'aune vous coustra neuf soulz,
    Yf that ye have it.
    Si vous l'airez.
    Ye shall have it for no lasse.
    Vous ne l'avrez pour riens mains.

The merchant has also to be able to ask for directions on his way, and
to gossip with the landlady of the wayside inn; the phrases necessary
for these purposes are recorded in the next "manner of speech," where,
as in the first treatise of 1396, the scene is laid in France:

    For to aske the waye.
    Pour demander le chemin.
    Frende, God save you.
    Amy, Dieu vous sauve.
    Whiche is the ryght waye
    Quelle est la voye droite
    For to goo from hens to Parys?
    Pour aller d'icy a Paris?
    Syr, ye muste holde the waye on the ryght hande.
    Sire, il vous fault tenir le chemin a la droite main.
    Now saye me, my frende,
    Or me ditez, mon amy,
    Yf that any good lodginge
    Y a il point de bon logis
    Be betwixt this and the next vyllage?
    Entre cy et ce prochayn village?
    There is a ryght good one.
    Il en y a ung tres bon.
    Ye shall be there ryght well lodged,
    Vous serez tres bien logé,
    Ye & also your horse.
    Vous et aussi vostre chevaul.
    My frende, God yelde it you,
    Mon ami, Dieu vous le rende,
    And I shall doo an other tyme
    Et ie feraye ung aultre foiz
    As moche for you and I maye.
    Autant pour vous se ie puis.
    God be with you.
    Dieu soit avecques vous.

The passage proceeds to describe, always in the form of a dialogue, the
traveller's arrival at the inn, his entertainment there, and his
departure:

    Dame, shall I be here well lodged?
    Dame, seroy ie icy bien logé?
    Ye syr, ryght well.
    Ouy sire, tres bien.
    Nowe doo me have a good chambre
    Or me faites avoir ungue bonne chambre
    And a good fyre,
    Et bon feu,
    And doo that my horse
    Et faites que mon chevaul
    Maye be well governed,
    Puisse estre bien gouverné,
    And gyve hym good hay and good otes.
    Et lui donnés bon foin et bon avoine.
    Dame, is all redy for to dyne?
    Dame, est tout prest pour aller digner?
    Ye syr, whan it please you.
    Oui sire, quant il vous plaise.
    Syr, moche good do it you.
    Sire, bon preu vous face.
    I praye you make good chere
    Je vous prie faictez bonne chere
    And be mery, I drynke to you.
    Et soyez ioieux, ie boy a vous.
    Now, hostes, saye me how moche have we spende at this dyner.
    Hostesse, or me dites combien nous avons despendu a ce digner.
    I shall tell you with a good wyll.
    Je vous le diray voulentiers.
    Ye have in alle eyght shelyngs.
    Vous avez en tout huyt solz.
    Nowe well holde your sylver and gramercy.
    Or bien tenez vostre argent et grandmercy.
    Do my horse come to me.
    Or me faittz venir mon cheval.
    Is he sadled and redy for to ryde?
    Est il sellé et appointé pour chevaucher?
    Ye syr, all redy.
    Ouy sire, tout prest.
    Now fare well and gramercy.
    Or adiu et grandmercy.

Here the 'manière de langage' ends. It is followed by a list of nouns
arranged under headings. The enumeration begins with the parts of the
body,[125] followed by the clothing and armour--a list containing
valuable information on the fashions of the time; then come the natural
phenomena, the sun, the stars, water, the winds, and so on; the products
of the earth and the food they supply, and finally, the names of the
days of the week. With the exception of the last page, each word is
preceded by a possessive adjective or an article indicating its gender.
The English rendering is sometimes placed above the French word,
sometimes opposite.

After the vocabulary, which covers nearly five pages, comes the courtesy
book in English and French, occupying the next seven pages. It is a
reprint of the _Lytylle Chyldrenes Lytil Boke_,[126] which contains a
set of maxims for discreet behaviour at meals, in which children are
told not to snatch meat from the table before grace is said; not to
throw bones on the floor; nor pick their teeth with their knife; nor do
many other things, which, when we remember that such books were intended
for the instruction of the gentry, throw interesting sidelights on
contemporary manners. The inclusion of such precepts for children in a
text-book for teaching French was not without precedent; in the last of
the series of riming vocabularies, _Femina_ (1415), there is a
collection of moral maxims taken, in this instance, from the ancient
writers, and printed in Latin, French, and English.

In conclusion, the author reverts to the more strictly commercial side
of the treatise, with two letters, given in both French and English. One
is from an apprentice who writes to his master reporting on some
business he is transacting at Paris, and asking for more money. In the
second a merchant communicates to his 'gossip' the news of the arrival
at London and Southampton of ships laden with rich merchandise, and
proposes that they should "find means and ways in this that their shops
shall be well stuffed of all manner of merchandise." In both these
letters the English comes first:

    _A prentyse wryteth to his mayster, fyrste in Englysshe and after
    in frensshe._[127]

    Ryght worshypful syr, I recommaunde me unto you as moche as I may,
    and please you wete that I am in ryght goode helth thanked be God.
    To whome I praye that so it may be of you and of all your good
    frendes. As for the mater for the whiche ye sent me to Parys, I
    have spoken with kynges advocate the which sayd to me I must go to
    the kynge and enfourme his royalle majeste thereof, and have
    specyal commaundement. Therfore consyderynge the tyme I have taryed
    at Parys in the pursute of this and the grete coste and expence
    done bycause of this. Please you for to knowe that for to pursue
    that mater unto the kyng, the which is at Monthason next Tours, and
    for to go thyder it is nedefull to sende me some monye and with the
    grace of God I shalle do suche dylygence that I shall gete your
    hertes desyre. No more wryte I to you at this tyme but God have you
    in hys protectyon. Wryten hastely the XIX daye of this moneth.

    Tres honnoré sire, ie me recommande a vous tant comme je puis, et
    plaise vous savoir que ie suis en tres bonne santé la marcy Dieu au
    quel ie prie que ainsi soit il de vous et de tous vos bons amys.
    Quant pour la matiere pour la quelle vous me envoiastes a Parys,
    g'ay parlé avec l'advocat du roy le quel m'a dit quil me fault
    aller au roy et advertir sa royalle maiesté de ce et ay un specyal
    commandement. Pource consyderant le temps que j'ay attendu a Paris
    en cest poursuite et lez granz costz et despens faitz par cause de
    ce. Plaise vous savoir que pour poursuir ceste matiere au roy, le
    qyel est a Monthason pres Tours, et pour aller la il est mestier de
    m'enuoyer de l'argent. Et avecques la grace de Dieu je feray telle
    diligence que aurez ce que vostre cueur desire. Aultre chos ne vous
    escripz a ceste foiz mays que Dieu vous ayt en sa protection.
    Escript hastivement le dixneufieme jour du moys.

And so ends this interesting little book.[128] The texts of the two
complete editions are in the main identical. The arrangement of the
matter on the pages is different, and the spelling of the words, both
French and English, varies considerably. Slips which occur in Pynson's
text, such as the rendering of 'neuf' by 'ten,' or the accidental
omission of a word in the French version, are sometimes corrected in
Wynkyn's version. On the other hand, similar mistakes, though much fewer
in number, are found in Wynkyn's edition and not in Pynson's; while yet
others are common to both the printers. Dialect forms are scattered
through the two editions with equal capriciousness. Both texts contain
a few anglo-normanisms. Pynson's shows numerous characteristics of the
North-Eastern dialects, Picard or Lorrain, but at times there is a
Picard form in Wynkyn's version, where the pure French form occurs in
the other. Apart from such variations, the wording of the two editions
is usually similar. In cases where it differs, the improvements are
found in Wynkyn's edition, in spite of the fact that, as a general rule,
the output of Pynson's press reaches a higher literary level than that
of the more business-like Alsatian. This exception may, no doubt, be
explained by the fact that Pynson was the first to print the _Good Book
to learn to speak French_.[129] Yet here again mistakes are sometimes
common to both texts, as, for instance, the rendering of the lines:

    For the clerks that the seven arts can
    Sythen that courtesy from heaven came,

by the French:

    Pour les clers qui les sept arts savent
    Puisque courtoisie de paradis vint,

in which the wrong interpretation of the English 'for' (conjunction) and
'sythen' (taken as meaning 'since,' not 'say') destroys the sense.

On the whole, the impression conveyed by the perusal of the two editions
is that the work is a compilation of treatises already in existence in
manuscript. Neither the letters nor the vocabulary present any
strikingly new features. The origin of the courtesy book is known, and
it is even possible that the fragment of one leaf preserved belongs, not
to another edition of the _Good Book to learn to speak French_, but to
an earlier edition of the courtesy book in French and English, printed
probably by Caxton, with the intention of imparting a knowledge of
polite behaviour and of the favourite language of polite society at the
same time. The fact that it reproduces the original courtesy book more
fully than does either of the complete texts of Wynkyn and Pynson,
suggests that it belonged to some such edition, or to an edition of the
_Good Book_ earlier than either of these. As to the dialogues, they may
have belonged to the group of conversational manuals, which were, no
doubt, fairly numerous. Caxton, while maintaining that his 'doctrine'
contains more than "many other books," adds: "That which cannot be found
declared in it, shall be found elsewhere in other books." That such
practical little books shared the fate of the great majority of school
manuals is not surprising.

The hypothesis that the work is a compilation of older treatises would,
moreover, explain the variations in the quality of the French. The
dialogues and letters, it would appear, were in the first place written
by Englishmen. Pynson corrected them here and there, without, however,
eliminating all the anglicisms, archaisms, and provincial forms; and
when they passed through the hands of Wynkyn they underwent still
further emendation. The English version contains gallicisms, just as the
French contains anglicisms,[130] which were, however, probably due to a
desire to make the English tally with the French. This same supposition
also makes it easier to understand how it came about that the treatise
was printed by the two rival printers within the space of a few years,
and explains how it was they repeated the same obvious mistakes.

Thus, of the matter found in the mediaeval treatises for teaching
French, grammar rules alone are unrepresented in this _Good Book_. Its
aim is entirely practical. It seeks to teach those who wish to "lerne to
_speke_ Frensshe" for practical purposes, that is, "to do their
merchaundise," and there is no mention of any deeper or wider knowledge
of the language. That the work was intended for the use of children as
well as for merchants is shown by the introduction of the courtesy book,
and, in the later edition, of the favourite frontispiece for children's
school-books described above. But these do not form a vital part of the
work itself, and are mere supplements, added probably with the intention
of increasing the public to which the book would appeal. The children
who used it, we may assume, would probably be of the class of the boy,
"John, enfant beal et sage," who appears in the 'manière' of 1415, and
learns French that he may the more quickly achieve his end of being
apprenticed to a London merchant. To such children the apprentice's
letter quoted above would be of much interest.

Grammar did not hold a very large place in the teaching of French at
this time. Practice and conversation were the usual methods of acquiring
a knowledge of spoken French, and no doubt such books as those of Caxton
and of Pynson and Wynkyn de Worde found many eager students. The two
editions of the first and the three editions of the second with which we
are acquainted, all of which probably appeared in the course of the last
decade of the fifteenth century, bear testimony to this. Reference has
already been made to the probable existence of numerous works of a
similar scope in manuscript, and later in print. Such were the "little
pages, set in print, with no precepts," to which Claude Holyband, the
most popular French teacher of London in the second half of the
sixteenth century, refers with contempt; he accuses them of wandering
from the 'true phrase' of the language, and of teaching nothing of the
reading and pronunciation, "which is the chiefest point to be considered
in that behalf," and hence of serving but little to the "furtherance of
the knowledge of the French tongue." Yet, though such was the case in
all these early works, they seem, without exception, to have enjoyed
great popularity at the time they were written, when to speak French
fluently was an all-important matter. The difficulty of this
accomplishment was realised to the full. We find it expressed in a few
disconnected sentences added in French probably at the beginning of the
sixteenth century, at the end of the 'manière de langage' of 1396: "We
need very long practice before we are able to speak French perfectly,"
says the anonymous writer, evidently an Englishman, "for the French and
English do not correspond word for word, and the fine distinctions are
difficult to seize." He proceeds to urge the necessity of a glib tongue
in making progress in French, and quotes the case of an unfortunate man,
good fellow though he might otherwise be, who lacked this faculty: "Il
ne luy avient plus a parler franceis qu'à une vache de porter une selle,
a cause que sa langue n'est pas bien afilée, et pour cela n'entremette
il pas à parler entre les fraunceis."

In the early part of the sixteenth century, however, French began to be
studied with more thoroughness in England. Communication with France and
the tour in France were no longer fraught with the same dangers and
difficulties, and favoured the use of a purer form of French. Fluent was
no longer sufficient without correct pronunciation and grammar. The
standard of French taught was also raised by the arrival of numerous
Frenchmen, who made the teaching of their language the business of their
lives. Further, the spread of the art of printing had rendered French
literature more accessible, and supplied a rich material from which the
rules of the language might be deduced. And so it became possible for
John Palsgrave, the London teacher and student of Paris, to complete the
first great work on the French language, in which, however, he did not
forget to render due homage to his humble predecessors,[131] then fast
passing into oblivion.


FOOTNOTES:

[75] Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, ii., 1868, pp. 16 _sqq._, 28 _sqq._

[76] _Manière de Langage_, 1396; cp. _infra_, p. 35.

[77] "Doulz françois qu'est la plus bel et la plus gracious language et
plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole, qui soit au monde."

[78] Jehan Barton, _Donait François_, _c._ 1400.

[79] "Afin qu'ils puissent entrecomuner bonement ove lour voisin c'est a
dire les bones gens du roiaume de France, et ainsi pour ce que les leys
d'Engleterre pour le graigneur partie et ainsi beaucoup de bones choses
sont misez en François, et aussi bien pres touz les sirs et toutes les
dames en mesme roiaume d'Engleterre volentiers s'entrescrivent en
romance--tresnecessaire je cuide estre aus Englois de scavoir la nature
de François."

[80] Which no doubt became more numerous, as English, rather than Latin,
became the medium through which French was learnt. Thus we find _pour
honte_ written for 'for shame'; _il est haut temps_, for 'it is high
time'; _quoi_ ('why') for _pourquoi_; _de les_ for _des_, and so on.

[81] Edited from a unique MS. in Trinity College, Cambridge, by W. Aldis
Wright, for the Roxburghe Club, 1909 (Camb. Univ. Press). G. Hickes
published part of the first chapter, with remarks on its philological
value, in his _Linguarum Veterum Septentrionalium Thesaurus
Grammatico-Criticus et Archaeologicus_, Oxford, 1705, i. pp. 144-151.

[82] "Liber iste vocatur femina quia sicut femina docet infantem loqui
maternam, sic docet iste liber iuvenes rethorice loqui Gallicum prout
infra patebit."

[83] P. Meyer, _Romania_, xxxii. pp. 43 _et seq._

[84] The English spelling, very corrupt in the original, is here
modernized.

[85] These MSS. have been described and classified by J. Stürzinger,
_Altfranzösische Bibliothek_, viii. pp. v-x.

[86] Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 4971; Addit. MS. 11716, and Camb. Univ. Libr.
MS. Ee 4, 20.

[87] Camb. Univ. Libr. MSS. Dd 12, 23. and Gg 6, 44.

[88] P. Meyer, _Romania_, xv. p. 262.

[89] Brit. Mus. Sloane MS. 513, pp. 135-138.

[90] Brit. Mus. Sloane MS. 513, fol. 139.

[91] There is a fragment, very indistinct, on French pronunciation in
the Brit. Mus. MS. Harl. 4971: _Modus pronunciandi dictiones in
Gallicis_.

[92] Cp. also the Brit. Mus. Addit MS. 17716, fol. 100.

[93] Camb. Univ. Libr. MS., Ee 4, 20; Oxford, All Souls, MS. 182.

[94] Brit. Mus. MS. Harl. 4971; MS. Addit. 17716 (preceding the
observations on pronouns and verbs mentioned above); Camb. Univ. Libr.,
Ee 4, 20; Oxford Magdalen College, MS. 188, and All Souls, MS. 182.

[95] Published by Stengel, _op. cit._ pp. 25-40, from MS. 182 of All
Souls, Oxford.

[96] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 376.

[97] "A le honneur de Dieu et de sa tresdoulce miere et toutz les
saintez de paradis, je Johan Barton, escolier de Paris, née et nourie
toutes foiez d'Engleterre en la conté de Cestre, j'ey baillé aus
avantdiz Anglois un Donait françois pur les briefment entroduyr en la
droit language du Paris et de pais la d'entour la quelle language en
Engleterre on appelle doulce France. Et cest Donat je le fis la fair a
mes despenses et tres grande peine par pluseurs bons clercs du language
avantdite."

[98] Brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. 376.

[99] "Cy endroit il fault prendre garde qu'en parlant François on ne
mette pas une personne pour une aultre si come font les sottez gens,
disantz ainsi _je ferra_ pour _je ferray_. . . ."

[100] We pass from the numbers of nouns to the person of verbs, then to
the genders and kinds (proper, appellative) of nouns and their cases,
six in number on the analogy of Latin, which is naturally the basis of
the terminology of this work and all others for many years after; then
come observations on the degrees of comparison, after which we return to
the verbs, and their moods and tenses. The following sections deal with
the parts of speech; the four indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions,
conjunctions, and interjections) are merely mentioned. Nouns,
adjectives, and pronouns receive some attention, but the chief subject
is the verb: "Cy maintenant nous vous baillerons un exemple coment vous
fourmeres touz les verbs françois du monde, soient-ils actifez,
soient-ils passivez, en quelque meuf ou temps qu'ils soient. Et ceste
exemple serra pour cest verbe _jeo aime_. . . ." But the verbs are not
classified, and only a few of the best known are conjugated as examples.
In the list of impersonal verbs which closes the treatise, English is
sometimes used to explain their meaning: "Me est avis, _Me seemth_."

[101] J. Bale, _Illustrium Maioris Britanniae scriptorum summarium_.
Ipswich, 1548, p. 203.

[102] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[103] Preserved in a considerable number of MSS.: Brit. Mus. (Harl.
3988, Addit. 17716), Oxford (All Souls, 182), Camb. Univ. Libr. (Bd 12,
23), and in Sir Thomas Philipps's Library at Cheltenham (MS. No. 8188).
The earliest (Harl. 3988) was published by P. Meyer in the _Revue
Critique_, 1873, pp. 373-408.

[104] The name of Kirmington, which occurs at the end, is no doubt that
of the copyist.

[105] _Athenaeum_, Oct. 5, 1878: article by Stengel.

[106] Published by Stengel, _op. cit._ pp. 12-15.

[107] Stengel, _Athenaeum_, Oct. 5, 1878. Coyfurelly also rehandled the
_Tractatus Orthographiae_ of 'T. H., Student of Paris.'

[108] Ed. Paul Meyer, _Romania_, xxxii. pp. 49-58. It exists in three
MSS.; at the end of _Femina_ in Camb. Univ. Libr. (Dd 12, 23), at
Trinity Col. Camb. (B 14. 39, 40), and in the Brit. Mus. (Addit. 17716).

[109] French, however, still had some standing at Oxford at this date.

[110] Preserved in Cambridge University Library.

[111] Containing such anglicisms as the rendering of 'already' by _tout
prest_.

[112] Such collections exist in MSS. Harl. 4971 and Addit. 17716, Brit.
Mus.; and in Ee 4, 20, Camb. Univ. Libr.

[113] Harl. 4971; cp. Stürzinger, _op. cit._ p. xvi.

[114] Early bibliographers seem to have been uncertain as to what
category it belonged to: for some time it was called a _Book for
Travellers_; then a _Vocabulary in French and English_ (Blades, _Life
and Typography of Wm. Caxton_, 1861-63), and finally by the more
appropriate title of _Dialogues in French and English_.

[115] Caxton's edition contains ff. 24, with about 24 lines on a page.
There are three complete texts extant (at Ripon Cathedral, Rylands
Library, and Bamborough Castle), and one fragmentary one (in the Duke of
Devonshire's Library). The Ripon copy was reprinted for the Early
English Text Society in 1900, by H. Bradley (extra series lxxix.). The
other edition, of which a fragment exists in the Bodleian, was probably
printed by Wynkyn de Worde (W. C. Hazlitt, _Handbook ... to the
Literature of Great Britain_, 1867, p. 631).

[116] Published from a MS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale, by M.
Michelant: _Le Livre des Mestiers, dialogues français-flamands, composés
au 14e siècle par un maître d'école de la ville de Bruges_. Paris, 1875.

[117] H. Bradley: Introduction to the edition of Caxton's _Dialogues_.

[118] Caxton's arrangement of the French and English in opposite columns
is no doubt accounted for by the fact that he wrote the English version
by the side of the French in his copy of the original phrase book.

[119] E. G. Duff, _A Century of the English Book Trade_, Bibliographical
Soc., 1905; and _Handlists of Books Printed by London Printers_,
Bibliog. Soc., 1913, ad nom. The work is here given the inappropriate
title of a "Vocabulary in French and English."

[120] It was to have been reprinted by H. B. Wheatley in a collection of
early grammars, for the Early English Text Society.

[121] W. C. Hazlitt, _Bibliographical Collections and Notes_, 3rd
series, London, 1887, p. 293.

[122] For instance, the _Cato cum commento_ (1514), _Stans puer ad
mensam_ (1516), and _Vulgaria Stanbrigi_ (_c._ 1520).

[123] "What shalt thou do when thou haste an englyssh to be made in
Latine? I shall reherce myn englyssh fyrst, ones, twyces, and loke out
my princypal verbe, and aske hym this questyon _who_ or _what_. And that
worde that answeryth to the questyon shall be the nomynatif case to the
verbe."

[124] In the British Museum Catalogue Wynkyn's edition is dated 1493?
and Pynson's 1500?; the year 1500? is also put forward as the date for
the fragmentary edition. W. C. Hazlitt dates Wynkyn's edition at about
the year 1498, and Pynson's at about 1492-3 (_Bibliographical
Collections_, _ut supra_, and _Handbook_, London, 1867, p. 210).

[125]

    My heres.
    Mes cheveulx.
    My browes.
    Mez sourcieulx.
    Myn eres.
    Mez oreilles.
    Myn teeth.
    Mez dens.
    My forhede.
    Mon front.
    Myn eyen.
    Mez yeulx.
    My nose.
    Mon nez.
    My tong.
    Ma langue . . . etc.

[126] Published by E. J. Furnivall, _Manners and Meals in Olden Time_,
1868, pp. 16 _sqq._ The MS. used by the compiler of the French manual
was no doubt of a later date than the one here printed.

[127] Pp. 19-20 _in fine_.

[128] It contains 11 quarto leaves, of the size of the time, with
usually 29 lines to a page.

[129] Thus in Pynson's edition the order of the personal pronouns before
the verb is often inverted ("le vous diray," "le vous rende"), while it
is correct in Wynkyn's; and some lines of the French version of the
courtesy book are almost unintelligible, whereas their meaning is
clearly expressed by Wynkyn.

[130] Such phrases as "say me my friend" for _dites-moi mon ami_; "do me
have a good chamber" for _faites-moi avoir une bonne chambre_.

[131] In addition to the works already mentioned, some reference to
these mediaeval treatises is also found in an article by H. Oelsner, in
the _Athenaeum_ (Feb. 11, 1905); in A. Way's edition of the _Promptorium
Parvulorum_ (Camden Soc., 1865, No. 89; Appendix, pp. xxvii _sqq._ and
pp. lxxi _sqq._); Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series, ii. p. 208.




PART II

TUDOR TIMES




CHAPTER I

    THE FRENCH LANGUAGE AT COURT AND AMONG THE NOBILITY


At the beginning of the sixteenth century the gradual changes which
brought about the extinction of Anglo-French were complete to all
intents and purposes; this corrupt form of the language lingered only in
a few religious houses and the law courts. The French spoken at the
English Court in the Middle Ages had remained purer than elsewhere; for
centuries the kings of England were as much attached to France as to
England; they had spent much of their time in France and fought for the
French crown as their natural right, not as Englishmen in strife with
Frenchmen. From the thirteenth century, however, English was understood,
though not widely spoken, at Court. It progressed gradually until, two
centuries later, in the reign of Henry VI., it was used more frequently
than French. By the sixteenth century French was an entirely foreign
language at the English Court, and it was round the Court circles that
developed the new and more serious study of the language which then
arose--a study which led to the production of so important a work as
John Palsgrave's _L'Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse_. It will
therefore be well to consider the extent to which French was used among
the nobility and gentry of the time.

The personal ascendancy of the Tudors and the pomp of their Court began
to attract the attention of foreigners, and to excite their curiosity.
Consequently numerous travellers made their way to the English capital;
and later in the same period religious persecution, raging on the
Continent, drove many Protestants, frequently men of distinction, to
seek refuge in England. What language would these visitors employ in
their intercourse with their hosts? English is excluded from the
purview, because at this time, and indeed for some time after, our
language received no recognition, and certainly no homage from any
foreigner, and but scant deference from English scholars themselves.[132]
Several foreign visitors in London have left an account of their
impressions on hearing this entirely unknown and strange language
spoken. Thus Nicander Nucius, the Greek Envoy at the Court of Henry
VIII., says of the English that "they possess a peculiar language,
differing in some measure from all others"; although it is "barbarous,"
he finds in it a certain charm and attraction, and judges it "sweeter"
than German or Flemish.[133] Others formed a less favourable
opinion.[134] The physician Girolamo Cordano, for instance, when he
first heard Englishmen speaking, thought they were Italians gone mad and
raving, "for they inflect the tongue upon the palate, twist words in the
mouth, and maintain a sort of gnashing with the teeth." The Dutchman,
Immanuel von Meteren, gathered the impression that English is broken
German, "not spoken from the heart as the latter, but only prattling
with the tongue."

We have, however, to recollect that, among the learned, Latin was in
general use as a spoken language; it was the ideal of the Humanists to
make Latin the universal language of the educated world. Erasmus was
able to live several years in England, and in familiar intercourse with
Englishmen, without feeling the necessity for learning English or using
any other modern language; but he mingled almost entirely with scholars,
such as Grocyn, Linacre, Latimer, Colet, and More--men with whom Henry
VIII. loved to surround himself. Still, the great Dutchman was an
exception even amongst Humanists, who nearly all, at some period in
their lives, forsook Latin for their native tongue. Moreover, Latin was
not fluently or colloquially spoken by the majority of the English
nobility and gentry. The poet, Alexander Barclay, tells us that "the
understandyne of Latyn," in the early years of the sixteenth century,
was "almost contemned by Gentylmen."[135] [Header: THE SPEAKING OF
LATIN] "I have not these twenty years used any Latin tongue,"[136] said
Latimer at his trial for heresy in 1554--a striking testimony on the
lips of one whose natural sympathies were towards Humanism. Some years
later the great Huguenot scholar, Hubert Languet, wrote to his young
English friend, Sir Philip Sidney--then newly returned from continental
travel--to express his apprehension lest the young man should forget all
his Latin at the English Court and entirely give up the practice of it;
he urges him to do his best to prevent this, and maintain his Latin
along with his French. Languet affirms that he has never heard Sidney
pronounce a syllable of French incorrectly, and wishes his pronunciation
of Latin were as perfect.[137] Sidney, however, does not appear to have
considered Latin of as much importance to a courtier as French: "So you
can speake and write Latine not barbarously," he wrote to his brother
Robert in 1580,[138] "I never require great study ordinarily in
Ciceronianisme, the cheife abuse of Oxford." No doubt Sidney voices a
general sentiment in this verdict. It is increasingly clear that the
supremacy of Latin was beginning to be questioned on all sides, and,
while Latin remained to a large extent the language of scholars, it was
not generally employed in society.

Further, when the English did speak Latin, foreigners had considerable
difficulty in understanding them, on account of their notoriously bad
pronunciation. The great scholar Scaliger, who was in England in 1590,
tells that he once listened to an Englishman talking Latin for a quarter
of an hour, and at last excused himself, saying that he did not
understand English![139] To the same effect is the observation of Tom
Coryat, the traveller, who, on his journey on the Continent,[140] found
his Latin so little understood, that he had to modify his pronunciation.
At a later date, when the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cosmo III., visited the
two English Universities,[141] he was unable to understand the Latin
speeches and orations with which he was greeted. A Latin comedy which
the Cambridge students performed in his honour was equally
unintelligible to him. "To smatter Latin with an English mouth," wrote
Milton in a well-known passage, "is as ill a hearing as Law French."

At the same time a quickened interest in modern languages generally was
felt in England as in other countries. Two of these, Italian and
Spanish, entered the arena to challenge the supremacy of French in the
world of fashion and intellect. The real issue of the contest, however,
was never in doubt. The Renaissance and the new Humanism appeared for a
time to favour the Italian rival,[142] but the inherent merits of
French, with its particular genius for precision and clarity, easily won
the day. Those circles--often very brilliant circles--of distinguished
men and women for whom the Renaissance was as the dawn of a new day,
often made Italian a more serious object of study than French; but
though it was widely learned for the sake of its literature, it was
never so widely spoken or so universally popular as French. Italian, and
to a minor degree Spanish, were indeed seriously cultivated by the Tudor
group of distinguished linguists,[143] and so became a sort of fashion,
which, spreading to more frivolous circles, soon degenerated into mere
affectation. These dilettanti had been at a great feast of languages and
stolen the scraps, to use Shakespeare's words. Such affectation was
naturally felt to be dangerous. While Roger Ascham renders due homage to
the linguistic attainments of his queen,[144] he finds it necessary to
reproach the young gentlemen of the day with their deficiency in this
respect. [Header: INTEREST IN MODERN LANGUAGES] Professional teachers of
modern languages likewise complain of the lack of seriousness on the
part of many of their pupils. John Florio,[145] for example, bewails the
fact that when they have learned two words of Spanish, three words of
French, and four words of Italian, they think they have enough, and will
study no more; and a French teacher[146] expresses the same thought in
almost identical terms; according to him they learn a little French one
day, then a bit of Italian and a snatch of Spanish, and think themselves
qualified for an embassy to the Grand Turk. Shakespeare's Falconbridge,
the young baron of England, may be taken as a fair example of such
dilettantism.[147]

Thus Italian was never a really dangerous rival to French, which had
struck its roots deep into the English soil long before Italian
influence reached our shores. Not only was this the case, but French was
also widely known throughout Europe. Even in the early years of this
period, the poet Alexander Barclay, himself the author of a French
grammar, affirms that French was spoken even by the Turks and Saracens.
The French themselves are said to have been in love with their own
language, and, as a result, to have neglected Latin;[148] when the
English ambassador at Paris, Sir Amias Poulet, sent to England for a
chaplain for his household, he wrote: "Yt were to be wished that he had
at the least some understandinge in the French tongue for his better
conference with the Frenche ministers, whereof many are not best able to
utter there mynde in Lattyn."[149]

We may therefore safely conclude that French was the language commonly
spoken by Englishmen in their intercourse with foreigners, although
Latin was sometimes used in conversation, and Italians were occasionally
addressed in their own tongue. English was so little used in the Court
and its circles that foreigners were apt to forget that England had a
language of her own; one of them considers it a merit in Henry VIII.
that he was able to speak English! In London, indeed, the use of French
was so common that several foreign observers deemed the fact worthy of
note. Nicander Nucius, the Greek envoy who visited London in 1545,
remarks[150] that, for the most part, the English use the French
language, besides having a great admiration for everything else
French--an observation which cannot safely be taken as referring to any
other class than the nobility, as his relations would be almost wholly
restricted to that class. When the Duke of Württemberg visited the court
of Elizabeth, where he found ample occasion to exercise his own
admirable knowledge of French, he left on record the fact that many
English courtiers understood and spoke French very well. The spread of
French at the English Court attracted the attention of Frenchmen also,
and several years after Nicander's account, Peletier du Mans states that
in England, at least among the princes and their courts, French is
spoken on all occasions.[151]

French was also not infrequently used in correspondence. Apart from such
diplomatic correspondence as exists, numerous examples of the
interchange of private letters in French among the English nobility have
come down to us. Even among scholars Latin was by no means the only
medium of communication. In the sixteenth century the chief scholars of
the two countries corresponded with each other, and, though Englishmen
never wrote in their native tongue, Frenchmen did occasionally use their
own language rather than Latin. Bacon wrote in French to the Marquis of
Effiat, and Hotman, on the other hand, in French to Camden: "Me sentant
detraqué de l'usage de la langue latine, je vous escris cette lettre en
françois pour renouveller avec vous notre amitié ancienne et
correspondance."[152] John Calvin corresponded with Edward VI. and
Protector Somerset in French, and Henry IV. of France carried on a
voluminous correspondence in his own language with his "tres chere et
tres aimée bonne soeur," Elizabeth, as well as with her chief
ministers.[153] [Header: FRENCH REGARDED WITH SPECIAL FAVOUR] French was
thus more than a mere accomplishment for the English gentleman, and soon
became an absolute necessity for all those who desired employment under
the Crown. It is true that an interpreter might be had, but the practice
was looked upon with great disfavour as very unsuitable where private
negotiations had to be conducted. The necessity for a knowledge of
French on the part of a minister of state may be gathered from the large
number of petitions and other documents addressed to them in that
language and preserved among the State Papers.[154] A rather curious
instance of the favour with which the use of French was regarded in
official circles is supplied by the case of a Scotch prisoner in London,
who, when he desired leave on parole, on the ground of ill-health, was
advised to make his application in French, "to shew his
scholarship."[155] Copies of proclamations, issued in foreign countries,
were frequently translated into French before being sent to the English
Government; and time after time we find a lack of knowledge of French
regarded as a serious disqualification for diplomatic or other public
service. One young gentleman regrets that he "cannot be engaged on any
work of importance as he does not know French." The drawbacks arising
from an inadequate knowledge of the language appear from the case of a
certain Thomas Thyrleby who writes from Valance to Wriothesly in 1538
telling him how much discouraged he is concerning his knowledge of
French. He says he went with the Bishop of Winchester and Brian to the
Constable that morning at eight o'clock, and that he could understand
them, but not the Grand Master's answer, except by conjecture, guessing
at a word here and there; after dinner he had audience of the French
king and bore away never one word but "l'empereur, l'empereur" often
rehearsed; and he feels he must diligently apply himself to learn the
language or the king will be ill served when he is left alone.[156]

The Tudors appear to have regarded the study of French with much favour.
The first king of this line had lived for many years in France and was
strongly imbued with French tastes.[157] He encouraged Frenchmen to
visit England, and appointed one of them, Bernard André, his Poet
Laureate and Historiographer as well as tutor to his sons. There were
also troupes of French comedians and minstrels who performed at Court
from time to time.[158] The king always received with favour at his
Court those who were fluent in the French tongue. No doubt Stephen Hawes
secured the king's patronage partly by his facility in the use of this
language, and partly from his really profound knowledge of French
literature, of which the king also was an eager student. Yet this first
of the Tudor kings belongs rather to the Middle Ages and the Old
Learning than to the Renaissance.

Not until we reach the period of Henry VIII., a distinct favourer of the
New Learning, do we enter fully into the spirit of the new movement. In
a true sense Henry may be called the first King of England, for England
was his real home, and while using the ancient title "King of France,"
he had no truly filial attachment to the country. He may thus be taken
as a fair example of the attitude of the cultivated English noble
towards foreign languages. He spoke French fluently though he had never
been in France, and also conversed in Latin with ease; Italian he
understood, but made no attempt to speak. He always addressed foreigners
in either French or Latin.[159] An admirer of French fashions, he copied
in such matters his friend and rival, the French king, even allowing his
beard to grow when he heard that Francis wore one, and having his hair
dressed "short and straight after the French fashion." When the Venetian
ambassador, Piero Pasqualigo, came from Paris to London in 1515, Henry
eagerly seized the opportunity to institute a comparison between himself
and the French king. Pasqualigo, meeting Henry at Greenwich, writes how
he on one occasion beheld his majesty mounted on a bay Frieslander, and
dressed entirely in green velvet; directly the envoy came in sight, he
began to make his horse to curvet and perform such feats, that
Pasqualigo says he thought himself looking upon Mars. He came into our
tent, the narrator continues, and, addressing me in French, said, "Talk
with me a while."[160] [Header: HENRY VIII.'S KNOWLEDGE OF FRENCH]
Henry then proceeded to question him about Francis and to induce him to
draw comparisons between himself and the French king. The ambassador
remarks that Henry spoke French "very well indeed." The campaign of 1513
supplies another example of the ease with which Henry spoke French. The
English king was accompanied by Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, who later
incurred the royal anger by his presumption in marrying Henry's sister
Mary, the Dowager of France. On the present occasion, however, the
king's knowledge of French was of great service to Suffolk, who found
some difficulty in pressing his suit with the Lady Margaret of Savoy,
owing to his ignorance of that language. The Duke had half seriously
removed a ring from the lady's finger, and, as she particularly desired
to reclaim it, and he refused to return it, she called him a thief; but
he could not understand the word "larron," so she was forced to call
upon the king to explain.[161]

There are extant several examples of Henry's compositions in French.
Much of his private correspondence was written in this tongue; and he
also essayed to write verses in French, possibly in imitation of Francis
I. Their quality may be judged from the following specimens:[162]

    Adieu madam et ma mastres,
    Adieu mon solas et mon joy,
    Adieu jusque vous revoy,
    Adieu vous diz par graunt tristesse.

or:

    Helas madam cel qe je metant [j'eme tant],
    soffre qe soie voutre humble svant [servant];
    ie seray [vous] a tousiours e tant que ie
    vivray alt n'airay qe vous.[163]

We gather from Henry's spelling of French that he had learnt the
language chiefly by ear.

There is a curious example of the fluency with which the king and his
courtiers spoke French, in a scene described by Wolsey's gentleman usher
and afterwards dramatized by Shakespeare.[164] The cardinal was among
the few at the Court of Henry VIII. who did not speak French with ease.
During a banquet he was giving at the palace of Whitehall, Henry and a
band of courtiers landed unexpectedly at the Whitehall Stairs, disguised
as foreign noblemen. Wolsey sent the Lord Chancellor to bid them
welcome, because he could not speak French himself.[165] The visitors
were introduced, and passed for a time as foreigners, the Lord
Chancellor acting as their interpreter to Wolsey. At last the royal
joker and his companions disclosed their identity amidst a tumult of
exclamations, and then joined in the festivities.[166]

The ladies of the Court rivalled the noblemen in their knowledge of
French. When the French ambassadors with their brilliant suite, who had
come to England for the ratification of peace in 1514, were entertained
in great state at Greenwich, all the ladies and gentlewomen were able to
converse in good French with their French partners, "which delighted
them much to heare the Ladies speake to them in their owne
language."[167] It is not surprising, therefore, to find French holding
an important place in the education of women of high birth. The princess
Mary Tudor, one of the most attractive figures at the English Court,
had, like the king her brother, been early initiated in the difficulties
of the French language.[168] At the age of twelve she pronounced in
French her betrothal vows to the Prince of Castile (1513); and when it
fell to her lot to marry Louis XII. of France, she continued still more
to apply herself to the study of the language. She was able to write to
her future husband in his own tongue,[169] and even occasionally made
use of it in her correspondence with her brother, the English king.

[Header: FRENCH AMONG THE LADIES]

Henry's first queen did little to forward French tastes and never
modified her natural preference for all things Spanish, but with the
advent of Queen Anne Boleyn French acquired a powerful and enthusiastic
patroness. Anne was entirely French by education and tastes. She had
been brought up by a French governess,[170] and had from an early age
used the French language in her correspondence with her father during
his absences at the Court and elsewhere. It was her fluency in this
language which led to her rapid advancement on her arrival at Court. She
was soon chosen to accompany the king's sister Mary to France, and just
before her appointment wrote to her father in French, telling him that
the presence of the Queen of France would inspire her with a still
greater desire to speak French well.[171] Anne stayed in France several
years, first in the service of Mary during the few months she was Queen
of France, then in that of her successor, Queen Claude, consort of
Francis I., and finally in the more lively household of Margaret of
Alençon, afterwards Queen of Navarre. On her return to the English Court
she became maid of honour to Queen Katherine, and her skill in dress and
her French manners[172] did much to promote the taste for French
fashions. The famous Elizabethan antiquary Camden asserts that Anne's
French jollity first attracted to her the notice of Henry. At any rate
the courtship was largely carried on in French. Out of the seventeen
love letters of Henry to Anne Boleyn, which are preserved in the Vatican
Library, more than half are in French.[173] One of these may be quoted
as an example of the English king's powers in French prose. It was
written to Anne during one of the absences she deemed expedient to make
from the Court:

    Ma Maitresse et amie, moy et mon coeur s'en remettent en vos mains,
    vous suppliant les avoir pour recommander a votre bonne grace, et
    que par absence votre affection ne leur soit diminué. Car pur
    augmenter leur peine ce seroit grande pitié, car l'absence leur fait
    assez, et plus que jamais je n'eusse pensé . . . vous asseurant que
    de ma part l'ennuye de l'absence deja m'est trop grande. Et quand je
    pense a l'augmentation d'iceluy que par force faut que je soufre il
    m'est presque intollerable, s'il n'estoit le ferme espoir que j'aye
    de votre indissoluble affection vers moi, et pour le vous
    rementevoir alcune fois cela, et voyant que personellement je ne
    puis estre en votre presence, chose la plus approchante a cela qui
    m'est possible au present, je vous envoye, c'est-a-dire ma picture
    mise en braisselettes a toute la devise que deja sçavez, me
    souhaitant en leur place quant il vous plairoit. C'est de la main
    de--Votre serviteur et amy,

        H. R.

Of Henry's other queens, Jane Seymour and Katherine Howard were both
ardent admirers of the French language. The former had, like Anne
Boleyn, completed her education at the French Court. Henry's chief
objection to Anne of Cleves was her lack of French refinements. We know
from the French ambassador Marillac that Henry was ill pleased at Anne's
German costume and made her dress in the French style,[174] which,
according to the same authority, had been favoured by Queen Katherine
Howard and all her ladies. Moreover, the new queen could speak neither
French[175] nor English, and her own language was displeasing to the
king's ears; consequently he refused to converse much with her by means
of an interpreter.[176] As for Katharine Parr, she was one of the most
distinguished linguists of her time, and did much to encourage the
studies of the royal family.

French was one of the principal studies of Henry VIII.'s children. It
appears to have been the only modern foreign language with which Edward
VI. was acquainted; he is said to have been "in the French and Latin
Tongues singularly perfect."[177] Mary, on the other hand, knew Spanish
as well as she did French. This is, however, accounted for by the fact
that she was early destined to become the wife of the Emperor Charles
V. [Header: FRENCH STUDIED IN THE ROYAL FAMILY] The emperor had even
tried to persuade Henry to allow his daughter to be brought up in Spain.
His request was refused, but a promise was given that the princess
should be educated in all points as a Spanish lady.[178] In addition to
this, her mother, Katherine of Aragon, superintended her early
education, and her attendants were all Spanish. Thus Spanish was for a
time almost her native tongue. Yet French was by no means neglected,
especially after the Spanish marriage was broken off. Fresh impetus was
given to this study by the possibility of a French match, when in 1518
negotiations for a union with the Dauphin, son of Francis I., were set
on foot. On the testimony of Marillac, Mary spoke and wrote French well;
the ambassador had seen letters of hers written in French at the time of
her mother's divorce.[179] The princess was also well acquainted with
Latin, and understood Italian, though, like many others, she did not
attempt to speak it.[180]

Elizabeth alone of the royal family spoke Italian with almost as much
ease as she did French.[181] "French and Italian she speaks like
English," wrote her tutor, Roger Ascham, "Latin with fluency, propriety,
and judgment"; and in addition she had some knowledge of Greek. When
queen, she retained her early fancy for Italian, and prided herself on
using no other language in the presence of Italians.[182] The Scotch
ambassador, Sir James Melville, a very competent judge, remarks that she
spoke it "raisonable weill."[183] French, however, was her usual means
of intercourse with other foreigners, even when, like Melville, they
spoke English. The queen commended Melville's French. "She said my
French was gud," he writes in his memoirs, where he likewise gives his
own opinion of the queen's attainments in the language: "hir Maiestie
culd speak as gud Frenche as any that had never bene out of the
contrie, but yet she laiketh the use of the Frenche court language,
quhilk was frank and schort and had oft tymes twa significations, quhilk
discreit and famylier frendes tok always in the best part."[184] If not
idiomatic, the queen's French is generally allowed to have been fluent.
Her accent is reported to have been harsh and unpleasing; she spoke with
a drawl, and, according to M. Drizanval, resident in London for the
French king,[185] she constantly repeated the phrase "_paar Dieu, paar
maa foi_" in a ridiculous tone. Another visitor, the Duke of
Württemberg, records that he once heard her deliver an appropriate
speech in French,[186] which, as usual, was the language in which he
addressed her. Towards the end of her reign the queen still practised
the use of French and Italian. In 1598 the German Hentzner, travelling
in England, describes how he saw Elizabeth "as she went along in all her
State and magnificence," and how "she spoke very graciously first to one
then to another (whether foreign ministers or those who attend for
different reasons) in English, French, and Italian."[187] She also wrote
French with some ease. One of her earliest literary efforts was a
translation from the French of Margaret of Navarre's _Miroir de l'Ame
pécheresse_. She likewise composed devotions and prayers in French--a
habit which she retained after she had been queen for many years. At the
time when her marriage with the Duke of Alençon, her "little frog," as
she calls him, was under discussion, the queen compiled a curious little
volume, containing six prayers, written on vellum in a very neat hand;
in addition to devotions in French and English there are others in
Italian, Latin, and Greek. In the front of this work there is a
miniature of the Duke, and at the end, one of Elizabeth.[188] Other
examples of her compositions in French are found in her correspondence,
where this language holds a considerable place.

It thus appears that the majority of the English nobility and gentry
spoke and understood French at least tolerably well. [Header: FRENCH
TUTORS AND FRENCH GRAMMARS] We are led to ask how they came by their
knowledge, and what facilities there were in England for learning
French, seeing that many of them never visited France. In the sixteenth
century private tuition played a large part in the education of the
gentry; and the professional tutor was, in many cases, a Frenchman, who
would naturally further the study of his native tongue. The Court itself
encouraged the custom of employing French tutors by engaging several in
its midst; and as, at this time, the Court became a powerful factor in
English social life, and the chief means of entering the service of the
State, noblemen and gentlemen wishing to figure on the social stage
endeavoured to adapt themselves to Court requirements. French tutors
were to be found in all the chief families of the time. Étienne Pasquier
remarks that there was no noble family in England without its French
tutor to instruct the children in the French language.[189] This
condition of things was still further developed a few years later when
religious persecution in France and the Netherlands drove increasingly
large numbers of Protestant refugees to take asylum in England. All
traces of the majority of these tutors have been lost; those of whom
anything is known were, for the most part, either the authors of manuals
for teaching French, or had won repute as writers or Humanists before
leaving their native land.

One of these Humanists was Bernard André, familiarly called "Master
Barnard," the blind poet--an infirmity to which he frequently refers. He
was a native of Toulouse, and probably came to England with Henry VII.,
his patron.[190] It is a curious fact that soon after his accession
Henry appointed this Frenchman, author of verses in French and Latin but
never a line in English, Poet Laureate of England. In addition to this
he bestowed on him repeated marks of favour. For a time André was
engaged as a tutor at Oxford, and in 1496 was chosen as governor to
Prince Arthur, and probably had much to do with the education of his
brother, afterwards Henry VIII. Appointed Historiographer Royal, he
began in this capacity to write his patron's life. Like so many other
men of education, André was in Holy Orders; he received preferment from
time to time, and was finally presented to the living of Guisnes near
Calais, which he resigned in 1521, having attained an "extreme old age."

In the early sixteenth century, as in the Middle Ages, England took the
initiative in the production of French grammars.[191] The numbers which
appeared are so many testimonies to Englishmen's interest in the French
language. The chief and best known of these grammars is the great work
of John Palsgrave (1530), already mentioned, which stands out in
contrast with the slight treatises which had previously appeared on the
subject in England. Considering the time when it was written and the
irregular and unsettled condition of the language with which it deals,
it is truly remarkable for its fulness and comprehensiveness. Almost
alone of its predecessors and its immediate successors, it answered more
than a merely temporary and professional purpose, and is still of very
great value to the student of the English and French languages at that
time, and a great storehouse of obsolete words in both languages.
Perhaps the very reason which makes it so valuable to the student of
to-day hindered its success in the sixteenth century; most students of
French then preferred the shorter and more practical manuals. Palsgrave
had a very exalted idea of the French tongue; he desired to place it on
a level with the "three perfect tonges"--Latin, Greek, and Hebrew--and
to make it a fourth and classical tongue, by drawing up "absolute" rules
for its use.

Palsgrave's grammar acquires additional importance from the fact that no
similar work had been produced in France. It is the first systematized
attempt to formulate rules for the French language, or indeed for any
modern tongue. Only one year later, however, Sylvius or Dubois published
his _In Linguam Gallicam Eisagoge_ (1531). In the address to Henry
VIII., which precedes his work, Palsgrave speaks of the "great nombre of
clerkes, whiche before season of this mater have written nowe sithe the
beginnyng of your most fortunate and most prosperous raigne." All these
"clerkes," he says, have treated chiefly of two things, which they
judged specially useful to the English--the pronunciation of French, and
"wherein the true analogie of the two tongues did rest." [Header:
BARCLAY'S "INTRODUCTORY"] No doubt many of these treatises were in
manuscript and are among the lost treasures of the sixteenth century.
Yet some have come down to us. Palsgrave mentions three writers by name,
Alexander Barclay, Petrus Vallensys, and Giles Duwes, copies of whose
works are still in existence.

The earliest of these grammars--so far as is known the first French
grammar ever printed--was the work of Alexander Barclay, well known as a
prolific writer and poet, who devoted much of his time to translation
and did much to make contemporary French literature known in England.
Barclay had spent a time "full of foly and unprofytable stody" at some
university, possibly Paris; he had travelled, and was well acquainted
with French; from his youth upwards, he says, he had been exercised in
the two languages of French and English. It was late in his literary
career, when he had "withdrawen" his pen from its "olde dylygence," that
he undertook to compose a grammar of the French language, at the request
of the Duke of Norfolk, Lord Treasurer of England, and of "certain other
gentlemen." The work appeared in 1521[192] under the title of _Here
begynneth the introductory to wryte and to pronounce frenche compyled by
Alexander Barclay, compendiously at the commandement of the right hye
excellent and myghty prynce, Th. duke of Northfolke_. The printer,
Robert Coplande, himself a good French scholar, composed some lines on
the coat of arms of the Duke in French, and printed them at the
beginning of the book; at the end he placed a translation of Lambert
Danneau's _Traité des Danses_, also from his own pen.[193]

Barclay's endeavour is to make his grammar as short and concise as
possible; his rules, so far as they go, are stated very clearly; he
plunges straight away into his subject without any preliminary
observations: "_je_ in frenche," he begins, "is as moche to say in
english as I, _tu_, thou, _il_, he, _nous_, _vous_, _ilz_ or _els_: we
may use sometyme _ceux_ for this worde _ilz_. If we answere to a
question by this worde 'I' usynynge no verbe withall then shall not
'_ie_' be set for 'I' but '_moy_,' as in this example, '_qui fist ce
livre_' ... If I sholde answere saynge I, addynge no verbe withall, I
must say '_moy_,' and not '_ie_.'" After giving similar rules for the
second person singular, he proceeds to explain how, when the words
_nous_, _vous_, _ilz_ are placed before a verb beginning with a
consonant, their last consonant is not pronounced, although it remains
in the spelling; but if they come before a verb beginning with a vowel,
the consonants are pronounced. He then turns to the conjugation of the
two auxiliaries and some of the most common irregular verbs, to show
"how these pronouns are ioyned with verbes." On the back of folio 4 he
begins his "introductory of orthography or true wrytynge wherby the
diligent reder may be infourmed truly and perfytely to wryte and
pronounce the Frenche tunge after the dyvers customes of many contress
of France." Barclay, then, does not adopt an exclusive attitude towards
provincial accents; he rather calls attention to them,[194] though
probably merely stating facts and drawing distinctions with no intention
of teaching provincial forms. Palsgrave, on the other hand, deals only
with the French spoken between the Seine and the Loire, which he
regarded as the only pure French. Barclay's attitude to dialectal forms
may possibly be explained by the fact that he transcribed freely from
the mediaeval treatises, especially the _Donait françois_ of John
Barton. His debt was early noted by Palsgrave, who wrote: "I have sene
an olde boke written in parchment, in all thynges lyke to his sayd
_Introductory_, whiche, by conjecture, was not unwritten this hundred
yeares."[195] So freely, indeed, and so carelessly did Barclay use his
sources, that he did not even trouble to modernize the spelling, which
contains many obsolete forms; in this connexion Palsgrave, who
criticizes Barclay very severely when occasion arises,[196] remarks on
his use of _k_ for _c_.

Having exemplified the pronunciation of some of the French letters by
comparison with English sounds,[197] Barclay suddenly[198] passes to the
consideration of the number and gender of nouns,[199] besides supplying
a short list of nouns beginning with the first two letters of the
alphabet. After this digression he concludes his observations on the
pronunciation,[200] and proceeds to give an alphabetical vocabulary of
nouns,[201] adjectives and verbs, apparently the earliest known attempt
at an alphabetical French-English vocabulary; the earlier method of
arranging words under headings is discarded, though it continued to be
the usual form adopted in most French grammars until the end of the
eighteenth century. Barclay's vocabulary consists of a list of words
pure and simple, with no indication of gender or flexions. The
_Introductory_ ends with lists of ordinal numerals, days, seasons, and
so on, together with words of learned origin common to both languages
"amonge eloquent men," and, last of all, pieces of prose composition in
both French and English, arranged in alternate lines.[202]

As is usual in these early grammars, there is an obvious lack of orderly
arrangement, and the work, as a whole, gives the impression of being a
collection of rough notes rather than a carefully planned treatise.
Barclay does not, however, make any claim to completeness, nor pretend
to lay down "absolute" rules as Palsgrave claimed to do. He shared the
opinion, common at that time among Frenchmen, that it was impossible to
formulate anything like adequate rules for the French language. The
sketchy nature of his rules may be judged by that given for the position
of the objective pronoun: "oft times that thynge whiche cometh before
the verbe in Englyshe commyth after it in frenche as il m'a fait
tort . . . je ne me puis lever." He was of opinion that rules were not
of much use in learning French: that language is best learnt by "custome
and use of redynge and spekynge, by often enquirynge and frequentynge of
company of frenchmen and of suche as have perfytnes in spekynge the sayd
language." This opinion prevailed throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries in England, and, as a result, rules are reduced to a minimum
in manuals for teaching French.

"Who so desyreth to knowe more of the sayd language, must provyde for mo
bokes made for the same intent," Barclay notes at the end of his short
and interesting treatise. Charles, Duke of Suffolk, the husband of Mary,
sister to Henry VIII. and Dowager Queen of France, was soon to make the
necessary provision. This "syngular good lorde," says Palsgrave, "by
cause that my poore labours required a longe tracte of tyme, hath also
in the meane season encouraged maister Petrus Vallensys, scole maister
to his excellent yong sonne the Erle of Lyncolne to shewe his lernynge
and opinion on this behalfe." Such was the origin of the _Introductions
in Frensche for Henry the Yonge Erle of Lyncoln (childe of greate
esperaunce) sonne of the most noble and excellent princesse Mary (by the
grace of God, queen of France etc.)_,[203] which is undated and
anonymous, but clearly the work of Petrus Vallensys or Pierre Valence,
French tutor to the Earl of Lincoln, and must have been written sometime
in the third decade of the century.[204] Valence is said to have taught
French after a "wonderesly compendious facile prompte and ready
waye,"[205] and Gregory Cromwell, whom he also counted among his pupils,
is reported to have made good progress under his direction. [Header:
PIERRE VALENCE, TEACHER OF FRENCH] Pierre Valence was one of the
natives of Normandy, so numerous in England at this time that the fact
was commented on by Étienne Perlin, a French priest who visited England
at the end of the reign of Edward VI. He describes them as being "du
tout tres mechans et mauditz François," worse than all the English,
which, according to him, is a very grave charge.[206] The date at which
Valence came to England is unknown, but he is said to have studied at
Cambridge in or about 1515.[207] He was in all probability a refugee for
religious reasons. He is known to have held Lutheran opinions, and,
whilst at Cambridge, caused a disturbance by defacing a copy of the
Pope's general indulgence, which had been set up over the gates of the
schools. Vigorous but ineffectual attempts were made to discover the
writer, against whom the Chancellor pronounced sentence of
excommunication. Valence is alleged finally to have acknowledged the act
as his, to have expressed contrition, and to have been absolved. There
are several points of contact between this man and his greater
contemporary, John Palsgrave: both were students at Cambridge, possibly
at the same time, though Palsgrave was the senior; both had as their
pupil the son of Mr. Secretary Cromwell--the one for French and the
other for Latin; both were protégés of the Dowager Queen of France
(sister of Henry VIII. and Palsgrave's pupil for French) and of her
husband the Duke of Suffolk. In 1535 Valence received a grant of letters
of denization,[208] and ultimately became domestic chaplain and almoner
to Dr. Goodrich, Bishop of Ely, and appears to have maintained this
position under the bishop's successor. He was still living in 1555,
since, in that year, he visited some heretics in Ely jail, and conjured
them to stand loyally by the truth of the Gospel.[209]

Among the works of "dyvers clerkes" on the French language, to which
Palsgrave refers, is probably to be reckoned a short treatise bearing
the date 1528. This work is only known by a fragment consisting of two
leaves now preserved in the library at Lambeth.[210] These pages are of
quarto size and bear the signature "B. B." The right-hand page is in
French, the left in English; the former is in Roman characters, the
latter in black letter. Although these two pages contain the date, and
the last is not full, they do not appear to be the end of the work, as
the writer refers to what is to come hereafter.[211] One gathers from
internal evidence that the author was a foreigner--no doubt a Frenchman.
He speaks, for instance, of the "gentz Englois" as though he was not one
of them; and it appears to be quite certain that the work was originally
composed in French, and translated into English rather carelessly, and
probably by another hand, for in the version it is rendered almost
unintelligible by the translation of the French illustrative examples as
well as the text itself.

The contents are of a light and entertaining character. The author holds
that many rules do but "trouble and marre" the understanding. He
counsels students rather to follow the example of good writers as likely
to be more helpful.

He treats entirely of the pronunciation, and devotes special attention
to the difficulties of the English,[212] laying emphasis on the
importance of placing the accent on the right syllable. The rules are
put in an amusing way, thus: "_a_ should be pronounced fro the botom of
the stomake and all openly, _e_ a lytell higher in the throte there
properly where the Englishman soundeth his _e_; _i_, in the roundnesse
of the lippes; _u_, in puttynge a lytell of wynde out of the mouthe."
Further uses of the vowel _a_ are thus set forth: it may be placed
before all verbs, in the infinitive mood, and before all manner of nouns
and pronouns, as "to Robert," "to May," and so on. Again, "it betokeneth
'have' when it cometh of the Latin verb _habeo_." The consonants are
next dealt with and disposed of in much the same way. Some attention is
also given to the question, then much discussed, whether the
etymological consonants in the words where they are not pronounced
should be retained or not. The author's opinion was that every letter in
a word ought to be sounded, yet he feels himself utterly unable to
struggle against custom, and falls back on the rule "go as you please":
[Header: TWO FRENCH POETS TEACH FRENCH] "Pronounce ech one as he shal
please, for to difficyl it is to correct olde errours."

Among the French teachers in England at this time were also two
Frenchmen of considerable literary distinction--Nicolas Bourbon, the
Latin poet and well-known scholar, friend of Rabelais and Marot; and
Nicolas Denisot, who likewise held an important place among French
humanists, and finished his literary education under Daurat, the famous
Hellenist.

Bourbon came to England under the protection of Anne Boleyn, who appears
to have taken a special interest in him;[213] she had, he tells us,
procured his liberation from imprisonment. Bourbon was for some time a
private tutor in Paris, and soon after he regained his freedom he
crossed to England, intending to continue his work there. He had a
cordial welcome, and invariably speaks of his stay and treatment in
London with gratitude. His Latin verses[214] show him to be acquainted
with the chief Englishmen who gathered round the Court, where he
occupied his leisure by writing satirical verses against the queen's
enemies, especially Sir Thomas More,[215] and in eulogizing Cromwell,
Cranmer, and the Reform Party then in power. It was on the
recommendation of the king and queen, he informs us, that he was engaged
as French tutor in several families of distinction, including the
Carews, Norrisses, and Harveys. John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, was
one of his patrons, and from him Robert Dudley, afterwards Earl of
Leicester, together with his brothers, learnt French as children.
Bourbon left England in 1535, on hearing of the death of his father. He
had probably been in the country at least two years, and, perhaps
happily for himself, left it a year before the fall of his patroness
Anne Boleyn.

At a somewhat later date, 1547, the elegant poet and artist Nicolas
Denisot arrived in England, driven from Paris by an unfortunate love
affair.[216] His nephew, Jacques Denisot, declares he was "fort bien
accueilliz dans la cour d'Angleterre où son estime et sa reputation
estoit deja cogneue." He mixed with the writers and politicians[217] of
the day, and attracted the notice of the Court by writing verses in
honour of the young king, Edward VI.[218] He soon found himself in the
distinguished position of French and Latin tutor to the three daughters
of the Protector Somerset,--Anne, Margaret, and Jane,--who were destined
shortly to become famous in Paris as his pupils, and to form an
important link in the literary relations of the two countries. Calvin
corresponded with one of Denisot's pupils, the Lady Anne; and in 1549 he
wrote requesting her to use her knowledge of French in transmitting to
her mother an expression of his gratitude for a ring he had received
from that lady, he being unable to do so, on account of his ignorance of
English.[219] In this same year, 1549, Denisot's engagement in the house
of Somerset came to an end rather abruptly, probably on account of some
misunderstanding with the duke. He returned to France after spending
three years in England, and thence kept up a friendly correspondence
with his former pupils. On the death of Queen Margaret of Navarre, whom,
no doubt, Denisot had taught them to admire, the sisters composed four
hundred Latin distichs in her honour, and sent them to their former
master, who welcomed them with enthusiasm, and published them in 1550.
In the following year the verses appeared again, accompanied by French,
Italian, and Greek translations, and verses from the pen of Ronsard, Du
Bellay, and other literary friends of Denisot.[220] It is a striking
fact that before the Pléiade was fully known in France, the fame of some
of its members had reached England, where a particular interest would be
taken in this development of the work of the three princesses. Ronsard,
Denisot's intimate friend, wrote one of his earliest odes in honour of
Denisot's pupils, in which he celebrates the intellectual union of
France and England: [Header: THE PLÉIADE IN ENGLAND]

    Denisot se vante heuré
    D'avoir oublié sa terre
    Et passager demeuré
    Trois ans en Angleterre.
    . . . . les espritz
    D'Angleterre et de la France
    Bandez d'une ligue ont pris
    Le fer contre l'ignorance,
    Et (que) nos Roys se sont faitz
    D'ennemys amys parfaitz
    Tuans la guerre cruelle
    Par une paix mutuelle.

Herberay des Essarts, the translator of the famous _Amadis_, wrote a
letter in praise of the princesses, which was printed at the beginning
of Margaret's "tombeau." With full justice has Denisot been called the
"ambassador" of the French Renaissance in England.


FOOTNOTES:

[132] It was, however, an English scholar, Richard Mulcaster, Headmaster
of Merchant Taylors' School (1561) and of St. Paul's School (1596), who
boldly urged that the English language was a subject worthy of study by
Englishmen, though this was not till 1582, when his _Elementarie_ was
published.

[133] _The Second Book of the Travels of Nicander Nucius_, 1545, Camden
Society, London, 1841, p. 13.

[134] W. B. Rye, _England as seen by Foreigners_, London, 1865,
_passim_.

[135] Translation of Sallust's _Bellum Jugurthinum_: Dedication to the
Duke of Norfolk.

[136] _Remains_, Parker Society, p. 470. Quoted by J. J. Jusserand,
_Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, Paris, 1904, p. 86, n. 3.

[137] _The Correspondence of Sir Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet_, ed.
W. A. Bradly, Boston, 1912, pp. 41 and 112.

[138] _Sidney Papers_, ed. A. Collins, in _Letters and Memorials of
State_, 2 vols., London, 1746, vol. i. pp. 283-5.

[139] _Letters of Descartes_, quoted by E. J. B. Rathery, _Les Relations
sociales et intellectuelles entre la France et l'Angleterre . . ._
Paris, 1856.

[140] Which provided the material for that "bonnie bouncing book," as
Ben Jonson called it--Coryat's _Crudities: Hastily gobled up in Five
Months' Travells in France_, etc. 1611.

[141] Rye, _op. cit._ pp. xxxv-xxxvii.

[142] L. Einstein, _The Italian Renaissance in England_, New York, 1907.

[143] The Tudor group of distinguished linguists includes the names of
many women. The chronicler Harrison remarks that it is a rare thing to
hear of a courtier that has but his own language, and to tell how many
ladies are skilled in French, Spanish, and Italian is beyond his power
(_Holinshed's Chronicle_, 1586, i. p. 196). Nicholas Udal writes in the
same strain in his dedication to Queen Katherine Parr of his translation
of Erasmus's _Paraphrase of the Gospels_; we are told that a great
number of noble women at that time in England were given to the study of
human sciences and of strange tongues; and that it was a common thing to
see "young virgins so nouzled and trained in the study of letters that
thei willingly set all other vain pastymes at nought for learnynge's
sake." Amongst the most accomplished of such "Queens and Ladies of high
estate and progeny" were Queen Katherine Parr and Lady Jane Grey.
Mulcaster in his _Positions_ (1581) praises English ladies for their
fondness of serious study, and so does the Italian teacher Torriano in
his _Italian reviv'd_ (1673), p. 99. Many examples of fluent linguists
are found in Ballard's _Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain_, 2nd
ed., 1775.

[144] Elizabeth's command of foreign languages was constantly a subject
of remark. Dr. William Turner in the dedication of his _Herbal_ (1568)
to the queen, addresses her thus: "As to your knowledge of Latin and
Greek, French, Italian, and others also, not only your own faythful
subiectes, beynge far from all suspicion of flattery, bear witness, but
also strangers, men of great learninge, in their books set out in Latin
tonge, give honourable testimonye." Best known of these learned
observers was Scaliger (_Scaligeriana_, Cologne, 1695, p. 134). Similar
eulogies in verse were left by French poets: Ronsard, _Elegies,
Mascarades et Bergeries_ (1561), reproduced in _Le Bocage royal_ (1567);
Jacques Grévin, _Chant du cygne_; Du Bartas, _Second Week_; and Agrippa
d'Aubigné; also by John Florio, _First Frutes_, 1578, ch. xiii.

[145] _First Frutes_, 1578, ch. i.

[146] John Eliote, _Ortho-Epia Gallica_, 1596.

[147] _Merchant of Venice_, Act I. Scene 2.

[148] Cp. Brunot, _Histoire de la langue française_, ii. pp. 2 _sqq._
Dallington in his _View of France_ remarks on the same neglect. In _The
Abbot and the Learned Woman_, Erasmus praises the latter for studying
the classics and not, as was usual, confining herself to French
(_Colloquia_, Leiden, 1519).

[149] _Copy Book of Sir Amias Poulet's Letters_, Roxburghe Club, 1866,
p. 129.

[150] _The Second Book of the Travels of Nicander Nucius_, Camden Soc.,
1841, p. 14.

[151] _Dialogue de l'ortografe et pronunciacion françoese departi en
deus livres_, Lyon, 1558.

[152] Peiresc wrote in French to the scholars Selden and Camden, who
answered in Latin. Other French scholars who maintained a correspondence
with Englishmen are de Thou, Jérôme Bignon, Duchesne, du Plessis Mornay,
H. Estienne, Hubert Languet, Pibrac, and the Sainte-Marthe brothers.

[153] _Lettres missives de Henri IV_, 9 tom., Paris, 1843. For an
example of Elizabeth's French in her intercourse with her neighbours,
see Rathery, _Les Relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la France
et l'Angleterre_, Paris, 1856, p. 31 n.; _Unton Correspondence_,
Roxburghe Club, 1847, _passim_.

[154] See the _Calendars of State Papers_ for the period.

[155] _Calendar of State Papers_, Domestic, 1595-97, p. 328.

[156] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, vol xiii. pt. i.
No. 977.

[157] Henry VII.'s mother, the Countess of Richmond, was also an
accomplished French scholar; she translated several works from the
French, and encouraged others to follow her example.

[158] J. P. Collier, _Annals of the English Stage_, 1831, vol. i. pp.
48, 51, 53.

[159] Cp. Rye, _op. cit._ pp. 76, 79.

[160] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, ed. Brewer, vol.
ii. No. 411; Rawdon Brown, _Four Years at the Court of Henry VIII._,
1854, vol. i. pp. 76-79 and 86.

[161] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, vol. i. p.
xxiii.

[162] _Songs, Ballads, and Instrumental Pieces composed by King Henry
VIII._, Oxford, 1912. Barclay says in his _Eclogues_ that French
minstrels and singers were highly favoured at Court. Jamieson, _Life and
Writings of Barclay_, 1874, p. 44.

[163] "Je serai à [vous] toujours et tant que je vivrai autre n'aimerai
que vous."

[164] _Henry VIII._, Act I. Scene 4.

[165] Wolsey spoke Latin well. Like Charles II. he considered it
diplomatic to affect ignorance of French at times. Such is his advice to
those who accompanied him on his embassy to France: "The nature of the
Frenchmen is such that at their first meeting they will be as familiar
with you as if they had knowne you by long acquaintance, and will
commune with you in their French Tongue as if you knew every word.
Therefore use them in a kind manner, and bee as familiar with them as
they are with you: if they speake to you in their natural tongue, speake
to them in English, for if you understand not them, no more shall they
you." Puttenham, in his _Arte of English Poesie_, advises ambassadors
and messengers not to use foreign languages of which they have not
perfect command, lest they commit blunders similar to that of the
courtier who said of a French lady, "Elle chevauche bien,"--blunders
which might have serious results in diplomatic transactions.

[166] _The Negociations of Th. Wolsey, The Great Cardinal of England,
containing his Life and Death. Composed by one of his own servants,
being his gentleman usher_ (G. Cavendish?), London, 1641.

[167] _Negociations of Th. Wolsey_, _ut supra_.

[168] M. E. A. Green, _Lives of the Princesses of England_, 1849-1855,
v. p. 20.

[169] Green's _Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies_, 1846. See also
Ellis, _Original Letters_, 1st series, vol. i. p. 115.

[170] _Life of Anne Boleyn_, in Strickland's _Lives of the Queens of
England_, London, 1884, ii. pp. 179, 181.

[171] Ellis, _Orig. Letters_, 2nd series, vol. ii. p. 11. Anne's French
spelling is curious and suggests that, like Henry VIII., she learnt
French mainly by ear: "Mons. Je antandue par vre lettre que aves envy
que tout onnete feme quan je vindre à la courte et ma vertisses que Rene
prendra la pein de devisser a vecc moy, de quoy me regoy bien fort de
pensser parler a vecc ung personne tante sage et onnete, cela me ferra a
voyr plus grante anvy de continuer a parler bene franssais."

[172] A French poem of the time, preserved in MS. and quoted by Rathery,
_op. cit._ p. 21, celebrates Anne's French accomplishments--_Traité pour
feue dame Anne de Boulant, jadis royne d'Angleterre, l'an 1533_:

    "La tellement ses graces amenda
    Que ne l'eussiez oncques jugée Angloise
    En ses fachons, ains naïve Françhoise.
    Elle sçavoit bien danser et chanter,
    Et ses propos sagement agencer,
    Sonner du luth et d'autres instrumens
    Pour divertir les tristes pensemens."

[173] Pub., with English translation, in the _Harleian Miscellany_, vol.
iii., 1745, pp. 52-62.

[174] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, xv. 179, and
xvi. 12.

[175] Ellis, _Orig. letters_, series 1, vol. ii. p. 122.

[176] Strickland, _Lives of the Queens_, 1884, ii. p. 299.

[177] This is the testimony of Girolamo Cordano, a physician and
astrologer of Milan who was called upon to exercise his art on the young
king of England in 1552. Rye, _England as seen by Foreigners_, pp.
lxviii _sqq._

[178] Strickland, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 477-8.

[179] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, xvi. No. 1253.

[180] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series, ii. p. 236.

[181] One of Elizabeth's Italian masters was Baptista Castiglione, a
religious refugee in 1557. Elizabeth, however, had acquired some
knowledge of Italian before 1544; in that year she addressed a letter in
Italian to Queen Katharine Parr (printed in G. Howard's _Lady Jane Grey
and her Times_, 1822). Other Italian letters of the queen are published
in Green's _Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies_, 1846.

[182] Account of the Venetian ambassador at the Court of Mary--Michel
Giovanni. Rye, _op. cit._ p. 266.

[183] _Memoirs of his own Life, 1549-93_, Bannatyne Club, 1827, p. 125.
Elizabeth's Dutch he pronounces "not gud," and later says that neither
the King of France nor the Queen of England could speak Dutch (p. 341).

[184] _Memoirs of his own Life, 1549-93_, Bannatyne Club, 1827, p. 117.

[185] J. Nichols, _Progresses of Queen Elizabeth_, 1788-1821, i. p. x.

[186] Rye, _op. cit._ p. 12.

[187] Rye, _op. cit._ p. 104.

[188] The MS. was reproduced in facsimile in 1893. The prayers in French
begin thus: "Mon Dieu et mon pere puis qu'il t'a pleu desployer les
tresors de ta grande misericorde envers moy ta tres humble servante,
m'ayant de bon matin retirée des profonds abismes de l'ignorance
naturelle et des superstitions damnables pour me faire iouir de ce grand
soleil de justice . . . etc."

[189] _Lettres_, Amsterdam, 1723, liv. i. p. 5.

[190] An account of the little that is known of André's life is given in
Gairdner's _Memorials of Henry VII._, pp. viii _et seq._

[191] Of foreign countries, the Netherlands seem to have come next to
England in zeal for the study of French, and Germany takes the next
place. Countries in which sister Romance tongues were spoken, Italy and
Spain, were apparently entirely dependent on practice for learning
French.

[192] The printing was completed by Robert Coplande on the 22nd March
1521. The book consists of sixteen leaves of the folio size of the time,
in black letter, with signatures A-B in sixes and C in fours. There is a
unique copy in the Bodleian.

[193] Bale, _Scriptorum Britanniae Summarium_, 1548, p. 723, and Pits,
_Relationes Historicae de rebus Anglicis_, 1619, p. 745, attribute to
Barclay a work called _De pronuntiatione linguae gallicae_. This
suggests that possibly the _Introductory_ was first written in Latin.

[194] Time after time he mentions the usages of different parts of the
country, as _piecha_ for _pieça_ in certain districts; _jeo_ and _ceo_
for _je_ and _ce_ in Picard and Gascon; the writing of the names of
dignitaries and officers in the plural instead of the singular, as _luy
papes de Rome_.

[195] _L'Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse_, bk. i. ch. xxxv.

[196] "There is a boke which goeth about in this realme, intitled _The
Introductory to write and pronounce French_, compyled by Alexander
Barclay. I suppose it is sufficient to warne the lerner that I have red
over that boke at length, and what my opinion is therein it shall well
apeare in my boke's self, though I make thereof no further expresse
mencion."

[197] Thus the vowel _a_ is sometimes a letter, sometimes a word. In the
former case it is often sounded like English _a_; when it is a word _d_
should not be added. This section of the work is reprinted in A. J.
Ellis's _Early English Pronunciation_, Early Engl. Text Soc., 1869,
etc., pt. iii. pp. 804 _sqq._

[198] On the back of folio 5.

[199] "Howsoever the singular number end, the plural number must end in
_s_ or _z_." Such is the rule for the formation of the plural. As for
the genders, he gives a few isolated examples and converts them into
rules.

[200] On folio 8vº.

[201] Folios 9-14. The vocabulary begins with the letter M, and after
proceeding to the end of the alphabet, resumes at the beginning--an
arrangement probably due to some blunder on the part of the printer.

[202] Both deal with agricultural subjects; the first gives the life of
a grain of wheat, and the second may explain itself:

    "Dieu sauve la charue,
    God save the ploughe,
    Et celui qui la mane.
    And he the whiche it ledeth.
    Primierement hairois la terre,
    Firste ere the grounde,
    Apres semer le blé ou l'orge.
    After sow the whete or barley.
    Les herces doivent venir apres,
    The harrowes must come after,
    Le chaclir oster l'ordure.
    The hoke to take away wedes,
    En Aoust le foyer ou faucher,
    In August reap it or mowe it,
    D'une faucille ou d'une faux."

There is no English rendering of the last line.

[203] In the Library of the Marquis of Bath.

[204] The Earl was born in 1516.

[205] Ellis, _Orig. Letters_, 1st series, i. pp. 341-43.

[206] _Description des royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse_, Paris,
1558.

[207] C. H. and T. Cooper, _Athenae Cantabrigienses_, vol. i., 1858, p.
155.

[208] _List of Denizations, 1509-1603_, Huguenot Society Publications
VIII.

[209] _Athenae Cantab._ _ut supra_.

[210] S. R. Maitland, _List of some of the early printed books in the
Archiepiscopal Library at Lambeth_, 1843, pp. 290 _et seq._

[211] "'_a_' also betokeneth 'have' or 'has,' when it cometh of this
verbe in Latin, _habeo_, as hereafter ye may see."

[212] "Sur toultes choses doibuit noter gentz Englois que leur fault
accustomer de pronuncer la derniere lettre du mot françois quelque mot
que ce soit (rime exceptée) ce que la langue engleshe ne permet, car la
ou l'anglois dit 'goode breade,' le françois diroit 'goode' iii sillebes
et 'breade' iii sillebes."

[213] J. A. Jacquot, _Notice sur Nicolas Bourbon de Vandoeuvre_, Troyes
et Paris, 1857. Bourbon was born in 1503, and died in 1550. He went to
Paris in 1531, leaving behind him in his native town a reputation won by
his Latin verses. On his return from England, Queen Margaret of Navarre
entrusted to him the education of her daughter, Jeanne, who was the
mother of Henry IV.

[214] _Nicolai Borbonii vandoperani Lingonenis_ [Greek: Paidagôgeion],
Lugduni, 1536.

[215] J. H. Marsden, _Philomorus_, 2nd ed., 1878, p. 261.

[216] Clement Jugé, _Nicolas Denisot du Mans, 1515-1559_, Paris and Le
Mans, 1907.

[217] He also began his work as a secret agent in the service of France,
and it is said that Calais was recovered by the French in 1558, from a
plan which Denisot submitted to the Duc de Guise.

[218] There was a MS. copy of Latin poems by Denisot in the Library of
Edward VI. (Nichols, _Literary Remains_, 1857.)

[219] J. Bonnet, _Récits du seizième siècle_, 1864, p. 348.

[220] _Le Tombeau de Marguerite de Navarre faict premierement en
Distiques latins par les trois soeurs, Princesses en Angleterre: Depuis
Traduits, en Grec, Italien et François par plusieurs des excellentz
Poetes de la France. Avecques plusieurs Odes, Hymnes, Cantiques,
Epitaphes sur le mesme subiect._ Paris, 1551.




CHAPTER II

    FRENCH TUTORS AT COURT--GILES DUWES--JOHN PALSGRAVE--JEAN BELLEMAIN


The two most popular French tutors at the Court of Henry VIII. were
undoubtedly Giles Duwes and John Palsgrave. Palsgrave is the only one of
these early French tutors who is well known to-day as a writer on the
French tongue. He was a Londoner, and received his education at
Cambridge and Paris. Giles Duwes was a Frenchman and seems to have
enjoyed a greater popularity in his own day. He had been teaching French
at the English Court for over ten years when Palsgrave received his
first appointment there, as French tutor to the king's "most dere and
entierly beloved" sister Mary, afterwards Queen of France. Both teachers
were protégés of Henry VIII., and taught in the royal family--Duwes was
tutor to the king himself; and both were authors of grammars of the
French language. That of Palsgrave has been mentioned already. It
appeared in 1530 under the title of _L'Esclarcissement de la langue
françoyse_. Duwes's was not published till three years later
approximately, at the request of his pupil, Princess Mary, afterwards
Queen of England. It was called _An Introductorie for to learne to rede,
to prononce and to speke French trewly, compyled for the rigid high
excellent and most vertuous Lady Mary of Englande, daughter to our most
gracious soveraign, Lorde Kyng Henry the Eight_.[221] His treatise is a
small quarto of 102 leaves, forming a striking contrast to Palsgrave's
enormous folio[222] of over 1000 pages.

The contents and style of the two books are as different as their size.
[Header: JOHN PALSGRAVE'S FRENCH GRAMMAR] Like all the French
grammarians of the time, Palsgrave opens his work with rules for the
pronunciation, and the whole of the first book is devoted to an
elaborate study of this subject. Earlier writers had treated it very
slightly, if at all, trusting that the student would find some
opportunity of learning the sounds of the language by mixing with those
who spoke it. We are told[223] that as a result there was no means of
acquiring a good pronunciation, save in early youth by practice and use
for a year or two. And it came to be supposed in a manner a thing
impossible; "in so much that whereas there be hundreds in this realm,
which with a little labour and the aid of Latin, do so perfectly
understand this tongue that they be able to translate at the first sight
anything out of the French tongue into ours, yet have they thought the
thing so strange to leave the consonants unsounded whiche they saw
written in such books as they studied, that they have utterly neglected
the Frenchmen's manner of pronunciation, and so read French as their
fantasy or opinion did lead them and, by that means, perceiving in
themselves a want and swerving from the truth, which they wot not how to
amend, utterly leave to speak or exercise the language as a thing which
they despair of."[224] One of the chief difficulties of these early
students then was the numerous consonants found in French words for
etymological reasons, and which were not pronounced. Other difficulties
were found in the accentuation of vowel sounds. The English were in the
habit of placing the accent on the wrong syllable, saying _doUcement_
instead of _doucemEnt_, and of not giving the vowel its full and pure
sound, both mistakes being due to peculiarities of their native tongue.
"We must leave that kind of reading and pronouncing if we will sound the
French Tongue aright," says Palsgrave, "for the French in their
pronunciation do chiefly regard three things: to be armonious in theyr
speking, to be brefe and sodayne in soundyng of theyr words, avoydyng
all manner of harshenesse in theyr pronunciation, and thirdly to gyve
every worde that they abyde and reste upon theyr most audible sounde."
There is something solemn about his assurance of the successful results
to be attained by the study of his rules: "whereas nowe the very grounde
and consyderation of the Frenchmen in this behalf ones knowen, it hath
been proved by experience that it is but a senyghts labour, or, at the
most, a fournyghtes to lerne this poynt concernyng to theyr
pronounciatyon an to be sure herof for ever."

Palsgrave devotes attention to each letter of the alphabet in turn, and
seeks to elucidate the value of the sounds by reference to contemporary
English or Italian, and by attempting to give the position of the vocal
organs.[225] _A_, he says, has two diverse sounds. "Sometimes he is
sounded as in English, and sometimes like the diphthong _au_ and a
little in the nose. The most usual pronunciation given it by the French,
is the same as those who speak the best English, that is like the
Italian sound _a_, or those of the English who sound the Latin tongue
aright. When _m_ or _n_ follow the vowel it is pronounced as _au_ and
somewhat in the nose, _chambre_ being sounded _chaumbre_," etc. More
general topics are also touched on--the accent, the length of vowels,
and the intonation which is so "brief, so sudden and so hard."

In his second book,[226] Palsgrave treats what he calls the second
difficulty of the French tongue--the accidence of the nine parts of
speech. Throughout, constant reference is made to the third book,
"whiche is a very comment expositour unto my second." This last book
deals with the more syntactical side of the subject, and was added on
the model of Theodore Gaza's Greek grammar. It occupies by far the
largest portion of the whole work,[227] and besides giving elaborate and
often obscure rules to govern every French inflexion,[228] includes an
English-French alphabetical vocabulary which reaches the size of a
dictionary. This vocabulary is arranged according to the parts of
speech, and numerous phrases and idioms illustrative of different uses
of the words are freely given. [Header: THE "INTRODUCTORIE" OF GILES
DUWES] Nothing like it in dimensions had yet appeared, and, contrary to
custom, the English is placed before the French.

Duwes's manual, on the other hand, opens with an acrostich in French
with an interlinear English translation containing the author's
name--Giles Duwes or de Vadis,--followed by a short address in verse to
the Princess Mary, "filleule a saincte Marie" (also in French,
accompanied by an English interlinear version), and lists of French
words beginning with each of the letters of his royal pupil's name. The
grammar itself is written in English, for Duwes was one of the few
Frenchmen of the time who knew English; neither Bourbon nor Denisot,
though they lived in England some years, and taught French to English
pupils, knew our language; and no doubt they helped to continue the
long-standing relation between the teaching of Latin and the teaching of
French. Duwes's work is divided into two books, the first of which is
devoted to rules of grammar. He dismisses the pronunciation with seven
short and inadequate rules, and proceeds to give his pupil a copious
vocabulary of words and phrases, in which the English word is printed
over the French one. The headings with which the earlier vocabularies
have made us familiar are again utilized, though with variety in detail,
and many passages are reminiscent of the mediaeval nomenclatures. After
his pupil has gained a knowledge of pronunciation, and acquired a good
vocabulary, Duwes proceeds to give him an insight into the grammar of
the language. He treats the parts of speech, with the exception of the
verb, in a very summary fashion; thus, with regard to the gender of
pronouns, all he has to say is that those ending in _a_ are feminine,
and those ending in _on_ or _e_ are masculine. "But there be certain
names of the feminine, which do require the pronouns masculine, that
must be accepted (excepted), as _mon ame_; _me_ and _se_ be
indifferent." He devotes nearly the whole of his space to a lengthy and
elaborate treatment of the French verb, which he divides into two
conjugations, according as there is not or is an _s_ before the
termination _-ons_ of the first person plural, present indicative! Thus
the forms _aimons_, _avons_, _batons_, _donons_ prove the verbs _aimer_,
_avoir_, _batir_, _donner_ to belong to the first conjugation; and
similarly the forms _baisons_, _taisons_, etc., indicate that these
verbs belong to the second conjugation--an arrangement not at all
conducive to lucidity. A considerable part of his work is occupied by
the conjugation of verbs of all sorts, in a variety of forms and both
negatively and interrogatively. He usually adopts the practice, frequent
in modern text-books, of attaching words to the verbs as he conjugates
them, and so providing them with a context. Thus he writes _j'ai grand
desir_, and not simply the verb form _j'ai_. A knowledge of French verbs
was, in Duwes's opinion, the key to the knowledge of the French
language.[229]

The second book occupies more than half the volume. It contains
practical exercises in the form of "letters missive in prose and in
rime, also diverse communications by way of dialogue, to receive a
messenger from the emperor, the French King or any other prince, also
other communications of the propriety of meat, of love, of peace, of
wars, of the exposition of the mass, and what man's soul is, with the
division of time and other conceits." Each exercise is provided with an
interlinear English translation, and all, as may be gathered from their
subject matter, were in the first place written specially for the use of
the Princess Mary. They deal with the daily events of her life, and,
though occasionally public affairs are touched on, these exercises are
of greatest interest in disclosing the affectionate relations existing
between Mary and her tutor. Whenever possible, Duwes introduces
alternative phrases as well as variations of number and gender, and this
attention to his pupil's vocabulary and knowledge of the flexions often
encumbers his sentences. As for the English version, it gives a
word-for-word rendering of the French, without regard to the natural
order of words in an English sentence.

The methods of the two teachers seem to have been as different as their
works. Everything tends to prove that Duwes's manner of teaching was
practical, light, and entertaining, and at the same time efficient--a
rare combination of good qualities. [Header: HIS METHOD] Henry VIII.'s
skill in French has already been noticed, and Duwes's other pupils seem
to have been equally accomplished. In his opinion, a good vocabulary and
a thorough knowledge of the verbs were the two essentials in teaching
French. To learn French quickly, he thinks, the student must practise
turning the verbs in all possible ways, affirmatively, negatively, and
interrogatively--a principle of repetition. In this way he acquires
fluency of speech and is able to "make diverse and many sentences with
one word, and perconsequent come shortly to the French speach." For
instance, thirty-six variations may be got in one tense, by turning each
person in six different ways, "that is to say, the affirmative three
ways, and the negative likewise." Duwes reaches this large total by
giving the following forms of each person: "I have, have I?, why have
I?" for the singular of affirmation, "I have not, have I not?, why have
I not?" for the singular of negation, and so on with other persons and
the corresponding plural forms. He further counsels the student to
practise 108 similar variations in the same tense, by means of the use
of the pronouns _me_, _te_, _se_; "for the first person, I have me, I
have thee, I have him, and we turn it, we shall have, Have I me, have I
thee, have I him. Then putting why before it we shall have, Why have I
me," etc., and so on, on lines exactly similar to the example for
thirty-six variations. Apparently such exercises were the mainstay of
his grammatical instruction, for rules of grammar are reduced to a
minimum. Practice held a higher place than theory in Duwes's estimation,
and his attitude towards attempts to draw up rules for the French
language was very sceptical; to be complete, the numbers of such rules
would be infinite, and, what is more, rules are of more use to the
teacher than to the learner.

Palsgrave, on the contrary, had a firm belief in the value and soundness
of grammar rules. He seems to have been the first to advocate the
learning of French chiefly by means of grammar. The earliest treatises
had been intended more to correct the French of those who read them than
to teach the language; and though in later times the rules were intended
to impart a knowledge of the language, they were not put in the first
place, and it was always felt that they were very secondary to "custom
and the use of reading and speaking." Before Palsgrave's grammar
appeared, declares his enthusiastic pupil Andrew Baynton, Englishmen did
in a manner despair of learning French except by an "importune and long
continued exercise and that begun in young and tender age." Sir Thomas
Elyot in _The Boke of the Governour_, which appeared a year after
Palsgrave's grammar, seems to regret this interference with
long-standing custom, by means of which French was "brought into as many
rules and figures and as long a grammar as is Latin or Greek."[230] He
was afraid that the "sparkes of fervent desire of learnynge" should be
"extincte with the burdone of grammar, lyke as a lytell fyre is sone
quenched with a great heape of small stickes: so that it can never come
to the principale logges where it shuld longe bourne in a great
pleasaunt fire." Many years elapsed, however, before the deadening
effect of too much grammar, apprehended by Elyot, was felt in the
teaching of French.

Palsgrave's method of teaching, therefore, was the reverse of that of
his fellow-worker, although he professes a desire to induce his pupils
not only to love their studies, but to be merry over them.[231] It
appears that he was fond of making his pupils learn rules by heart,[232]
while the dynamic of his method was translation from English into
French--an exercise not very popular amongst teachers at this time. So
great was his faith in his rules that he felt that the student might,
with their aid, even dispense with the assistance of a teacher. By an
attentive study of the first book the reader "shal undouted attayne to
the right and naturall pronunciation of this sayde tonge." And he
assures the student that by reading the general information in the
introduction to his first two books, and by learning by heart the three
perfect verbs in his second book (_Je parle_, _Je convertis_, _Je fais_,
representatives of the three conjugations into which Palsgrave arranges
French verbs) and the three irregulars (_J'ai_, _Je suis_, and _Je m'en
vais_), he will know French tolerably well, and be able, with the help
of the vocabulary in the third book, to translate from English into
French, and "so incontinente accustome hym to have theyr common
speache"; and, again using the vocabulary, he will be able to read any
French author by his own study, without help or teacher, if he knows the
second book perfectly. [Header: HIS DIALOGUES IN FRENCH AND ENGLISH]
However, he advises those who desire to attain perfection, or to
qualify themselves for foreign service, to read and study the whole of
the three books.

Palsgrave seems to assign the priority to Duwes by mentioning him as one
of his immediate predecessors, although Duwes's work was not published
until after Palsgrave's. Yet it is improbable that the debt on either
side was anything but trifling. Duwes had been teaching many years
before we first hear of Palsgrave. As he taught he drew up grammatical
rules for the use of his pupils; and when he was tutor to the Princess
Mary, she requested him to collect together and publish the material he
had used in teaching the king, her father, as well as other members of
the royal family.[233] According to Palsgrave, diverse noblemen
supported the princess's request. Thus most of the rules published in
Duwes's grammar had been composed very many years before they were
published, for Duwes had then been teaching for over thirty years. And
no doubt Palsgrave, who was also employed at Court, had opportunities of
seeing them in manuscript. As to the dialogues and other practical
exercises, they were all specially written for the use of the princess,
and so are of later date than most of the rules. Duwes had doubtless
composed for the benefit of his earlier pupils similar exercises, which
remained in manuscript form and were lost. Some idea of the dates at
which the dialogues were written and of the period during which Duwes
was engaged in teaching the princess may be gathered from references to
topical events which occur in the text. For instance, mention is made of
a peace newly proclaimed throughout the kingdoms of France and England,
which was, no doubt, that of 1525, when England joined with France to
counteract the excessive power of Spain. We also find a somewhat vague
reference to a possible marriage for the princess with a "king or
emperor," and remember that it was in 1525 that negotiations for her
marriage with Charles V. were broken off, and others for an alliance
with the French king, Francis I., begun. Another circumstance points to
this same period. One of the dialogues takes place at Tewkesbury Park;
it was in 1526 that Mary was created Princess of Wales, and sent to
Ludlow to hold her Court there, and in November of the same year six of
her Council addressed a letter to Wolsey from Tewkesbury. Duwes is not
mentioned by name in a list of the princess's household appointed on
this occasion, probably because he was already in her service; and it is
interesting to note that the Countess of Salisbury, her lady governess,
had instructions "without fatigacion or weariness to intende to her
learninge of Latine tongue and French," as well as her music, dancing
and diet.[234] In May 1527, Mary had returned to London, and took part
in the festivities given at Greenwich in honour of the French
ambassadors who had come to ask for her hand on behalf of the French
king's second son, Henry, Duke of Orleans. We may therefore conclude
that Duwes's grammar rules were composed at various dates from the
beginning of the century, and the dialogues probably between the years
1524 and 1527.

Palsgrave, on the other hand, began his great work when Henry VIII.
appointed him French tutor to his sister Mary, the future Queen of
France, in 1512. He had "conceyved some lyttle hope and confidence" by
receiving such a noble charge, and thought it a convenient occasion for
showing his gratitude by means of his works. Several years later he
completed "two sondrie bookes" on the subject, which he offered in
manuscript to his former pupil, the Dowager Queen of France, and her
husband the Duke of Suffolk. On their advice and encouragement he
undertook to enlarge these and to add a third, and present the whole to
the king. In 1523, Palsgrave had planned the whole of the three books,
for in that year he made a contract with the printer, Richard Pynson, in
which it is stipulated that "the sayd Richarde, his executors and
assignes shall imprint or cause to be imprynted on boke callyd 'lez
lesclarcissement de la langue Françoys,' contayning iii sondrye bokes,
where in is shewyd howe the saide tong schould be pronownsyd in reding
and speking, and allso syche gramaticall rules as concerne the
perfection of the saide tong, with ii vocabulistes, oone begynnyng with
English nownes and verbes expownded in frenshe, and a general vocabulist
contayning all the wordes off the frenshe tong expound in Englishe."
Pynson undertook to begin at once and to print every whole working day,
at the rate of a sheet a day, interrupting the work for nothing save a
royal order. [Header: POPULARITY OF DUWES] The third book was not fully
 written when the first two passed into the hands of the printer, as
Palsgrave constantly refers in it to the mistakes made already by the
printer in his second book,--mistakes unavoidable in so "newe and
unaccustomed worke." He also seems to have modified his plan for the
vocabulary; in that which actually appeared in the third book there is a
separate English-French dictionary for each part of speech--noun,
adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, and interjection. In the meantime,
Pynson died, and the book was completed by John Hawkins, this being the
only known production of his press. The two writers, then, were both
engaged on their work for a great many years. Duwes was the first in the
field, but he wrote with no view to publication, merely to satisfy the
needs of his pupils. Palsgrave, on the other hand, from the very first
intended to publish his work, and had great ambitions. Although he no
doubt saw some of Duwes's manuscript, his debt was of the slightest
character, if it can be called a debt at all. The respective size of the
two volumes is enough to prove this.

Duwes's small treatise, however, seems to have enjoyed a greater
popularity than that of Palsgrave;[235] the latter did not reach a
second edition, whereas the former went through three in rapid
succession. This was no doubt largely due to its conciseness and
practical nature, which would appeal to the student, discouraged at the
sight of Palsgrave's immense work. The first edition (as far as is
known) of Duwes's _Introductorie_ must have appeared at least three
years after Palsgrave's _Esclarcissement_. The first two editions,
printed, one by Thomas Godfray, and the other by Nicholas Bourman for
John Reyns at the sign of the George in Paul's Churchyard, were
published during the years when Anne Boleyn was queen, and after the
birth of the Princess Elizabeth, as they both contain a "laude and
prayse" of the King, Queen Anne, and her daughter. This leaves a period
of under three years for the publication of the two editions, seeing
that Elizabeth was born in September 1533, and Anne was put to death on
the 19th of May 1536, Jane Seymour becoming queen in her stead on the
20th. The third edition[236] appeared after Duwes's death in 1535, as
perhaps the second edition may have done also. The dedication to Anne is
omitted, and a new one inserted, addressed to Henry alone. The second
part is here said to be "newly corrected and amended"; but it is
difficult to find in what the corrections consist, for, with the
exception of slight variations of spelling, the edition is identical
with the two earlier ones. It was issued from the press of John Waley,
who began to practise his trade as printer in about the year 1546.[237]
Most probably, then, this edition appeared in the last months of the
reign of Henry VIII. (1547), and was one of the earliest works issued
from Waley's press. It is hardly likely that he would have inserted the
"laude and prayse" of the king if the work had appeared after his
Majesty's death.

Several reasons combine to explain how it was that Palsgrave's work does
not appear to have been as widely used as that of Duwes.[238] While his
book was still in the press, alarming rumours as to its size began to
circulate, and caused the great demand there had been for the work
previously to diminish noticeably. Some of Palsgrave's pupils made
efforts to stop the report, one of whom was Andrew Baynton, already
mentioned, a favourite courtier of Henry VIII. and vice-chamberlain to
three of his queens. "The labour needed to master the book is not in
proportion to his size!" he wrote indignantly to three distinguished
fellow-students, who helped him to contradict the rumour. On the
contrary, he argues, it may rather be thought too small; it is as
complete as can be expected when we consider that it is the first of its
kind: clerks have laboured for years at Latin grammar and still find
something new; French grammar, then, cannot be expected to attain
completeness in this first attempt. But "he that will seek, may find and
in a brief time attain to his utterest desire." Palsgrave deemed it wise
to publish this letter as a prefatory notice to his grammar; it may,
indeed, have been written in the first place with that object in view.
[Header: SALE OF PALSGRAVE'S GRAMMAR] He also judged it expedient to
explain how students, not wishing to study the whole, might learn enough
French to serve their purpose by selecting and learning certain sections
of the grammar.[239]

Moreover, Palsgrave himself restricted the sale of his book. On account
of "his great labours, the ample largeness of the matter, and the great
difficulty of the enterprise," as well as its "great costs and charges"
(for he had the work printed at his own expense), he was anxious to keep
his grammar for himself, his friends, and his pupils, "lest his profit
by teaching the French tongue might be minished by the sale of the same
to such persons as besides him were disposed to study the French
tongue." His chief aim was to keep his book out of the hands of rival
teachers, who might use it for their own ends. Yet this attitude
conflicts strangely with Palsgrave's generous declaration in his epistle
to the king, expressing the hope that by means of his poor labours on
this occasion "the frenche tongue may hereafter by others the more
easely be taught, and also be attayned unto by suche as for their tyme
therof shal be desyrous." Nor was this the only precaution taken by
Palsgrave to ensure safety and fair dealing for his grammar. He obtained
from Henry VIII., to whom he dedicated the work, a privilege for seven
years,[240] the king being greatly "moved and stirred by due
consideration of his said long time and great diligence about this good
and very necessary purpose employed." The fact that Palsgrave altered
his original contract with Pynson twice[241] shows how careful he was in
all his proceedings. He wished to be sure of having complete control of
the 750 copies which were printed. He did not trust the "sayd Richarde"
further than he could help, and intended to see that Pynson "used good
faith" in his dealings with him. Pynson was to give Palsgrave six copies
to present to the king and his friends. The rest were to be left at
Pynson's house, in a room of which Palsgrave kept the key, and to be
sold only to such as Palsgrave desired. When Pynson had paid
himself,[242] the remaining books were to be given to Palsgrave, either
to take away or leave, as he willed. A striking example of the
difficulty there was in obtaining Palsgrave's grammar is illustrated by
the case of Stephen Vaughan. Again and again he begged Palsgrave to let
him have a copy, but Palsgrave would not grant this favour at any price;
and it is easy to form an idea, from Vaughan's persistence, of the great
value attached to the grammar among serious students; so great and
unparalleled a work was credited with almost supernatural powers.
Finally, in despair, Vaughan wrote to his patron Cromwell, asking him to
use his influence with the French teacher in obtaining this
"jewell."[243] Cromwell had received one of Palsgrave's presentation
copies, and, as a last resort, Vaughan begs him to let him have this. It
is to be hoped that the young man succeeded in getting a copy. At any
rate he seems to have made good progress in the French language.[244]

It is not surprising to find that the fashionable Court tutors were
personally acquainted with each other. Palsgrave seems to have had a
great respect for Duwes, and to have set a high value on the opinions of
"that singular clerk." He feels he "cannot too much praise his judgment
concerning the French Tongue." And he quotes Duwes's authority on the
subject of mean verbs, a matter about which he had consulted him
personally. We thus see that Palsgrave probably was more indebted to
Duwes in this direct way, than by any help he received from such
manuscripts as came into his hands. "Maister Gyles," who was librarian
to the king, also showed Palsgrave a very old text of the _Roman de la
Rose_ in the Guildhall, "to shewe the difference betweene tholde Romant
tong and the right french tong." The _Roman de la Rose_ was a text
frequently quoted by Palsgrave in support and illustration of his rules.

Thus Palsgrave has nothing but praise for Duwes, and no doubt Duwes took
a friendly interest in his younger rival, though he could not bring
himself to excuse what seemed to him his presumption in attempting to
write rules for a language not his own. [Header: DUWES ON ENGLISH
TEACHERS OF FRENCH] Like many Frenchmen of the time, Duwes firmly
believed that it was not possible to draw up anything like infallible
rules for the French language, and that Englishmen should presume, not
only to teach it, but to do this also, appeared to him preposterous.
Would it not seem strange, he cries, to see a Frenchman endeavouring to
teach the Germans their own language? Why should it be considered less
strange for Englishmen to teach French and lay down rules and principles
for the French language, a thing very few of those who have the language
"by nature" are able to do? That these presumptuous Englishmen may be
well read, and possess a good knowledge of French--"au moins pour non
estre natif du territoire et pais"--does not alter the case; for Art,
though it follow Nature closely, can never overtake her. Duwes himself,
he tells us, had been teaching his language for over thirty years, he
had searched and worked hard, but had never been able to find these
so-called infallible rules--for it is not possible to do so. Yet there
are Englishmen who claim to have done this great thing, though they have
been studying French for but a short time. With Greek and Latin the
matter is different. The rules of these languages have grown up through
the ages, and are the common property of all nations. This tirade
against English writers on the French language is evidently aimed at
Palsgrave and his predecessors, all those who since the beginning of
Henry's "well-fortuned reign of this thing had written"--but above all
at Palsgrave and his ambitious aspirations.

Duwes's half-ironical assumption of humility as to the value of his own
rules, although the fruit of over thirty years' experience in teaching,
is probably meant as a rebuke to Palsgrave, who claimed to have "reduced
the French tongue under a rule and grammar certain," and to have laid
down "rules certain and precepts grammatical like as the other three
perfect tongues." And when Duwes expresses, time after time, his
intention of avoiding all prolixity and 'super-fluity' of words, we are
also led to think that he is perhaps directing his remarks at
Palsgrave's wordy rules and the size of his work. Duwes may have been a
little annoyed at being anticipated in publication by his younger rival.
But it is still more likely he resented, as a Frenchman, that the honour
of having first produced a great work on the French language should be
generally ascribed to an Englishman.

For Palsgrave, with very natural and just pride, laid claim to this
honour, and was supported by his contemporaries. Andrew Baynton, in the
letter already mentioned, speaks of his "master" as being "the first
author of our nation or of the french mennes selfe that hath so farre
waded in all maner thinges necessary to reduce that tong under rules
certayne." The French, it is true, were beginning to take some interest
in their own language, and a French writer of the time, Geoffrey Tory of
Bourges, had urged the necessity of reducing the French language to
rules in his _Champ fleury_ (1529). "Would to God," he cried, "that some
noble soul would busy himself in drawing up and writing rules for our
French tongue!"[245] Palsgrave was acquainted with Tory's work, and
thought he had realized Tory's ideal and "done the thynge which by the
testimony of the excellent clerke, maister Geffroy Tory de Bourges (a
late writer of the French nation) in his boke entituled _Champ fleury_,
was never yet amongst them of that contraes self hetherto so moche as
ones effectually attempted." Leonard Coxe, the Principal of Reading
College, a popular philological writer of the time, also connects the
names of Tory and Palsgrave in some Latin verses that were printed at
the beginning of the grammar. The short interval which elapsed between
the appearance of the two volumes renders it impossible for Palsgrave to
have got his first suggestion from Tory, and makes it very improbable
that Tory had even the smallest influence on his work.[246] Tory had
begun his work in 1522. Before this date Palsgrave had already completed
two books of his Grammar. He notes, however, as a coincidence, that Tory
and himself quote the same French authors. [Header: PUPILS OF DUWES]
Throughout his Grammar, Palsgrave continually alludes to the authority
of French authors, for he studied French a great deal in books. It would
not indeed have been possible to produce so comprehensive a work in
England without constant reference to French writers, who, owing to the
spread of printing, were becoming more and more accessible. Palsgrave
refers most frequently to Alain Chartier and Jean Lemaire de Belges,
while Guillaume de Lorris (_Roman de la Rose_), Octovian de St. Gelais,
Jean Meschinot, Guillaume Alexis, and Froissart are all consulted and
quoted--a list in which, it will be noticed, the name of no contemporary
French poet figures. Palsgrave was not content with simply referring to
his authorities; he sought to awake an interest in French literature by
quoting selections in verse and prose, with guides for pronunciation.

Apparently Duwes's attack on Palsgrave was only one of many. Much before
this Palsgrave had complained of unreasonable opposition from his
contemporaries, and the "unpleasantness" to which he had to submit. One
should not, however, attach too much importance to such complaints, for
they seem to have been more or less habitual among writers of the day.
Duwes appears to have suffered in a similar way, judging by the acrostic
which closes his first book, and contains an unusually vehement attack
on the "correcteurs et de toutes oeuvres repreveurs," those "grosses
gens de rudes affections, ivrognes bannis de vray sentement." It is hard
to imagine whence came such severe criticism; probably from other French
teachers, but most certainly not from Court circles, where both these
teachers enjoyed the greatest popularity.

Nearly all the members of the royal family for two generations learnt
French from Duwes. He counted among his pupils Henry VIII. when prince,
his elder brother Arthur, his sister Margaret, who became Queen of
Scotland, and his daughter Mary, afterwards Queen of England, besides
many English noblemen. There is also evidence that Henry's favourite
sister Mary, afterwards Queen of France, learnt the first principles of
French from Duwes before she became the pupil of Palsgrave. His
favourite scholar, however, appears to have been the Princess Mary,
afterwards queen, at whose request he published his observations on the
French language. When Duwes began to teach her he was an old man, and a
little inclined to melancholy. He was beginning to feel the effects of
the English climate and complains bitterly of his chief enemies,
December and January:

    Par luy (Decembre) ay fait pleurs et soupirs mains,
    Ja ne sera que ne m'en remembre,
    luy et Janvier mont tollu ung membre
    qui me fera que tant que je vivray
    en grant doulleur doresavant iray;
    pourquoy je crains qu'en grant melancolie,
    en fin fauldra que j'en perde la vie.

Gout, his chief affliction, often nailed him to his chair, and prevented
him from attending his pupil--a greater sorrow, he says, than to suffer
sickness and danger. On one occasion he was so ill that he feared he
would not see the princess again, and sent a letter, asking pardon if
ever he had rebuked her in his lessons. His whole consolation "lies in
the hope that Spring, seeing him in such a piteous state, will take pity
on him."

Mary seems to have returned fully the affection of her old master. He
was her almoner and treasurer, and she playfully called him her "adopted
husband." Duwes spent a great deal of his time with his pupil, and his
"adopted wife" appears to have become impatient when his gout or any
other reason kept him from her. In one of the dialogues she is shown
rebuking him for his absence one evening:

    _Mary._ Comment Giles, vous montrés bien qu'avés grant cure et
    soing de m'aprendre quand vous vous absentés ainsy de moy.

    _Gyles._ Certes madame, il me semble que suis continuellement ici.

    _Mary._ Voire, et ou estiés vous hier a soupper je vous prie.

    _Gyles._ Veritablement, madame, vous avez raison, car je
    m'entroubliay ersoir a cause de compagnie et de communication.

    _Mary._ Je vous prie, beau sire, faictes nous parçonniere de
    vostre communication, car j'estime quelle estoit de quelque bon
    purpos.

     _Gyles._ Certes, madame, elle estoit de la paix, laquelle (come on
    disoit) est proclamée par tout ce royaume. . . .

Then master and pupil are pictured discussing at length the subject of
peace. Love, the nature of the soul, and the meaning of the celebration
of Mass were other topics on which they had long conversations; and they
would accompany their supper--for the princess begged her master to dine
with her as often as possible, in order to talk French--by discourse on
health and diet, in the course of which Duwes gave the princess much
friendly advice. [Header: QUEEN MARY'S FRENCH STUDIES] His eloquence on
the subject suggests that when he calls himself a "doctor" he means a
doctor of medicine. Thus Mary's practice in the language was not by any
means limited to regular lessons, and these lessons were always kept in
close contact with her daily life. She is taught how to receive a
messenger from the king, her father, or from any foreign potentate, in
French, or how to accept presents from noble friends. Duwes sometimes
used his lessons as a means of conveying to Mary messages from different
members of her household. Lady Maltravers exhorts her to study French
seriously that reports of her ability may not be belied, and that she
may be able to speak French with the king her father, and her future
husband, "whether king or emperor"; and her carver, John ap Morgan,
writes to her when she is ill, to express his hopes for her speedy
recovery. When Duwes's gout prevented him from waiting on the princess,
he would send her a poem of his own composition, in French with an
interlinear English version--Duwes wrote singularly crude and
inharmonious verses--which the princess learnt by heart by way of
lesson. Or he would excuse his absence in a letter, which, he assures
her, "will not be of small profit" to her if she learns it.

Such were the relations of Duwes with his favourite pupil. Little else
is known of his life beyond the fact that he taught French for nearly
forty years in the highest ranks of English society. He himself tells us
that he was a Frenchman, and in all probability he was a native of
Picardy, for his name is of Picard origin, and there are a few traces of
picardisms in his work. We also know that he was librarian to both Henry
VII. and Henry VIII.,[247] and that in 1533 he was appointed a gentleman
waiter in the Princess Mary's household, and his wife one of the
ladies-in-waiting;[248] that, curiously enough, he was a student of
alchemy and wrote a Latin dialogue, _Inter Naturam et Filium
Philosophiae_, dated from the library at Richmond (1521), and dedicated
to his friend "N. S. P. D.";[249] that he died in 1535, about two years
after the publication of his _Introductorie_; and that he was buried in
the Parish Church of St. Olave in Old Jury, where he was inscribed as
"servant to Henry VII. and Henry VIII., clerke to their libraries, and
schoolmaster of the French Tongue to Prince Arthur, and to the Ladie
Mary"--a by no means complete list of his illustrious pupils.

Among Duwes's earliest pupils had been Henry's sister Mary, afterwards
Queen of France. This princess, however, was to continue her study of
the language under John Palsgrave, and the first we hear of Palsgrave as
a teacher of French is on the occasion of his appointment by Henry VIII.
as tutor to his sister, probably towards the end of 1512, when
negotiations for the princess's marriage with the Prince of Castile,
afterwards Charles V., were in progress.[250] And when at last it fell
to the lot of the princess to marry, not the emperor, but the French
king, Louis XII., in 1514, Palsgrave remained in her service, and
accompanied her to France in the capacity of almoner. Like the majority
of her English followers, he was soon dismissed from her service. Yet
Mary did not forget her former tutor. From time to time she wrote to
Wolsey, seeking to obtain preferment for him;[251] like many other men
of his standing, Palsgrave was in Holy Orders, and became later chaplain
to the king. In November 1514 the Queen of France wrote to Wolsey to beg
his favour on behalf of Palsgrave that he may continue at "school."[252]
From this we may conclude that Palsgrave was continuing the studies he
had begun at an earlier date at the University of Paris. He calls
himself "gradué de Paris" in 1530, and no doubt also, his work on the
French language was making headway.

How long he remained in France is uncertain, but we are told that on his
return he was in great demand as a teacher of French and Latin to the
young English nobility and gentry.[253] Sir Thomas More, writing to
Erasmus in 1617, mentions that Palsgrave is about to go to Louvain to
study there. This second sojourn at a foreign university was not of long
duration, for Erasmus, in a letter dated July the same year, informs
Tunstall that Palsgrave had started for England.[254] Palsgrave was soon
to receive from the king a second important appointment as tutor.
[Header: PALSGRAVE'S PUPILS] On the formation of the household of his
natural son, Henry Fitzroy, Duke of Richmond, in 1525, when his "worldly
jewel," as Henry called the young duke, was made Lieutenant-General of
the North, the king entrusted Palsgrave with the charge of bringing him
up "in virtue & learning."[255] Palsgrave was allowed three servants and
an annual stipend of £13:6:8. He took great pains with his young pupil's
education, and the king seems to have approved of his method.[256] Such
was not the case with Gregory Cromwell, who, it appears, shared the
lessons of the duke. When Gregory went to Cambridge under John Cheking's
care, the latter wrote to Cromwell that he had to unteach his charge all
he had learnt, and that if such be Palsgrave's style of teaching, he
does not think he will ever make a scholar.[257] Palsgrave declares that
he suffered much, when in the North, from poverty and calumny.[258] His
friend, Sir Thomas More, lent him money, and Palsgrave begged him to
continue to help him to "tread underfoot" that horrible monster poverty.
He also petitions his constant patroness the Dowager Queen of France and
her husband the Duke of Suffolk. All he has to live by and pay his debts
and maintain his poor mother is little more than £50.[259]

Among Palsgrave's other pupils of note were Thomas Howard, brother to
the Earl of Surrey; my Lord Gerald, probably the brother of the fair
Geraldine, the object of Lord Surrey's passionate sonnets; Charles
Blount, son and heir of Lord Montjoie; Thomas Arundel, who later lost
his head for conspiring with the Duke of Somerset against
Northumberland, and Andrew Baynton, who has been mentioned already: all
students of French, who were acquainted with his book before it was
published, and knew his "hole intente and consyderation therein," and
who called Palsgrave "our mayster" with a certain amount of pride.

The year after the publication of his grammar, Palsgrave went to Oxford,
where he was incorporated M.A. and took the degree of B.D.[260] He was,
however, back in London in the following year, taking pupils into his
house and visiting others daily. He had, for instance, promised to serve
Mr. Baynton and Mr. Dominico in the house of the latter till Candlemas.
Of the pupils who were "with him," the "best sped child for his age" was
William St. Loe, afterwards Sir William and captain of Elizabeth's
Guard. Palsgrave seems to have suffered much from interruptions in his
pupils' studies caused by visits to their mothers, or by their leaving
London on account of the unhealthiness of the city. He writes to William
St. Loe's father that if he takes his son away for either of these
reasons the child will not "recover this three years what he has lost in
one," and moreover he will have "killed a schoolmaster," for Palsgrave
vows he will never teach any more. He also writes that after spending a
little time at Cambridge, where he could take the degree of D.D., he
intends to keep school in Black Friars, and have with him Mr. St. Loe's
son, Mr. Russell's son (who is a good example of what results from
interruption of studies by a visit home), the younger brother of Mr.
Andrew Baynton, and Mr. Norice's son, of the Privy Chamber.[261] At
Cambridge, also, he would be able to get an assistant, as at present the
strenuous and continuous application to teaching is ruining his health.
Nothing else is known of Palsgrave's teaching career. He seems to have
spent a good deal of time towards the end of his life at one or other of
the rectories[262] to which he was collated by Archbishop Cranmer, and
where, no doubt, he continued to receive pupils till the time of his
death in 1554.

Palsgrave's great French Grammar was not his only professional work. He
also published a text-book for the use of students of Latin. This was a
Latin comedy, Acolastus,[263] which had made its way into English
schools. Palsgrave added an English translation of his own, and the
whole appeared in 1540, with a dedication to the king. He says it is a
translation according to the method of teaching Latin in grammar
schools, "first word for word, and then according to the sense."
[Header: EDWARD VI.'S FRENCH EXERCISES] Palsgrave had also announced his
intention of publishing a book of French proverbs; he had written in his
grammar: "There is no tongue more aboundante of adages or darke
sentences comprehendyng great wysdome. But of them I differ at this time
to speake any more, intendyng by Goddes grace to make of thes adages a
booke aparte." There is, however, nothing to show that he ever realized
this intention, even partially.

Another French teacher in the royal family was Jean Bellemain, tutor to
Edward VI. Edward refers to his French master in the passage in his
diary[264] in which he gives an account of his education. Speaking of
himself in the third person, he writes: "He was brought up until he came
to six years old among the women. At the sixth year of his age he was
brought up in learning by master Dr. Cox, who was after his almoner, and
John Chepe, M.A., two well-learned men, who sought to bring him up in
learning of Tongues, of scripture, philosophy and all liberal sciences:
also John Belmaine, French man, did teach him the French language." It
appears from a letter of Dr. Cox to Secretary Paget, that the prince had
his first lesson in French on October 1, 1546.[265] His teacher was a
zealous Protestant, a friend and correspondent of Calvin, and he had
probably some influence on the religious opinions of his pupil.

The three French exercises in the king's hand which are still in
existence show that he made rapid progress in the language.[266] They
all bear on religious subjects, showing how carefully Bellemain
attracted the attention of his young pupil to this matter. All were
written after his accession to the throne (1547), and were dedicated to
his uncle, Protector Somerset. The first two are very similar in
composition. Edward made a collection of texts out of the Bible in
English, bearing on two subjects, Idolatry and Faith. He then proceeded
to turn these from English into French as an exercise in translation.
After they had been corrected by his master, the king had them
transcribed into a paper book--the first consisting of twenty pages,
the second of thirty-five--and sent them to the Protector.[267] The
first was written when Edward had been learning French for about a year
(in 1547), and the second shortly afterwards.

The third exercise is much longer than the two earlier ones, and differs
from them in being not a translation, but a composition of Edward's own
in French. It is entitled, _A l'encontre des abus du Monde_, and was
begun on December 13, 1548, and finished on March 14 of the following
year, so that its composition occupied Edward for over three months. The
manuscript is corrected throughout by Bellemain, who makes the
interesting entry at the end, that the young king, who was then not yet
twelve, had written the whole without the help of any living person.
Bellemain seems to have been very proud of his pupil's performance; he
sent a copy of it to Calvin as "flowers whose fruit would be seen in due
season."[268] Calvin in turn sent Bellemain observations on the
composition for him to transmit to his pupil, and advised its
publication, which Edward would not hear of.[269] Bellemain remarks that
Edward took great delight in Calvin's works, and from time to time the
French tutor acted as a medium of communication between the two, as in
the case just mentioned. Calvin did not scruple to give the young
monarch advice on religious subjects,[270] while Cranmer invited him to
write to the young king. Bellemain himself made a translation of the
English Liturgy of 1552, and sent it to Calvin to have his opinion on
it.[271]

Besides these three exercises, two of Edward's French letters have also
survived. One is addressed to Queen Katharine Parr and the other to the
Princess Elizabeth. In the former he compliments the queen, whom he more
usually addressed in Latin, on her beautiful handwriting.[272] [Header:
JEAN BELLEMAIN] The other is to Elizabeth, who, it appears, had written
to him in French, inviting him to reply in the same language. He takes
her advice:

    Puisque vous a pleu me rescrire, tres chere et bien aymée soeur, je
    vous mercie de bien bon cuer, et non seullement de vostre lettre,
    mais aussy de vostre bonne exhortation et example, laquelle, ainsy
    que j'espere, me servira d'esperon pour vous suivre en apprenant.
    Priant Dieu vous avoir en sa garde. De Titenhanger, 18 jour de
    decembre et l'an de nostre seigneur, 1548.--Vostre frere,

        EDWARDUS. PRINCE.

  a ma treschere et bien
  aymée soeur Elizabeth.[273]

We see from the date of this letter that Edward had been learning French
nearly three months when it was written.

Bellemain's salary as French tutor to the king was £6:12:4 per quarter.
In 1546 he received an annuity of fifty marks for life; in 1550 a lease
for twenty-one years of the parsonages of Minehead and Cotcombe, county
Somerset; in 1553 a lease of the manor of Winchfield in Hampshire;[274]
and in 1551 a grant of letters of denization.[275] He stayed in England
until the king's death in 1553, and was present at his funeral. No
doubt, with his religious sympathies, he would find the England of
Mary's time an uncongenial home, and leave it at as early a date as
possible.

Bellemain did not compose any treatise on the French language. He says
that he had long nourished the hope of writing some rules for French
pronunciation and orthography; but he changed his mind, thinking it mere
folly to attempt to give rules for that which was not yet fixed and
certain. In a translation into French of the Greek Epistle of Basil the
Great to St. Gregory upon solitary life, which he dedicated to the
Princess Elizabeth,[276] he expresses his opinion upon the new style of
French orthography, then promoted by certain writers, with whom he did
not agree on most points. These writers[277] wished to make the
orthography tally with the pronunciation and to discard the letters
which are not pronounced; they would thus change the spelling still used
for the most part by scholars and courtiers, and which in Bellemain's
opinion is preferable to that proposed by the so-called reformers. He
argues that an alteration of the spelling of French would necessitate a
corresponding change in Latin, where the letters have the same sound and
meaning, a thing which appears ridiculous to the merest observer.
Besides, the derivative consonants are useful, as they serve to
distinguish words of identical sound but different meaning and
derivation, and to indicate the length of the preceding vowel. On the
other hand, letters have been added by versifiers merely to suit their
rimes, and these writers have done more than any others to corrupt
French orthography. Of what avail is it, asks Bellemain, to compose
rules on a subject so much in dispute? For these reasons he abstained
from increasing the number of works on the French language produced in
England.

In the dedication to Elizabeth of his translation of Basil the Great's
Epistle to St. Gregory, Bellemain shows that he was familiar with the
books which the princess read, and also expresses his desire that she
will not let her French be corrupted by the so-called reformed
orthography she may meet in some of these books.[278] Thus Bellemain
took an interest in Elizabeth's French, and it is highly probable that
he was her tutor in that language.[279] [Header: QUEEN ELIZABETH'S
KNOWLEDGE OF FRENCH] In the year 1546, when he began to teach Edward
French, the Princess Elizabeth shared for some time her brother's
studies. It is said that they began with religious instruction in the
morning, and the rest of the forenoon, breakfast alone excepted, was
devoted to the languages, science, and moral learning. Edward then went
to his outdoor exercises and Elizabeth to her lute or viol.[280] No
doubt, then, she received lessons from the French tutor until she left
her brother in December. Elizabeth, however, had made considerable
progress in the language some years before this date, and before 1544,
so that it is extremely likely that Bellemain had been teaching her for
several years before he was appointed French tutor to Edward, perhaps
owing to his success with Elizabeth. At any rate there does not seem to
be any trace of any other French tutor to the princess, and the fact
that he received an annuity of £50 for life suggests that he had already
rendered some service in the royal family.

The scholar Leland praised Elizabeth's skill in French and Latin when he
saw her at Ampthill with her brother, and already in 1544 she had
completed the first composition in which she exerted her early activity
in the French language. This was a translation of Margaret of Navarre's
_Miroir de l'ame pecheresse_,[281] which she called _The Miroir or
Glasse of the Synneful Soul_, and dedicated to Queen Katharine
Parr.[282] It was published in 1564 under the title, _A godly meditacyon
of the Christian soule concerning a love towards God and Hys Christe,
compyled in Frenche by Lady Margarete, Quene of Naver, and aptly
translated into Englysh by the right vertuous lady Elizabeth, daughter
of our late Soverayne Kynge Henri the VIII._[283] The translation itself
is not very good, and the style is awkward. But Elizabeth was only
eleven years old when she undertook it, and observes apologetically that
she "joyned the sentences together as well as the capacite of (her)
symple witte and small lerning coulde expende themselves." In the
following year (1545) she translated some prayers and meditations
written in English by the queen, Katharine Parr, into Latin, French, and
Italian, and dedicated them to her father.[284] Of greater interest is a
little book the princess wrote in French, and also offered to the
king--a translation into French of the _Dialogus Fidei_ of Erasmus, thus
inscribed: "A Treshaut Trespuissant et Redoubté Prince Henry VIII de ce
nom, Roy d'Angleterre, de France et d'Irlande, défenseur de la foy,
Elizabeth sa Treshumble fille rend salut et obedience." This treatise,
composed before the death of the king in 1547,[285] was preserved in the
Library at Whitehall, and often attracted the attention of foreign
visitors in London.[286]

Thus Elizabeth was well accomplished in French before the reign of
Edward VI. It was while her brother was king that the great Hebrew
scholar, Antony Rudolph Chevallier, commonly called Monsieur Antony, was
for a short time her tutor in French. Chevallier was a Norman who had
studied Hebrew under Vatable at Paris, and had been forced to take
refuge in England on account of his religious opinions. He studied at
Cambridge and lived for a year in the house of Archbishop Cranmer,[287]
who brought him to the notice of the young king (then famous for his
patronage of foreign scholars of the Reform) and of Protector Somerset,
who appointed him tutor to the Princess Elizabeth.[288]

On the death of Edward VI., Chevallier, like Bellemain, left England. He
taught Hebrew at Strasburg and Geneva, where he came into contact with
English student refugees under the reign of Mary I., and made the
acquaintance of Calvin. He returned to England in the reign of Elizabeth
(1568) to solicit the queen's help for the French Protestants. He
received a good welcome, and in 1569 was made a lecturer in Hebrew at
Cambridge, where "he was accounted second to none in the realme." He
returned to France before the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1570), and
died as a result of the hardships he suffered in making his escape.

[Header: RELIGIOUS OPINIONS OF FRENCH TUTORS]

It is a curious fact that the religious opinions of the French tutors in
Henry VIII.'s family were reflected in the reigns of their pupils--the
Protestant Edward VI., the Roman Catholic Mary, and the Protestant
Elizabeth. Both Duwes and Bellemain allowed the subject of religion to
make its way into their lessons, and they probably exercised some
influence, differing in degree, on the religious convictions of their
pupils.


FOOTNOTES:

[221] First edition. Printed at London, by Th. Godfray, _c._ 1534. Sig.
A-Ea in fours.

[222] Both these grammars were reprinted by Génin, in the _Collection
des documents inédits sur l'Histoire de France_. II. _Histoire des
lettres et sciences_. Paris, 1852.

[223] By Andrew Baynton, in a letter prefixed to Palsgrave's grammar.

[224] Palsgrave in his grammar.

[225] Both Palsgrave's and Duwes's observations on the pronunciation of
French are utilized by M. Thurot: _De la prononciation française depuis
le commencement du_ 16e _siècle d'après les témoignages des
grammairiens_. 2 tom. Paris, 1881.

For further treatment of Palsgrave's grammar, see A. Benoist, _De la
syntaxe française entre Palsgrave et Vaugelas_. Paris, 1877.

[226] The second book begins on folio xxxi. and ends on folio lix. In the
third book the pagination begins anew: folio 1 to folio 473.

[227] Four hundred and seventy-three folios, while the first and second
books together occupy only fifty-nine folios.

[228] The fulness, originality, and exhaustive character of the work may
be illustrated by the treatment of such a point as the agreement of the
past participle with its subject, when used with the auxiliary _avoir_.
"... yet when the participle present followeth the tenses of _Je ay_, it
is not ever generall that he shall remain unchaunged, but ... yf the
tenses of _Je ay_ have a relatyve before them or governe an accusative
case eyther of a pronoune or substantyve, the participle for the most
part shall agree with the sayd accusatyve cases in gendre and nombre,
and in such sentences not remayne unchaunged. Helas, I have loved her,
_helas je l'ay aimée_ ..." etc.

[229] Duwes's plan is as comprehensive as Palsgrave's, as is seen by the
following table:

"In the first part shal be treated of rules, that is to say, howe the
fyve vowelles must be pronounced in redynge frenche, and what letters
shal be left unsounde, and the course thereof.

"The second part shal be of nounes, pronounes, adverbes, participles,
with verbes, propositions, and coniunctions.

"Also certayne rules for coniugation.

"Item fyve or syx maners of coniugations with one verbe.

"Item coniugations with two pronounes and with thre and finally
combining or ioinyng 2 verbes together."

[230] _The Boke of the Governour ..._ ed. H. H. S. Croft, 1883, vol. i.
p. 55.

[231] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ iv. 5806.

[232] _Ibid._ iv. 4560.

[233] ". . . m'a comandé et enchargé de reduire et mectre en escript la
maniere coment g'ay procedé envers ses dictz progeniteurs et
predecesseurs, coe celle aussi y la quelle ie l'ay (tellement
quellement) instruit et instruis iournellment. . . ."

[234] _Privy purse expenses of the Princess Mary_, ed. F. Madden, 1831,
pp. xli-xliii.

[235] "Duwes avait d'une main leste et sure esquissé la petite grammaire
de Lhomond: Palsgrave avait laborieusement compilé la grammaire des
grammaires: L'in-folio fut étouffé par l'in-8vo. Cela se voit souvent
dans la littérature où le quatrain de St. Aulaire triomphe de la Pucelle
de Chapelain" (Génin's Introduction).

It seems an exaggeration to use the word "étouffer." At any rate the
victory was not final. Palsgrave's work is not forgotten to-day, like
that of Duwes.

[236] There are copies of all three editions in the Bodleian. The
British Museum contains one copy of Bourman's edition, and two of
Waley's (the third). Génin used Godfray's edition in his reprint.

[237] E. G. Duff, _A Century of the English Book Trade_, Bibliog.
Society, 1905.

[238] There are, however, a larger number of Palsgrave's one edition
extant than of Duwes's three. This is, no doubt, because its size and
value prevented it from being used with the lack of respect with which
school-books are usually treated. There is a copy of the
_Esclarcissement_ in the Bibliothèque Mazarine at Paris; two in the
British Museum; one in the Bodleian, one in Cambridge University
Library, and one in the Rylands Library.

[239] _Supra_, p. 92.

[240] Dated September 2, twenty-second year of his reign (_i.e._ 1530).

[241] There were three drafts of the indenture with Pynson, _Letters and
Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ iii. 3680, iv. 39. The first two
were probably drawn up in 1523. The last is dated January 18, 1524. The
first two were printed by Dr. Furnivall for the Philological Society,
1868. The third draft is in Cromwell's hand, corrected by Palsgrave.
There is a clause that Pynson shall not print more than the given
number--750--until that number is sold. Pynson seems to have printed
only the first two parts of 59 leaves. After this there comes a third
part, with a fresh numbering of leaves from 1 to 473. The printing was
finished July 18, 1530, by J. Hawkins.

[242] At the rate of 6s. 8d. a ream.

[243] Ellis, _Orig. Letters_, 3rd series, vol. ii. p. 214.

[244] He found it useful in diplomatic service. He writes to his patron:
"I am well asseyed here and my little knowledge of French well
exercised" (Brussels, Nov. 20, 1538), _Letters and Papers of the Reign
of Henry VIII._ xiii. pt. ii. No. 882.

[245] "O devotz amateurs de bonnes lettres pleust a Dieu que quelque
noble coeur s'employast a mettre et ordonner par regle nostre langaige
françois! Ce seroit moyen que maints milliers d'hommes se evertueroient
a souvent user de belles et bonnes paroles. S'il n'y est mis et ordonné
on trouvera que de cinquante en cinquante ans la langue françoise pour
la plus grande part sera changée et pervertie" (folio 1, verso). Tory
sketched a plan of a great work on the language to which his _Champ
fleury_ was intended only as an introduction.

[246] Génin is 'certain' that the date given on the frontispiece of
Palsgrave's work is a year earlier than that on which it actually
appeared. He draws this conclusion from the date of the king's
privilege, twenty-second year of Henry VIII., who came to the throne in
1509; 9 + 22 = 31. This leaves Palsgrave a longer period to gather what
he could from Tory's work, says Génin. But the twenty-second year of the
reign of Henry VIII. began in April 1530, and the printing of
Palsgrave's work was completed on the 18th of July.

[247] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ i. Nos. 513 and
3094.

[248] _Ibid._ vi. No. 1199. Duwes also received numerous grants of money
and licences to import Gascon wine.

[249] Printed in _Theatrum Chemicum_, Ursel, 1602, vol. ii. pp. 95-123,
and reprinted in J. J. Manget's _Bibliotheca Chemica_, Geneva, 1702,
vol. ii. Two copies of an English translation are in the Bodleian
(Ashmole MSS.). See _Dict. Nat. Biog._

[250] He is called "schoolmaster to my Lady Princess of Castile," in the
Book of Payments, March 1513, _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry
VIII._ ii. No. 1460.

[251] _Ibid._ ii. 295.

[252] _Ibid._ i. 5582.

[253] Bale, _Britanniae Scriptorum_, 1548, fol. 219.

[254] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ ii. pt. 2, 1107.

[255] J. G. Nichols, _Memoir of the Duke of Richmond_, 1855, Camden
Society, _Miscellany_, iii. pp. xxiii-xxiv; also _Letters and Papers of
the Reign of Henry VIII._ iv. 5806, and v. 1596, 1793, 2069, 2081.

[256] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ iv. 5806.

[257] _Ibid._ iv. 4560: Letter dated July 27, 1528.

[258] _Ibid._ iv. 5806, 5807.

[259] "Instructions for Syr Wm. Stevynson, what he shall do for one John
Palsgrave with the Frenche Queenes Grace and the Duke of Suffolk her
espouse": _ibid._ v. 5808.

[260] Wood, _Athen. Oxon._ ed. Bliss, i. 121.

[261] _Letters and Papers_, v. 621-622: Letter dated Oct. 18, 1532.

[262] Palsgrave received ecclesiastical preferment from time to time.
Amongst others, he was collated to the prebend of Portpoole in St.
Paul's Cathedral by Bishop Fitzjames in 1514, and to the Rectory of St.
Dunstan-in-the-East by Cranmer in 1533, and to that of Wadenhoe,
Northamptonshire, in 1545, by the same Archbishop. (Thompson Cooper in
the _Dict. Nat. Biog._)

[263] Written by a Dutch contemporary, Fullonius, in 1529.

[264] J. G. Nichols, _Literary Remains of Edward VI._, Roxburghe Club,
1857, p. 210.

[265] _Ibid._ p. lxxviii.

[266] These have been printed by J. G. Nichols in his _Literary
Remains_, p. 144 _et seq._ The MS. of the first is at Trin. Col. Cantab.
R 7, 31, of the second in the Brit. Mus. Addit. MS. 9000, and of the
third at Biblio. Pub. Cantab. Dd 12, 59, and Brit. Mus. Addit. 5464.
Nichols uses the text of the first of these.

[267] "Apres avoir noté en ma Bible en Anglois plusieurs sentences qui
contredisent a toute ydolatrie, a celle fin de m'apprendre et exercer en
l'ecriture Françoise, je me suis amusé a les translater en ladite langue
Françoise, puis les ay fait rescrire en ce petit livret, lequel de tres
bon coeur je vous offre" (_Literary Remains ..._, p. 144).

[268] "Lettre inédite de Bellemain": _Bulletin de la Soc. de l'Hist. du
Protestantisme Français_, vol. xv., 1866, pp. 203-5.

[269] It was, however, translated into English and published in 1681
(two copies in the Brit. Mus.), and reprinted by Rev. J. Duncan in 1811
(no copy known), and by the Religious Tract Soc., _Vol. of Writings of
Ed. VI._, etc.

[270] Calvin wrote to Edward VI. in French: "C'est grand chose d'estre
roy, mesme d'un tel pays. Toutesfois je ne doubte pas que vous n'estimez
sans comparaison mieux d'estre chrestien. C'est doncq un privilege
inestimable que Dieu vous a faict, Sire, que vous soiez roy chrestien,
voire que luy servez de lieutenant pour ordonner et maintenir le
royaulme de J. Christ en Angleterre" (_Bulletin_, _ut supra_).

[271] There is a copy of this in Brit. Mus. Royal MSS. 20, A xiv.

[272] Ellis, _Orig. Letters_, ser. 1, vol. i. p. 132, and translated in
Halliwell's _Letters of the Kings of England_, ii. 33.

[273] J. C. Nichols, _Literary Remains_, p. 32.

[274] _Ibid._ p. li.

[275] Huguenot Soc. Publications, vol. viii. ad nom.

[276] Brit. Mus. Royal MSS. 16, E 1. The whole consists of only eighteen
small leaves, of which five are occupied by the dedication. No date is
attached. The dedication continues:

". . . S'ainsy estoit (Tresnoble et Tresillustre Dame) que i'attendisse
le temps auquel ie peusse trouver et inventer chose digne de presenter a
vostre excellence, certes, madame, i'estime que ce ne seroit de long
temps: car quelle chose est ce qu'on pourroit monstrer de nouveau a
celle a qui rien n'est caché, soit en langue grecque ou latine ou en la
plus part des autres langues vulgaires de l'Europe: soit en la
congnoissance des histoires ecrites en icelles ou en philosophie et
autres liberales sciences. Puis donc qu'ainsy est que peu de livres
antiques se peuent trouver que n'ayez leuz ou au moins desquels n'ayez
ouy aucunement parler, ioint aussy qu'estes maintenant comme en lieu
solitaire, ie vous vueil seulement ramentevoir une epistre de Basile le
grand que i'estime qu'avez autres fois leue: en laquelle il recommande
fort la vie solitaire ou au moins exempte des cures et solicitudes de ce
monde: et ce a intention de pouoir induire celuy a qui il l'envoioit a
la contemplation de Dieu et de la vie future: qui sont les choses
ausquelles devons le plus penser durant que sommes en ce monde comme
estans les causes qui plus nous donnent occasion de bien vivre. . . ."

[277] Sylvius (1530) had proposed a new system of orthography based on
etymology and pronunciation. Meigret, however, was the chief exponent of
the reformers, who sought to make orthography tally with pronunciation
(in his _Traité touchant le comun usage de l'escriture françoise_, 1542
and 1545, and other works). Meigret was supported by Peletier du Mans
(_Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciation françoese_, 1549) and others,
and bitterly attacked by the opposing party. The question, once opened,
continued to be discussed until the decision of the Academy (founded
1649) settled the matter. Brunot, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 93 _sqq._

[278] "Ie vous ay escrit ce petit avertissement de paour que
paraventure, en lisant tant de diversitéz d'impressions comme pourriez
faire en ceste langue, ne sceussiez laquelle devriez suivre en ecrivant;
mais il sera bon de suivre la plus part des modernes qui s'accordent
quant a cela."

[279] Stevenson, _Cal. of State Papers_, foreign series, 1558-9, p. xxv,
takes it for granted that Bellemain was Elizabeth's tutor in French.

[280] Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_, 1884: Life of
Elizabeth, iii. pp. 9, 13.

[281] First printed at Alençon, 1531.

[282] This is at present in the Bodleian Library. It has an embroidered
cover, probably by the princess herself. See Cyril Davenport, _English
Embroidered Bookbindings_, London, 1899, p. 32. It was reprinted in
1897.

[283] There are two copies of this rare little volume in the Brit. Mus.
Another edition, varying considerably from the first, occurs in
Bentley's _Monuments of the Nations_, iv., London, 1582 (Stevenson, _ut
supra_, p. xxvi). It was republished in 1897.

[284] See Davenport, _ut supra_, p. 33. The original is in the Brit.
Mus.

[285] This little work appears to have been lost.

[286] Such as Hentzer the German, in 1598; Justus Zinzerling, 1610;
Peter Eisenburg the Dane, 1614. See Rye, _England as Seen by
Foreigners_, pp. 133, 171, 268, 282.

[287] D. C. A. Agnew, _Protestant Exiles from France ..._, 3rd ed.,
1886, vol. i. p. 45.

[288] Haag, _La France Protestante_, and Cooper, _Athen. Cant._ i. 306.
Agnew, _op. cit._, does not mention that Chevallier was tutor to
Elizabeth.




CHAPTER III

    THE INFLUENCE OF RELIGIOUS REFUGEES ON THE TEACHING OF FRENCH
    IN ENGLAND--OPENINGS FOR THEM AS TEACHERS--DEMAND FOR
    TEXT-BOOKS--FRENCH SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND


Religion, the question of all questions in the sixteenth century, was
destined, incidentally, to exercise a great influence on the teaching of
French in England. The conflicts resulting from the fierce hatreds
aroused by the Reformation compelled many Protestants to seek asylum
from the triumphant Catholic reaction abroad, and England was the land
to which many of them fled.[289] Among these refugees were many who took
upon themselves the task of teaching their native tongue to the English.
The second half of the sixteenth century was the time when this
influence was most strongly felt, although it is not altogether
negligible in the years immediately preceding. In France the Reformation
had at first been favourably received at Court, but in the third decade
of the century persecution began to drive some Protestants from their
native land. They made their way to England with some trepidation at
this early date,[290] for Henry VIII., in spite of his breach with Rome,
had but little sympathy with the Protestants, although he refused on
several occasions to surrender fugitive heretics to the French
king.[291] [Header: FOREIGNERS IN ENGLAND] On the accession of Edward
VI. in 1547, however, England became a more hospitable abode for the
Protestants, driven from France in increasing numbers by the
persecutions sanctioned by Henry II., whose reign coincided with that of
Edward. When Mary came to the throne all protection extended to these
fugitives was withdrawn, and we find many of their protectors fleeing in
their turn "to the Church and Christian congregation, then dispersed in
foreine realmes, as to the safest bay."[292]

The return of the English Government to Protestantism in the reign of
Elizabeth coincided with the period of increased persecution on the
Continent. Refugees arrived in great numbers, not only Huguenots from
France, but also subjects of Philip II., Dutch, Flemings, and Walloons,
fleeing from the cruelties of Alva.[293] These inhabitants of the Low
Countries came to England in greater numbers than the Huguenots.[294]
Many of them, such as the Walloons and Burgundians, spoke French; and,
while the chief teachers of the time were drawn from the Huguenots, a
large group of these French-speaking Netherlanders also joined the
profession. To these two classes of French teachers must be added a
third, the Roman Catholics, who formed the largest proportion of the
foreigners in England.[295]

The number of foreigners, augmented by the arrival of the refugee Dutch
and French, created a situation which required serious consideration.
These foreigners now formed a large fraction of the general
population--probably about one in twenty of the inhabitants of
London.[296] It became indispensable to keep some record of them,
especially as there was a danger that spies and Roman Catholic
emissaries might enter the country under the guise of refugees, and the
overcrowding resulting from the arrival of so many aliens was becoming a
serious matter. In earlier reigns the names of strangers in London had
been registered; but in the time of Elizabeth a census, both numerical
and religious, was taken more systematically, and at more and more
frequent intervals. In these returns of aliens dwelling in London,[297]
the names of many French teachers are preserved. Frequently their
profession is stated, and we are told what church they attended and
whether or not they were denizens, as well as the part of London in
which they dwelt, and, in the lay subsidies, the amount they had to pay
towards the heavy taxes levied on strangers.

Other names are preserved in the lists of the grants of letters of
denization.[298] This grant made the precarious position of foreigners
in England more secure. Denization became almost indispensable to any
one wishing to exercise a craft or trade. These letters gave the
recipient much the same privileges as a native, except that he was still
subject to special taxation.[299] Only those intending to settle in
England would trouble to take out letters of denization; and that many
of these foreigners' stay in England was only temporary is shown by the
fact that, when the number of strangers was greatest, as after the St.
Bartholomew massacre, there is no marked increase in the number of
denizations granted.

Means for registering the Protestant section of the community of
foreigners were provided through the Dutch and French churches in
London.[300] In 1550, Edward VI. had granted the dissolved monastery of
the Austin Friars to the foreigners as a place of worship; some months
later, owing to their increase in numbers, they were allowed the use of
another building--St. Antony's Hospital in Threadneedle Street. The
congregation was divided, the Dutch part remaining in the original
church, while the French and the Walloons and other French-speaking
refugees moved to Threadneedle Street. Both churches, each with two
pastors,[301] were under the control of a Superintendent. But when, in
the time of Elizabeth, the churches rose to new life, after their
suppression in the reign of Mary, the Superintendent was replaced by the
Archbishop of Canterbury. [Header: RECEPTION OF REFUGEES IN ENGLAND]
This change, however, did not prevent the refugee congregations from
enjoying many of their former liberties, for in the time of Elizabeth
the Archbishops, who had themselves experienced the hardships of exile
in the reign of Mary, took a particular interest in the cause of the
refugees. The English, indeed, complained, not entirely without reason,
that the foreigners were allowed greater religious freedom than they
themselves.

As French and Dutch refugees settled in different parts of the country,
similar churches arose in these settlements. By the end of the reign of
Elizabeth there were French-Walloon churches in existence at Canterbury,
Glastonbury, Sandwich, Southampton, Rye, and Norwich. In 1552 all
strangers were ordered to repair either to their own church or to the
English parish church. These injunctions were renewed in the time of
Elizabeth and became a useful means of checking the number of refugees
in London. From time to time, during this reign, the Archbishop
requested the ministers of the foreign churches to send him a list of
their communicants. Foreigners who did not attend any church were not
allowed to apply for the privilege of letters of denization.

Thus the aliens who arrived in England in such large numbers in the
second part of the sixteenth century had many restrictions placed upon
them, especially if they were engaged in any craft or trade which might
arouse the commercial jealousy of the English. In the teaching
profession such rivalry would not be felt to the same extent, though it
did actually exist. In any circumstance, however, all the exiles had to
endure the hatred and insults of the common people, from which, nearly
two centuries later, Voltaire only escaped without injury thanks to his
ready wit. Riots such as those of Evil May Day (1517) were directed
mainly against foreign traders, but all foreigners, especially
Frenchmen, were a continual butt for the insults of the mob. Nicander
Nucius remarks that the common people in England do not entertain one
kindly sentiment towards the French. "Ennemis du françois" is one of the
epithets applied to the English by De la Porte in his collection of
epithets (Paris, 1571) on the different nations. The French priest,
Étienne Perlin, who was in England during the last two years of the
reign of Edward VI., and thoroughly hated the country, calling it "la
peste d'un pays et ruine," speaks bitterly of the contrast between the
courteous reception the English receive in France, and the greeting of
the French in England with the cry, "French dogue": "it pleaseth me not
that these churls being in their own country spit in our faces, and they
being in France are treated with honour, as if they were little
gods."[302] All foreign visitors to England are at one in their
complaints of the lack of courtesy among the people. The great scholar
Casaubon says he was more insulted in London than he ever was in Paris;
stones were thrown at his window day and night, and once he was wounded
in the street on his way to pay his respects at Court.[303]

All these visitors, nevertheless, recognize that the English nobility
and gentry and those in authority are "replete with benevolence and good
order," and as courteous and affable as the people are uncivil.[304] And
thus we find foreigners, especially refugees, welcomed to chairs at the
English universities, and foreign students having their fees refunded on
showing they had suffered "for religion," and receiving ecclesiastical
preferment.[305] Most of the chief families in the realm, we are told,
received refugees into their midst. Laurence Humphrey[306] exhorts these
noble families to fulfil the sacred duty of hospitality towards
strangers, especially religious exiles, whose sufferings many of them
had themselves experienced in the reign of Mary, and to provide them
with necessary livings, admit them to fellowships, and allow them yearly
stipends. "Which well I wot, the noblest Prince Edward of happy memory
most liberally did both in London and either university, whom some
Dukes, Nobles, and Bishops imitated, chiefly the reverend Father and
late Primate of England ... Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury....
Amongst the Nobles not the least praise earned Henry Gray, Marquis of
Dorset, and Duke of Suffolk now a noble citizen of Heaven, who liberally
relieved many learned exiles. The like may be said of many others."

Cranmer had entertained at Lambeth Pierre Alexandre and "diverse other
pious Frenchmen," including Antony Rudolph Chevallier, who was tutor to
Elizabeth for a short time. [Header: TUTORS IN PRIVATE FAMILIES] Matthew
Parker, his successor to the see in the time of Elizabeth, followed his
example and declared it to be a Christian duty to befriend "these gentle
and profitable strangers." Cecil, Walsingham, and other dignitaries of
the time also became their protectors, and, recognizing the advantages,
both intellectual and commercial, which accrued to the country, sought
by all means to ward off the hostile measures demanded from time to time
by the English _bourgeoisie_.

One French teacher of the time, G. de la Mothe, says that so great was
the affection of the English nobility and gentry for the French that few
of them were without a Frenchman in their houses. Thus Pierre Baro, a
native of Étampes and student of civil law who came to England at the
time of the St. Bartholomew massacre, was "kindly entertained in the
family of Lord Burghley, who admitted him to eat at his own table."
Subsequently he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, and became Lady
Margaret Professor of Divinity at that university on the recommendation
of his patron, besides being admitted to the degrees of Bachelor and
Licentiate of Civil Law, and Doctor of Divinity (1576).[307] Lord
Buckhurst had for a time in his house Claude de Sainliens or Holyband,
the most popular French teacher of the time, and several other
strangers; while Sir Nicholas Throckmorton gave shelter to two
Burgundians, one Dutchman, and four Frenchmen, "whose names cannot be
learned."[308]

In many instances we know that these refugees taught French when thus
received into noble families, and it is extremely probable that such was
almost always the case, for French was one of the chief studies of the
higher classes of society and held an important place in the courtly
education of the time. This partiality for the language was called one
of the rare vocations which distinguished the English nobility. An idea
of the intellectual accomplishments necessary to a young gentleman of
the time may be gathered from the programme drawn up for Gregory, the
son of Mr. Secretary Cromwell;[309] this comprises "French, Latin,
writing, playing at weapons, casting of accounts, pastimes of
instruments." Wilson, the author of the earliest treatise on rhetoric in
English,[310] varies this scheme slightly; he commends the gentleman
"for his skill in French, or Italian, or cosmography, Laws, Histories of
all countries, gifts of inditing, playing on instruments, painting, and
drawing." Lord Ossory, Duke of Ormond, for example, rode very well, was
a good tennis-player, fencer, and dancer, understood music and played
well on the guitar and on the lute; French he spoke elegantly, while he
read Italian with ease--a careful and significant distinction between
the two languages--and, in addition, he was a good historian and well
versed in romances.[311]

Thus a place had to be assigned to French in the education of gentlemen.
Thomas Cranmer,[312] for instance, wrote to Cromwell in 1539, making
suggestions for the establishment of a College in the Cathedral Church
at Canterbury, to provide for the instruction of forty students "in the
tongues, in sciences, and in French"--a proposal which came to nothing,
but is none the less important, as being the first attempt to reinstate
French in an educational institution.

In the sixteenth century the long-standing custom among gentlemen of
sending their sons to the houses of noblemen for education was still
practised to some extent, and French was taught in these little
communities.[313] The usual subjects of study were reading, probably
writing, and languages, chiefly Latin and French. Sir Thomas More and
Roger Ascham were both educated in this way. More, at the age of three,
was sent to the house of John Morton, the chancellor, where he learnt
French, Latin, Greek, and music. Ascham spent his early years in the
house of Sir Humphrey Wingfield, who "ever loved and used to have many
children in his house."[314] Sir Henry Wotton was "pleased constantly to
breed up one or more hopeful youths which he picked out of Eton School,
and took into his own domestic care."[315] It was also customary for
young peers to become royal wards. In 1561 Sir Nicholas Bacon devised a
plan for their "bringing up in virtue and learning" which he submitted
to Cecil. [Header: FRENCH IN EDUCATION OF GENTRY] According to these
articles,[316] the wards were to attend divine service at six in the
morning, then to study Latin till eleven; nothing is said of breakfast,
but an hour is allowed for dinner; from noon till two o'clock they were
to be with the music master, from two to three with the French master,
and from three to five with the Latin and Greek masters. The rest of the
evening was devoted to prayers, honest pastimes, and music under the
direction of a master. No doubt Cecil put this advice into practice.
Some years later, Sir Humphrey Gilbert drew up an admirable scheme for
the "erection of an Academy in London for the education of her majesty's
wards, and others, the youth of Nobility and Gentlemen," which was laid
before the queen, probably in 1570. Although this scheme was never
carried out, it is of great interest as showing what were the subjects
most likely to be taught. Gilbert's plan is very extensive. French, of
course, is included in the curriculum--"also there shall be one Teacher
of the French tongue which shall be yearly allowed for the same £26.
Also he shall be allowed one usher, of the yearly wage of £10." Gilbert
urges also the teaching of other modern languages--Italian, to which he
assigns about as large a place as to French, and Spanish and High Dutch,
to which less importance is attached.[317]

French, then, was a recognized part of the education of the nobility and
gentry. Italian, it will be noticed, was also considered desirable, but
chiefly for reading purposes.[318] In the Elizabethan era Italian
literature had perhaps more influence on English writers than that of
France, although it not infrequently reached England through a French
medium. But when the first enthusiasm of the early days of the
Renaissance had burnt itself out, Italian was not cultivated generally,
except by those specially interested in literature or by those who had
special reasons for learning it. Nor was Spanish much studied, except
for practical purposes and the government services; Richard Perceval,
for instance, put his excellent knowledge of the language at the
disposal of Lord Burghley for the purpose of deciphering the packets
containing the first intelligence of the Armada.[319] Neither language
could be a dangerous rival to French, which alone was studied generally,
and by ever-increasing numbers.

It was in private tuition that those Frenchmen desirous of teaching
their language, or driven to do so by stress of circumstances, would
find the readiest opening and the largest demand for their services.
Turning to the various registers of aliens, the earliest notices we find
of French tutors are in the grant of letters of denization for the year
1544.[320] In that year one, John Verone, a French and Latin tutor to
the children of William Morris, a gentleman usher to the king, received
the grant, as did also a certain Honorie Ballier, a Frenchman who had
been ten years in England, and was engaged in teaching his language to
the children of the Lord Admiral, Lord Lisle, Duke of Northumberland.
Yet another teacher received the same privilege in this year--John
Veron, one of the "eminentest preachers" of the time, and the author of
various religious controversial works. He gained considerable preferment
in the Anglican Church, and once preached before the queen at the Cross
in St. Paul's Churchyard,--"a bold as well as an eloquent man," and a
perfect master of the English tongue.[321] In the earlier part of his
life in England, where he arrived about 1536, Veron had been engaged in
teaching gentlemen's children; a task in which, say his letters of
denization (1544), he "doth yet continue with intent ever so to
persevere." Veron manifested his interest in the teaching of Latin and
French by publishing a Latin, French, and English dictionary in 1552,
the first dictionary, published in England, in which a place is given to
French. It is based on the Latin-French Dictionary of Robert
Éstienne,[322] with the addition of a column in English, and entitled
_Dictionariolum puerorum tribus linguis Latina, Anglica, et Gallica
conscriptum cui anglicam interpretionem adjecit Joannes Veron_.[323]

The impetus imparted to the teaching of French by the arrival of these
large numbers of refugees naturally led to an increased production of
books for teaching the language. [Header: TEXT-BOOKS FOR TEACHING
FRENCH] Nearly all the grammars written in the second half of the
sixteenth century are the work of Frenchmen,[324] the English, after
their first initiative, soon giving place to the French writers on the
language, although not without some protest. Some of these teachers no
doubt made use of one or other of the grammars which had appeared in
French; many of them taught without any such help, and a few were able
to use one or other of the grammars which had already been published in
England, while yet others set to work to compile text-books of their
own. As many of them were, or had been, employed in noblemen's houses,
and had composed their grammars from material used in teaching in these
noble families, it was easy for most of them to find patrons for their
works,[325] and thus secure a greater measure of success by offering
them to the public under the protection of some well-known and powerful
name, which would "shadow these tender plants" from the "over violent
rays of reproachful censurings." To dedicate a grammar to some famous
pupil, with praise of his rare knowledge of French acquired by means of
its contents and the excellent method employed by his tutor, the author,
was a very good form of self-advertisement, freely used by the French
teachers of the time. Among patrons of French grammars were Edward VI.
and particularly Elizabeth, who is, says one of these writers, "le vray
port de retraite et asyle asseuré de ceux qui, faisans profession de
l'Evangile, souffrent ores persecution soubs la Tyrannie de
l'Antichrist"; another adds that she has "des estrangers les coeurs a
volonté." Lord Burghley, Sir Henry Wallop, Sir Philip Wharton, and other
influential men of the time also figure among the patrons of French
teachers.

These French grammars which appeared in the second half of the sixteenth
century are of a decidedly more popular kind than those of Palsgrave and
Duwes, and appeal to a larger public. The earlier grammars were written
for the special use of royalty and the highest ranks of the nobility.
Barclay, however, differs from his rivals in having a wider aim; his
grammar is intended for the "pleasure of all englysshe men as well
gentylmen marchauntes, as other common people that are not expert in the
sayd langage." Palsgrave also, by way of epilogue, expresses the hope
that the "nobility of the realm and all other persons, of whatever state
and condition whatsoever, may in their tender age, by means of it the
sooner acquire a knowledge of French by their great pains and study";
but it is clear that the size and price of his book, not to mention the
restrictions he placed on its sale, would prevent it from fulfilling any
such aim.

In this new series of French text-books there appeared nothing which
could compare in importance with the great work of Palsgrave; they were
all the hasty product of teachers, and intended to meet a pressing
practical demand. The authors had not the time, even if they had had the
ability, to produce any comprehensive study of the language, and,
consequently, their works are of more value as showing how French was
taught in England, and its popularity here, than as a store of
philological material for the historical grammarian. Rules of grammar
are usually reduced to as small a compass as possible; and the largest
part of the volumes is occupied by dialogues in French and English,
which give lively and often dramatic pictures of contemporary family
life, and of the busy London streets of the time. A place is also given
to familiar phrases, collections of proverbs, and golden sayings.

The public to which such text-books appealed was wider, including
merchants and commoners, as well as the gentry. Nor was the demand for
tutors in the language confined to the higher classes. At this time the
great middle classes were rising to wealth and prominence, and demanding
a share in the intellectual distinctions of their social betters. "As
for gentlemen, they be made good cheap in England," writes Sir Thomas
Smith,[326] in reference to the democratic movement. In this new class
of Englishman, the teachers of French recruited a large number of their
pupils. And so the French teacher who visited a clientèle of pupils
became a familiar figure in the London of the later sixteenth century.

The numerous French-speaking inhabitants of London, occupied in various
trades and crafts in the city, were, so to speak, his unconscious
collaborators, for the proportion of such foreigners in London was large
enough to have some influence on the spread of the knowledge of French.
[Header: SHAKESPEARE'S KNOWLEDGE OF FRENCH] We have an instance of this
indirect influence in the case of Shakespeare. From 1598 he lodged for
about six years, and possibly longer, in the house of a Huguenot, one
Christopher Montjoy, who lived in Silver Street, Cripplegate[327]--a
well-to-do neighbourhood, and the resort of many foreigners. Montjoy was
one of the French head-dressers who were in such demand at that time.
His wife, daughter, and also his apprentice, Stephen Bellot, formed the
rest of the household, with whom Shakespeare seems to have lived on
fairly intimate terms; he acted as a mediator in arranging a marriage
between Montjoy's daughter and Bellot, and, some years later, was drawn
into a family quarrel concerning a dowry which Bellot claimed and
Montjoy refused to pay; in 1612 Bellot took the matter into the Court of
Requests, and Shakespeare was one of the witnesses summoned. Finally the
matter was referred to the consistory of the French Church, which
decided in Bellot's favour.[328] It was no doubt during his sojourn in
the house of this Huguenot family that he improved his knowledge of
French, of which he gives evidence in his works.[329] The two plays in
which he uses the language most freely--_Henry V._ and _The Merry Wives
of Windsor_--were produced during the early time of his residence with
Montjoy, whose name is given to a French Herald in _Henry V._ In _The
Merry Wives_ the French physician, Doctor Caius, speaks a mixture of
broken English and French,[330] and in _Henry V._ French is introduced
freely into a number of the scenes,[331] while one, in which Katharine
of France receives a lesson in English from her French maid, is entirely
in French, and is here quoted for convenience' sake:[332]

    (Enter _Katharine_ and _Alice_.)

    _Kath._ Alice, tu as esté en Angleterre, et tu parles bien le
    langage.

    _Alice._ Un peu, madame.

    _Kath._ Je te prie, m'enseignez; il fault que j'apprenne à
    parler. Comment appellez-vous la main en Anglois?

    _Alice._ La main? elle est appellée de hand.

    _Kath._ De hand. Et les doigts?

    _Alice._ Les doigts? ma foy, j'oublie les doigts; mais je me
    soubviendra. Les doigts? je pense y qu'ils sont appellez de fingres;
    ouy, de fingres.

    _Kath._ La main, de hand; les doigts, de fingres. Je pense que je
    suis le bon escholier. J'ay gagné deux mots d'Anglois vistement.
    Comment appellez-vous les ongles?

    _Alice._ Les ongles? nous les appellons, de nails.

    _Kath._ De nails. Escoutez: dites-moy, si ie parle bien: de hand,
    de fingres, et de nails.

    _Alice._ C'est bien dict, madame; il est fort bon Anglois.

    _Kath._ Dites-moi l'anglois pour le bras.

    _Alice._ De arm, madame.

    _Kath._ Et le coude.

    _Alice._ D'elbow.

    _Kath._ D'elbow. Je m'en fais la répétition de tous les mots que
    vous m'avez appris dès à present.

    _Alice._ Il est trop difficile, madame, comme je pense.

    _Kath._ Excusez-moy, Alice; escoutez: de hand, de fingre, de
    nails, de arm, de bilbow.

    _Alice._ De elbow, madame.

    _Kath._ O Seigneur Dieu! je m'en oublie; de elbow. Comment
    appelez-vous le col?

    _Alice._ De nick, madame.

    _Kath._ De nick: et le menton?

    _Alice._ De chin.

    _Kath._ De sin. Le col, de nick: le menton, de sin.

    _Alice._ Ouy. Saulve vostre honneur, en vérité vous prononcez les
    mots aussi droict que les natifs d'Angleterre.

    _Kath._ Je ne doubte poinct d'apprendre, par la grace Dieu, et en
    peu de temps.

    _Alice._ N'avez vous pas desjà oublié ce que je vous ay enseigné?

    _Kath._ Non, je réciteray a vous promptement. De hand, de fingre,
    de mails--

    _Alice._ De nails, madame.

    _Kath._ De nails, de arme, de ilbow.

    _Alice._ Saulve vostre honneur, de elbow.

    _Kath._ Ainsi dis-je; de elbow, de nick, et de sin: comment
    appelez-vous le pied and la robbe?

    _Alice._ De foot, madame; et de coun.

    _Kath._ De foot, et de coun? O Seigneur Dieu! ce sont mots de son
    maulvais, corruptible, gros, et impudique, et non pour les dames
    d'honneur d'user. Je ne vouldrois prononcer cez mots devant les
    Seigneurs de France, pour tout le monde. Il fault de foot, et de
    coun, neant-moins. Je reciteray une aultre fois ma leçon ensemble:
    de hand, de fingre, de nails, de nick, de sin, de foot, de coun.

    _Alice._ Excellent, madame!

    _Kath._ C'est assez pour une fois; allons-nous à disner.

It is not surprising, remembering Shakespeare's friendship with the
Huguenots, to find him quoting from the Genevan Bible in the same
play.[333] [Header: FRENCH NEGLECTED IN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS] When he
composed it, he must have had a strong inclination to write French, as
he sometimes uses the language rather inconsistently, making the
Dauphin, for instance, speak French one moment and English the next.

On the whole, Shakespeare's French seems to have been fairly correct
grammatically, if not quite idiomatic.[334] It contains just enough
mistakes and anglicisms to make it extremely unlikely that he received
help from any Frenchman; for example, we find the Princess Katharine of
France saying, "Je suis semblable _a les_ anges." On other occasions,
when Englishmen are speaking, Shakespeare purposely makes their French
incorrect and clumsy. That he could read French is shown by the fact
that some of the originals on which he based his plays were not
translated into English.[335] Moreover, he probably read Montaigne in
the original, unless, like Cornwallis, Florio allowed him to see his
translation in manuscript--a rather remote possibility, as the French
would be easier of access. No doubt many others besides Shakespeare owed
a good deal of their knowledge of French to direct intercourse with
Frenchmen, a means of improvement strongly advocated by the professional
teachers of the time. "Get you acquainted with some Frenchman" is their
cry.

In addition to the refugees, students or men belonging to no particular
craft or profession who took up the teaching of their language on their
arrival in England, there were also professional schoolmasters--French,
Flemish, and Walloon. Many of the latter, we may surmise, were no doubt
driven from their country by the edict issued by Margaret, Duchess of
Parma, in 1567. One clause was particularly directed against
schoolmasters who might teach any error or false doctrine. None of these
teachers, however, would find any opening in the grammar schools, which
were then "little nurseries of the Latin tongue." The memorizing of
Latin grammar, with the study of rhetoric in the Latin writers, both in
verse and prose, formed almost the whole of the curriculum.[336] In the
books on education of the time the study of French was equally ignored.
These works, however, are mainly from the pen of pedants, and have but
little bearing on practical education.[337] For them French was not a
'learned' tongue, in spite of the efforts of Palsgrave to secure its
recognition as such.

But it is not difficult to reconcile the general prevalence of the study
of French with its absence from the grammar schools. At this time, and
throughout the seventeenth century, there was a great division between
scholastic education and social requirements.[338] The school and
educational writers, in refusing to recognize French, held aloof from
the social needs of the day: "non vitae sed scholae discimus"; and in
retaining the cosmopolitan atmosphere of the Middle Ages they ignored
the new spirit of nationalism which called modern languages into
prominence. The school had little, if any, effect in retarding the
progress of French, which came to be looked upon in the light of an
'extra,' to be studied privately and with the help of tutors. Many
scholars of the public or grammar schools had a private tutor who would
teach them French when occasion served. Such, for instance, was the case
with Sir Philip Sidney. Fulke Grenville and Sidney both entered
Shrewsbury School at the age of ten, in the year 1564. Two years later a
letter of Sir Henry Sidney informs us that he had received two letters
from his son, one in Latin and the other in French, "whiche I take in
good parte, and will you to exercise that Practice and Learning often:
For that will stand you in most steade, in that profession of lyf that
you are born to live in."[339] Apparently, then, Sidney had received
lessons in French either at home or out of school hours. He had also, in
all probability, had a French tutor before he went to Shrewsbury.

French, however, was not entirely neglected in all schools. As the
grammar schools were "Latin" schools, there arose in the second half of
the sixteenth century a considerable number of private "French"
schools, where this language received special attention. [Header:
PRIVATE FRENCH SCHOOLS] The earliest of these owed their origin to the
refugees, both professional schoolmasters and others. St. Paul's
Churchyard, the busy centre of city life, was the quarter round which
many of these schools were grouped. There they were most likely to get a
good clientèle, partly, it may be, among those boys attending St. Paul's
School who desired, like Sir Philip Sidney, to extend their studies. In
St. Paul's Churchyard, also, lived the chief booksellers, who generally
seem to have cultivated friendly relations with French teachers,
especially those whose books they were commissioned to sell. Frequently
they acted as agents for the teachers, who in their grammars advise
prospective pupils to "inquire" at the bookseller's. And, at this time,
when indications of address were given by reference to the nearest place
of importance, printers' signs are frequently used to locate the
situation of French schools. At least one of these schools seems to have
been very well known, for in 1590 the printer W. Wright, senior, gave as
his address, "neare to the French School."[340]

All of them, however, did not owe their origin to the French refugees.
We hear, for instance, of a certain John Love, an Englishman, son of the
steward of the Jesuit college founded by the English Catholics at Douay,
who had a French school near St. Paul's, at the end of the century. But
he was suspect, as it was feared he might be an "intelligenceer."[341]
Among the earliest, however, if not the first of these French schools,
was that of Peter Du Ploich, a Frenchman, and no doubt a refugee; at any
rate the text-book for teaching French which he published shows his
strong sympathy with the Protestants. This was entitled _A Treatise in
English and Frenche right necessary and profitable for al young
children_, and was first issued in about 1553 from the press of Richard
Grafton, who had "privilege de l'imprimer seul."[342] Of this
schoolmaster's life little is known.[343] From his little French
text-book, "right necessary to come to the knowledge of the same," we
learn that he kept his school at the sign of the Rose in Trinity
Street; that he was married, and probably received some of his pupils
into his house; and that he taught French, Latin, and writing. Probably
religious instruction also formed part of the curriculum, as it did in
the other schools of the time; both Henry VIII. and Edward VI. issued
orders that the Paternoster, the Ten Commandments, and the Apostles'
Creed should be taught to children.[344] Not only Du Ploich but other
French teachers of the time provided religious formularies in their
books for teaching the language, and in 1559-1560 the printer William
Griffith received a licence to print a Catechism in Latin, French, and
English.[345]

The Catechism, Litany, Suffrages, and prayers occupy a large part of Du
Ploich's _Treatise_, which is of quarto size, and consists of about
fifty leaves.[346] All these formularies are given in both French and
English, arranged in two columns on each page.[347] Then come three
familiar dialogues which constitute the third, fourth, and fifth
chapters of the book. The first of these gives us a lively picture of
family life at the time. From the street, where we meet friends and are
taught how to greet and address them, we pass into the house, where we
are spectators of the family repast and of the arrival of the guests,
and hear conversation on many subjects in which Du Ploich finds an
opportunity for self-advertisement by mentioning his school and address.
A child reads a passage from the New Testament, and the meal is preceded
and followed by lengthy thanksgivings, which, however, do not interfere
with the joviality and conviviality of the host.

    Sir, you make no good chere. Mons., vous ne faictes pas bonne chere.
    You say nothing.             Vous ne dictes rien.
    What sholde I say?           Que diroys-ie?
    I cannot speake frenche.     Je ne sais pas parler françois.
    I understande you not.       Je ne vous entens pas.
    O God, what say you?         O Dieu, que dictes-vous?
    You speake as well as I doo  Vous parlez aussy bien que je fais
    and better.                  et mieus aussy.
    Pardon me.                   Pardonnez moy.
    It pleaseth you to say so.   Il vous plaist de dire ainsy . . . etc.

[Header: PETER DU PLOICH]

The next two dialogues deal with subjects characteristic of these books
for teaching French--asking the way, the arrival and entertainment at an
inn, and finally, buying, selling, and bargaining--all topics useful for
merchants and merchants' apprentices, from whose ranks Du Ploich
probably recruited a number of his pupils. "L'aprentif" is the word he
uses in speaking of his pupils, though there is no proof to show that he
employed it in any special sense. Then comes a fifth chapter containing
the following headings: "Pour demander le chemin," "Aultre communication
en chevauchant," "Pour aller coucher," "Pour soy descoucher," and
beginning thus:

    Sir, we be oute of             Monsieur, nous somes hors de
    our way.                       nostre chemin.
    We be not.                     Non sommes.
    But we be.                     Si sommes.
    We go well.                    Nous allons bien.
    We doo not.                    Non faisons.
    But we doo, abyde.             Si faisons, attendez.
    Beholde there cometh a woman.  Voyla une femme qui vient.
    We will aske her               Nous voulons lui demander
    whiche is the way.             ou est le droict chemin.
    Good wife, shew me             M'amie, monstre moy
    the ryghte way                 le droict chemin d'icy
    here hence to the nexte towne. au prochain village.
    Streyghte before you.          Tousiours devant vous.
    Upon whiche hande?             A quelle main?
    On the lefte hande.            A la main gauche, etc.

In the sixth chapter the merchants leave the inn in the early morning to
transact their business:

    Wil we go see if we             Voulons nous aller veoir sy nous
    can bye some thyng?             pourrons acheter quelque chose?
    That shold be wel done,         Ce seroit bien faict,
    but it is yet too tymely.       mais il est encore trop tempre.
    By your licence it is tyme.     Pardonnez moy il est temps.
    Have you any Eglyshe cloth?     Avez vous dez draps d'Engleterre?
    Ye, what colour.                Ouy, quelle couleur . . . etc.

At the end come the names of the figures, necessary for such
transactions, and finally information and advice in verse form, without
any English rendering, "pour gens de finance":

    Toy qui est receveur du Roy
    Je te prie entens et me croy.
    Reçoy avant que tu escripves,
    Escriptz avant que tu delivres,
    De recevoir faitz diligence
    Et fais tardifve delivrance.
    En tes clers pas tant ne te fie
    Que veoir te fais souvent oublie.
    Regarde souvent en ton papier
    Quant, quoy, combien il fault payer.
    Prens lettres quy soyent vaillables,
    Aye parrolles amiables,
    Et soys diligent de compter.
    Ainsy pourras plus hault monter.

Du Ploich seems to have brought with him to England a Genevan "A B C,"
or book of elementary instruction and prayers for children, such as was
common in France as well as in England. The next section of his treatise
treats of the French A B C in words identical with those of an _A B C
françois_ printed at Geneva in 1551. This is followed by a few very
slight rules in English, which tell us not to pronounce the last letter
of a French word, except _s_, _t_, and _p_, when the next word begins
with a consonant; to neglect a vowel at the end of a word when the
following word begins with another vowel; also that the accusative
precedes the verb; that after _au_, _ou_, _i_, and _eu_, _l_ is not
sounded; that the consonants _sp_, _st_, and _ct_ should not be
separated in pronunciation; and that the negative is formed by placing
_ne_ before the verb and _pas_ or _point_ after it. To this scanty
grammatical information, which bears considerable resemblance to that
contained in some previous works,[348] the eighth and last chapter adds
the conjugation of the two auxiliaries in Latin, English, and French.
The treatise closes with a Latin poem addressed to "preceptor noster Du
Ploich" by John Alexander, one of his pupils, and with a table of
contents.

No doubt French was the basis of the whole of the instruction given by
Du Ploich in his school. His pupils learnt to write from this French
text-book, and memorized the Latin verbs with the French verbs. The fact
that Du Ploich places his few grammar rules at the end of the work, and
after the practical reading-exercises, shows what slight importance he
attached to them. He would, we may assume, refer his pupils to them as
occasion arose, but practical exercises and conversation formed the
chief part of his lessons. He made free use of English in explaining the
meaning of the French, and throughout his book he sacrifices the English
phrase in order to render more closely the meaning of the French, for
which he duly apologizes: "that none blame or reprove this sayd
translacion thus made in Englishe because that it is a litle corrupt.
[Header: DU PLOICH'S METHOD OF TEACHING] For the author hath done it for
the better declaryng of the diversitie of one tounge to the other, and
it is turned almost worde for worde and lyne for lyne, that it may be to
his young scholars more easy and lyght."

Du Ploich was thoughtful for his young pupils. "A little at a time, and
that done well" was his motto. On this method, he says, the child will
learn more in a week than he would do in two months by attempting a
great deal at the beginning. The master should repeat the lesson two or
three times before allowing the child to say it, and be ready to explain
difficulties, and not wait for the child to guess. If not, the pupil
will lose patience and the little courage he possesses. Du Ploich would
have the verbs learnt on the plan already advocated on a larger scale by
Duwes, that is, he advises the student to practise them negatively and
interrogatively as well as in the usual affirmative form.

Some time later, probably after Du Ploich's death, or when he had left
England, there appeared another edition of his grammar. This was printed
by John Kingston, and finished on the fourteenth day of April 1578.[349]
An important change in the arrangement of the chapters distinguishes it
from the edition of 1553; in the later edition the chapter on the
alphabet and grammar is placed at the beginning, although in both issues
the chapter on the two auxiliaries closes the work. Kingston--for he was
probably responsible for the change--thus yielded to the tendency, which
became stronger and stronger as time advanced, of placing theoretical
before practical instruction. In addition to slight variations, other
differences between the two works are the omission of the verses for
"gens de finance," and of the Latin poem addressed to Du Ploich by one
of his pupils.

_The Little Treatise in English and French_ was not the only work
produced by Du Ploich during his residence in England. On its completion
he turned his attention to the composition of a work on the estate of
princes, which he called a _Petit Recueil tresutile et tresnecessaire de
l'Etat dez Princes, dez Seigneurs temporelz et du commun peuple, faict
par Pierre Du Ploych_.[350] This _Recueil_ is written in French. Its
subject matter is not of much interest, but the Latin verses with which
it closes inform us that Du Ploich had a law degree (Licentiatus Legum).
He dedicated the manuscript, which is not dated, to the "Roy tres
puissant Eduard sixieme de ce nom," who graciously received it and
rewarded Du Ploich's industry by a generous gift.[351] This favourable
reception encouraged the French teacher to present another work to his
"Soverain lord and master" in the course of the following year. This
second manuscript is shorter than the earlier _Recueil_;[352] it bears
the title of _Petit Recueil des homaiges, honneurs et recognoissances
deubz par les hommes a Dieu le createur, avec certaines prieres en la
recognoissance de soy mesme_. At the end occurs a passage of some
interest in which Du Ploich expresses his intention of providing the
work, unworthy as it is, with an English translation, as soon as he
finds time and opportunity for such an undertaking, for he has not
English "de nature."[353] This rendering, he says, will be "mot pour mot
et ligne pour ligne, affin d'augmenter les couraiges des professeurs."
We may infer from this that he thought of having the work printed in
French and English for the use of students.

A French school very similar to that of Du Ploich, but of which we have
more details, was kept by Claude de Sainliens, De Sancto Vinculo, or, as
he anglicized it, Holyband. A native of Moulins and a Huguenot, Holyband
probably sought refuge in England from the persecutions. In 1571 he is
said to have been in England seven years;[354] hence he must have begun
his long career in London as a teacher of French in the year 1564. In
1566 he took out letters of denization.[355] Holyband was not exactly a
scholar, but rather a man of broad interests, sustained by extraordinary
vitality, and before he had been in England three years he had published
two books for teaching French, which became very popular, and continued
to be reprinted for nearly a century. There is no extant copy of the
earliest edition of the first of these, but it appeared most probably
in 1565. [Header: CLAUDE HOLYBAND] The earliest copy known is dated
1573, and bears the title, _The French Schoolemaister, wherin is most
plainlie shewed the true and most perfect way of pronouncinge of the
French Tongue_. The contents of this little book are of the kind which
became characteristic of works for teaching French. It opens with rules
for pronunciation and grammar in English, of little value or
originality, and purposely made as concise as possible. These are
followed by dialogues, collections of proverbs, golden sayings, prayers,
and graces before meat, and a large vocabulary. The dialogues are by far
the most interesting portion of the work. Like those of Du Ploich, they
show a close connexion between the teaching of French and the daily
concerns of life. They give us a picture of the busy London of the time,
and especially of St. Paul's Churchyard, as well as lively family
scenes, together with the usual wayside and tavern conversation. We see
the boy setting off to school in the morning, threading his way through
the busy streets, and again see him return to the hearty and hospitable
family dinner, during which he finds occasion to speak of his French
studies. These dialogues are given in French and English arranged on
opposite pages. Their dramatic interest may be gathered from the opening
passage, where we listen to the servant hurrying the boy off to school:

  Hau François, levez vous et allez        Ho Francis, arise and go to
  a l'eschole: vous serez battu,           schoole: you shall be beaten,
  car il est sept heures passées:          for it is past seven:
  abillez vous vistement.                  make you ready quickly.
  Dites voz prieres, puis vous             Say your prayers, then you
  aurez vostre desiuner:                   shall have your breakfast:
  sus, remuez vous.                        go to, stirre.
  Marguerite, baillez moy mes chausses.    Margaret, give me my hosen.
  Despeschez vous ie vous prie: où est     Dispatch I pray you: where is
  mon pourpoint? apportez me iartieres     my doublet? bring my garters
  et mes souliers:                         and my shoes:
  donnez moy ce chausse-pied.              give me that shooing-horne.
  Que faites vous là?                      What do you there?
  que ne vous hastez vous?                 why make you no haste?
  Prenez premierement une chemise blanche, Take first a cleane shirt,
  car la vostre est trop sale:             for yours is too foule:
  n'est elle pas?                          is it not?
  Hastez vous donc,                        Make haste then,
  car ie demeure trop.                     for I do tarry too long.
  Elle est encore moite, attendez un peu   It is moist yet, tarry a litle
  que ie la seiche au feu:                 that I may drie it by the fire:
  i'auray tost fait.                       I will have soone done.
  Je ne sauroye tarder si longuement.      I cannot tarry so long.
  Allez vous en, ie n'en veux point.       Go your way, I will none of it.
  Vostre mere me tancera                   Your mother will chide me
  si vous allez a l'eschole                if you go to school
  sans vostre chemise blanche.             without your clean shirt.

And after quarrelling with Margaret, and using rather bad language,
Francis receives his parents' blessing, and starts off to school.
Unfortunately we are not spectators of his doings there.

Whether Holyband had opened his French school or not when he composed
the _French Schoolemaister_ is uncertain; but the school was evidently
in full swing at the time his second work appeared, about a year later,
in 1566. The contents of the new work, _The French Littleton, a most
easie, perfect, and absolute way to learn the French tongue_, are much
the same as those of the _French Schoolemaister_. There is, however, one
important difference between the two works. In the _Schoolemaister_ the
rules precede the practical exercises, but this order is reversed in the
_Littleton_. In the first work Holyband does not appear to have fully
evolved his method of teaching French. By the time he wrote the _French
Littleton_ he was able to lay down principles, based, no doubt, on
experience, and consequently he attached a higher value to the second of
his works, and used it himself in teaching. The _French Schoolemaister_
was intended more for the use of private pupils. It was described as a
"perfect way" of learning French without any "helpe of Maister or
teacher,[356] set foorthe for the furtherance of all those whiche doo
studie privately in their own study or houses." Holyband himself does
not seem to have given it much attention after its first appearance.
Nevertheless it enjoyed as great a popularity and went through as many
editions, or nearly so, as its author's more favoured work. Other French
teachers made up for Holyband's neglect by editing it themselves in the
early seventeenth century. So great indeed was its success that in 1600
a tax of 20 per cent was levied on each edition for the benefit of the
poor.[357] We may perhaps conclude from this that those who studied
French privately were numerous.

The value of the _French Littleton_ is more educational; it expounds all
the favourite theories of its author. The name is taken from the popular
work on English law, the text-book for all law-students, Littleton's
_Tenures_. While the _French Schoolemaister_ was a small octavo, the
_Littleton_ was printed to the size of a tiny pocket-book, in 16mo.
[Header: HOLYBAND'S FRENCH GRAMMARS] First come practical exercises in
the form of dialogues in French and English,[358] but of less lively
interest than those of the _Schoolemaister_. They deal, however, with
the same subjects,[359] only, as we read them we do not forget, as we
were inclined to do in the earlier book, that we are reading exercises
intended for school use. Then follow proverbs, golden sayings, prayers,
the creed, the fifth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, a treatise on
the iniquity of dancing (_Traité des Danses_), and finally a vocabulary
less comprehensive and of less value than that of the _French
Schoolemaister_.

The _French Littleton_ derives additional interest from the fact that in
it Holyband sets forth a new system for rendering the pronunciation of
French easier to the English. He realized the difficulties placed in
their way by the many unsounded letters present in certain French words.
He had no desire, however, to join the extremists, who advocated the
omission of all such consonants in orthography as well as in
pronunciation. Holyband considered such letters an essential part of the
word, and often a useful indication of the pronunciation of vowels and
of the derivation. He therefore proposed a compromise which he thought
would please both parties: he retains the unsounded letters, but
distinguishes them from those which were pronounced by placing a small
cross below them,[360] a device adopted in later editions of the _French
Schoolemaister_ also. A short quotation from the conversation for
travellers and merchants will show how Holyband applied his method:

  Monsieur ou pikez vous si bellement?  Sir whither ride you so softly?
                  x

  A Londres                            To London
  à la foire de la Berthelemy.         to Barthelomews faire.
                       x
  Je vay au Landi à Paris, je vay      I go to Landi to Paris,
  à Rouen.                             to Rouen.

  Et moy aussi: allons ensemble:       And I also: let us go together:
   x
  je suy bien aise                     I am very glad
  d'avoir trouvé compagnie.            to have found company.

  Allons de par Dieu:                  Let us go in God's name:
       x
  picquons un peu,                     let us pricke a littell,
  j'ay pour que nous ne venions pas là I fear we shall not come thither
                   x          x   x
  de jour, car le soleil               by daylight: the sunne
                    x
  s'en va coucher.                     goeth downe.

  Mais où logerons nous? où est        But where shall we lodge? where is
                 x          x x
  le meilleur logis? la meilleure      the best lodging? the best
                               x
  hostelerie?                          inne?

  Ne vous souciez pas de cela:         Care you not for that: it is
                x   x
  c'est au grand marché a l'enseigne   at the great market, at the sign
     x         x
  de la fleur de lis, vis à vis        of the flower Deluce, right over
  de la croix.                         against the crosse.

  Je suy joyeux d'estre arrivé, car    I am glad that I am arrived, for
              x    x
  certes g'ay bon appetit:             truly I have a good stomacke:
  J'espère de faire à ce soir          I hope to make to-night
                  x
  souper de marchant.                  a marchauntes supper.

  Nous disons en nostre pais           We say in our country,
     x             x
  que desiuner                         that hunters
  de chasseurs, disner d'advocats,     breakefast, lawyers dinner,
                  x       x     x
  souper de                            supper of
  marchants et collacion de moynes     marchauntes, and monkes drinking
          x  x
  est                                  is
   xx
  la meilleure chere qu'on sauroit     the best cheere that one can
       x                         x
  faire,                               make,
  et pour vivre en epicurien.          and to live like an epicure.
              x

  Et on dit en nostre paroisse         And they say in our parish
   x             x
  que jeunes                           that young
           x
  medecins font les cymetieres         phisitions make the churchardes
              x
  bossus                               crooked
  et vieux procureurs, procès tortus:  and old attornies sutes to go awry,
   x     x
  mais au                              but on the
  contraire que jeunes procureurs et   contrary that young lawyers,
                     x
  vieux medecins, jeune chair,         olde phisitions, young flesh,
      x
  et vieil poisson sont les meilleurs. and old fishe be the best.
   x     x            x   x   x

  Or bien, irons nous acheter          Well shall we go and buy
  ce qu'il                             that whiche
  nous faut? Nous demourons trop.      we doe lack? We tarie to long.
     x          x

  Roland que ne te leves-tu? ouvre     Roland, why doest thou not rise?
                       x
  ouvre                                open
  la boutique: est tu encore au lit?   the shop: are you yet a bed?
                 x         x

  Tu aimes bien la plume: si mon       Thou loveth the fethers well: if my
         x
  maistre descend, et qu'il ne treuve  maister commeth downe and find not
     x          x   x
  la boutique ouverte,                 the shop opened,
            x
  il se courroucera.                   he will be angry.

  Messieurs, monsieur, madame,         Sirs, sir, my lady,
  mesdames, mademoiselle,              maistres, gentlewoman,
  que demandez vous? que cerchez vous? what lack you? what seek you?
             x                 x

  Qu'acheteriez vous volontiers?       What would you buy willingly?...
              x    x

The most interesting of the dialogues in the _French Littleton_,
however, is that in which we have a picture of Holyband's school, which
was first opened in St. Paul's Churchyard at the sign of Lucrece--the
shop of the printer Thomas Purfoote. Here we see children arriving for
their lessons early in the morning, each with his own books and other
materials. The schoolroom seems to have been a lively place; the
scholars are represented as fighting, pulling each other's hair, tearing
their books, and indulging in other pranks of the kind. Holyband sought
to keep order by means of a birch, and one of the many offences which
called it into action was the speaking of English. [Header: HOLYBAND'S
FRENCH SCHOOL] In this little school of his, Holyband appears to have
laboured at the task he set himself of leading the English nation "comme
par la main au cabinet de (nostre) langue françoyse," under excellent
conditions. The whole atmosphere seems to have been French. The
curriculum, however, was not confined to this one language. Holyband had
to safeguard his interests by instructing his pupils in the subjects
taught in the ordinary English schools, and so we find him teaching
Latin, writing, and counting, as well as French, and probably by means
of French. With some of his pupils Holyband studied Terence, Vergil,
Horace, the _Offices_ of Cicero, and with others, Cato, the _Pueriles
Confabulatiunculae_, and Latin grammar, according to their capacity. Yet
others learnt reading, writing, and French only. Morning school, which
closed with prayer at eleven, was devoted chiefly to the study of Latin.
The afternoon was given over entirely to French; and it does not seem
unreasonable to suppose that other scholars came then specially for
instruction in French. The pupils returned for afternoon work at
mid-day, and began by translating French into English and then
retranslated the English back into French, using, we may be sure,
Holyband's _French Littleton_. Next came a little practice in
vocabulary, in which "maister Claude" asked them the French for various
English words. Grammar was not neglected, but questions concerning it do
not appear to have been invited until some difficulty in the text
rendered it necessary. The pupils were also required to decline various
nouns and verbs which occurred in the text. The auxiliaries they were
expected to learn by heart. Not until five o'clock did the long French
lesson draw to a close, and then the scholars lit their torches or
lanterns and set off home after being dismissed with evening prayers.
Before their departure, they received instructions to read the lesson
for the following day six or seven times after supper. By doing this,
their master assured them, it would appear easy on the morrow, and be
learnt without effort.

Holyband informs us that his charges were one shilling a week or fifty
shillings a year. He allows that this was more than the fees asked for
in most schools, but justifies the higher charge by the superior
instruction imparted. At any rate his school was very prosperous. In
1568, when it had been in existence for at least two, and perhaps three
years, we find him assisted by an usher, one John Henrycke, said to be
a Frenchman.[361] He was, no doubt, the Jehan Henry "Maistre d'Eschole,"
who wrote a dizain in praise of Holyband's _French Schoolemaister_
(1573), where, in rather questionable French, he summoned the students
of France to devote all their attention to "ce poli et belle oeuvre,"
and not to read

    Des ravaudeurs le reste,
    Qui souloyent quelques regles escrire,
    Mais, au vray indignes de les lire.

Holyband, as we have noticed, was a very active and somewhat restless
person, never staying long in one place, and it is difficult to follow
him in his frequent changes of residence. For a time he removed his
school to Lewisham, then outside London. Here, sometime before 1573, he
had an interview with Queen Elizabeth, who perhaps visited his school as
she passed through the village, for the head boy, Harry Edmondes,
pronounced a discourse before Her Majesty.

In 1576 Holyband had given up his French school, and entered the ranks
of French private tutors, living in the house of a patron. He was one of
the aliens dwelling in Salisbury Court, the residence of Lord Buckhurst,
and, no doubt, was engaged in teaching French to the younger children of
his protector. He had previously come into contact with this noble
family, and had probably received some assistance from this quarter on
his arrival in England, and may have taught French to the eldest son,
Robert Sackville, now at Oxford,[362] to whom he dedicated both his
early works.

When we first hear of Holyband he was already married and had children.
His wife died probably before he went to Salisbury Court. Two years
later he married an Englishwoman, Anne Smith,[363] and had resumed his
French school in St. Paul's Churchyard, but his address was now at the
sign of the Golden Bell, for the printer Thomas Purfoote had moved his
sign to Newgate Market. [Header: HOLYBAND'S TEACHING CAREER] Here he
remained for some time, until 1581 at the earliest, and probably
somewhat later. He also attended the French Church. At this period of
his life he again turned his attention to writing on the French
language, and collecting together notes which he had no doubt compiled
in past years. In 1580 three new works on French appeared from his pen.
One was a _Treatise for Declining Verbs_--a subject which he calls "the
second chiefest worke of the Frenche tongue"--written at the request of
several gentlemen and merchants. The book itself is of little value, and
did not by any means share the popularity of his earliest books. Still,
two other editions appeared, one in 1599 and the other much later, in
1641. The second of these works, dealing with French pronunciation on
much the same lines as the _French Littleton_, was even less popular. It
was intended for the "learned," and consequently written in Latin--_De
Pronuntiatione linguae gallicae_.[364] Holyband was also becoming more
ambitious in his dedications; probably through Lord Buckhurst, the
queen's cousin on his mother's side, he was able to dedicate his
treatise "ad illustrissimam simulque doctissimam Elizabetham Anglorum
Reginam." At the end Holyband added a dialogue in three different kinds
of spelling--the new, the old, and his own--as well as a Latin sermon on
the Resurrection. A French-English Dictionary was the third of these
works, published in 1580, with the title: _The Treasurie of the French
Tong, Teaching the way to varie all sorts of Verbs, Enriched so
plentifully with Wordes and Phrases (for the benefit of the studious in
that language), as the like hath not before bin published._ Many years
later, in 1593, Holyband again gave proof of his deep interest in French
lexicography by the publication of his _Dictionarie French and English,
published for the benefit of the studious in that language_, based on
his earlier work, but on a much larger scale.[365]

Meanwhile he had had an opportunity to extend his knowledge and to
refresh his mind by a long journey on the Continent. Once more he had
yielded to his love of change and movement, and entered the service of
another powerful patron, Lord Zouche, to whom he dedicated his
dictionary of 1593. In the dedication we are told how he had undertaken
a "long, lointain, penible et dangereux voyage" with his noble
protector, who was to him "plutot pere ou baston de vieillesse que non
pas maistre, Seigneur ou commandeur." Thus we may conclude that, when
Lord Zouche crossed to Hamburg by sea in March 1587, intending to
qualify himself for public service on the Continent, as well as to "live
cheaply," Holyband accompanied him, and, no doubt, found many
opportunities for serious study. They proceeded to Heidelberg, where
their names were inscribed on the matriculation register of the
university in May.[366] Zouche then travelled to Frankfort, Basle
(1588), Altdorf (1590), and thence to Vienna (1591), and on to Verona,
returning to England in 1593.[367]

After the publication of this last of his works in 1593, we lose sight
of Holyband in his rôle of teacher of French. He was, however, still in
England in 1597, when he dedicated a new edition of his _French
Littleton_ to a new patron, Lord Herbert of Swansea. Thereafter he is
not mentioned, and subsequent editions of his most popular works--the
_Schoolemaister_ and _French Littleton_--were issued without his
supervision. Probably he had returned to his native country, for in the
last of his published works he assumes the title of "gentilhomme
bourbonnais," which suggests that he had come into the possession of
some property in his native province, where his name was still known in
the seventeenth century.[368] Certain it is that he did not remain in
England. There is no further trace of his children, of whom he had at
least four.[369] Thus silently, as if forgetful of his former habits, he
slipped out of sight after he had spent nearly forty years teaching his
language in England. He won the praise of the scholar Richard Mulcaster,
soon to be appointed Head of St. Paul's School, near which Holyband had
so long had his own modest establishment; and the poet George Gascoigne
wrote a sonnet in his honour: [Header: HOLYBAND'S METHOD OF TEACHING
FRENCH]

    The pearl of price which Englishmen have sought
    So farre abroade, and cost them there so dere,
    Is now founde out within our country here,
    And better cheape amongst us may be bought.
    I mean the French that pearle of pleasant speech,
    Which some sought for, and bought it with their lives,
    With sicknesse some, yea some with bolts and gives,
    But all with payne this peerlesse pearle did seeke.
    Now Holyband, a friendly French indeede,
    Hath tane such paynes, for everie English ease,
    That here at home we may this language learne,
    And for the price he craveth no more meede
    But thankfull harts to whome his pearles may please.
    Oh, thank him then, that so much thanke dothe earne.

Holyband, like his predecessor Du Ploich, was an advocate of the
practical teaching of languages. A perfect knowledge of French, in his
eyes, consisted in being able to read and pronounce the language
accurately. Thus the first thing to be done by those desiring to study
the language is to begin to read at once. The learner must not "entangle
himself at the first brunte" with rules; but, "after he hath read them
over, let him take in hand the dialogues, and as occasion requireth he
shall examine the rules, applying their use unto his purpose."[370] He
must first "frame his tongue by reading them aloud, noting carefully
which letters are not pronounced, looking for the reasons why they are
lefte in the rules of pronunciation," so that "when he shall happen
uppon other bookes printed without these caracters he may remember which
letters ought to be uttered and which ought not." In these rules[371]
Holyband endeavours to explain French sounds by comparison with English
sounds. His treatment of the letter _a_ may be given as an example of
his method. "Sound our _a_," he says,[372] "as you sound the first
sillable in Laurence, or Augustine in English. When _a_ is joined with
_in_ it loseth his sound, or at the least it is very little heard: as
_pain_, _hautain_.... Pronounce then as if they were written thus:
_pin_, _hautin_.... But if _e_ followeth _n_, then _i_ goeth more
towards _n_, thus: _balaine_, _semaine_ ...," and then he proceeds to
describe in like fashion the sounds of the diphthong _ai_. His treatment
of the sound _gn_ is quaint and interesting. "When you find any word
written with _gn_, remember how you pronounce these English words,
_onion_, _minion_, _companion_, and such like: so melting _g_, and
touching smoothly the roofe of the mouth with the flat of the tongue,
say: _mignon_, _oignon_, _compagnon_; say then, _cam-pa-gne_,
_campa-gnie_, and not _cam-pag-ne_, _campag-nie_, separating _g_ from
_n_; but rather sound them as if they were written thus in your English
tongue, _campaine_, _campanie_."

Such rules alone, however, were of little value in Holyband's opinion,
and we cheerfully agree with him. The reader must be very circumspect in
his use of them, and his teacher a very skilful Frenchman, "or else all
will go to wracke." He seems to have thought that much more depended on
the tutor than on rules. No doubt he fully shared the opinion stated
earlier by Duwes, that rules are of more use to the teacher than the
learner. "Oh how busie is this tongue," he says of French, "and into
what maze doth the learner enter which doth take it in hand: therefore
let his tutor be sevenfold skilfull." We are prepared, then, to find
Holyband agreeing with Henry VIII.'s tutor on another point--the
teaching of French and writing of French grammars by the English. To him
it appeared obvious that "it is not the part of a stranger, except he be
learned and of a long continuance in France, to give precepts concerning
the pronunciation of the (French) tongue: yea neither of the best
Frenchmen, be he never so learned or eloquent in the same, except he
hath practised the premises by teaching or otherwise by a long and
diligent observation." There can be no question of committing rules to
memory; they merely serve to throw light on the reading matter. Yet the
practice of memorizing is not neglected. There were two purposes for
which it was called into use, the verbs, chiefly the two auxiliaries,
and vocabulary, to which Holyband attached much importance.

According to Holyband himself, his method had excellent results. He was
especially proud of the pronunciation of his pupils. In teaching this he
followed a plan which strikes the modern reader as curious, but which
had already been employed in an early sixteenth-century grammar, that of
the poet Alexander Barclay. According to this plan he taught his
scholars the main characteristics of the different dialects of France,
as well as the pure French in which they were encouraged to speak. His
reason for doing so was to put them on their guard against the variety
of dialects, chiefly Picard and Walloon, spoken by the numerous refugees
scattered all over London. [Header: FRENCH CHURCH SCHOOLS] When new
scholars came to his school from "other French schools," he assures us
that on hearing them speak and pronounce any letter incorrectly, his own
pupils "spie the faultes as soone as I, yea they cannot abide it: and
which is more they will discerne whether the maister which taught them
first was a Burgonian, a Norman, or a Houyet."

The reading, which Holyband made the basis of his language teaching, was
always explained by means of English renderings. In his dialogues he
makes no attempt to retain the purity of the English phrase. English for
him was merely a vehicle for interpreting to his young scholars the
meaning of the French, "for I do not pretend to teach them any other
thing then the French tongue," and so he begs his readers not to "muse"
at the English of his book, but to take the French with such goodwill as
it is offered. It will be noticed that on this point, as on many
others--placing the rules after the practical exercises, for
instance--Holyband resembles Du Ploich, and no doubt he was acquainted
with the _Treatise_ of his less well known fellow-teacher. The points of
resemblance between the dialogues of the two works are sufficient proof
of this, although Du Ploich's cannot compare with Holyband's in
interest. Another work which had some influence on his dialogues was the
_Linguae Latinae Exercitatio_ of the great Spanish scholar and
educationist Vives--a book containing Latin dialogues, dealing with the
life of the schoolboy at home and at school, at work and at play. This
was a very popular school-book in the sixteenth century, and was most
likely used by Holyband in the Latin lessons at his own school. He also
incorporated the Latin dialogues of Vives in a work which he called the
_Campo di Fior, or flowery field of four languages, Italian, Latin,
French and English_, giving the dialogues in these four languages. This
work appeared in 1583, when he was probably still teaching in St. Paul's
Churchyard.[373]

Besides these French schools kept by private individuals, there were
others in connexion with the French churches. After the foundation of
the French Church in Threadneedle Street, other churches had arisen in
different parts of the country. The education of the children attending
these institutions had to be seen to, and very soon schools were
established under the supervision of the churches themselves.[374]
Although these schools were primarily intended for the instruction of
the children of the refugees, they also undertook to teach those "who
would wish to learn the French language." Just as some English attended
the services of the French Church, so also some sent their children to
the school associated with it. And it must be remembered that to some
Englishmen the French Church presented greater attractions than the
English Church did at that time; for there naturally grew up a bond of
sympathy between the Protestant refugees and the English Nonconformists,
many of whom sought in the French Church, with its Genevan discipline, a
form of worship not sanctioned by the English Church. Others attended
these churches for the same reason as the "Italianate gentleman,"
censured by Roger Ascham,[375] went to the Italian Church: "to heare the
(French) tongue naturally spoken, not to heare God's doctrine trewly
preached." This was a practice strongly advocated by many of the French
teachers of the time. The number of Englishmen of both kinds must have
been considerable. In 1573 Elizabeth issued an Order forbidding the
French Church to give communion to those English who, by curiosity or
dislike for their own ceremonies, wished to receive it in the French
Church. The church in Threadneedle Street took steps to limit the number
of its English adherents. These were required to produce evidence of a
sober life, and of loyalty to their own church, before they were allowed
to communicate.[376] English names are not uncommon in the Threadneedle
Street Registers. Even members of the nobility stood as sponsors to the
children of the French strangers, for instance, the Marquis of Hamilton,
the Earl of Pembroke, and the Countess of Bedford, in the year
1624.[377] The French Church at Southampton also had numerous English
members and communicants,[378] while at Canterbury a rule was made that
all the English connected with the church should know French; on one
occasion, a person was refused as a sponsor on account of his ignorance
of that tongue.[379] [Header: FRENCH SCHOOL AT CANTERBURY] Considering
the esteem in which the French churches were held by many Englishmen,
we may assume that some of the latter were glad to take advantage of the
willingness of the French Church to receive their children into its
schools. The refugees, on their part, did not always send their children
to their own schools. The sons of the wealthier strangers would go to
the English grammar schools, and thence, in many cases, to the
University.[380]

The subjects taught in these French church schools were, no doubt, much
the same as those of the private French schools, including religious
instruction, writing, reading, arithmetic, and possibly music. The
curriculum appears to have been of quite an elementary nature. As to the
teachers, they were required to be of sober life, and members of the
French Church. They had to be appointed by the minister and presented to
the bishop. They also were required to give the minister an account of
the books they read to the children, and of the methods followed, and be
willing to adopt the advice of their superiors "sans rien entreprendre à
leur fantaisie." Further, it was their duty to conduct the children to
church on Sunday for the catechism.[381] Such were the regulations laid
down in the second Discipline, drawn up on the restoration of the French
Church after the accession of Elizabeth. When this was revised some
years later, in 1588, a few changes were made. The presentation to the
bishop was dispensed with, and the teachers were no longer obliged to
conduct the children to the catechism: they had only to prepare them to
answer it. And the ministers, on their side, were required to visit the
schools, accompanied by the elders and deacons, at least four times a
year; their attention was specially called to "those who teach
languages."[382]

The French teachers attached to the Church at Canterbury are those of
whom we have most detailed information. In one of the articles of a
petition, which the group of refugees there addressed to the city
authorities, in the reign of Elizabeth, they crave that permission may
be given to the schoolmaster whom they have brought with them to teach
both their own youth and also other children who desire to learn the
French tongue.[383] Their request appears to have been well received,
as a French church and school were established not long after. Among the
names of the petitioners was that of Vincent Primont, teacher of youth,
who seems to have been the first schoolmaster of this little community.
He was a refugee from Normandy, and arrived at Rye in 1572.[384] To the
office of schoolmaster, which he held for many years, was added that of
Reader to the congregation--a post he resigned in 1584, owing to some
action of the consistory which did not meet with his approval. The last
mention we have of him, as schoolmaster, occurs in December 1583, when a
member of the congregation was reproved for allowing his workmen to set
a bad example to Master Vincent's scholars. He probably filled his
position for some time after this date. In August 1581, however, another
teacher, Nicholas du Buisson, obtained permission "to go from house to
house to teach children," and in 1583 received a small quarterly
allowance for taking charge of the children at the services in the
Temple.[385] The demand for teachers apparently increased considerably
at this time; in 1582 we hear of a third schoolmaster, Paul Le Pipre,
who had already been teaching for some time previous to this date. Le
Pipre several times took steps to defend his monopoly and prevent the
admission of other schoolmasters. In 1582 he opposed the application of
Jan Roboem or Jean Robone, who sought permission to hold school. Roboem,
who had been Reader in the French Protestant Church at Dieppe, fled
thence to Rye in 1572, in company with his wife and two children.[386]
He was in very poor estate on arriving at Canterbury, and the consistory
of the French Church at last prevailed on Le Pipre to agree to his
admission, promising him that if any disadvantage accrued to him thereby
it should be remedied. Roboem was therefore told he might put his notice
on the door of the Temple--the usual form of advertisement--whenever he
pleased.[387] He did not, however, keep it there long, moving to London
in the same year. He is no doubt to be identified with the John Robonin,
"schoolmaster of the French tongue," who was living in the "Warde of
Chepe," and attending the French Church, at the end of 1582.[388]

[Header: PAUL LE PIPRE]

Paul Le Pipre was again approached in 1583 with regard to the
appointment of another schoolmaster, probably a successor to Robonin. He
was told that another teacher was necessary, and that one had come
forward, a destitute refugee, who wished for permission to teach in
order to earn his living. Le Pipre replied "that he held to his
agreement with the Church, namely that he could not leave without giving
three months' notice." Ultimately it was decided "that the aforesaid
should not be permitted to keep school, both on account of the agreement
and because he was not as yet sufficiently known to be of the religion."
This teacher, whose name is not given, was, however, allowed to instruct
"certain married people, and others grown up and over fourteen years of
age who did not go to Paul's school, in consideration of his
poverty."[389]

Paul Le Pipre retained the position he was so unwilling to share with a
colleague, for many years after this. The last we hear of him is in
September 1597, when he was censured by the consistory for holding
school on Sunday.

French schools likewise arose in other provincial towns, where French
Churches had been established. There were also, it appears, similar
private schools, with the primary object of teaching French to the
English, and unconnected with the churches. At any rate, French and
Walloon schoolmasters arrived in some of these towns. At Rye in 1572,
for instance, we come across Nicholas Curlew and Martin Martin,
fugitives from Dieppe,[390] though probably, like Vincent Primont and
John Robone, they did not settle in the town. At Norwich, in 1568, was a
Pierre de Rieu of Lille who had arrived ten months before, and in 1622
Francis Boy and John Cokele.[391] At Dover, in the same year, Francis
Rowland and Nicholas Rowsignoll, both French schoolmasters, had "come
out of France by reason of the late troubles yet continuing."[392] And
lastly, at Southampton, we hear in 1576 of Nicholas Chemin, who, in
1578, was refused communion at the church on account of his causing some
disturbance in the congregation; of a M. Du Plantin, dit Antoine Ylot,
in 1576, and of a Pierre de la Motte, 'mestre d'escolle,' in 1577.[393]
No doubt most of these schoolmasters taught under the auspices of the
French Churches.

M. Du Plantin was one of a large number of ministers who took refuge in
England, and his school was probably a French Church school, for seven
of his young scholars are mentioned as communicants. Many French pastors
like him, no doubt, took to the teaching profession during their stay in
England, their numbers being far in excess of the ministers needed in
the churches. The famous reformer, John Utenhove of Ghent, was in 1549
tutor to the son of a London gentleman.[394] Valerand Poullain, a
converted priest, who, after being pastor at Strasburg, came to England,
for a time held a similar post in the household of the Earl of
Derby;[395] he afterwards became minister of the French Church at
Glastonbury on the recommendation of Utenhove. Another minister, Jean
Louveau, Sieur de la Porte, spent the time of exile from his Church of
Roche Bernard, after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, in teaching
languages in London, and there were many others in like case.[396]

At Southampton there was a French school of special interest. Its
teacher, like Du Plantin, was a pastor, though the school does not seem
to have had any close connexion with the French Church. This
schoolmaster and divine was the once famous Dr. Adrian Saravia, a
learned refugee from Flanders. He became later Professor of Divinity at
Leyden and an intimate friend of Casaubon; and when he took refuge in
England for a second time in 1587, he enjoyed some ecclesiastical
preferment, and was one of the translators of the Authorised Version of
the Bible.[397] During his first sojourn in England, however, he was
engaged on a more humble task. He first arrived at Southampton in about
1567,[398] after having been for some years headmaster of a grammar
school in Guernsey. Saravia's school at Southampton was limited to
sixteen or twenty youths of good family. It was a rule that all the
scholars should speak French. Any one who used English, "though only a
word," was obliged to wear a fool's cap at meals, and continue to wear
it until he caught another in the same fault.[399] [Header: FRENCH
SCHOOL AT SOUTHAMPTON] Two Englishmen, who later became well known as
translators, acquired their knowledge of French in this school. One was
Joshua Sylvester, famous for his translation of Du Bartas, and the other
Robert Ashley, who turned Louis le Roy's _De la Vicissitude ou Variété
des choses de l'univers_ (1579) into English (1594). Sylvester informs
us that he learnt his French at Saravia's school "in three poor years,
at three times three years old"; "I have never been in France," he
writes to his uncle, William Plumb, "whereby I might become so perfect."
Elsewhere he expresses his affection for his master and his debt of
gratitude to him:

    My Saravia, to whose revered name
    Mine owes the honour of Du Bartas' fame.

Sylvester did not put his knowledge of French into practice only by
translations into English. He also wrote some original verses in French;
the sonnet with which he offered to James I. his translation of the
works of Du Bartas, a poet for whom the king had a great admiration,
will show his skill in a difficult art:

    Voy, sire, ton Saluste habillé en Anglois
    (Anglois, encore plus de coeur que de langage:)
    Qui, connaissant loyall ton Royale héritage,
    En ces beaux Liz Dorez au sceptre des Gaulois
    (Comme au vray souverain des vrays subjects françois),
    Cy à tes pieds sacrez te fait ton sainct Hommage
    (De ton Heur et Grandeur éternal temoinage).
    Miroir de touts Heros, miracle de tous Roys,
    Voy (sire) ton Saluste, ou (pour le moins) son ombre,
    Ou l'ombre (pour le moins) de ses Traicts plus divins
    Qui, ores trop noyrcis par mon pinceau trop sombre,
    S'esclairciront aux Raiz de tes yeux plus benins.
    Doncques d'oeil benin et d'un accueil auguste,
    Reçoy ton cher Bartas, et Voy, sire, Saluste.[400]

Another of Sylvester's contemporaries at Saravia's school was Sir Thomas
Lake,[401] who became Secretary of State in the reign of James I., and
is said to have read Latin and French to Queen Elizabeth towards the end
of her reign. His French accent, unlike that of his schoolfellows, seems
to have left much to be desired. In 1612 he incurred much ridicule by
reading the French contract of marriage at the wedding of the Princess
Elizabeth to the Elector with a very bad accent.

Saravia, it seems, encouraged his pupils to attend the French Church.
Two of their names occur in the registers of the Church for the year
1576, viz. Nicholas Essard and Nicholas Carye, both probably Englishmen.
Saravia himself and his wife were also regular attenders; in 1571 and
again in 1576 he stood godfather at baptisms. The latest mention of him
occurs in 1577. Usually the descriptive title "minister" is added after
his name.[402] He is mentioned in the town records under the year 1576
as Master of the Grammar School, and in the following year the town paid
36s. "for four yardes of broade cloth for a gowne for Mr. Adrian Saravia
the schoolmaster at 9s. the yarde."[403] Apparently he had abandoned his
private school, although it is very likely that he continued to take
private pupils into his house, and that the grammar school scholars had
ample opportunity to learn French; but it is hardly probable that he
introduced the language into the grammar school curriculum, where, no
doubt, Latin retained its usual supremacy.[404]

Thus we see that in the England of the sixteenth century French had no
footing in the ordinary schools, but was taught in a growing number of
small private schools kept by Frenchmen, French-speaking refugees from
the Netherlands, and sometimes by Englishmen.

In Scotland, on the other hand, French received more recognition in the
grammar schools, although it did not form part of the ordinary
curriculum, which was based on Latin, as in England. Yet in several
schools its use was distinctly encouraged on lines which, we may
conclude, were followed at Southampton grammar school in Saravia's time.
For instance, the boys of Aberdeen grammar school, in the middle of the
sixteenth century, were enjoined to address each other in French, while
the use of the vernacular was forbidden. In the famous grammar school of
Perth, when John Rowe, the reformer, was master there, and many of the
scholars boarded with him, we are informed that "as they spake nothing
in the schoole and fields but Latine so nothing was spoken in his house
but French." It is of interest to note that in this school French is put
side by side with the ancient tongues, as Palsgrave had wished.
[Header: FRENCH IN THE SCHOOLS OF SCOTLAND] After meals a selection from
the Bible was read; if from the Old Testament, in Hebrew, if from the
New Testament, in Latin, Greek, or French.[405]

Turning to the more elementary education, we find French holding a still
larger place in some of the parish schools of Scotland, where it was
taught as part of the regular course by the side of Latin. An
interesting account of one of these schools has been left by James
Melville, in his diary.[406] He records that in 1566, at the age of
seven, he, together with his elder brother, was sent to a school kept by
a kinsman, minister at Logie, a few miles from Montrose. This "guid,
lerned, kind man" attended to the children's education, while his sister
was "a verie loving mother" to them, and to a "guid number of gentle and
honest mens berns of the country about," who also were at the school.
"Ther we lerned," he continues, "to reid the catechisme, prayers and
scripture, to rehers the catechisme and prayers par coeur.... We lerned
ther the Rudiments of the Latin grammar, with the vocables in Latin and
French, also divers speitches in Frenche, with the reading and right
pronunciation of that toung." Melville also assures us that his master
had "a verie guid and profitable form of resolving the authors," and
that he treated them "grammaticallie, bothe according to etymologie and
syntaxe"; but, unfortunately, he gives us no further details on the
teaching of French. After spending five years at this school, where, he
admits, he learnt but little, "for his understanding was yet dark," he
went to the grammar school at Montrose. There, although he had a French
Protestant refugee, Pierre de Marsilliers, to teach him Greek, he does
not appear to have had occasion to continue his study of the French
tongue.

In Scotland, as in England, there were also special schools for teaching
French. For instance, the French schoolmaster Nicholas Langlois, or
Inglishe, who came to England in 1569, and in 1571 was installed in
Blackfriars, London, with his wife and two children,[407] moved to
Scotland in about 1574. He opened a French school in Edinburgh, which
was subsidized by the Town Council, and where he taught French,
arithmetic and accounts until the time of his death in 1611. The Town
Council of Aberdeen also showed itself favourable to French schools; in
1635 it granted to a certain Alexander Rolland a licence "to teach a
French school," and allowed him "for that effect to put up one brod or
signe befoir his schoole door."

Yet in spite of the fact that French received greater recognition in the
schools of Scotland than it did in those of England, there is nothing to
show that the same general interest was taken in the study of the
language. While in England large numbers of grammars and other
text-books were published, there is only one notice of the production of
a similar work in Scotland during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. This solitary work, which a certain William Nudrye received a
licence to print in 1559,[408] was entitled _Ane A B C for Scottes men
to read the frenche toung, with an exhortation to the nobles of Scotland
to favour their old friends_. The plea that French was learnt by the
help of French grammars imported from France, or on conversational
methods, or yet again in France by direct intercourse with Frenchmen,
may be applied with as much force to England as to Scotland, though it
is not improbable that in Scotland such methods were relied on to a
greater extent; the friendly relations which existed between Scotland
and France from the thirteenth century onwards encouraged large numbers
of Scots to seek instruction in France, just as it led some Frenchmen to
the Scottish centres of learning.[409] French tutors were said to be as
common in Scotland as in England; a Spanish ambassador reported to
Ferdinand and Isabella as early as 1498 that "there is a good deal of
French education in Scotland, and many speak the French language." Yet
the fact remains that while one small French A B C appears to have been
the only work on the language issued in Scotland, there was a whole
series of such works published in England.


FOOTNOTES:

[289] Sources for the History of the Persecutions: L. Batiffol, _The
Century of the Renaissance_, London, 1916; D. C. A. Agnew, _Protestant
Exiles from France_, 3rd ed., 1886, vol. i.; J. S. Burn, _The History of
the French, Walloon, Dutch, and other Foreign Protestant Refugees
settled in England_, London, 1846; S. Smiles, _The Huguenots, their
Settlements, Churches, and Industries in England and Ireland_, London,
1867.

[290] Early refugees also came in small numbers from Italy where the
Inquisition was established in 1542; and a few others from Spain, where
it was set up in 1588. Their arrival in England imparted some slight
impetus to the study of their respective languages; cp. F. Watson, _The
Beginnings of the Teaching of Modern Subjects in England_, London, 1909,
chapters xii. and xiii.

[291] _Huguenot Society Publications_, xv., 1898; F. W. Cross, _History
of the Walloon and Huguenot Church at Canterbury_ (Introduction).

[292] L. Humphrey, _The Nobles or of Nobilitye_, London, 1563, 2nd book.

[293] See A. Rahlenbeck, "Les Réfugiés belges au 16me siècle en
Angleterre," in the _Revue Trimestrielle_, Oct. 1865.

[294] The following numbers show the proportion of the Netherlanders to
the French: in 1567, 3838 Flemish to 512 French; in 1586, 5225 to 1119.

[295] _Huguenot Soc. Pub._ i., 1887-88; O. J. W. Moens, _The Walloons
and their Church at Norwich_, ch. ix.

[296] W. Besant, _London in the Time of the Tudors_, London, 1904, pp.
80, 200, 203. The population of London is taken as about 120,000.

[297] _Hug. Soc. Pub._ x., 1900-1908, 4 parts.

[298] _Hug. Soc. Pub._ viii., 1893: _Letters of Denization and Acts of
Naturalisation for Aliens in England_, 1509-1603, ed. W. Page.

[299] Naturalization by Act of Parliament, which gave additional rights,
such as that of succession to and bequeathment of real property, was in
general of more advantage to Englishmen born abroad than to foreigners.

[300] On the French churches in England, see F. de Schickler, _Les
Églises du refuge en Angleterre_, 3 tom., Paris, 1892.

[301] The first ministers appointed to the French church were François
Pérussel, dit la Rivière, and Richard Vauville. Perlin visited the
French church: "La prechoit un nommé maistre Françoys homme blond, et un
autre nommé maistre Richard, homme ayant barbe noire" (_Description des
royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse_, Paris, 1558, p. 11). Perlin was
one of the few Frenchmen who came to England at this time.

[302] _Op. cit._ p. 11. Perlin also says that the English tried several
times to set fire to the French church.

[303] See accounts in Rye, _England as seen by Foreigners_.

[304] This was naturally not without exceptions. For instance, Sir
Nicholas Bacon, father of Francis, was noted for his support of the
attempt to drive all the French from the country after the St.
Bartholomew massacre (_Archaeologia_, xxxvi. p. 339).

[305] F. Foster Watson, "Religious Refugees and English Education,"
_Proceedings of the Huguenot Society_, London, 1911.

[306] _The Nobles or of Nobilitye_, _ut supra_.

[307] _Athenae Cantab._ ii. 274. A certain L. T. attacked Baro about a
sermon of his on the text in the third chapter of the Epistle to the
Romans, twenty-eighth verse (Brit. Mus. Catalogue).

[308] _Hug. Soc. Pub._ x. pt. iii. p. 360.

[309] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 1st series, i. pp. 341-3.

[310] _Arte of Rhetorique_ (1553), ed. G. H. Mair, 1909, p. 13.

[311] _Lord Herbert of Cherbury's Autobiography_, ed. Sir S. Lee (2nd
ed. 1906), p. 37, n.

[312] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._, xiv. pt. ii. No.
601; and _Works_, Parker Society, i. p. 396.

[313] E. J. Furnivall, _Manners and Meals in Olden Time_, pp. ix et seq.

[314] Ascham, _Toxophilus_, quoted by Nichols: _Literary Remains ..._,
p. xl.

[315] _Reliquiae Wottoniae_, London, 1657 ("Life of Sir Henry Wotton"),
n.p.

[316] J. Payne Collier, in _Archaeologia_, vol. xxxvi. pp. 339 _et seq._

[317] _Queene Elizabeth's Academy_, ed. Furnivall, Early English Text
Society, 1869.

[318] This purpose is expressly stated in the earliest grammar for
teaching Italian to the English, dated 1550: _The Principal Rules of
Italian Grammar, with a Dictionary for the better Understandynge of
Boccace, Petrarcha, and Dante_ (also in 1562 and 1567). Cp. F. Watson,
_Modern Subjects_, chapter xii.

[319] Cp. F. Watson, _Modern Subjects_, chapter xiii.; and J. G.
Underhill, _Spanish Literature in England of the Tudors_, New York,
1899.

[320] _Hug. Soc. Pub._ viii.: List of Denizations.

[321] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[322] _Thesaurus Linguae Latinae_, 1532, the first of Latin-French
dictionaries.

[323] Printed by T. Wolfe.

[324] The first French grammar for teaching French to the Germans,
mentioned in Stengel's _Chronologisches Verzeichniss französischer
Grammatiken_ (Oppeln, 1890), was the work of a Frenchman Du Vivier,
schoolmaster at Cologne, and was published in 1566.

[325] Cp. Ph. Sheavyn, _The Literary Profession in the Elizabethan Age_,
Manchester, 1909, chap. i.

[326] _De Republica Anglorum_, ed. L. Alston, Camb., 1906, p. 139.

[327] C. W. Wallace, "New Shakespeare Discoveries," _Harper's Magazine_,
1910, and _University Studies_, Nebraska, U.S.A.; Sir S. Lee, _Life of
Shakespeare ..._, new ed., London, 1915, pp. 17, 276.

[328] Unfortunately the registers of the Threadneedle Street Church,
previous to 1600, have been lost. It would have been interesting to have
found Shakespeare brought into contact with this church by his Huguenot
friends.

[329] A list of French words and phrases used by Shakespeare is given in
A. Schmidt's _Shakespeare Lexicon_, 2 vols., Berlin, 1902, p. 1429.

[330] Act I. Sc. 4; Act II. Sc. 3; and other Scenes in which the Doctor
appears.

[331] Act III. Sc. 6; Act IV. Sc. 2, Sc. 4, Sc. 5; Act V. Sc. 2.

[332] Act III. Sc. 4.

[333] Act III. Sc. 6. The quotation from 2 Peter ii. 22 bears closest
resemblance to the edition of the Bible issued at Geneva, 1550; H. R. D.
Anders, _Shakespeare's Books_, Berlin, 1904, p. 203.

[334] Often what appear to be mistakes to-day are due to change in
pronunciation; as when Pistol takes the French soldier's "bras" ('arm')
for English 'brass,' a possibility at this period when the final _s_ was
still sounded (Thurot, _Prononciation française_, ii. pp. 35-36; Anders,
_op. cit._ pp. 50-51.)

[335] Anders, _op. cit._ p. 51 _et seq._

[336] Cp. A. F. Leach, _English Grammar Schools of the Reformation_,
1896: F. Watson, _The English Grammar Schools up to 1660_, Cambridge,
1908, and _The Curriculum and Text-Books of English Schools in the First
Half of the Seventeenth Century_, Bibliog. Soc., 1906.

[337] The author of the _Institution of a Gentleman_, 1555 and 1560,
mentions the "knowledge of tongues as necessary to gentlemen," but he
does not seem to have meant modern languages. William Kemp, in his
_Education of Children in Learning_, 1588, names the ancient tongues,
especially Latin, and other writers do the same. For a list of similar
works, cp. Watt, _Bibliotheca Britannica_, under "Education."

[338] Cp. J. W. Adamson, _Pioneers in Modern Education_, Cambridge,
1905, pp. 178 _sqq._

[339] _Sidney Papers_, ed. A. Collins; _Letters and Memorials of State_,
vol. i. p. 8.

[340] E. Arber, _Transcript of the Registers of the Company of
Stationers, 1554-1640_, v. p. 162.

[341] _Calendar of State Papers, Domestic: Addenda, 1580-1625_, p. 413.

[342] _Handlists of Books printed by London Printers, 1501-56_, Bibliog.
Soc., 1913: Grafton, p. 13.

[343] There is no trace of Du Ploich's name in any of the registers of
aliens published by the Hug. Soc. The only trace of a name resembling
his is that of Peter de Ploysse, butcher, in Breadstreet Ward (Lay
Subsidies, 1549).

[344] F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, pp. 69 _et seq._

[345] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, i. p. 126.

[346] Sig. A-N in fours.

[347] French in Roman type, English in black letter.

[348] Especially the Lambeth fragment, and the _Introductorie_ of Duwes.

[349] Sig. A-I in fours. Like the first edition, this is preserved in a
unique volume in the Brit. Mus. The copy of Kingston's edition is not
complete, wanting all before signature A3.

[350] Brit. Mus. Royal MSS. 16, E xxxvii., 63 quarto leaves.

[351] Edward had the MS. placed in his Library. Nichols, _Literary
Remains_, p. cccxxxiv.

[352] Royal MSS. 16, E xxiii., 29 quarto leaves.

[353] "Et je ne suis pas si presumptueux de vouloir dire que celuy livre
je soye suffissant a translater du tout en englois, a cause que je ne
l'ay de nature. Mais a mon simple entendement, ayant l'opportunité et le
loisir, l'ensuivray au plus pres que ie pourray."

[354] _Returns of Aliens in London_, Hug. Soc. Pub. x.

[355] _Lists of Denizations_, Hug. Soc. Pub., ad nom. (a Sancto
Vinculo). Other details of his life are given in Miss L. E. Farrer's _La
vie et les oeuvres de Claude de Sainliens_, Paris, 1907.

[356] Yet in this work Holyband refers several times to the necessity of
having a good tutor.

[357] Farrer, _op. cit._ p. 21.

[358] As in the _French Schoolemaister_, French and English are arranged
on opposite pages, the French in Roman characters, and the English in
black letter.

[359] Des escholiers et l'eschole--Pour voyageurs--Du Logis, Du Poidz,
Vendre et acheter, Pour marchans.

[360] Sylvius (1530) had placed a small vertical line over final
unsounded consonants.

[361] Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. iii. p. 400. The name John Henricke occurs
frequently in the registers of aliens. There was a John Henryke, a
"Dutchman," who, in 1567, was living in Broadstreet Ward, and had been
three weeks in England; and, in 1571, in St. Mary Alchurch Parish, when
he is said to have been five years in England, and to be a native of
Barowe in Brabant and nineteen years old. In 1582 one of the same name
was living in Blackfriars and had two servants (Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt i.
p. 322; pt. ii. pp. 91, 253). In 1579 a John Hendricke from the dominion
of the Bishop of Liége received letters of denization (Hug. Soc. Pub.
viii. ad nom.). It does not seem likely that Holyband employed one of
the Walloons, whose accent he taught his pupils to avoid.

[362] Foster, _Alumni Oxonienses_, ad nom.

[363] Farrer, _op. cit._ p. 1.

[364] C. Livet, _La Grammaire française et les grammairiens du 16e
siècle_, Paris, 1859, pp. 500 _et seq._

[365] For his sources, etc., see Farrer, _op. cit._ pp. 73 _et seq._

[366] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, i. p. 358.

[367] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[368] Farrer, _op. cit._ p. 16. Miss Farrer suggests that Holyband was
connected with the family of Thuillier de Saint Lyens of Moulins (_op.
cit._ pp. 8, 9).

[369] Latin poem in the _Campo di Fior_, 1583.

[370] In the _Schoolemaister_, on the contrary, the exercises follow the
rules, "to the end that I may teache by experience and practice that
which I have shewed by arte."

[371] The philological side of Holyband's work has been fully treated by
Farrer, _op. cit._

[372] In the _Schoolemaister_. The rules of the _French Littleton_ are
much the same, only less quaintly worded.

[373] Holyband was the author of a work for teaching Italian: _The
Italian Schoolmaster_, 1583, and again in 1591, 1597, and 1608.

[374] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, iii. pp. 167-171. The members of
the Church attended to the interests of the schools, and donations were
made from time to time. Cp. for instance, Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p.
123.

[375] _The Scholemaster_, ed. Arber, 1869, p. 82.

[376] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 211.

[377] _Registers of Threadneedle Street, London_, Hug. Soc. Pub. ix.

[378] _Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub.
iv., 1890. In 1584 three baptisms were performed by Mr. Hopkins, an
English minister.

[379] _Registre de l'Église de Cantorbéry_, Hug. Soc. Pub. v. pt. i.,
1890.

[380] W. J. C. Moens (_The Walloons and their Church at Norwich_, Hug.
Soc. Pub. i., 1887-8, p. 58) enumerates eighteen sons of strangers at
Norwich who went to the Grammar School and thence to Cambridge.

[381] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 106.

[382] _Ibid._ p. 346.

[383] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 281; F. W. Cross, _History of the
Walloon and Huguenot Church at Cantuar_, Hug. Soc. Pub. xv., 1898, p.
15.

[384] W. J. Hardy, _Foreign Refugees at Rye_, Proceedings Hug. Soc. ii.,
1887-8, p. 574.

[385] Cross, _op. cit._ p. 53.

[386] Hardy, _op. cit._ p. 570 (cp. Durrant Cooper, _Refugees in
Sussex_, Sussex Archaeological Collections, xiii., 1861). The name is
here written John Robone.

[387] F. W. Cross, _ut supra_.

[388] Cross, _ut supra_; Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 283.

[389] Hug. Soc. Pub. x.

[390] Hardy, _op. cit._ p. 572.

[391] Moens, _The Walloons and their Church at Norwich_; W. Durrant
Cooper, _Lists of Foreign Protestants and Aliens resident in England,
1618-1688_, Camden Soc., 1862.

[392] G. H. Overend, _Strangers at Dover_, p. 166; and D. Cooper, _Lists
of Foreign Protestants_.

[393] _Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub. iv.

[394] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. 25.

[395] _Ibid._ i. 59.

[396] For example, John Veron, J. R. Chevallier, mentioned above.

[397] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[398] In 1568 letters of denization were granted him (Hug. Soc. Pub.
viii., ad nom.).

[399] MS. Memoir of Robert Ashley (Sloane, 2105); cp. Sylvester's
_Works_, ed. Grosart, 1880, i. p. x.

[400] _Works_, ed. Grosart, i. p. 4. See also i. p. lvii, and ii. pp.
52, 301, 322.

[401] 1567?-1630. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[402] _Registre de l'Église wallonne de Southampton_, Hug. Soc. Pub.
iv., 1890.

[403] J. S. Davids, _History of Southampton_, Southampton, 1883, p. 311.

[404] Another Fleming, Thomas Hylocomius, a native of Brabant, was
master of St. Alban's Grammar School, 1570-1596 (Watson, _Protestant
Refugees_, pp. 137-139). But there is nothing to show that he encouraged
the study of French.

[405] Authorities for the use of French in Scotch schools are: J.
Strong, _Secondary Education in Scotland_, Oxford, 1909, pp. 44 _et
seq._, 76, 142; T. P. Young, _Histoire de l'enseignement primaire et
secondaire en Écosse_, Paris, 1907, pp. 12 _et seq._, pp. 64 _et seq._;
J. Grant, _Burgh Schools of Scotland_, London and Glasgow, 1876, pp. 64,
404; F. Michel, _Les Écossais en France et les Français en Écosse_,
1862, ii. p. 78.

[406] _Autobiography and Diary of Mr. James Melville, minister of
Kilrenny and Professor of Theology in the University of St. Andrews_,
ed. R. Pitcairn (Wodrow Soc., Edinburgh, 1842), pp. 16 _et seq._

[407] His daughter Esther, who married a Scotch minister Kello, became
famous for her calligraphy. Some of her work, preserved in the Bodleian,
was admired by Hearne (_Collections and Recollections_, Oxf. Hist. Soc.,
1885, i. p. 38).

[408] D. Murray, _Some Early Grammars, etc., in use in Scotland_, in the
Proceedings of the Royal Philos. Soc. of Glasgow, xxxvii. pp. 267-8. In
the _List of Books printed in Scotland before 1700_, by H. G. Aldis
(Edinburgh Bibliog. Soc., 1904), there is not one book on the French
language amongst the 3919 titles recorded.

[409] Pasquier, _Letters_, Amsterdam, 1723, lib. i. p. 5.




CHAPTER IV

    HUGUENOT TEACHERS OF FRENCH--OTHER CLASSES OF FRENCH
    TEACHERS--RIVALRIES IN THE PROFESSION--THE "DUTCH" AND ENGLISH
    TEACHERS


We have seen that some of the refugees who came to England as a result
of the persecutions in France and the Netherlands were professional
schoolmasters; others joined the profession on their arrival, through
force of circumstances, or as a means of repaying hospitality. The lot
of such teachers varied considerably. Some lived and taught in
gentlemen's families; others thrived by waiting on a private
aristocratic clientèle; others gained a more precarious livelihood under
less powerful patronage; and yet others opened private schools, often
with decided success. Many of these teachers[410] were denizens, and had
long teaching careers, chiefly in London; a certain Abraham Bushell, for
instance, a native of "Rotchell," had been a "schoolmaster of the French
tongue" in London for twenty-two years in 1618, during which time he had
attended the French Church. Many other French teachers were members of
the French Church, which naturally, seeing that it fostered a French
school itself, took a particular interest in the French schoolmasters
generally. Thus in 1560 all French schoolmasters having schools in
London were summoned before the consistory, which was seeking to
ascertain how many belonged to the Church, and also what book they used
in teaching the children. Eight were ready to conform to the Church and
its discipline;[411] a ninth, one Gilles Berail, refused to conform, on
the plea that he attended the English parish church and understood
English as well as French.

With the exception of Holyband, the chief Huguenot teachers who gathered
round St. Paul's Churchyard would seem to have been Normans. One of
these was Robert Fontaine, a friend of Holyband. He had a long and
varied career in England as a teacher of French. Arriving in 1550, he
remained in England during the reign of Mary, modifying his religious
convictions to suit the exigencies of the time. He returned to his
former faith early in the reign of Elizabeth, and expressed contrition
for his "falling off to idolatry."[412] He attended the French Church
faithfully in the early time of its revival, but he appears to have gone
more frequently to the Anglican Church in later years, and possibly his
sympathies were more in that direction. The favourite neighbourhood, St.
Paul's Churchyard, was the scene of his activities, and there he lived
for many years with one of his countrymen, Mr. Bowry, a purse-maker. In
1571 he had been living seventeen years in the vicinity of the
Cathedral, and in 1582, the latest mention of him in the returns of
aliens, he was still in the same district, and appears to have been very
prosperous.

Some of this group of Normans added to their activities that of writing
books for teaching French--an occupation for which Fontaine, presumably,
had not time or inclination. One such author was Jacques Bellot, a
"gentleman of the city of Caen in Normandie," who came to England in
1578, or the end of 1577, probably driven from his native land by the
persecutions. He was received into the household of Sir Philip Wharton,
third baron of that name, and in a surprisingly short time produced a
French Grammar, which he dedicated to his patron, with an expression of
his gratitude. Bellot, it appears, had already a considerable connexion.
His work is preceded by numerous commendatory poems, after the fashion
of the time. The poet Thomas Newton of Chester wrote two of these, one
in Latin and the other in English, laying stress on the debt due by his
countrymen to these French grammarians:

[Header: JACQUES BELLOT]

    Thankes therefore great and threefold thankes are due
    By right to those, whose travaile, toyle and penne
    Dothe breake the yce for others to ensue,
    By rules and practice for us Englishmen,
    An easye way, a methode most in use
    Amonge the Learn'de t' enduce to knowledge sure.

Other verses are written in French by John and William Wroth, no doubt
two of the numerous sons of the politician Sir Thomas Wroth.

This new work, entitled _The French Grammar, or An Introduction orderly
and Methodically by ready rules, playne preceptes and evident examples,
teachinge the French Tongue_, differs from the popular books of
Holyband, and also from most other French manuals, in that it deals with
grammar alone. It opens with the usual observations on pronunciation.
Each letter is taken in turn, and the position of the organs necessary
to produce it is given. The author makes no attempt to compare the
French sounds with the English equivalents. He had probably not yet had
time to master the intricacies of English pronunciation, although the
whole book is written in English; and he also, no doubt, made free use
of grammars written in France. He tells us, for instance, that "_c_
ought to be pronounced with the tongue against the roof of the mouth,
and the mouth somewhat open"; that "_f_ is pronounced holding the nether
lip against the upward teeth"; and that "_h_ is but aspiration, which
loseth his sound after _e_ feminine, and also after every consonant."
Then, after a few general observations and lists of numbers, months, and
other familiar words, we reach the second part of the Grammar, which
deals with the eight parts of speech. Each is defined and commented on
in turn. The wording is often quaint; for instance, verbs are defined as
"words which be declined with Modes and tenses, and are betokenynge
doing." This second book treats of the accidence. In the third we pass
to the consideration of syntax with the following warning:

    Dire, _sy ay_ (quoy qu'usage on en face)
    N'est point parlé en courtois et bien nay:
    Bien seant n'est aussy, dire, _non ay_:
    _Sauf votre honneur_, ou bien _sauf votre grace_
    Seroient trouvéz de trop meilleure grace.
    _Je ne l'ay fait_, est trop desordonné:
    _Pardonnez moy_, seroit mieux ordonné,
    Car grand fureur douce parolle efface.
    _Nous estions_, _Nous y pensons_, faut dire,
    Non, _J'estions_, on ne s'en fait que rire,
    Ne _J'y pensons_, tout cela est repris.
    Les bons François ne parlent point ainsy.
    Acunement pris ne doit estre aussy
    _Petit_, pour _peu_, ny _peu_ pour _petit_ pris.

This part of the work is not extensive, and consists of a miscellaneous
collection of observations; we are, for instance, told that the
antecedent governs its relative, that the adjective agrees with its
noun, and we are supplied also with rules for the gender and number, the
negative, and so on. To this Bellot adds a fourth book, which is perhaps
the most curious part of the work. It deals with French versification.
We are first favoured with a description of the structure of various
forms of poems, such as the "chant royal," the "ballade," the sonnet,
rondeau, "dixain," and so on, each accompanied by an example, by way of
illustration. The various forms of rime are next described and
exemplified; and some of the complicated forms dear to the
"rhétoriqueurs" find a place here. This is followed by a description of
the various kinds of metres, again with examples; and finally rhythm,
colour or "lizière," the caesura, elision, the "coupe féminine," and the
use of the apostrophe are treated. Such is this little treatise on the
"French poeme," which shows incidentally that Bellot had not yet learned
the lesson enforced by the _Pléiade_ more than twenty years before he
wrote.

What strikes one most, perhaps, in Bellot's Grammar is that he makes no
attempt to deal with the difficulties which the French language presents
to the English in particular. No comparison of the two languages is
instituted; no emphasis is laid on points in which they differ. Were it
not written in English, it might be taken for a study of the language on
the model of those produced in France. Considering that the work was
published in the year of his arrival in England, it seems almost certain
that he had begun his study before his arrival, and translated it
himself, or had it translated into English. This would account for its
unusual character.

Bellot opens and closes his Grammar with apologies. He repudiates all
claim to completeness, and writes, he says, merely to provoke the
"learned" to do better. "Yet the worke is not so leane and voide of
fruite, but there is in it some taste. The bee gathereth honey from the
smallest flowers, and so may the wise man from this small work."

Some time after the publication of his Grammar, he joined the group of
French teachers dwelling in the neighbourhood of St. Paul's Churchyard.
He was there in 1582, and made the acquaintance of Holyband, who had
then resumed his French school in that locality. In the following year
he wrote a quatrain and a sonnet in praise of Holyband's latest work,
the _Campo di Fior_ (1583):

    Goustez Anglois, Gent bien heureuse,
    Les fleurs qu'en vostre Isle argenteuse
    Vous donne Holybande pour un gage.

It is not certain how Bellot employed his time there. He may have had a
school, or have taught privately. In any case he was a member of the
French Church, and in the returns of aliens he calls himself a
"schoolmaster" and a "teacher of children."[413] But the title on which
he is most insistent is that of "gentleman." He is a "gentilhomme
cadomois," or a gentleman of Caen, and usually attaches the abbreviation
G.C. to his name. His attitude to the usual type of French teacher is
distinctly supercilious. He prided himself on belonging to the "noblesse
instruite et de Savoir," and had the reputation of teaching elegant
French.

In 1580 he dedicated to no less a person than François de Valois,[414]
brother to Henry III., a work for teaching English to foreigners. Like
Holyband, he gave his book the title of "Schoolmaster": _Maistre
d'Escole Anglois pour les naturelz françois, et autre estrangers qui ont
la langue françoyse, pour parvenir a la vraye prononciation de la langue
Angloise_.[415] The work contains rules of pronunciation and grammar,
given in opposite columns in French and English; it was evidently
written in French in the first place, and then somewhat carelessly
translated into English, for in the English column the illustrative
examples are given in French. This produces a curious effect, and
involves such statements as: "_quand_ should be pronounced as _Houen_"
(when), etc. In the dedication he refers to his "misfortune," by which,
presumably, he means his exile.[416]

Bellot was busily occupied in the production of other text-books also
during his residence in Paul's Churchyard. The _Maistre d'Escole
Anglois_ appeared in January 1580, and in 1581 was followed by a third
work, in the form of a collection of moral dicta, entitled _Le Jardin de
vertu et bonnes moeurs plain de plusieurs belles fleurs et riches
sentences, avec le sens d'icelles, recueillies de plusieurs
autheurs_,[417] and intended to be used as a "reader." It was published
by the French refugee printer Thomas Vautrollier, who, at the same time,
issued a new edition of Holyband's _French Littleton_. The works of the
two friends were of the same size, and are bound together in the copy
preserved in the British Museum.

Holyband, with his long-standing reputation, may have been able to
further Bellot's interests. In 1580 he had dedicated his Latin work on
French pronunciation to the queen, and in the following year Bellot
obtained the same favour for his little work. He accordingly opened his
book with six French sonnets in honour of Her Majesty, celebrating her
generous reception of strangers, not omitting to beg her protection for
the "garden":

    Reçoy donc ce jardin: te plaise a l'appuyer
    De ta faveur Royalle: et pren le jardinier
    En ta protection contre la gent hargneuse:
    Alors il tachera (sans appouvrir la France)
    L'Angleterre enrichir d'oeuvres d'autre importance,
    Pour façonner l'Anglois au Françoys, en son estre,
    Alors il chantera tes vertus en tout lieu. . . .

The whole of the _Jardin_ is printed in French and English; each maxim
or saying is accompanied by explanations of the most difficult words, by
means of synonyms, paraphrases, and definitions, as in the following
example:

  La memoire du prodigue est nulle.    Of the prodigall ther is no memory.

  Prodigue est:--                      Prodigal is:--
  un degasteur, un rioteux et          a wastefull, a riotious and
  un excessif depenseur,               an outrageous spender,
  un consomme-tout, qui degaste        a spendall that will lavishe
  et depense où il n'en est            and spende where
  nul besoin et a l'endroit de         it needeth not and upon whom
  qui n'en a besoin.                   it needeth not.
  Memoire est:--                       Memory is:--
  une souvenance, une resconte pensée, a remembrance, and having in minde,
  une chose non mise en oubly.         a not forgetting.
  Le Moral:--                          The meaning:--
  La renommée et fame du               The prodigall mans fame and renown
  prodigue ne dure ny continue long    endureth nor continueth
  temps: si tost qu'il est mort        not long; as sone as he is gone
  et passé il est oublié               and dead he is forgotten
  et hors de toute souvenance.         and out of all remembrance.
  Cicero en Paradox dit:--             Cicero in Paradox saith:--
  Les prodigues employent et           Prodigall men employ and
  degastent leurs biens en             wast their goods upon
  choses dont ils ne peuvent           thinges whereof they can not
  laisser qu'une courte memoire        leave but a short memory
  de eux, ou point du tout.            of them, or none at all.

[Header: NORMANS IN ENGLAND]

It will be noticed that Bellot had not fully mastered the English idiom,
although he had written an English grammar. The rest of the "beautiful
flowers of vertue" which he planted in his "garden" are similar in
character and treatment. He characteristically closes his little book
with a prayer, which he quaintly compares to a fence to keep the "goats"
from harming the "flowers."

In 1583 Bellot was still living near St. Paul's Churchyard. But after
this date we lose all trace of him until 1588, when the printer Robert
Robinson received a licence to print "a booke intytuled a grammar in
Frenche and Englishe, the auttour is James Bellot."[418] This second
French Grammar was known as _The French Methode_.[419]

To the numerous band of Normans in England also belonged, perhaps, G. De
la Mothe, who wrote the letter "N" after his name. De la Mothe was
another refugee for the sake of religion, and he speaks with gratitude
of the generous welcome he received in England.[420] He tells us that
the cruel civil wars in France had "burnt the wings of his studies" and
ruined his fortune.[421] On his arrival in England, he began his career
as a teacher of French in the same way as many others; he became a
tutor in a noble family, and shortly after produced a book for teaching
French. He was first appointed French tutor to the son of Sir Henry
Wallop, Lord Chief Justice of Ireland and a prominent patron of the
refugees, on the return of his lordship to England in 1589. De la Mothe
was also received, at some date before 1592, into the midst of another
important English family, the Wenmans, of Thame Park, Oxfordshire. He
taught French to the girls, and early in 1592, if not before, was at
Oxford with the eldest son, Richard Wenman,[422] afterwards Sir Richard,
and his brothers.

De la Mothe had in the meantime written a French text-book which he
called _The French Alphabet, Teaching in a very short time by a most
easie way, to pronounce French naturally, to read it perfectly, to unite
it truly, and to speak it accordingly, Together with a Treasure of the
French Tongue_.[423] He divided it into two parts, which he dedicated to
each of his patrons--the first to Sir Henry Wallop and the second to Sir
Richard Wenman's mother, at whose request he had undertaken the work. De
la Mothe acknowledges his debt of gratitude to both, and also to the
country which had received him so hospitably, in terms which contain
something more than the usual trite expressions.

The _French Alphabet_ was licensed to the printer Richard Field in
1592,[424] but no copy of this earliest edition has been preserved.
Field succeeded to Vautrollier's successful business, and in this same
year showed his friendship for his fellow-townsman[425] Shakespeare, by
printing the first work he published, _Venus and Adonis_. It is of
course pure conjecture to suggest that Shakespeare saw and even read the
little book printed by his friend. Whether this be so or not, it was
perhaps through Field and his Huguenot connexions--he had married
Vautrollier's widow--that Shakespeare became acquainted with the family
of Christopher Montjoy.

[Header: G. DE LA MOTHE, N.]

A new edition of the _Alphabet_ appeared in 1595, from the press of
Edward Alde. At this date De la Mothe had joined the group of teachers
in St. Paul's Churchyard. He taught at the "Signe of the Helmet," and
"there you shall finde him ever willing to show you any favour or
curtesie he may; and most ready to endeavour himselfe to satisfie you in
all that can be possible for hime to doe." The Sign of the Helmet was
the address of the bookseller Thomas Chard.[426] Any one desirous of
becoming acquainted with the author for his better furtherance in the
French tongue could also make enquiries at the Sign of St. John the
Evangelist in Fleet Street, beneath the Conduit, where lived the printer
and bookseller Hugh Jackson, commissioned to sell the book--further
instances of the friendly relations between the French teachers and the
printers and booksellers of the time, through whom these teachers would,
no doubt, get a large proportion of their clientèle. The Huguenot
sympathies of many of the printers, such as Vautrollier and Field,
account in part for this cordial feeling.

After the 1595 edition of his work we hear nothing further of De la
Mothe. Although the name occurs frequently in the returns of aliens,
none can be identified with him. He probably seized an early opportunity
of returning to his native land. His manual, however, did not disappear
with him. Second in popularity only to the works of Holyband in the
sixteenth century, it enjoyed numerous editions in the seventeenth.[427]
Excepting the omission of De la Mothe's advertisement, all the later
editions are identical. They were issued from the press of Field's
successor, George Miller.[428] It is difficult to understand how the
1595 edition came to be printed by Edward Alde, though his work was
evidently countenanced by De la Mothe.

The _French Alphabet_ is a very practical little work. It contains rules
for pronunciation and familiar dialogues in the usual style. The whole
is given in French and English arranged on opposite pages. His treatment
of pronunciation is much the same as Holyband's, and he sometimes
transcribes freely from his active contemporary's work.[429] He
explains the sounds chiefly by comparison with English, giving the
nearest equivalent to each letter. After the letters he deals with the
syllables and then the words. The rules are arranged in the form of
dialogues between master and pupil:

  Sir, will it please you do me         Monsieur, vous plaist il me faire
  so much favour (or would              tant de faveur (ou voudriez
  you take the pain) to                 vous prendre la peine) de
  teach me to speak French?             m'apprendre a parler François?
  With all my heart, if                 Tres volontiers, si vous
  you have a desire to it.              en avez envie.
  I desire nothing more.                Je ne desire rien plus.
  If you desire it you                  Si vous le desirez vous
  shall learn it quickly,               l'apprendez bien,
  if you please to take                 s'il vous plaist de prendre
  some pain.                            un peu de peine.
  There is nothing though never so hard Il n'y a rien si difficile
  but by labour it may be made easie.   qui par labeur ne soit facile.
  You say true,                         Vous dites vray,
  I believe you.                        je vous en croy. . . .
  How do you pronounce                  Comment prononcez vous
  the letter a?                         la lettre a?
  A is pronounced plaine and long as    A se prononce ouvert et long comme
  this English word awe, to be in awe,  ce mot Anglois awe, to be in awe,
  as ma, ta, sa, la,                    comme ma, ta, sa, la,
  bat, part, blanc, etc.                bat, part, blanc, etc.

And the next lesson takes the following form: [Header: HIS FRENCH
ALPHABET]

  Sir, can you say your lesson?       Monsieur, sçaves vous vostre leçon?
  Have you learnt to pronounce your   Avés vous apprins a prononcer vos
  letters?                            lettres?
  Yea, as well as I can.              Ouy, le mieux qu'il m'est possible.
  I have done nothing but study it    Je n'ay fait autre chose qu'estudier.
  since you did heare me yesterday    depuis que vous me feistes dire hier.
  It is very well done,               C'est tresbien fait,
  I am glad then.                     i'en suis bien aise.
  Go to, let me heare you how you do  Or aus, que je voye comment vous
  pronounce.                          prononcez.
  I will, I am content.               Je le veux, i'en suis content.
  Say then, begin, speak              Dites, doncq, commencez, parlez
  aloud.                              haut.
  Pronounce distinctly. Softly,       Prononcez distinctement. Tout beau,
  make no haste, open your            ne vous hastez point, ouvrez la
  mouth.                              bouche.
  That is very well, that is well     Voyla qui est bien, cela est bien
  said.                               dit.
  Repeat it once again.               Repetez encore une fois derechef.
  Do I pronounce it well? Yea,        Prononce-je bien? Ouy,
  you pronounce well.                 vous prononcez bien.
  Help me, I pray you.                Aydez moy, je vous prie.
  How do you pronounce that letter?   Comment se prononce ceste lettre?
  Before we go any further            Devant que passer oultre
  you must                            il faut que vous
  pronounce perfectly your letters.   prononciez vos lettres parfaitement.
  Now that you can tell your letters  Maintenant que vous sçavez vos
  well,                               lettres,
  learne your syllables,              apprenez vos syllables,
  say after me.                       dictes après moy.

After dealing with the sounds of the French language, De la Mothe passes
to more general considerations. He touches on the much-discussed
question of the reform of the orthography, and expresses his strong
disapproval of all attempts to make it tally with the pronunciation.
Then he deals with the pronunciation of the Law French of the
English,[430] which he puts down to such fanciful experiments. Lawyers
write their French as they pronounce it, and pronounce it as they write
it, so that it is now quite corrupt. He next proceeds to give his pupils
a short history of the chief Romance tongues, French, Italian, and
Spanish, and finally of the English language.

The remainder of the first part of the _Alphabet_ is occupied by short
familiar dialogues on the usual subjects--greetings, the weather, the
divisions of time, buying and selling, and the occurrences of daily
life--as follows:

    _For to aske the way._             _Pour demander le chemin._

    How many miles to London?          Combien y a il d'icy à Londres?
    Ten leagues, twenty miles.         Dix lieues, vingt mil.
    What way must we keep?             Quel chemin faut il tenir?
    Which is the shortest              Où est le plus court
    way to goe to Rye?                 chemin d'icy à Rye?
    Keepe alwayes the great way.       Suyvez tousjours le grand chemin.
    Do not stray neither to the right  Ne vous fourvoyez ny à dextre
    nor to the left hand.              ny à sinestre.
    What doe I owe you now?            Combien vous doy-je maintenant?
    Two shillings. Here it is.         Deux sols. Les voylà.
    Bring me my horse.                 Amenez moy mon cheval.
    Will you take horse?               Vous plaist il monter à cheval?
    Yea, I hope I shall not alight     Ouy, j'espere que je ne descendrez
    till I be come to London.          que je ne soys arrivé à Londres.
    God be with you. Farewell.         Adieu. Bonne vie et longue.

At the end of these dialogues comes the second part of De la Mothe's
book, entitled the _Treasure of the French Tongue_. It consists of a
collection of French and English proverbs and golden sayings,
"diligently gathered and faithfully set in order after the Alphabeticall
manner, for those that are desirous of the French tongue." These early
teachers of French were fond of such collections. They usually included
proverbs in their grammar books, and Palsgrave, as we have seen, hoped
to publish a separate work on them. His intention seems to have been
first fully realised by De la Mothe, although Holyband had included a
smaller list in both his popular text-books.

From De la Mothe's _French Alphabet_, more than from any other of these
early works, we can form a fairly adequate idea of the method of
teaching French prevalent at the time. Much importance was attached to
pronunciation and to reading, which were made the first subject of
study. Rules were felt to be desirable for learning the sounds, but more
stress was laid on the services of a good teacher; "for do not think,"
says De la Mothe, "that my book is by itself to make thee a good
Frenchman." His own method was to make his pupils repeat the sounds
after him. He believed that the acquirement of a good pronunciation
depended on a mastery of each separate sound in the language. According
to him, any one who can pronounce each letter correctly must, perforce,
enunciate words correctly, and on the same plan, sentences also; a
rather questionable theory this, but we must remember that De la Mothe
took for granted the daily attendance of a French tutor. The
understanding of the language De la Mothe regards as the second stage in
the pupil's progress. This he considers a natural consequence of a
perfect command of the pronunciation and reading of the language. Lastly
comes the speaking of the language, which, according to him, results
from understanding it.

De la Mothe does not only expound his theories; he also gives fairly
detailed information as to how they may be put into practice. After
engaging a good teacher, the student should learn to pronounce his
letters and syllables perfectly. Then he may begin to read, very slowly
at first, at the rate of from three to four lines a day, "or more or
less according as your capacity can reach or your patience permit."
[Header: HIS METHOD FOR LEARNING FRENCH] Each word should be spelt four
or five times, and in the spelling and reading the pupil should "not let
passe any letter or syllable without bringing them to the trial of his
rules." When you can "read truly and pronounce perfectly, then go about
to English it." First translate the French passages into English, with
the help of the word for word translation provided, then copy out the
French into a book provided for the purpose, close the _Alphabet_ and
attempt to translate your copy into English at sight, correcting the
version by referring again to the _Alphabet_. Next proceed to
retranslate the English back into French on a similar method. "Continue
this order for a month, every day repeating three or four times, both
your letters and your syllables, and reading and Englishing as many
times your old from the beginning till your latter lesson." ... "Being
once able to reade and pronounce perfectly with your rules, two or three
leaves of your book, at most, I can assure you that there is not any
French book though never so hard, but you shall be able to reade it and
pronounce it as truly as can be wished. For in less than one leaf of
your book, all your rules are to be observed, three or four times at
least. For there is not a word but in it is one or two rules to be
noted."

When the learner has thus fully mastered the rules of pronunciation, he
may go forward speedily, translating from English into French, and from
French into English, and revising constantly. "This is the only ready
way to learn to read and pronounce, to write and speak French." Not a
single day should be allowed to pass without exercises of this kind, and
"you shall find in less than five or six weeks your labour and dilegence
afford you much profit, and advancement, that you will wonder at it, and
much greater than I dare promise you."

Those who have made some progress in the language, De la Mothe advises
to make the acquaintance of some Frenchman, if possible, "to the end
that you may practice with him by daily conference together, in speech
and talk, what you have learned. And if you be in place where the
Frenchmen have a Church for themselves, as they do in London, get you a
French Bible or a New Testament, and every day go both to their lectures
and Sermons. The one will confirm and strengthen your pronunciation, and
the other cause you to understand when one doth speak." And, finally, if
you wish to understand the hardest and most "eloquent" French, and to
speak it naturally, you must not neglect reading, but provide yourself
with a French Dictionary, and the hardest book you can find, and set
about translating it, on the method already described. If the student
will not take the pains to translate the book, he should at least read
it carefully, and write out a list of the hardest words and of
appropriate phrases "to serve his turn, either to speak or write when he
has need of them."

Although De la Mothe makes no mention of grammar, when he describes his
method of teaching, he did not consider it unnecessary. Indeed he
declares it is not possible to speak French perfectly without such
rules, which he no doubt used for purposes of reference, as he did the
rules of pronunciation. He even promises to produce shortly a _French
Tutor_, "that will teach you in so short and easie a way as may be, both
by the perfect knowledge of the parts of your speeches, and syntaxe, not
only to speak perfectly, but also to know if one doth not speak well, to
reprove him when he doth speak ill, and to teach him to amend his bad
speech: a thing which yet before has never been taught. The promise is
great, but the performance shall not be less if this be acceptable to
you." Unfortunately this promise does not seem to have been kept. That
his _Alphabet_ did not prove "acceptable" cannot be the reason. Most
probably De la Mothe left England before he had time to show his
gratitude to the English nobility by the production of this second book.

We have seen that these teachers of French did not always look upon each
other as rivals. Bellot wrote verses in honour of Holyband, who was a
friend of Fontaine, another of the group of French teachers in St.
Paul's Churchyard. But such friendly relations were not general. The
teachers just mentioned belonged to what formed, no doubt, the highest
rank of the profession. Bellot calls himself a "gentilhomme," and so
does Holyband; and both refer to criticism and attacks upon them by
other French teachers.[431] Holyband calls attention to the
unscrupulousness of many of them, who take money in advance and do
nothing to earn it; and expresses his contempt for his critics--Frenchmen
ignorant of English, Burgundians, or Englishmen who do not know
French thoroughly. [Header: FRIENDSHIPS AND RIVALRIES] The many
French-speaking schoolmasters from the Netherlands--chiefly
Walloons and Burgundians--and the English teachers of French formed
separate groups apart from the Huguenots. Yet another group was
recruited from the ranks of the Roman Catholics.

The Burgundians, who did not come from Burgundy, but from that portion
of the Netherlands which had been under the rule of the House of
Burgundy, formed a very considerable proportion of the foreign
population of London. In 1567 there were only forty-four of them in
London, but by 1571 their number had risen to four hundred and
twenty-four--almost as many as the total number of French in the
city.[432] The Walloons were still more numerous, and no doubt
outnumbered the French. Such instructors were an obstacle in the way of
those desirous of raising the standard of the French taught in England.
Against the peculiarities of the French spoken in the Netherlands,
Holyband is constantly warning his pupils. "You shall know them," he
says, "at the pronunciation of _c_, as the proper mark of their
language," for they sound it as the English _sh_ or the French _ch_,
saying _shela_ for _cela_.[433] Warnings were also given against the
barbarisms of the Picard dialect.

Of the many "Dutch" teachers in London--an epithet which usually
includes the Flemings and Walloons--it is impossible to say which
actually taught French.[434] Apparently those who attended the French
Church taught that language; a certain Gouvert Hawmells, for example, a
native of Antwerp, who came to England in 1568--"for religion"--is
specially mentioned as a teacher of the French language; in 1571 he was
living with his family in the house of one Thomas Grimes in St.
Margaret's parish. He attended the French Church and was not a
denizen.[435] Apparently his case was not an exceptional one. What is
more, there were in London French schoolmistresses from the Low
Countries. Marry Lemaire, "by trade a French schoolmistress," was a
native of Antwerp and came to England in 1578; for over forty years she
kept school in Southwick. Another French schoolmistress, Anness Deger,
born in Tournay, came to England some ten years earlier, and in 1618 was
still practising her "trade" in Tenter Abbey. Her qualifications were
not of the first order; in the Register of Aliens she was unable to sign
her name, for which she substituted a cross. There was also a "goodwife
Frances schoolmistress, in Popinjay Alley," mentioned in 1598 and 1599,
but whether she taught French or not is not specified.

Although the chief French teachers who were responsible for the manuals
of the second half of the sixteenth century were Huguenots, it is
extremely probable that Roman Catholic teachers were in the majority.
When a census of the foreigners dwelling in London was taken in 1563,
only 712 out of a total of 4534 had come to England on religious
grounds.[436] Naturally the proportion of Protestants greatly increased
as the persecutions grew more severe, until the passing of the Edict of
Nantes in their favour in 1598. Then it probably again decreased; in the
time of Charles I. there were at least five French papists to one French
Protestant.[437] These Roman Catholic teachers were as a matter of
course regarded as suspect by those in authority, and Jesuit priests
teaching in noble English families, or those conversant with them, were
carefully watched.[438] The suspicions aroused by the John Love who had
a French school in St. Paul's Churchyard have already been noticed. This
feeling became particularly strong after the Gunpowder Plot (1605). In
the "Constitutions, Laws, Statutes, Decrees and Ordinances" of the Bury
St. Edmunds Town Council of 1607 an article was inserted "to prevent the
infectinge of youth in Poperie by Schoolmasters."[439] [Header: CLASSES
OF FRENCH TEACHERS] The constables of every ward in the borough had to
certify the Aldermen, Recorder, and Justices of the Peace, of the names
of all persons "that do keep any school for the teaching of youth to
write, read, or understand the English, Latin, French, Italian and
Spanish Tongues, upon pain to forfeit for every default 6s. 8d." This
notification had to be made quarterly. Others than the master or usher
of the free grammar school, wishing to teach any of these languages, had
to obtain special licence; and any one sending his children to a school
kept by a teacher who had no licence was liable to forfeit for every
week the sum of 6s. 8d.

Fear of proselytism was not the only incentive which aroused the
animosity of certain sections of the English public. Many young
Englishmen received much of their education from French tutors,
frequently refugees, who taught them the usual subjects as well as
French. One objection raised against them was that they corrupted their
pupils' English if they spoke and wrote English themselves, as they did
almost without exception. Thus they "pul downe with one hand more than
they can build with the other," wrote Th. Morrice in 1619.[440] Such
complaints, however, cannot have been very general or have had much
effect on the lot of French teachers.

A further attack was to come from another quarter. In the early years of
the sixteenth century, as in the Middle Ages, Englishmen had held an
important place in the French teaching profession. They had been called
to important positions as tutors, and had written grammars of the
language. After the appearance of Palsgrave's Grammar, however, we hear
no more of these English teachers of French, driven into the background,
no doubt, by the great invasion of French teachers. Probably Duwes's
earlier attack had helped either to turn public favour from the native
teachers or to discourage them. Holyband, too, had endorsed the opinion
of Duwes somewhat later, and expressed the little importance he attached
to their criticisms. To acquire the true French pronunciation and idiom,
he declares, it is necessary to learn from a Frenchman.

Towards the end of the sixteenth century, however, an English teacher of
French came forward, and energetically took up the defence of his
fellow-teachers of English birth. This was John Eliote, a man of
boisterous spirits and a lover of good wine--a taste which he had
acquired in France, where he had lived many years. There, if the
dialogue he wrote for the help of students of French may be taken as
autobiographical, he had spent three years in the College of Montagu at
Paris, taught for a year in the Collège des Africains at Orleans, lived
for ten months at Lyons, and spent a year amongst the Benedictine monks.
On the murder of Henri III. in 1589, Eliote returned to England,
strongly imbued with a love for the country in which he had lived so
long.

    "Surely for my part," he writes, "France I love well, Frenchmen I
    hate not, and unto you I sweare by S. Scobe cap de Gascongne, that
    I love a cup of new Gascon or old Orleans wine, as well as the best
    French of you all. Which love, you must know, was engendered in the
    sweet soile of Fraunce, where I paissed like a bon companion, with
    a steele at my girdle, till the Friars (a canker of the cursed
    Convent) fell to drawing of naked knives, and kild indeed the good
    King Henrie of France, the more the pitye. Since which time I
    retired myself among the merrie muses, and by the worke of my pen
    and inke, have dezinkhornifistibulated a fantasticall Rapsody of
    dialoguisme, to the end that I would not be found an idle drone
    among so many famous teachers and professors of noble languages,
    who are very busy daily in devising and setting forth new bookes &
    instructing our English gentry in this honourable citie of London."

This "fantasticall rapsody" was published in 1593, and entitled the
_Ortho-Epia Gallica. Eliot's Fruits for the French enriched with a
double new invention, which teacheth to speake truly, speedily, voluably
the French tongue. Pend for the practice, pleasure and profit of all
English gentlemen, who will endevour by their owne paine, study, and
diligence, to attain the naturall accent, the true pronunciation and
swift and glib Grace of this noble, famous and courtly Language._[441]

It was dedicated to the young Sir Robert Dudley,[442] son of the famous
Earl of Leicester, whom Eliote possibly instructed in the French tongue.
Eliote had taken up the teaching of French, "that most ticklish of all
tongues," on his return to England, and in his book he speaks of his
long practice in learning and teaching the language. He proceeds, in the
first place, to make fun of the "learned Professors of the French Tongue
in the city of London." [Header: ENGLISH TEACHERS OF FRENCH] He
burlesques the dedicatory epistles of his predecessors, especially that
of Bellot,[443] and declares he is fully aware that, to be in the
fashion, he ought to "dilate in some good speeches of the dignitie of
the French tongue, and then show what ease this book of mine shall bring
to the learning of the French, more than other bookes have done
heretofore." But he must first ask pardon for his presumption in writing
on this subject.

    "Do no blame me," he says, addressing the "gentle doctors of
    Gaule," as he called them, "if because I would not be found a
    loyterer in mine own countrie, amongst so many virtuously occupied,
    I have put my pen to paper: if I have bene busie, labourd, sweat,
    dropt, studied, devised, fought, bought, borrowed, turned,
    translated, mined, fined, refined, interlined, glossed, composed,
    and taken intollerable toil to shew an easie entrance and
    introduction to my deare countrimen, in your curious and courtesan
    French tongue, to the end to advance them as much as may bee, in
    the knowledge of all virtuous and noble qualities, to the which
    they are all naturally adicted."

He is quite ready to have his book criticised as the work of an
Englishman, and challenges these "gentle doctors" "to be ready quickly
to cavill at his booke."

    "I beseech you," he continues, "heartily calumniate my doings with
    speede, I request you humbly controll my method as soone as you
    may, I earnestly entreat you hisse at my inventions, I desire you
    to peruse my periodicall punctuations, find fault with my pricks,
    nicks, and tricks, prove them not worth a pin, not a point, not a
    pish: argue me a fond, foolish, frivolous, and phantasicall author,
    and persuade every one that you meet, that my booke is a false,
    fained, slight, confused, absurd, barbarous, lame, imperfect,
    single, uncertaine, childish, piece of work, and not able to teach
    and why so? Forsooth because it is not your owne but an
    Englishman's doing. Faile you not to do so, if you love me, and
    would have me do the like for you another time."

While admitting that there may be a few good French teachers amongst the
refugees, he outlines a picture of the ordinary type which is far from
flattering; and we gather that he had himself studied French with
several refugees. He implies that the French teachers receive money in
advance, and then do nothing else but "take their eases and, as the
renowned poet saith,

    Saulter, dancer, faire les tours,
    Boire vin blanc et vermeil,
    Et ne rien faire tous les jours
    Que conter escuz au soleil.

Mercurie the god of Cunning, and Dis the Father of French crowns are
their deities." They care nothing for the progress of their scholars;
all they do is to give them a short lesson of half an hour, in which
they read and construe about half a page of French. They are equally
indifferent to the troubled state of their country, provided they
themselves are comfortable and well provided with French wines.

    "Messires, what newes from France, can you tell?" he asks them,
    "still warres, warres. A heavy hearing truly, yet if you be in good
    health, have many scholars, get good store of crowns, and drink
    good wine, I doubt not but you shall do well, and I desire the good
    God of Heaven to continue it so still. Have they had a fruitful
    vintage in France this year, or no? me thinks our Bordeaux wines
    are very deare, and in good faith I am very sorry for it. But they
    will be at a more reasonable reckoning, if these same loftie
    Leaguers would once crouch and come to some good composition ...
    that we may safely fetch their deifying liquer, which dieth quickly
    our flegmaticke faces into a pure sanguine complexion."

The style of the introduction is maintained throughout the rest of the
book. Eliote says he wrote the whole "in a merrie phantasicall vaine to
confirme and stir up the wit and memorie of the learner," and
"diversified it with a varietie of stories no lesse authenticall than
the devices of Lucian's dialogues." He admits that he had turned over
some French authors, and where he "espied any pretie example that might
quicken the capacitie of the learner," he "presumed to make a peece of
it flie this way, to set together the frame of (his) fantasticall
comedie ... and out of every one (he) had some share for the better
ornament of (his) worke." Eliote was well acquainted with French
literature. He considered Marot the best poet, and gave Ronsard the
second place only. He also read Du Bartas, Belleau, Desportes, and other
sixteenth-century writers. But most of his admiration was reserved for
Rabelais, "that merrie grig," and it is clear that he modelled his style
on that of the great French humorist. Like Rabelais, he occasionally
affects a sort of gibberish, coins words, and, like him also, he strings
words together and is fond of exaggeration. Numerous passages in the
_Ortho-Epia Gallica_ are reminiscent of famous incidents in _Gargantua_
and _Pantagruel_. Like Panurge, he defends debts and debtors:

    "Quoy! Debtes! O chose rare et antiquaire. Il n'est bon chrestien
    qui ne doibt rien," and, in the style of Rabelais, he assures us
    that his book contains "profound and deep mysteries, ... and very
    worthie the reading, and such as I thinke you have not had
    performed in any other book that is yet extant.... Doest thou see
    what a sea, what a gulfe there is? Thou hadst need of Theseus'
    thread to guide thee out of that Labyrinth."

The _Ortho-Epia Gallica_ forms a striking contrast to Palsgrave's rather
austere _Esclarcissement_, the last work on the French language composed
by an Englishman before that of Eliote. [Header: JOHN ELIOTE] The
dialogues occupy nearly the whole volume. The first few pages, however,
contain a table of French sounds with their pseudo-English equivalents.
The pronunciation was, in Eliote's opinion, one of the chief
difficulties of this difficult language, "deemed a jewel, so dearly
bought, and so much desired by all"; and he considered that, with the
help of Ramus and Peletier for the pronunciation, he had succeeded in
reducing "the gulf of difficulties into a small stream" by "sounding the
French by our English alphabet."

He arranges his dialogues, which he calls _Le parlement de Babillards,
id est, The Parlaiment of Prattlers_, into three groups. The first of
these consists of three long dialogues on the method of learning foreign
languages, on the excellence of writers in both ancient and modern
tongues, and on travel through the chief towns of Europe. The first
dialogue ends with the quotation from Du Bartas in praise of Queen
Elizabeth and her accomplishments, accompanied by a translation in
English verse by Eliote himself.

The second part, styled "_M. Eliote's first booke_," is of a much more
elementary character than the one just described. Eliote had referred
elsewhere to a work entitled _The Scholler_, in which he propounded a
"general method of learning and teaching all languages contrived by
nature and art, conformable to the precepts of Aristotle." This, or part
of it, evidently formed the first part of the _Ortho-Epia Gallica_,
where it is separately paged.[444]

In his first and second books, which thus form the second and third
parts of the work, he expounds "his double new invention, which teacheth
Englishmen to speake truly, speedily and volubly the French tong." The
first part of this "invention" consists in placing by the side of the
French and English a third column, giving the French in pseudo-English
equivalents--"the true pronunciation of each word wholly and certain
little stripes (called approches) between the sillables that are to be
spoken roundly and glib in one breath." The twelve dialogues of Eliote's
first book are fairly simple in character, and some of them were
probably suggested by Vives's _Exercitatio_. Their subject matter does
not differ much from earlier dialogues, but their treatment is
decidedly original. The following quotation is taken from the first
dialogue:

    Hau Garcon              Ho Garssoon             What boy
    dors tu                 dortu                   slepeth thou
    vilain? debout,         veelein? deboo,         villain? up,
    debout, ie te           deboo, ie te            up, I shall
    reveilleray tantost     reue-lheré tant-tot     shall wake thee soon
    avec un bon baton.      tavec-keun boon batoon. with a good cudgell.
    Je me leve, monsieur.   Ie me léveh moonseewr.  I rise sir.
    Quelle heure est-il?    Qel-heur et-til?        What o'clock is it?
    Il est six heures.      Il-é see-zewres.        It is six o'clock.
    Donnez moy mes          Donné moe' mes          Give me my
    chausses de velours     shosséh de veloor       my green velvet
    verd.                   vert.                   breeches.
    Lesquelles?             Le-keles?               Which?
    C'est tout un; mes      Set-toot-tewn; mes      It is all one; my
    chausses rondes de      shosseh roondeh de      round red
    satin rouge. . . .      sateen roz-eh. . . .    satin ones, etc.

There are twelve dialogues in all, but only each alternate one is
accompanied by this curious guide to pronunciation.[445]

In the second book and third part the dialogues are longer and more
numerous, dealing with the different trades and occupations--"les devis
familiers des mesters fort delectables a lyre." They do not, however,
confine themselves to the characters usually introduced into similar
dialogues; besides the mercer, the draper, the shoemaker, the innkeeper,
and so on, we have the armourer, the robber, the debtor, the apothecary,
and other characters which offer ample scope for treatment in the
Rabelaisian vein, of which Eliote was so fond. Some suggest that Eliote
was acquainted with Holyband's works. This book contains the second part
of his "double new invention." The French and English are printed on
opposite pages, and in the margin the sounds of the most difficult
French letters are indicated, thus:

    _ai_ sound _e_
    _ay_ sound _e_
    _am_ sound _ein_
    _aine_ sound _eineh_, and so on.

This table he describes "as Mercurie's finger to direct thee in thy
progress of learning," and he repeats it on the margin of every pair of
opposite pages.

[Header: THE "ORTHO-EPIA GALLICA"]

After these twenty dialogues comes the "Conclusion of the parlaiment of
prattlers," which depicts a group of friends walking by the Thames and
St. Paul's, "prattling, chatting, and babbling." The arrangement is the
same as in the previous dialogues, and the work closes with a quotation
from Du Bartas's praise of France:

    O mille et mille fois terre heureuse et féconde,
    O perle de l'Europe! O Paradis du monde!
    France je te salue, O mère des guerriers.

In his dialogue called _The Scholar_, incorporated in the first part of
the _Ortho-Epia_, Eliote explains his 'new' method of learning
languages, by nature and art. By "nature" he means the acquirement of a
vocabulary of all created things, by use and common practice; and by
"art" the rules and precepts for combining these into sentences, and
also the authority of learned men. Such rules chiefly concern nouns,
verbs, and pronunciation, "in which the greatest mystery of all
languages consists." Thus, although he gives no grammatical information
in his _Ortho-Epia Gallica_, he recognized its importance.

Before introducing his pupils to the method of "Nature and Art," Eliote
would have them well grounded in nouns and verbs, and able to translate
dialogues, comedies in verse, and prose writings. He attached much
importance to translation from English into French, just as Palsgrave
did. He directs the student to make out the meaning of the French first
by comparing it with the English column, and then to cover over the
French version, and attempt to translate the English into French. "This
I have learned by long experience to be the readiest way to attaine the
knowledge of any language, that we of Englishmen make French, and not of
French learn English." As to the theory of "Nature and Art," it seems to
have been little more than the method, common at the time, of making
practice the basis of the study of French, and confirming this by rules
as need for them arose.

In addition to the _Ortho-Epia Gallica_,[446] Eliote also wrote a
_Survey or topographical description of France_, collected from sundry
approved authors. This was published in 1592, and dedicated to Sir John
Pickering, Keeper of the Privy Seal. He also translated from French
into English[447] a number of unimportant works, mostly of topical
interest, one of them being dedicated to Robert, Earl of Essex. Little
else is known of him, except that he was born in Warwickshire in 1562,
and entered Brasenose College, Oxford, on the 12th of December 1580, at
the age of eighteen years.[448] He tells us that he held the degree of
Doctor of Divinity, but there is no record of his having taken any such
degree there. Robert Greene was among his friends, and he wrote a sonnet
in questionable French on Greene's _Perimedes or the Black Smith_, with
which it was published in 1588. These are all the details we possess
concerning this amusing and striking figure among the French teachers of
the sixteenth century.


FOOTNOTES:

[410] The names of many have been lost, owing to the incompleteness of
the records, or to the fact that no profession is indicated. A few are
known from other sources to have been schoolmasters or private tutors;
cp. Huguenot Society Publications, vol. x., _Returns of Aliens dwelling
in London_; vols. viii., xviii., _Letters of Denization_.

[411] Evrard Erail, Onias Ganeur, Charles Bod, Robert Fontaine, Charles
Darvil d'Arras, Jean Vaquerie, Baudouin Mason, and Adrian Tresol
(Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, i. p. 124). Of these names only that of
Robert Fontaine is found in the _Returns of Aliens_. Charles Darvil and
Adrian Tresol are again mentioned in connexion with the Church in 1564.
Baudouin Mason received letters of denization in 1565, and Adrian
Tresol, a Netherlander, in 1562. In 1571 there were three other
schoolmasters connected with the Church: Adrian Tressel, John Preste of
Rouen, and Nicolas Langlois or Inglish. All these, however, are
mentioned in the _Returns of Aliens_.

[412] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 182.

[413] _Returns of Aliens_, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. ii. pp. 228, 335.

[414] Duc d'Alençon, who died in 1584.

[415] Printed by Henry Dizlie for Thomas Purfoote. Reprinted by T. Spiro
in the _Neudrucke frühneuenglischer Grammatiken, herausgegeben von R.
Brotanek_, Bd. 7, Halle, 1912. It contains 75 pages, 8vo.

[416] Bellot's name does not occur in the Registers (vol. i., Lymington,
1908).

[417] 16º, pp. 80.

[418] _Stationers' Register_, 19th February 1588.

[419] Hazlitt, _Handbook_, 1867, p. 36.

[420] Perhaps he was a member of the La Motte Fouqué family whose name
became so closely connected with the Protestant cause in France. In 1551
René La Motte left Saintonge and went to Normandy, where he died,
leaving two sons and three daughters. Cp. Crottet, _History of the
Reformed Church in Saintonge_, quoted by T. F. Sanxay, _The Sanxay
Family_, 1907.

[421] "Estant donc refugié a l'ombre favorable du Sceptre de sa
serenissime majesté, qui est le vray port de retraicte et asyle asseuré
de ceux qui faisans profession de l'Evangile souffrent ores persecution
soubs la Tyrannie de l'Antichrist, j'ay tasché de tout mon pouvoir de
faire en sorte par mes labeurs que ceste noble Nation qui maintenant
nous sert de mere et de nourrice peust tirer quelque proffit d'iceux,
afin que par ce moyen je peusse eviter le vice enorme de l'ingratitude.
. . . Or entre toutes les belles et rares vertus dont la Noblesse
angloise se rend tant renommée par tout le monde, admirée des
estrangiers, et honorée en son pays, est l'Estude des bonnes lettres, et
cognoissance des langues, qui leur sont si familieres et communes qu'il
s'en trouve peu parmi eux, non seulement entre les Seigneurs et
Gentilhommes, qui n'en parlent trois ou quatre pour le moins, mais aussi
entre les Dames et Damoiselles, exercise veritablement louable, par
lequel toute vertu s'honore et se rend immortelle et sans lequel nulle
autre n'est parfait ni digne d'estre aucunement estimé. Or c'est ce qui,
outre la singuliere affection que naturellement ils portent aux
estrangers et la grande courtoisie dont ils ont a coustume de les
traicter, leur faict faire tant d'estat des François, si bien qu'il y en
a fort peu qui n'en ait un avec soy."

[422] Who first went to Oxford in 1587. Foster, _Alumni Oxonienses_, ad
nom.

[423] _Containing the rarest Sentences, Proverbs, Parables, Similies,
Apothegmes and Golden sayings of the most excellent French Authors as
well Poets as Orators._

[424] Arber, _Register of the Company of Stationers_, ii. 614. Miss
Farrer in her book on Holyband takes this entry, _l'Alphabet François
avec le Tresor de la langue françoise_, to refer to another edition of
Holyband's _Treasurie_, which, she assumes, was prevented and superseded
by the publication of his dictionary in 1592.

[425] Field was born at Stratford in the same year as Shakespeare; cp.
S. Lee, _Life of Shakespeare_, pp. 42 _et seq._

[426] _A Dictionary of Printers and Booksellers, 1557-1640_, Bibliog.
Soc., 1910: Index of London Addresses.

[427] 1625, 1631, 1633, 1639, 1647.

[428] In 1626 the work was made over to Miller by Field's widow. Arber,
_Transcript_, iv. 157.

[429] How closely, may be judged by comparing the following selection
with the description of Holyband's rules on p. 142, _supra_.

  How do you pronounce g before n?   Comment prononcez vous g devant n?
  Gn is hardly pronounced by         Gn se prononce difficilement par
  Englishmen.                        les Anglois.
  Notwithstanding if they will take  Toutesfois s'ils veulent prendre
  heed                               garde
  how they do pronounce _minion_ ... comment ils prononcent minion,
                                     onion, companion,
  it will be more easy for them to   il leur sera plus aisé de
  pronounce it: for though we        le prononcer: car encore que nous
  do write the selfesame words       escrivions ces mesmes mots
  with gn,                           par gn,
  neverthelesse there is small       neantmoins il y a peu de
  difference between                 difference de
  their pronunciation and ours:      leur prononciation a la nostre:
  let them take heed only            seulement qu'ils prennent garde à
  to sound g                         mettre g
  in the same syllable that n is,    en la mesme syllable que n,
  and then they                      et ils
  shall not finde any hardnesse      ne trouveront aucune difficulté
  in his pronunciation,              en sa prononciation,
  as mignon ... mi-gnon.             comme mi-gnon. . . .

[430] "Et pourroit a bon droict estre comparé a quelques vieilles
masures d'un bastiment où il a tant creu de ronces et espines, qu'à
grand peine il apert que jamais il y ait eu de maisons. Car devant qu'on
eust trouvé l'imprimerie, on l'a tant de fois coppié, et chaque écrivain
l'escrivant à la fantaisie et ne retenant l'orthographe françoise, que
maintenant il semble qu'il n'y ait presque langage plus esloigné du vray
François que ce François de vos loix."

[431] Bellot frequently refers to the _gent hargneuse_ and the
"aiguillons envenimez des langues qui se plaisent à detracter les
oeuvres d'autruy et qui deprisent tout ce qui n'est tiré de leurs
boutiques, iaçoit que souvente fois leur estofe ne soit que biffes et
hapelourdes."

[432] _Returns of Aliens_, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. i. pp. xii, xiv.

[433] And again: "Or vous noterés qu'en tous les noms terminés en _ent_,
_t_ n'est pas exprimé en la fin: quant aux verbes, il est prononcé, mais
bien doucement: donnés vous donc garde d'ensuivre en ceci les
Bourgignons qui expriment leur _t_ si fort que de deux syllabes ilz en
font trois: comme quand nous disons _ils mangent_ . . . le Walon dira;
_ilz mangete_." And yet again: "Sounde _ch_ as _sh_ in English: you
shall not follow in this the Picard or Bourgignions, for they doo
pronounce _ch_ like _k_, say _kien_ for _chien_."

[434] French was widely used in the Spanish Netherlands, and there was
hardly any opening for the teaching of any of the Germanic languages in
England at this early time, when they were only learnt in exceptional
cases. There were no doubt a few such teachers, here and there. We are
told that in London "there be also teachers and professors of the Holy
or Hebrew language, of the Caldean, Syriack or Arabicke or Tartary
Languages, of the Italian, Spanish, French, Dutch and Polish Tongues.
And here be they which can speake the Persian and the Morisco, and the
Turkish and the Muscovian Language, and also the Sclavonian tongue,
which passeth through seventeen nations. And in divers other languages
fit for Ambassadors and Orators, and Agents for Merchants, and for
Travaylors and necessarie for all commerce or Negociation whatsoever."
Buck, _The Third Universitie of England_, 1619, ch. xxxvii. "Of
Languages." The earliest work for teaching Dutch to Englishmen was
probably the _Dutch Tutor_ of 1660; cp. F. Watson, _Modern Subjects_,
ch. xv. John Minsheu taught a number of languages in London, and wrote a
_Ductor in Linguas_ (1617), in eleven languages.

[435] Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. ii. p. 81.

[436] _Returns of Aliens_, Hug. Soc. Pub. x. pt. i. p. xi.

[437] Moens, _The Walloons and their Church at Norwich_, Hug. Soc. Pub.
i. p. 90.

[438] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., Addenda, 1580-1625_, p. 294.

[439] _Victoria County Histories: Suffolk_, ii. p. 317.

[440] _Apologie for Schoolmasters._

[441] Sm. 4to, pp. 1-60, and 17-173. Printed by J. Wolfe. Licence dated
18 Dec. 1592. Preface dated 18 April 1593.

[442] Born 1574; at Oxford in 1588.

[443] Bellot, in his quality of "gentleman," compares his labours to
those of Diogenes rolling his tub up and down a hill, in order not to be
idle while the Corinthians were busy preparing to defend their city
against Philip of Macedon. Eliote takes up the theme and turns it to
ridicule.

[444] The first part is paged from 1 to 60, and has signatures A-L in
fours. In _Eliote's first booke_ the pagination begins afresh at p. 17
and continues to p. 175 at the end of the work: it has signatures _c-y_
in fours.

[445] Palsgrave had accompanied his French quotations with similar
indications:

    "Au diziesme an de mon doulant exil
    Avdiziemavndemoundoulauntezil."

[446] He announces his intention of producing a book called _De Natura
et Arte Linguae Gallicae_.

[447] _Advice given by a Catholike gentleman to the Nobilitie & Commons
of France_, Lond., 1589; _Newes sent unto the Lady Princesse of Orange_,
1589; _Discourses of Warre and single combat ..._ from the French of B.
de Loque, 1591.

[448] Foster, _Alumni Oxon._, ad nom.




CHAPTER V

    METHODS OF TEACHING FRENCH--LATIN AND FRENCH--FRENCH AND ENGLISH
    DICTIONARIES--STUDY OF FRENCH LITERATURE


Eliote gives some information concerning the fees charged by French
teachers in the later part of the sixteenth century. He asserts that the
usual charge was a shilling a week,[449] but we are left in doubt as to
how many lessons this entitled the student to. He affirms, probably not
seriously, that he would charge a gentleman £10 a year, and a lord from
£20 to £30.

We are indebted to him also for an account, very prejudiced, no doubt,
of the usual method employed by French teachers generally. This
consisted, according to him, in reading a page of French and then
translating it. Fortunately we are enabled, by means of the French
text-books that have come down to us, to draw a fuller picture of the
French lessons of the time. It has been seen that as a rule these books
contained four parts--rules of pronunciation, rules of grammar, reading
exercises, and a vocabulary. They are generally written throughout in
French and English (in parallel columns[450]), the reason of this being
the importance attached to reading and to double translation, from
French into English and English into French. In the English version the
idiomatic phrase is sacrificed in order to give a more literal rendering
of the French, and also, possibly, because these Frenchmen were
incapable of writing any other. As is to be expected, translation from
French into English was the more usual exercise. Translation from
English into French, however, was by no means neglected, and appears to
have been recommended principally by English teachers of French, and
more especially by Palsgrave and Eliote. Edward VI.'s French exercises,
it will be remembered, are translations from English into French, or
free composition in French.

In addition to reading and translating, much importance was attached to
pronunciation. It was generally considered best to learn the sounds of
the language by repetition after a teacher with a good accent; but rules
were thought necessary to confirm the knowledge thus acquired. As to
rules of grammar, there was no question of learning the language by
means of them. A grammar was treated as a book of reference, just as a
dictionary. Thus the student usually learnt the pronunciation by reading
the French aloud with his tutor, referring to the rules of pronunciation
whenever necessary, and then translating and retranslating the
dialogues, grammar being supplied as the need for it was felt. Although
these early teachers strictly limited the place of grammar, they almost
all agree in emphasizing its importance within the limits indicated.
Grammar rules were reduced to a minimum. Attention was called to what
were considered important general rules, but those with numerous
exceptions, it is argued, were better learnt by "use" and persistent
reading, "so as not to weary with long discourses which would be
necessary to explain things learnt better by practice than by rule."

The dialogue form in which almost all the reading material is given, and
the proverbs and familiar phrases, show the importance attached to a
practical and colloquial knowledge of the language. The teaching of
French was of a decidedly business-like nature, and closely in touch
with the concerns of life. One of the chief reasons for this, no doubt,
was that it was learnt for social or other immediate requirements. The
fact that French was not taught in the grammar schools undoubtedly
assisted it to maintain its close connexion with practical life. It is
only about a century and a half later, when French began to gain a
foothold in these schools, that it was taught more and more on
grammatical lines, and less and less as a living language.

Latin, although most of the school statutes of the time encourage the
scholars to speak it, was taught chiefly on grammatical lines.[451] The
memorizing of Latin grammar was a foremost subject even in the Middle
Ages.[452] [Header: LATIN AND FRENCH] In the sixteenth century the Latin
grammar usually known as Lily's was the prescribed national grammar,
with rules of accidence in English and of syntax in Latin.[453] Familiar
dialogues in the style of those for French were also used, the chief
difference between the Latin and French dialogues being that the Latin
are separate and complete works in themselves, and are not, as a rule,
provided with an English translation. They were memorized as the grammar
was. From the dialogues, or colloquies as they were called, dealing with
typical occurrences of life, the Latin scholar passed on to the reading
of school authors--Cato, Cicero, Ovid, Virgil, Terence, etc.[454] Nor
was vocabulary neglected, for in the schools of the Renaissance the
practice of learning so many words a day, prevalent in the Middle Ages,
was still in vogue.

It thus appears that the books generally used in teaching Latin were not
without some influence in determining the types of manuals employed for
teaching French. The practice of including religious formulae, which we
find in some books, was sanctioned by their place in the national Latin
grammar, while it is clear that the Latin colloquia of the time had
considerable influence on the French dialogues. In the early sixteenth
century the dialogues of the scholar Vives,[455] who received honours at
both Oxford and Cambridge during his short stay in England, were much in
vogue. Like the French dialogues of the time, they kept closely in touch
with the interests of the pupils and dealt with such topics as rising in
the morning, going to school, returning home, and children's play and
meals, and students' chatter. Similar works were the _Sententiae
pueriles_,[456] a book for beginners, first published at Leipzig in
1544, and containing a collection of familiar phrases rather than
dialogues, and the _Pueriles Confabulatiunculae_ by Evaldus Gallus. In
the second half of the sixteenth century two other manuals of
conversation were added to those already in use in England: the
_Colloquia_ of Mathurin Cordier, first published in Latin in 1564, and
Castellion's _Sacred Dialogues_ based on the Scriptures, printed in
Latin at Basle, in 1555.[457]

With the text-books, however, all close resemblance between the teaching
of Latin in grammar schools and the teaching of French ends. As we have
seen, reading, pronunciation, and conversation were the main concerns of
the French student; translation held a large place and grammar rules a
subsidiary one. The grammar-school boy, on the contrary, would first
gain an elementary knowledge from rules written in English, and memorize
the vocabulary and phrases; learn his Latin grammar, and then parse and
construe[458] the usual school authors.[459] The sons of the aristocracy
and well-to-do classes probably learnt by a more practical method, as
they were able to have private tutors, who devoted all their time to
providing the necessary atmosphere. As late as 1607, when Latin was less
used colloquially, the writer Cleland, a great advocate of the teaching
of French, condemns the practice of those parents who have their
children brought up to speak Latin only; they neglect their mother
tongue and the language of elegance, French, and soon forget their Latin
when once removed from their tutor's care.[460] That such cases were the
exception rather than the rule, even in the early sixteenth century, may
be gathered from the two great educational writers of the time, Sir
Thomas Elyot and Roger Ascham. Both the _Governour_ (1531) and the
_Scholemaster_ are protests against the common school usage of placing
grammar in the first place, and a summons to base the study of the
language on the reading of authors. They believed with Quintilian that
"Longum et difficile iter est per praecepta, breve et efficax per
exempla." Colet in his _Aeditio_ had laid down the same principle, to
the effect that the "reading of good books, dyligent information of
taught masters, studious advertence and taking heed of learners, hearing
eloquent men speak, and finally busy imitation with the tongue and pen,
more availeth shortly to get the true eloquent speech than all the
tradition of rule and precepts of masters"; [Header: GRAMMAR AND
TRANSLATION] and he adds, "men spoke not Latin because such rules were
made, but contrariwise because men spoke such Latin, upon that followed
the rules and so were made."[461] Yet it seems that the force of
tradition prevailed, and that these precepts were only put into practice
in exceptional cases.

It is striking to notice how close was the resemblance between the
actual methods used by French teachers and those advocated by would-be
reformers of the teaching of Latin. Colet's words express almost exactly
the sentiments and practice of Holyband, De la Mothe, and other French
teachers; and the same is true of Elyot and Ascham. "Nothing can be more
convenient," writes Elyot in referring to students of Latin, "than by
little and little to train and exercise them in the speaking of Latin,
informing them to know first the names in Latin of all the things that
come in sight, and to name all the parts of their bodies, and giving
them somewhat that they covert or desire in most gentle manner to teach
them to ask it again in Latin." He even goes so far as to say that the
pupil may "as sone speake good latin" on this method "as he may do pure
frenche,"[462] thereby showing that he probably derived suggestions from
the prevalent methods of teaching French. Elyot, however, realized that
the use of Latin as a familiar tongue was not as practicable in schools
as in many noble families, where it might well happen that the pupil
would have "none other persons to serve him or keep hym company but
suche as can speake Latine elegantly." How successful the sole use of
Latin could be in such circumstances is exemplified in the well-known
case of Montaigne. Ascham, like Elyot, recognized the exceptional
conditions required for such a method. He believed the "dailie use of
speaking" would be the best way of learning the language if the child
could only hear it spoken perfectly, but failing this he considered the
practice dangerous.[463] It is probable, however, that in the best
French schools, and certainly in that of Holyband, this ideal was
realized in the case of French.

As regards the respective importance of reading and grammar, the French
teachers of the time appear to have put into practice the ideas of the
reformers. All agree that grammar rules should be as few as possible,
and be taught in connexion with reading. The general method of French
teachers was to refer to the rule as the need for it arose in reading.
Ascham also pleads for the study of grammar, "so hardlie learned by the
scholar in all common scholes," along with authors; and the educational
reformer Mulcaster, in his _Elementarie_ of 1582, writes that grammar is
best learnt by being applied to the matter, and that the child's mind
should not be clogged with rules. Elyot differs slightly from them in
detail but not in principle. He allows grammar to precede the study of
authors, provided it is reduced to the smallest possible amount.
"Grammar," he says, "being but an introduction to the study of authors,"
care should be taken "not to detain the child too longe in that tedious
labour, for a gentyll wytte is there with some fatigate," and "hit in a
maner mortifieth his corage" before he "cometh to the most swete and
pleasant readinge of olde authors."[464] Both these views as regards
grammar--that of Ascham and Mulcaster, and that of Elyot--were prevalent
among French teachers of the time. There are only small differences in
detail; the general principles are identical.

In the matter of translation, "most common and most commendable of all
other exercises of youth,"[465] there is a striking resemblance between
the method of double translation common among French teachers, and the
same method set out by Ascham, who marks the transition from oral to
written methods of teaching Latin.[466] In the case of De la Mothe, the
resemblance is so clear and close that we are led to believe he was
acquainted with the work of Elizabeth's tutor,[467] published in 1570,
over twenty years before the _French Alphabet_. Ascham's system
consisted of the double translation of a model book, and it is
interesting to compare it with the method of De la Mothe. The pupil has
first to parse and translate the Latin into English; "after this the
child must take a paper booke, and sitting in some place where no man
shall prompe him, by him self, let him translate into Englisshe his
former lesson. [Header: BOOKS IN FRENCH AND ENGLISH] Then showing it to
his master, let the master take from him his Latin booke, and pausing
an houre, at the least, than let the childe translate his owne Englishe
into latin againe, in an other paper booke." And when this is done, the
master should compare it with the original Latin, "and laie them both
togither."[468]

There was thus much in common between the teaching of Latin and the
teaching of French. The dialogues, which form so important a feature in
the French text-books of the time, were certainly indebted to the Latin
Colloquia, although they also continue the tradition of the mediaeval
French conversation-books. The Latin Dialogues of Vives had much
influence on the French, and Holyband based one of his books, the _Campo
di Fior_, on the _Exercitatio_ translated in French, Italian, and
English. Eliote also acknowledged his debt to the Spanish scholar. In
other cases the debt was almost inevitable and probably unconscious; for
the French teachers, who often taught Latin as well, would use such
books daily, and had moreover probably acquired their own knowledge of
Latin from them. Holyband, we have seen, read the _Sententiae pueriles_
with his pupils.

The importance attached to reading and double translation by teachers of
French led to the appearance of a great number of books in French and
English, on the lines of Bellot's _Jardin de Vertu_. For instance, part
of the _Semaines_ of Du Bartas, the most popular French poet in England
in the sixteenth century, was published in this form in 1596, and again
in 1625, on the occasion of the marriage of Charles I. This translation
is due to William L'Isle of Wilbraham,[469] the pioneer in the study of
Anglo-Saxon, who dedicated it in the first place to Lord Howard of
Effingham, Earl of Nottingham, Lord Admiral, and subsequently to Charles
I. It is entitled _Part of Du Bartas, English and French, and in his own
kinde of verse, so near the French Englished, as may teach Englishmen
French, or a Frenchman English. Sequitur Victoria Junctos_,[470] and
consists of the first two days of the _Second Week_, with the French
and English arranged on opposite pages, followed by an English
translation of the commentary of Simon Goulart de Senlis.

Guy du Faur, Sieur de Pibrac, was another French writer widely read in
England, and his _Quatrains_ were frequently commended by French
teachers to their scholars. They were translated into English verse by
Sylvester, the translator of Du Bartas, and published with the French
original in 1605. Sylvester dedicated the quatrains to Prince Henry, and
the copy in the British Museum contains an epigram in English in the
handwriting of his brother, afterwards Charles I., and a manuscript
dedication to the younger prince in that of the translator.[471] The
quatrains appeared again with the subsequent editions of Sylvester's
works. About this time Prince Henry made Sylvester a Groom of his
Chamber, and gave him a small pension of £20 a year.[472] The story goes
that the prince valued him so highly that he made him his first "poet
pensioner," and it seems that Sylvester took advantage of his position
to encourage his royal patron's French studies. Many other works of the
kind appeared in French and in English.[473] The educational writer
Charles Hoole tells us that masters frequently taught languages by using
interlinearies, "not to speak of their construing the French and Spanish
Bible by the help of an English one."[474] Lord Herbert of Cherbury,
philosopher and gallant, ambassador in France in the time of James I.,
learnt French, Italian, and Spanish, on this translation method, whilst
living in the University or at home. He mastered them, he assures us,
without the help of a tutor, solely by means of Latin or English books
translated into those languages, and of dictionaries.[475]

[Header: FRENCH AND ENGLISH DICTIONARIES]

De la Mothe advised his advanced pupils to read difficult French books
with the help of a dictionary, and there was some supply of works of
this kind at the disposal of Lord Herbert and other students of the
language. It is true that the widespread use of books in both languages
diminished the demand for such manuals, which may not have been easy to
acquire. Yet there was a considerable choice of such works. Holyband had
produced two French-English dictionaries, in 1580 and 1593 respectively,
in which he referred to "those which broke the ice before him." There
had appeared in 1571 an anonymous _Dictionarie Frenche and
English_,[476] printed by Henry Bynneman for Lucas Harrison. This work,
which does not confine itself to words only, but includes phrases as
well, was no doubt known to Holyband. Its author had probably drawn
largely on an earlier dictionary, already mentioned, in which a place
was given to French--the Latin, English, and French Dictionary of John
Veron (1552). The inclusion of French in such a work is a striking
testimony to the importance of French at that time. But when a second
edition of Veron's dictionary was prepared by Ralph Waddington, in 1575,
he "of purpose thought good to leave out the French, both because (he)
saw it was not necessary for English students of Latin, as for that
Maister Barret hath five years since set forth an alvearie sufficient to
instruct those which are desirous to travel in th'understanding of the
French Tongue."

This "alvearie" appeared in 1573, two years after the French-English
dictionary printed for Harrison. It was entitled "_An alvearie or Triple
Dictionarie in English, Latin and French, very profitable for all such
as be desirous of any of those three languages ..._" and was dedicated
to Wm. Cecil, Lord Burghley, then Chancellor of Cambridge University.
Baret had been teaching at Cambridge for eighteen years "pupils studious
of the Latin tongue," and part of their daily task was to translate some
piece of English into Latin "for the more speed and easie attayning of
the same." At last, "perceiving what great trouble it was to come
runnying to (him) for every word they missed,"[477] he made them collect
each day a number of Latin words and phrases, together with their
English equivalents. Within a year or two they had gathered together a
great volume of work, to which, "for the apt similitude between the good
scholers and diligent bees in gathering them wax and honey into their
hive," Baret gave the title of _Alvearie_. At first he had no intention
of publishing the work, but when he went to London he was finally
persuaded to do so, and received help from many of his old pupils who
were then at the Inns of Court, and from several of the best scholars in
various English schools. How Baret first thought of adding French to his
dictionary is not known. He owns that he did not trust his own skill in
this matter, although he had formerly "travelled in divers countries
beyond the seas both for languages and for learning"; but that he "used
the help of M. Chaloner and M. Claudius." By 'M. Claudius,' Baret
possibly meant Holyband, who was often called "Maistre Claude." M.
Chaloner may have been the author of the French-English dictionary
published by Harrison in 1571.

According to the custom of the time, Baret's dictionary was preceded by
a number of commendatory addresses, one of which was by the head-master
of Merchant Taylors' School, Richard Mulcaster. In the dictionary
itself, every English word is first explained, and then its equivalent
in Latin and French given. At the end are tables of the Latin and French
words "placed after the order of the alphabet, whatsoever are to be
found in any other dictionarie. And so as to turn them backwards againe
into Englishe when they reade any Latin or French authors and doubt of
any harde worde therein."

Baret had "gone to God in Heavenlie seates" before the close of 1580,
when there appeared a posthumous second edition of the _Alvearie_. In
this final form Greek has a place by the side of the other languages,
and the title runs, _An Alvearie or quadruple Dictionarie containing
four sundrie tongues, namely, English, Latine, Greeke, and Frenche,
newlie enriched with varietie of wordes, phrases, proverbs, and divers
lightsome observations of grammar_. But there is no table of the Greek
words, as for the Latin and French. Such was the third dictionary of
French words which appeared before Holyband's.[478]

[Header: FRENCH IN LATIN DICTIONARIES]

The place given to French in these early Latin dictionaries is worthy of
notice. No doubt French first entered the schools in this indirect way.
Both Veron's and Baret's works were used in schools; and Baret's
dictionary is included in the list of books mentioned by Charles Hoole
as being specially useful to schoolboys.[479] There are at least two
other school vocabularies in which French was introduced, both due to
the poet and compiler John Higgins, who is said to have been "well read
in classick authors, and withall very well skilled in French."[480] The
first of his lexicographical works was a new and revised edition of
_Huloet's Dictionarie_,[481] which occupied him two years. It appeared
in 1572,[482] a year before Baret's work. Higgins calls himself "late
student in Oxforde," and dedicates the volume to Sir John Peckham. This
edition by Higgins is so much altered that it is almost a new work. One
of the chief changes was the addition of a French version to the Latin
and English, "by whiche you may finde the Latin or French of anye
Englishe woorde you will." For the French, Higgins seems to have drawn
chiefly on the Latin-French dictionary of Robert Estienne, which had
already been published in French, English, and Latin by Jean Veron, in
1552. Higgins also acknowledges his debt to Thierry, whose French-Latin
dictionary appeared twelve years later in 1564. There was a close
relationship between French-Latin and French-English dictionaries.
French is first found side by side with English, in one of these
French-Latin dictionaries--that of Veron; and in subsequent years the
French-English dictionaries are mostly based on one or other of the
French-Latin lexicons. Those due to Robert Éstienne and to Thierry were
probably the sources from which the author of the French-English
dictionary of 1571 drew his material; while Holyband based his
_Treasurie_ (1580), and his Dictionary (1593), respectively, on the
augmented editions of Thierry's work due to Nicot, which appeared in
1573 and 1584.[483]

The second lexicographical work of Higgins, published in 1585, was a
translation, entitled _Nomenclator or Remembrancer of Adrianus Junius,
Physician, divided into two tomes_. It professed to supply the
appropriate names and apt terms for all things under their convenient
titles, in Latin, Greek, French, and English.[484] The English column
was added by Higgins.

Thus by the end of the sixteenth century there had appeared in England
three French-English dictionaries, and several others in which French
found a place by the side of the classical languages. And we may add to
these the French-Latin dictionaries on which they were usually based,
for it seems extremely likely that those students of French who knew
Latin--and practically all of them would know this chief and first of
school subjects--used the French-Latin lexicons as well, in their study
of French, when other means were not available.

Early in the seventeenth century, in 1611, Holyband's French dictionary
of 1593 was succeeded by the celebrated French-English dictionary of
Randle Cotgrave,[485] which occupies in the seventeenth century the
place that Palsgrave's _Esclarcissement_ does in the sixteenth among the
works on the French language produced in England. Although Cotgrave's
work is on a much larger scale than Holyband's, and much superior to
it,[486] there is a close connexion between the two. In the _Stationers'
Register_ Cotgrave's is entered as a dictionary in French and English
first collected by Holyband, and since augmented and altered by
Cotgrave.[487] But the work which no doubt was of most help to Cotgrave
was another French-Latin dictionary, Aimar de Ranconnet's _Tresor de la
Langue Françoise_, revised by Nicot (1606).[488] He had, moreover, read
all sorts of books, old and new, in all dialects, where he found words
not heard of for hundreds of years, which he included in his book, to be
used or left as the reader thought fit. J. L'Oiseau de Tourval,[489] a
Parisian, and friend of Cotgrave, who wrote in French an epistle
prefixed to the dictionary, thought it advisable to assure the reader
that none of these words were of Cotgrave's invention, observing at the
same time that it would be well to revive some of these obsolete and
provincial terms. [Header: COTGRAVE'S DICTIONARY] He also adds that
Cotgrave had sent to France in his eager search for words. M. Beaulieu,
secretary to the British ambassador at Paris, was no doubt Cotgrave's
collaborator in this quest, as Cotgrave tells us elsewhere[490] that he
had received valuable help from M. Beaulieu, as well as from a certain
Mr. Limery.

Cotgrave dedicated his dictionary to Wm. Cecil, Lord Burghley, "his very
good Lord and Maister," whose secretary he was. He declares that he
would have produced a more substantial work to offer to his patron had
not his eyes failed him and forced him "to spend much of their vigour on
this bundle of words." He also offered a copy to the eldest son of James
I., Prince Henry, and received from him a gift of £10.[491] The price of
the dictionary seems to have been 11s. Cotgrave sent two copies to M.
Beaulieu at Paris, and wrote requesting payment of 22s., which they cost
him; for, he says, "I have not been provident enough to reserve any of
them and therefore am forced to be beholden for them to a base and
mechanicall generation, that suffers no respect to weigh down a private
gain."[492]

Cotgrave's dictionary was much superior to anything of the sort which
had yet appeared. In addition to giving the meaning of each French word
in English, with an indication of its gender in the case of nouns, and,
in the case of adjectives, of the formation of the feminine form,
Cotgrave supplied a collection of illustrative phrases, idioms, and
proverbs. At the end are found "briefe directions for such as desire to
learne the French tongue," giving a succinct treatment of the
pronunciation of the letters, followed by a description of the various
parts of speech.

This really remarkable work, which is still of considerable utility to
the modern student, reigned supreme throughout the greater part of the
seventeenth century. A second edition was issued in 1632, when Cotgrave
was still alive. The only change in this issue is the addition of a
"most copious Dictionarie of the English set before the French by R. S.
L." This R. S. L. was Robert Sherwood, Londoner, who taught French and
English in London, and also had a French school for a time. He gave his
dictionary the title of _Dictionarie Anglois et François pour l'utilité
de tous ceux qui sont desireux de deux langues_,[493] and addressed it
to the "favorables lecteurs françois, alemans et autres." The English
reader he advises to look for fuller information as to "the gender of
all French nouns, and the conjugation of all French verbs" in Cotgrave's
dictionary; the small space to which he was limited did not allow him to
provide such information. Like Cotgrave, Sherwood closes with rules of
grammar, in the form of observations on English pronunciation and on the
English verbs. Sherwood's work is the earliest of the English-French
dictionaries. Both Baret and Higgins had placed English before French,
and no doubt Sherwood made use of their works, as well as of
English-Latin dictionaries. Baret, however, gives an indication of the
greater demand there was for French-English vocabularies, by supplying a
table of French words at the end of his work. Moreover, the object of
Sherwood's lexicon was less to facilitate translation from English to
French than to teach English to foreigners.

In 1650 Cotgrave's dictionary was issued in a revised and augmented
edition by James Howell, the famous letter-writer.[494] This edition is
preceded by a lengthy essay on the French language, tracing its growth
from the earliest times, and taken, without acknowledgement, from
Pasquier's _Recherches_. Howell had already put much of the same matter
in a series of letters addressed to the Earl of Clare in his _Epistolae
Ho-Elianae_,[495] and repeated it in his glossary of English, French,
Italian, and Spanish, the _Lexicon Tetraglotten_ (1660). He quotes
several examples of old French in both prose and verse, and adds on his
own account a praise of Richelieu and the Academy recently founded by
the cardinal. [Header: JAMES HOWELL] He also discusses the question as
to where the best French was spoken--at the Court, among scholars at the
University, or lawyers at the Courts of Parliament--and is inclined to
share the general opinion of the day, which made the Court the supreme
arbiter in matters of language.

Cotgrave, it has been seen, included all sorts of words in his
dictionary. Howell thought it necessary to distinguish obsolete and
provincial words, and, accordingly, with the help of "a noble and
knowing French gentleman," he marked such terms with a small cross. He
also initiated another change by placing the grammar before the
dictionary instead of after it, as Cotgrave did: "for a dictionary which
contains the whole bulk of a language to go before the grammar is to
make the building precede the basis. Therefore it was held more
consentaneous to reason, and congruous to order that the grammar should
be put here in the first place, for Art observes the method of Nature to
make us creep before we go." He likewise made a few additions to
Cotgrave's rules, and appended a dialogue in French and English,
"consisting of some of the extraordinary and difficult criticall phrases
which are meer Gallicismes, and pure idiomes of the French tongue"; and
also a passage of French prose, in the old spelling and also according
to the reformed orthography introduced by the Academy.

In 1660 appeared another edition of Cotgrave, still further enlarged by
Howell.[496] Some years previously copies of the edition of 1650, "with
blank pages sown between the leaves," had been sent by the printer "to
knowing persons, true lovers of the French," who were invited to enter
on the blank pages any word they came across in their reading which was
not in the dictionary; by means of this plan several hundred additional
words were gathered together, many being "new invented terms, which the
admired Mons. Scudéry, and other late Romancers have so happily publisht
in their printed volumes." After Howell's death there appeared yet
another issue of his edition of Cotgrave, in 1673.[497] The printer
employed the same means to increase the number of words as had been so
successfully adopted in 1660.

The appearance of French dictionaries naturally facilitated the reading
of French literature, which in its turn had much influence on the spread
of the knowledge of the language. Lord Herbert of Cherbury, it has been
seen, gained his first knowledge of French by reading it with the help
of a dictionary. And, in spite of the fact that French literature was
widely read in translations,[498] there were many who preferred to read
it in the original. The number of French books in private libraries is
enough to show this. One translator of the time felt it necessary to
apologize for offering an English version (1627) "of the French Knight
Lisander and his lady Calista," contrary to the fashion of the time,
"which is all French."[499] Further testimony is found in the many
French books which were printed in England,[500] in addition to the
books in both French and English. And many English writers of the time
introduced French freely into their own English compositions.[501]

Almost all Englishmen of education could read French, and many, no
doubt, learnt it as Herbert did. [Header: STUDY OF FRENCH LITERATURE]
Milton, who differed from most of his countrymen in his decided
preference for Italian, taught both languages to his two pupils and
nephews, Edward and John Philips, on this method of reading. For Italian
they read Giovanni Villani's _History_, and for French "a great part of
Pierre Davity, the famous geographer of France in his time."[502] In
fashionable circles the case was the same, and French romances and
collections of _nouvelles_ were much in vogue. Lady Brilliana Harley,
for instance, who later distinguished herself by defending her castle in
Herefordshire against the Royalists, spent much of her time reading
French literature. She wrote asking her son, then at Magdalen College,
Oxford (1638-9), to send her books in French, as she "had rather reade
any thinge in that tounge than in Inglisch."[503] She would even while
away days of sickness by translating passages of Calvin, whom the
English Protestants, yielding to the general prejudice in favour of all
things French, followed in preference to Luther. Not infrequently,
moreover, works in other languages were read in French versions, just as
such versions were frequently the medium of translation; Drummond of
Hawthornden read _Orlando Furioso_ and the _Azolani_ of Bembo in French,
as well as the works of the Swiss theologian and follower of Zwingli,
Thomas Erastus.[504]

Among the most eager advocates of the reading of French literature were
naturally the French teachers of the time. One of the chief objections
raised against Holyband's system of distinguishing the unpronounced
letters was that the student would be at a loss when he came to read
French books. Holyband, however, protested that such was not the case,
and that "the cavillation of these ignorantes who measure other men's
wit according to their owne" was in contradiction to his experience,
which daily showed him the contrary. As to his reading, Holyband would
first have the learner "reade halfe a score chapters of the New
Testament, because it was both easie and profitable:[505] then let him
take in hand any of the works of Monsieur de Launay, otherwise called
Pierre Boaystuau, as the best and the most elegant writer of our tongue.
His workes be _le Theatre du monde_, the tragicall histories, the
prodigious histories. Sleidan's commentaries in frenche be excellently
translated. Philippe de Commins, when he is corrected is very profitable
and wise." The _Nouveau Testament_ of de Bèze, Boiasteau's _Théâtre du
monde_, and Sleidan's _Commentaries_[506] were all books well known in
England, and Holyband himself prepared an edition of Boiasteau.[507] An
additional reason, according to him, for retaining the unsounded
consonants was to facilitate the reading of the older monuments of the
French language. He also advised the perusal of Marot's works, of the
_Amadis_ of Herberay des Essarts, of François de Belleforest's _Histoire
Universelle du monde_, of the _Vies et Morales de Plutarque_, in Amyot's
version, and of the collection of stories, on the plan of the
_Decameron_, which its author, Jacques Yver, had entitled _Le Printemps_
(1572),[508] by way of contrast with his own name.

Evidently Holyband's choice of French literature was influenced to some
extent by his religious sympathies. It is curious that he makes no
mention of Ronsard, who was much read in England, and one of the
favourite authors of the Queen. Bellot in his Grammar had similar if not
identical ambitions. He sought to enable his pupils to read the _Amadis_
of Des Essarts, Marot, de Bèze, du Bellay's lyrics, Froissart, Ronsard,
Collet[509] and Jodelle "racontans l'un l'amour et l'autre la guerre
cruelle." Pibrac and Du Bartas have already been mentioned as favourite
authors. It was to encourage his pupils to take delight in the "profound
learning and flowing sweetness of the French poets, especially the
divine works of that matchlesse du Bartas," that a French teacher of the
seventeenth century, Pierre Erondell, printed at the end of his book for
teaching the language, the New Testament story of the Centurion,
rendered by himself into French verse. "This poor work," he quaintly
writes, will encourage learners to read better ones, "because everything
is better known by his contrarye and the sweet sweeter, after that the
mouth hath tasted of the sharpe sower."

Naturally writings of a religious character were much in favour with
these teachers. [Header: AUTHORS USUALLY READ] Holyband advised the
reading of de Bèze's New Testament, and several times we hear of "the
French Bible" being printed in England.[510] The Liturgy in French[511]
was also printed, and would be useful to English students of French
attending the French Church.

French teachers were not the only zealous advocates of the reading of
French literature. Most of the writers on polite education of the time
give similar advice, although for different reasons. "For statesmen,
French authors are the best," wrote Francis Osborne in his _Advice to a
son_,[512] "and most fruitful in negociations, and memoirs left by
public ministers, and by their secretaries published after their
deaths." Cleland names the works of the many learned historiographers of
France he would have the future diplomat and aspirant to the services of
the State read: "Engerrand of Munstrellet, Philip of Commines, the Lord
of Haillant, who is both learned and profitable and pleasant in my
conceit. The Commentaries of Bellay and the Inventorie of John Serres,
newlie printed and worthie to be read, both for the good and compendious
compiling of the storie and also for the French eloquence wherin he
floweth. For militarie affairs, yee maie read the Lord of Noue, who is
somwhat difficil for some men, and also the Commentaries of the L.
Monluc, which are good both for a young souldier, and an old
captaine."[513]

Bodin was another of the authors specially recommended. Sir Philip
Sidney counsels his brother Robert to read him with particular
attention, and James Howell[514] includes him in a list of "good French
writers," which varies slightly from that of Cleland: "For the general
history of France, Serres is one of the best, and for the modern times,
d'Aubigni, Pierre Mathieu, and du Pleix: for the politicall and martiall
government du Haillan, De la Noue, Bodin, and the Cabinet: Touching
Commines, who was contemporary with Machiavel, 'twas a witty speech of
the last Queen mother of France that he made more Heretiques in policy
than Luther ever did in religion. Therefore he requires a reader of
riper years."


FOOTNOTES:

[449] This was the fee charged by Holyband in his French school.

[450] The interlinear arrangement used in the Middle Ages had been
abandoned in all but a few exceptional cases. These teachers no doubt
agreed with the pedagogue John Brinsley, the chief exponent of the
method of translation, that interlinears were confusing because the eye
catches the two languages simultaneously.

[451] F. Watson, _English Grammar Schools_, Cambridge, 1908, pp. 305
_sqq._ J. E. Sandys, "Education in Shakespeare's England," in
_Shakespeare's England_, i. pp. 231 _sqq._

[452] Cp. Rashdall, _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, ii. p.
603.

[453] Article on Lily in _Dict. Nat. Biog._, and Watson, _Grammar
Schools_, pp. 243 _sqq._

[454] Cp. W. Lilly's _History of His Life_, "Autobiographies," I.,
London, 1828, pp. 12, 13; _The Autobiography of Adam Martindale_,
Chetham Soc., 1845, pp. 14, 15, and similar diaries and memoirs.

[455] Published at Brabant, 1538; cp. F. Watson, _Tudor Schoolboy Life_,
1908.

[456] By Leonard Culman.

[457] Less widely used were the _Dialogues_ of John Posselius, a German
philosopher. They treat of the school and the study of the classical
tongues. They were printed in London in Latin and English in 1625, as
_Dialogues conteyning all the most familiar and usefull words of the
Latin Tongue_.

[458] Which took the form of translating: "For all your constructions in
Grammar Scholes be nothing els but translations," Ascham, _The
Scholemaster_ (1570), ed. Arber, 1869, p. 92.

[459] C. Hoole, _An advertisement touching ... school books_, 1659.

[460] _Institution of a young nobleman_, 1607, p. 78.

[461] Quoted by F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, p. 246.

[462] _The Boke named the Governour_, ed. Crofts, 1883, i. p. 33.

[463] _The Scholemaster_ (1570), ed. Arber, London, 1869, p. 28.

[464] Elyot, _op. cit._ i. p. 54.

[465] Ascham, _op. cit._ p. 92.

[466] F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, p. 264. "Much writing breedeth ready
speaking," was one of his precepts.

[467] Ascham himself got his ideas mainly from Cicero (_De Oratore_).

[468] _The Scholemaster, ed. cit._ p. 26. Ascham also suggests the use
of a third paper book, in which a collection of the different forms of
speech and phrases should be made from the material read.

[469] 1574?-1637, the second of the five sons of Edmund Lisle of
Tanbridge in Surrey, _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[470] This is the title of the 1625 edition, printed by John Hoviland.
That of 1596 was printed by L. Bollifant for R. Wilkins, and entitled
_Babilon a part of Du Bartas his second Weeke_ (Pyne, _List of Books_,
1874-8, i. p. 132); cp. _Stationers' Register_, iii. 98 (_A Booke called
the Colonyes of Bartas with the commentarye of S. G. S. englished and
enlarged by Wm. L'Isle_, 1597).

[471] This is a copy bound separately from the rest of the 1605 edition
of Sylvester's _Divine Weekes_, with which it was issued.

[472] S. Lee, in _Dict. Nat. Biog._

[473] A long list may be compiled from the _Registers of the Stationers'
Company_. J. Wolfe and R. Field, both printers of French grammars,
received many licences to print books in French and English. See also
Upham, _French Influence in English Literature_, New York, 1908
(Appendix I., pp. 471-505). Many of these works are on religious topics;
others belong to no particular category, in the style of Bellot's
_Jardin de Vertu_; many on topical subjects, such as news-letters and
pamphlets on the French wars, were printed in French more to appeal to a
larger public than to give instruction in the language.

[474] _An advertisement touching ... school books_, 1659.

[475] _Autobiography_, ed. S. Lee, 2nd ed., 1906, p. 23.

[476] Hazlitt, _Bibliog. Collections_, iv. 111. In 1584 Newbury and
Denham received licence to print "the Dictionary in French and English,
in 4to, and all other dictionaries French and English in quarto,"
_Stationers' Register_, ii. 438.

[477] "Knowing then of no other dictionary to help us, but Sir Thomas
Eliot's _Librarie_, which was come out a little before."

[478] On Holyband's debts to these works see Miss E. Farrer's _La Vie et
les oeuvres de Claude de Sainliens_, pp. 70 _sqq._

[479] F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, p. 458.

[480] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[481] _Abcedarium Anglico-Latinum_, London, 1552.

[482] Folio, printed by Thomas Marshe.

[483] Farrer, _op. cit._ p. 72.

[484] First appeared at Leyden in 1567. Higgins' edition was printed for
Ralph Newberie and Henrie Denham, 8vo.

[485] _A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues._ London, printed
by A. Islip, 1611, folio.

[486] Cp. _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1901, v. p. 243.

[487] _Stationers' Register_, iii. 432.

[488] Farrer, _op. cit._ p. 86.

[489] Himself a good linguist, who translated some of James I.'s
compositions into French, and was for many years in the service of the
English Foreign Office; cp. S. Lee, _Beginnings of French Translations
from the English_. Transactions of the Bibliog. Soc. vii., 1908.

[490] In an autograph letter; cp. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[491] _Rolls of expenses of Prince Henry_, "Revels at Court," ed. P.
Cunningham, New Shakespeare Soc., 1842 (Preface).

[492] Harl. MSS. 7002, quoted _Dict. Nat. Biog._ At the end of one of
the Brit. Mus. copies is the MS. inscription: "Mr. James Winwood, his
book and sent him out of England by John More the 18th May [1611]."
Evidently Cotgrave's work made its way rapidly into France.

[493] Printed by Adam Islip, 4to.

[494] _A French English Dictionary, compil'd by Mr. Randle Cotgrave,
with another in English and French. Whereunto are newly added the
Animadversions and Supplements etc. of James Howell, Esquire._ London,
printed by W. H. for Rd. Whitaker ... 4to. Sherwood's dictionary was
printed by Susan Islip.

[495] Ninth ed., 1726, pp. 470 _sqq._

[496] _A French and English Dictionary composed by Mr. Randle Cotgrave,
with another in English and French. Whereunto are added sundry
animadversions with supplements of many hundreds of words never before
printed; with accurate castigations throughout the whole work, and
distinctions of the obsolete words from those that are now in use.
Together with a dialogue consisting of all gallicisms, with additions of
the most useful and significant proverbs, with other refinements
according to cardinall Richelieu's late Academy. For the furtherance of
the young learners, and the advantage of all others that endeavour to
arrive to the most exact knowledge of the French this work is exposed to
publick...._ Printed by Wm. Hunt in Pye Corner.

[497] Title same as in 1660. "Printed for Anthony Dolle, and are to be
sold by Th. Williams at the Golden Ball in Hosier Lane."

[498] Many important literary productions in different languages came
into England through the medium of a French version--for instance,
Plutarch, _Amadis_, the _Politics_ of Aristotle. Cp. Upham, _French
Influence in English Literature_, p. 13. The influence of Senecan
tragedy reached England through the intermediary of the "French Seneca,"
Robert Garnier (Schelling, _Elizabethan Drama_, ii. pp. 5 _sqq._ and p.
512). In 1612 licence was granted N. Bulter to print an English
translation from French of so popular a work as Ovid's _Metamorphoses_
(_Stationers' Register_, iii. 489).

[499] The _Histoire tragi-comique de nostre temps sous les noms de
Lysandre et de Caliste_ (1615) was the work of d'Audigier.

[500] Thus the _Préau des Fleurs meslées, contenant plusieurs et
differentz discours_ of François Voilleret, sieur de Florizel, was
printed in London in 1600 (?), and dedicated to the Prince of Wales. In
1620 it was licensed to be printed in French and English, provided the
English translation be approved. In 1619 a French translation of Bacon's
_Essays_ was published at London, and in 1623 Field received a licence
to print a French translation of Camden's _Annals_ (originally in Latin)
by J. Bellequent, avocat au Parlement de Paris (_Stationers' Register_,
iv. 106).

[501] As did Shakespeare (cp. Schmidt, _Shakespeare Lexicon_, Berlin,
1902, vol. ii.) and several of the lesser poets. French refrains were
also sometimes used, as in Greene's _Never too Late_ (Infida's song):

    "Wilt thou let thy Venus di,
    N'oseres vous mon bel amy?
    Adon were unkinde say I,
    Je vous en prie, pitie me:
    N'oseres vous mon bel, mon bel,
    N'oseres vous, mon bel amy?"

See S. Lee, _French Renaissance in England_, Oxford, 1910, p. 243.
Sylvester even ventured to write poems in French.

[502] _Lives of Ed. and John Philips, nephews of Milton_ (1694),
reprinted by William Godwin, 1815, pp. 362-3.

[503] _Letters_, Camden Soc., 1854, p. 13, and _passim_.

[504] Upham, _op. cit._ p. 8.

[505] In 1551 the New Testament and a Book of Prayers in French were
printed by Thomas Gaultier. _Handlist of Books_, Bibliographical
Society, 1913.

[506] The German historian's commentary, _De Statu religionis et
reipublicae Carolo Quinto Caesare_, appeared in Latin in 1555, and in
French in 1557.

[507] _Le théâtre du monde . . . revue et corrigé par C. de Sainliens_,
1595. Printed by George Bishop and dedicated to "the Scotch Ambassador,
Jacques de Betoun, Archevesque de Glasco."

[508] Which was very popular. It reached twelve editions before the end
of the century.

[509] No doubt the poet Claude Collet.

[510] Cp. _Stationers' Register_, iii. 468. Another work of a religious
nature was the _Catechisme ou instruction familiere sur les principaus
points de la Religion Chrestienne_ (par M. Dielincourt), _Stationers'
Register_, iii. 410.

[511] _Stationers' Register_, ii. 451, 452.

[512] 1656, pp. 12-13.

[513] _Institution of a young nobleman_, p. 152.

[514] _Directions for forreine travel_ (1642), ed. Arber, 1869, p. 21.




CHAPTER VI

    FRENCH AT THE UNIVERSITIES


The universities set the grammar schools the example by neglecting the
study of French and other subjects necessary to a polite education. Even
the limited encouragement given to the modern language at the
universities during the Middle Ages no longer existed in the sixteenth
century. At this date Latin reigned supreme at Oxford and Cambridge, and
its use was rigorously enforced. The students were required "to speak in
Latin at public places" or otherwise "incur the penalty contained in the
statute regarding this point."[515] It is true that these regulations
were not always obeyed; Fynes Moryson says that scholars in the
universities shun occasions of speaking Latin. But it was none the less
the chief language cultivated at the universities,[516] where no modern
languages received official recognition.

The mediaeval custom of using French on various academic occasions had
not, however, disappeared without leaving a few traces. Some of the
French forms of procedure favoured in the Middle Ages, probably owing to
the influence of the University of Paris, were still in use at Cambridge
in the seventeenth century. The books of two Cambridge beadels, Beadel
Stokys (_c._ 1570) and Beadel Buck (1665),[517] show that on several
occasions these officials were instructed to use French during public
ceremonies. Thus, at the solemn exercise of determination, one of the
beadels gave thanks for the money he and his fellows received, in the
following terms: [Header: FRENCH AND ITALIAN READ] "Noter Determiners je
vous remercie de le Argent que vous avez donner a moy et a meis
companiouns, pourquoy je prie a Dieu que il vous veuille donner tres
bonne vie et en la Fin la Joye de Paradise." In similar
"Stratford-atte-Bowe" French they summoned the lecturers in the
'schools' to be present on commencement day: "Nostre Seigneur Doctor,
une parolle sil vous Plaist, nostres Peres de nostres Seigneurs
Commencens vous prient que vous estes demayn a son commencement en
l'église de nostre Dame." And throughout the ceremonies[518] in Arts and
Theology similar French formulae, often interspersed with Latin, were
frequently used, though they had probably passed out of use by the
beginning of the eighteenth century. But even at that time the summons
to dinner at New College still retained a trace of the old custom; two
choristers walked from the chapel door to the garden gate crying,
"Tempus est vocando, mangez tous seigneurs."

Yet modern languages were not entirely neglected by all university
students. Gabriel Harvey, in an interesting letter to a certain Mr.
Wood, says that the students of Cambridge have "deserted Thomas Aquinas
and the whole rabblement of schoolmen for modern French and Italian
works such as Commines and Machiavell, Paradines in Frenche, Plutarche
in Frenche, and I know not how many outlandish braveryes of the same
stamp." "You can not stepp into a schollars studye," he adds, "but (ten
to on) you shall litely finde open either Bodin _de Republica_ or Le
Royes exposition uppon Aristotles Politiques, or some other like Frenche
or Italian Politique Discourses."[519]

Thus we may safely conclude that French and to a less extent Italian
books were widely read at the universities. No doubt, those who learnt
Italian did so with the help of a dictionary or an English translation,
like Lord Herbert of Cherbury. But there were additional opportunities
for learning the more popular language. French tutors and French
grammars were not unknown at both Oxford and Cambridge. But it was at
Oxford that they were by far the more numerous. The tutors taught French
privately to those of the students who were willing to learn. And
Holyband in dedicating his _French Schoolemaister_ (1573) to the young
Robert Sackville, then a student at Oxford, throws light on the attitude
taken towards that language: "not that you shuld leave off your
weightier and worthier studies in the Universitie, but when your mind is
amazed and dazled with long readinge, you may refresh and disport you in
learninge this [French] tongue."

Protestant refugees formed an important section of the little band of
private French tutors at Oxford. Many Huguenots, frequently scholars of
distinction, settled at the English centres of learning. Some were
promoted to positions in the University,[520] on which they had a very
beneficial influence, just as others received preferment in the English
Church. The French tutors were among the humbler and more numerous
exiles who "taught privately," as the seventeenth-century historian of
the University, Anthony à Wood, tells us. Apart from those who actually
taught French, the presence of considerable numbers of Frenchmen[521]
cannot have been without some indirect influence on the study of French
at Cambridge, as well as at Oxford.

In addition, several French tutors accompanied their pupils to the
University, and spent some time with them there. Such, no doubt, was the
case of Peter Du Ploich who, for some unknown reason, was residing in
Barnard College (now St. John's), Oxford, early in the second half of
the sixteenth century. Another well-known French tutor, G. De la Mothe,
accompanied his pupil Richard Wenman to Oxford, some time between 1587
and 1592. About ten years before, we come across a famous Protestant,
Jean Hotman, sieur de Villiers St. Paul, resident at Oxford with his
pupils, the sons of Lord Poulet, English ambassador at Paris; while
attending to the education of his charges he completed his own, and
received the degree of Doctor. Subsequently he became secretary to
Leicester, and was thus brought into contact with the English
Court.[522] The younger Pierre Du Moulin likewise remained with his
pupil Richard Boyle when at Oxford.[523] [Header: FRENCH GRAMMARS
PRINTED AT OXFORD] Among tutors who spent a short time at Oxford, and
then joined the larger and more successful group of language teachers
in London, was John Florio,[524] well known as a writer of books for
teaching Italian, and himself of Italian parentage, though born in
London. In about 1576 he became tutor for French and Italian to
Emmanuel, son of Richard Barnes, Bishop of Durham, and to several other
Oxford students. He was, we are told, a "very useful man in his
profession." Shortly after, he removed to London, where he enjoyed
favour at Court.

Of more importance, however, is the group of private tutors who settled
at Oxford, found a clientèle among the University students, and
frequently wrote and published French grammars for the use of their
pupils. There was evidently some demand for instruction in French at
Oxford early in the sixteenth century. The bookseller John Donne enters
a book called _Frans and Englis_ twice in the register of books he sold
in 1520;[525] this may have been either Caxton's Book in French and
English, or the similar collection of dialogues printed by Pynson and
Wynkyn de Worde in turn.

The first book for teaching French printed at Oxford was due to a
Frenchman called Pierre Morlet, a native of Auteuil, who taught French
at Oxford in the last decade of the sixteenth century. His _Janitrix
sive institutio ad perfectam linguae gallicae cognitionem acquirendum_
was issued from the press of Joseph Barnes in 1596.[526] The dedication,
dated from Broadgates Hall the 5th of March of the same year, is
addressed to Morlet's former pupil, Sir Robert Beal. This rare little
treatise contains a few observations on the pronunciation of the
letters, followed by a concise treatment of each part of speech in turn.
It is preceded by a number of commendatory verses in Latin and Greek,
tributes from Morlet's pupils, students of the various colleges. Morlet
had previously prepared a revised edition of Jean Garnier's French
grammar, which was published at Jena in 1593,[527] no doubt before his
coming to England.

As might be expected, most of the early Oxford French grammars, written
for the use of Oxonians, differ from those published at London in that
they are composed in Latin. They differ further in containing no
practical exercises and restricting their contents to rules of grammar.

All the French grammars published at Oxford were not due to Frenchmen.
In 1584 a Spanish refugee, Antonio de Corro, resident at Christ Church,
after acting as minister of the Spanish Church in London, had
anticipated Morlet by adding a few rules on French pronunciation and
accidence to his Spanish Grammar,[528] written in his own language. This
was subsequently translated into English in 1590 by J. Thorius, also of
Christ Church, and printed in London as _The Spanish Grammer with
certaine Rules teaching both the Spanish and French tongues_. Several
grammars were likewise produced by Englishmen resident at Oxford, and
teaching the French language. Among others was John Sanford, or
Sandford, chaplain of Magdalen College, and the author of the French
grammar which succeeded Morlet's. Sanford wrote in Latin, and entitled
his work _Le Guichet François, sive Janicula et Brevis Introductio ad
Linguam Gallicam_. It was published by Joseph Barnes in 1604,[529] and
dedicated to Dr. Bond, president of Magdalen. Sanford compiled his
observations on the pronunciation and parts of speech from the various
French grammars published in both France and England; he drew largely on
Morlet, as well as Bellot and Holyband; and made equally free with de
Bèze, Pillot, and Ramus.

He varied his duties as chaplain by giving lessons in French. In 1605 he
was teaching French to that "hopefull young gentleman Mr. William Grey,
son to the Rt. Honourable Arthur Lord Grey of Wilton," and found "good
contentement" in his "happy progresse therein." Called away temporarily
by other duties, Sanford made an English translation of the Latin work,
which he addressed to his young charge "as a pledge of my duteous love
towards your good deserts, and as my substitute to supplie my absence,
being willing also for your sake to make a publicke use therof." The
_Janicula_ appeared in its new form, much abridged as well as
translated, in 1605, under the title of _A Briefe Extract of the former
Latin Grammar_.[530] It is significant that although this English
translation was printed by Barnes at Oxford, it was mainly intended for
a London public, and was "to be sold in Paules Church Yard at the signe
of the Crowne by Simon Waterson."

[Header: SALTONSTALL AND LEIGHTON]

Sanford retained his position at Magdalen for some years after the
appearance of his grammars. In about 1610 he was travelling abroad as
chaplain to Sir John Digby, whose acquaintance he had made when Sir John
was a student at Balliol.[531]

Other well-known English teachers of French at Oxford were Wye
Saltonstall and Henry Leighton. Wye Saltonstall came of a noble family
in Essex. He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford, where "his descent
and birth being improved by learning, flatter'd him with a kinder
fortune than afterwards he enjoyed his life being all _Tristia_." He is
said to have then gone to Gray's Inn, Holborn, without taking a degree
at Oxford, and afterwards to have become a perfect master of French,
which he had acquired during his travels. In 1625 he returned to Oxford
for purposes of study and converse with learned men. There he taught
Latin and French, and was still living in good repute in 1640 and
after.[532]

Henry Leighton, on the other hand, had not so good a reputation at the
University. He is said to have been a man of debauched character, and to
have obtained the degree of M.A. in anything but a straightforward
manner; when Charles I. created more than seventy persons M.A. on the
1st of November 1642, Leighton, who then bore a commission in the king's
army, contrived to have the degree conferred on himself by presenting
himself at dusk, when the light was very low, though his name was not on
the list. When the king's cause declined, Leighton, who had received the
greater part of his education in France, and was an accomplished French
scholar, settled at Oxford as a teacher of French, and had a room in St.
John's College. Apparently he continued to teach French until 1669, the
year of his death.[533]

He was the author of a French grammar written in Latin, called _Linguae
Gallicae addiscendae regulae_, printed in 1659,[534] and again in 1662.
Beginning with rules for the pronunciation of each letter, the author
passes to observations on the articles, nouns, pronouns, and verbs; he
then returns to the pronunciation, gives fuller rules for the more
difficult sounds, and closes with a list of irregular verbs.[535]
Leighton says he published his work at the request of his friends. He
dedicated it (in French) to Henry O'Brien, baron of Ibrecken, only son
of the Earl of Thomond, expressing, in words very like those used by
Holyband on a similar occasion, the hope that this "divertissement," as
he calls the grammar, may help to while away time not occupied by more
serious and important studies. Thus we see that the general attitude
towards the study of French was still, in the middle of the seventeenth
century, very much what it had been in the preceding century.

In the meantime other grammars had appeared from the pens of French
sojourners at Oxford. One, Robert Farrear, a teacher of French, wrote a
grammar in English for the use of his pupils, _The Brief Direction to
the French Tongue_, printed at Oxford in 1618. Nothing further is known
of its author. Anthony à Wood[536] informs us that in the title of the
book Farrear inscribed himself M.A., but "whether he took that degree or
was incorporated therein in Oxford" he could not discover.

The works on French which appeared at Oxford were not all formal
grammars of the type described. Pierre Bense, a native of Paris, who
taught Italian and Spanish as well as French, was the author of the
_Analogo-Diaphora seu Concordantia Discrepans et Discrepantia Concordans
trium linguarum Gallicae, Italicae et Hispanicae_, commended by Edward
Leigh in his _Foelix Consortium or a fit Conjuncture of Religion and
Learning_ (1663). This comparison of the resemblances and differences in
the grammar of the three languages is dedicated to the University of
Oxford, and was printed at the author's own expense in 1637.[537] As to
Bense himself we are told that he was partly bred "in good letters" at
Paris, and then, coming to England, "he went by letters commendatory to
Oxon where being kindly received and entertained, became a sojourner
there, was entred into the public library, and taught for several years
the French, Italian and Spanish tongues." For the rest we must be
content to add with Wood: "What other things he hath written I know not,
nor any thing else of the author."[538]

[Header: GABRIEL DU GRÈS]

As yet no French grammars had appeared at Cambridge, and French teachers
do not seem to have made their presence felt there.[539] In 1631,
however, one of the best known of this group of university French tutors
arrived at Cambridge--Gabriel Du Grès, a native of Saumur, and a member
of a good family from Angers. He arrived in England as a refugee on
account of his Protestant faith, received a warm welcome at Cambridge,
and taught French to several of the students in various colleges.[540]
In the fifth year of his residence, the liberality of his pupils enabled
him to publish his _Breve et Accuratum Grammaticae Gallicae compendium
in quo superflua rescinduntur et necessaria non omittuntur_ (1636), a
work on the same lines and of about the same dimensions as that of
Morlet.[541] It is preceded by Latin verses addressed to the author by
members of different colleges, and is dedicated to the students of the
University, especially those engaged in the study of French. This
grammar of Du Grès appears to be the only work of its kind printed at
Cambridge before the eighteenth century.[542]

Shortly after its publication Du Grès joined the group of French tutors
at Oxford,[543] and this removal points to the more ready openings
offered there to those of his profession. When he published his _Dialogi
Gallico-Anglico-Latini_[544] at Oxford in 1639, he was teaching French
in that "most illustrious and famous university." These dialogues are
dedicated to Charles, Prince of Wales. Twenty-one in number, they deal
with the usual familiar topics, greetings and the ordinary civilities,
visiting and table talk, the house and its contents, man and the parts
of his body, wayfaring, a journey to France, and so forth, many being of
much interest on account of the light they throw on the customs of the
time. Considerable space is devoted to instructions for writing letters.

A second edition appeared in 1652, enlarged with "necessary rules for
the pronunciation of the French tongue, very profitable unto them that
are desirous of it," giving a pseudo-English equivalent of the sound of
each French letter, and followed by a few general rules for reading
French and a table of the auxiliary and regular verbs. This little book,
which has more in common with the productions of the London teachers
than with the Oxford manuals, enjoyed a greater popularity than those of
Du Grès's rivals. In 1660 a third edition appeared, without the
additions found in the second.

He was also the author of an interesting little work in English on the
Duke of Richelieu,[545] printed in London in 1643. Probably Du Grès had
removed to London at that date; in the second edition of his grammar,
printed, like the first, by Leonard Lichfield at Oxford, he describes
himself as "late teacher of the same in Oxford."

In his dialogues Du Grès gives some account of his ideas on the teaching
of French:[546]

    Commençons à l'abécé.

    Escusez moy.

    Entendez moy, oyez moy, prononcer les lettres. Remarquez bien
    comment je prononce les voyelles, et principalement _u_, car il est
    bien malaisé a prononcer à vous autres mm. les Anglois, comme aussi
    _e_ entre les consonnes. Prononcez apres moy.

    Voilà qui va bien.

    Prononce-je bien?

    Fort bien. Essayez encore une fois.

    Ce mechant _u_ me donne bien de la peine.

    Il ne sauroit tant vous en donner que votre _th_ ou _ch_ nous en
    donne.

    Il est malaisé d'avoir la proprieté de votre langue.

    L'exercice et la lecture des bons autheurs vous apprendront avec le
    temps, etc.

He agreed with most of the French teachers of the day in attaching much
importance to conversational practice and reading. He also recommended a
certain amount of memorising and the study of grammar; general rules and
rules of syntax he considered indispensable; but for pronunciation he
thought practice of more avail than rules. It is possible, he admits, to
learn French by rote, without any grammar rules. But it is not the best
way in his opinion. Without grammar rules the student cannot distinguish
good French from bad, nor can he translate, write letters, or read; and
reading, thought Du Grès, was an essential condition if the cultivation
of French in England was to be maintained. [Header: FRENCH AT
CAMBRIDGE] Those who learn by ear are at a loss as soon as they no
longer hear French spoken daily. As for those who promise to teach
French in a short time, they are nothing but mountebanks. Du Grès held
that a man of moderate intellect could, with hard work, learn to
understand an ordinary French author in three or four months. He had
had, he declares, some pupils at Cambridge who learnt to read and speak
fairly well in four months and others who learnt practically nothing in
a whole year.

At the end of the seventeenth century the status of French at the
universities had undergone no marked change. At the time of the
Restoration, a certain Philemon Fabri petitioned Williamson for an
appointment as Professor of French eloquence at Oxford, "he having held
a similar situation at Strasburg"; he supported his request by an
address to the king in French verses, entitled _Le Pater Noster des
Anglais au Roi_. Apparently Fabri did not receive the desired
position.[547] At Cambridge we find still less encouragement given to
the study of French than at Oxford. During the Commonwealth, Guy Le
Moyne, formerly French tutor to Charles I., lived at Cambridge, and no
doubt continued to teach French there, as he had done in London and at
Court.[548] At the Restoration he petitioned Charles II. to let him have
the Fellowship at Pembroke Hall reserved for Frenchmen.[549] Le Moyne
was then seventy-two years old, and wished, he said, to end his days at
Cambridge.[550] At Cambridge, as at Oxford, there were also French
tutors in charge of particular pupils. Many of these were French
Protestants. Thus the famous Pierre Du Moulin, arriving in England as a
destitute refugee in 1588, was received into the service of the Countess
of Rutland, who sent him to Cambridge as tutor to her son. There he
remained until 1592, continuing his own studies as well as attending to
those of his young charge. He thoroughly disliked his position, and
seized the first opportunity of leaving it.[551] We also hear of Herbert
Palmer, President of Queen's College (1644-47), who had learnt French
almost as soon as he could speak, and could preach in French as well as
in English.[552] He won considerable distinction as a college tutor, but
whether he placed his knowledge of French at the service of students, as
Sanford and Leighton did at Oxford, is not specified.

Yet, even at Oxford, the efforts of this band of French teachers were
not on a large enough scale to have any very noticeable effect. Some
gentlemen who, like Sanford's pupil, William Grey, had gone to the
University to make themselves "fit for honourable imployments
hereafter," took advantage of such opportunities as there were of
studying French. Thus Henry Smith, while acting as tutor to Mr.
Clifford, learnt French himself, and wrote to Williamson in that
language.[553] And no doubt the French tutors found enough pupils among
those who were drawn more towards the fashionable than the scholastic
world. But the inability of the young Oxford student to speak French
when in polite London circles was a subject of comment in the
seventeenth century as the language became more and more widely
cultivated. To speak French was even considered incompatible with a
university education, to judge from this passage in one of Farquhar's
comedies:[554]

     _Sir H. Wildair._ Canst thou danse, child?

     _Bantu._ Oui, monsieur.

     _Lady Lurewell._ Heyday! French too! Why, sure, sir, you could
     never be bred at Oxford!

To the same intent Pepys relates[555] how an Oxford scholar, "in a
Doctor of Lawe's gowne," whom he met at dinner at the Spanish
ambassador's, sat like a fool for want of French, "though a gentle sort
of scholar"; nor could he speak the ambassador's language, but only
Latin, which he spoke like an Englishman. Pepys, on the other hand, was
very pleased at the display he was able to make of his own French on
this occasion. The famous diarist was a competent judge, and spoke and
wrote the language with ease. Unfortunately we know nothing of how he
acquired this knowledge, beyond the fact that he had not been to
France.[556] [Header: ONE-SIDEDNESS OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION] He often
criticizes the French of those he meets, and a certain Dr. Pepys,
according to him, "spoke the worst French he had ever heard from one who
had been beyond sea." Pepys's brother spoke French, "very plain and
good," and Mrs. Pepys, the daughter of a refugee Huguenot, was as
familiar with that language as with English.[557]

Thus the universities, like the schools, failed to keep in touch with
practical life by their neglect of the broader education necessary to
persons of quality and fashion. At the Inns of Court, where gentlemen
usually spent some time on leaving the university,[558] or where they
sometimes went instead of to the university,[559] the state of things
was somewhat better. Some knowledge of French was indispensable to those
studying the law, and the position of the Inns, almost all of them
within the boundaries of the ward of Farringdon Without, the favourite
abode of the French teachers, was such as to offer exceptional
facilities for the study of the language. When Robert Ashley was at the
Inner Temple he studied Spanish, Italian, and Dutch, as well as French.
We are told[560] that in earlier times "knights, barons, and the
greatest nobility of the kingdom often placed their children in those
Inns of Court, not so much to make the laws their study, much less to
live by the profession ... but to form their manners and to preserve
them from contagion of vice." There, could be found "a sort of gymnasium
or academy fit for persons of their station, where they learn singing
and all kinds of music, dancing, and other such accomplishments and
Diversions ... as are suitable to their quality and such as are usually
practiced at Court." French was, without doubt, one of these
accomplishments. Towards the end of the seventeenth century the Inns of
Court were still much in favour, and gentlemen's sons could enjoy there
good company and the innocent recreations of the town, as well as
improve themselves in the "exercises." Clarendon calls the Inns of Court
the suburbs of the Court itself.

None the less, the gentleman with a university education, even when it
was followed by residence at one of the Inns of Court, was felt to be
inadequately equipped. Almost invariably he sought on the Continent the
polite accomplishments and knowledge of languages, which were necessary
qualifications for high employment at Court, in the army, and elsewhere.
Travel came to be regarded as "an especial part"[561] of the education
of a gentleman, and as such occupies an important place in the
educational treatises of the time. The usual course advised for the sons
of gentlemen was an early study of Greek and Latin, followed by
residence at one of the Universities and at the Inns of Court, and,
finally, "travel beyond seas for language and experience" and the study
of such arts as could not be easily acquired in England.

In some cases gentlemen were educated quite independently of the English
schools and universities[562]--at home with private tutors, and in
France. Lady Brilliana Harley, for instance, feared that her son would
not find much good company at Oxford. "I believe," she wrote, "that
theare are but feawe nobellmens sonne in Oxford, for now, for the most
part, they send theaire sonnes into France when they are very yonge,
theaire to be breed."[563]


FOOTNOTES:

[515] J. Heywood, _Cambridge Statutes_ (sixteenth century), London,
1840, p. 267.

[516] Cooper, _Annals of Cambridge_, 1852, iii. p. 429; Mullinger,
_History of the University of Cambridge_, iii. p. 368.

[517] Printed in Peacock's _Observations on the Statutes of the
University of Cambridge_, 1841 (Appendix).

[518] Cp. C. Wordsworth, _Scholae Academicae_, 1877, pp. 209 _sqq._

[519] _Letter Book of Gabriel Harvey_ (1573-1580), Camden Soc., 1884,
pp. 78-9. The tutor of John Hall, author of the _Horae Vacivae_ (1646),
testified to his pupil's attainments in French, Spanish, and Italian
literature. Mullinger, _History of the University of Cambridge_, ii. p.
351.

[520] One, Jean Verneuil, became underlibrarian of the Bodleian in 1625.
Cp. Schickler, _Les Églises du Refuge_, i. p. 424; Foster Watson,
_Religious Refugees and English Education_, Hug. Soc. Proceedings, 1911;
Agnew, _Protestant Exiles_, i. ch. v. and pp. 137, 147, 148, 156, 163;
ii. pp. 260, 274, 388; Smiles, _The Huguenots_, ch. xiv.

[521] There were also numerous French Protestant students at the
University of Edinburgh; cp. Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 366.

[522] Schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. 244.

[523] Wood, _Fasti Oxonienses_ (Bliss), ii. 195.

[524] Wood, _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 380.

[525] Oxford Historical Society: _Collectanea_, i., 1885, pp. 73 _sqq._

[526] 8vo, pp. 92.

[527] E. Stengel, _Chronologisches Verzeichnis französischer
Grammatiken_, Oppeln, 1890.

[528] F. Madan, _Oxford Books, 1468-1640_, 1895-1912, i. p. 22; ii. p.
24. Another Spanish Grammar, by d'Oyly, had appeared at Oxford in 1590.

[529] 4to, 21 leaves.

[530] Printed by Joseph Barnes, 4to, 8 leaves.

[531] He visited Spain, and wrote _An Entrance to the Spanish Tongue_
(1611). While at Oxford he had composed _An Introduction to the Italian
Tongue_ (1605). Cp. Wood, _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 471; C. Plummer,
_Elizabethan Oxford_, Ox. Hist. Soc., 1887, p. xxviii; _Dict. Nat.
Biog._, ad nom.

[532] Wood, _Athen. Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 676; Foster, _Alumni Oxon._, ad
nom.

[533] Wood, _Fasti Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 29, 30; _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad
nom.

[534] 12º, pp. 31.

[535] In the copy in the Cambridge Univ. Library these are accompanied
by a MS. translation into Latin. Some additional rules in Latin are
written on the last blank leaf.

[536] _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 277.

[537] Printed by William Turner, 8º, pp. 72.

[538] _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 624.

[539] Valence, French tutor to the Earl of Lincoln, had studied at
Cambridge early in the sixteenth century.

[540] "Eandem linguam in celeberrima Cantabrigiensi Academia docens."

[541] Sm. 8vo, pp. 96.

[542] Cp. R. Bowes, _Catalogue of Books printed at Cambridge,
1521-1893_.

[543] The statement of Wood (_Athenae Oxon._ iii. 184), that Du Grès had
studied at Oxford before going to Cambridge, is probably incorrect.

[544] 8vo, pp. 195, printed by Leonard Lichfield.

[545] _Jean Arman Du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu and Peere of France his
Life_, etc., followed by a translation, "out of the French copie," of
_The Will and Legacies of the Cardinall Richelieu ... together with
certaine Instructions which he left the French King. Also some
remarkable passages that hath happened in France since the death of the
said Cardinall._

[546] He charged 10s. a month for an hour's lesson daily.

[547] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1661-62_, p. 439.

[548] Le Moyne also translated _The Articles of Agreement between the
King of France, the Parlaiment and Parisians. Faithfully translated out
of the French original copy._ London, 1649.

[549] In the Middle Ages, Pembroke College gave preference to Frenchmen
in the election of Fellows; cp. _supra_, p. 6.

[550] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1660-61_, p. 162.

[551] "Autobiographie de Pierre du Moulin," _Bulletin de la Société de
l'histoire du Protestantisme Français_, vii. pp. 343 _sqq._

[552] Mullinger, _History of the University of Cambridge_, 1911, iii. p.
300.

[553] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1670_, p. 275. Evelyn (_Diary_, ed.
Wheatly, 1906, ii. p. 306) describes verses written in Latin, English,
and French by Oxford students and added to _Newes from the dead_, an
account of the restoration to life of one Anne Green, executed at
Oxford, 1650.

[554] _Sir Harry Wildair_, Act III. Sc. 2; cp. Mockmode in the same
dramatist's _Love and a Bottle_.

[555] _Diary_, 5th May 1669.

[556] He long looked forward to a journey there--a hope which was not
fulfilled until his failing eyesight had compelled him to stop writing
his diary.

[557] She spent some time in France, until her father ordered her back
to England on account of her leaning towards Roman Catholicism. Many
times she expressed a wish to go and live in France.

[558] Cp. Shakespeare, _2 Henry IV._ Act III. Sc. 2:

    "He's at Oxford still, is he not?
    A' must then to the Inns a' Court shortly."

[559] Higford (_Institution of a Gentleman_, 1660, p. 58) blames those
of his countrymen who neglect the Inns of Court.

[560] J. Fortescue, _De Laudibus Legum Angliae ... Translated into
English ... with notes by Selden_, new ed., 1771, p. 172.

[561] Higford, _The Institution of a Gentleman_, 1660, p. 88.

[562] Perlin says of the English in the middle of the sixteenth century,
referring no doubt to the nobility: "Ceux du pays ne courent gaire ou
bien peu aux deux universités, et ne se donnent point beaucoup aux
lettres, sinon qu'à toute marchandise et à toute vanité" (_Description
des royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse_, p. 11).

[563] _Letters_ (1638), Camden Soc., 1854, p. 8. Nearly half a century
later, Chancellor Clarendon wrote: "I doubt our Universities are
defective in providing for those exercises and recreations, which are
necessary even to nourish and cherish their studies, at least towards
that accomplished education which persons of quality are designed to;
and it may be want of those Ornaments that may prevail with many to send
their sons abroad, who since they cannot attain the lighter with the
more serious Breeding, chuse the former which makes a present shew,
leaving the latter to be wrought out at leisure" (_Miscellaneous Works_,
1751, p. 326).




CHAPTER VII

    THE STUDY OF FRENCH BY ENGLISH TRAVELLERS ABROAD


One of the favourite methods of learning French was a sojourn in France.
To speak the language well a visit there was considered imperative, and
to speak it "as one who had never been out of England"[564] was
synonymous with speaking it badly. Consequently a journey to France was
common among the young gentry and nobility of the time. Moreover, those
who pursued their travels further, and undertook the Grand Tour as many
gentlemen did on leaving the university, invariably visited France
first, and spent the greater part of their time there. Eighteen months
in France, nine or ten in Italy, five in Germany and the Low Countries,
was considered a suitable division of a three years' tour. Most young
Englishmen of family and fortune spent some time on the Continent. Sir
Francis Walsingham, said by one of his contemporaries to have been the
most accomplished linguist of his day,[565] had acquired his proficiency
abroad, as had also Lord Burghley, who wrote to Walsingham from France
in 1583 to report on his progress in the language.[566] Both ministers
in their turn were patrons to numerous young travellers in France. A
certain Charles Danvers wrote to Walsingham from Paris, in French, to
show his progress and thank him for his favours.[567] And Burghley gave
one Andrew Bussy a monthly allowance of £5 to enable him to study French
at Orleans, where, according to his own account, he took great pains to
make good progress so as to serve his patron the better on his
return.[568] It was generally held that travel was "useful to useful
men,"[569] and that "peregrination" well used was "a very profitable
school, a running Academy."[570]

Many young English gentlemen went to the French Court in the train of an
ambassador,[571] or with a private tutor;[572] Henry VIII. sent his
natural son, the Duke of Richmond, Palsgrave's pupil, to the French
Court, in the care of Lord Surrey the poet. Richard Carew, the friend of
Camden, was sent to France with Sir Henry Nevill, ambassador to Henri
IV., and Bacon visited Paris in his early youth in the suite of the
diplomat Lord Poulet. The last-mentioned ambassador had several young
Englishmen in his charge. Of few, however, could he make so favourable a
report as he did of the son of Sir George Speake: "I am not unacquainted
with your son's doings in Parris," he wrote to Sir George, "and cannot
comend him inoughe unto you aswell for his dilligence in study as for
his honest and quiett behaviour." One of these young travellers, a Mr.
Throckmorton, he was particularly glad to be rid of; the young man "got
the French tongue in good perfection," we are informed, but he was of
flippant humour, and before he left for England, Poulet told him his
mind freely, and forbade him to travel to Italy, as he intended to do
later, without the company of "an honest and wyse man." The ambassador
had kept him and his man in food during the whole of his stay in Paris,
and, besides, provided him with a horse, which he had also "kept att his
chardges."[573]

Children too were often sent abroad for education. Thomas Morrice, in
his _Apology for Schoolmasters_ (1619), commends "the ancient and
laudable custom of sending children abroad when they can understand
Latin perfectly"; for then they learn the romance languages all the more
easily, "because the Italian, French and Spanish borrow very many words
of the said Latin, albeit they do chip, chop and change divers letters
and syllables therein." [Header: ENGLISH GENTRY AT THE FRENCH COURT] And
Thomas Peacham[574] tells us in the early seventeenth century that as
soon as a child shows any wildness or unruliness, he is sent either to
the Court to act as a page or to France, and sometimes to Italy. The
number of English children in France was, we may assume, considerable;
and when the news of the terrible massacre of St. Bartholomew reached
England, one of its most noticeable effects was to fill with concern and
apprehension all parents who had children in France. "How fearfull and
carefull the mothers and parents that be here be of such yong gentlemen
as be there, you may easely ges," wrote Elizabeth's secretary of state
to Sir Francis Walsingham, the English ambassador at Paris.[575] Among
these "yong gentlemen" was Sir Philip Sidney, then newly arrived at the
French Court, whom Walsingham himself sheltered in the ambassador's
quarters during that awful night.

James Basset, the son of Lord Lisle, deputy at Calais for Henry VIII.,
was sent to Paris in the autumn of 1536 to complete his education, after
having been for some time in the charge of a tutor in England. There he
went to school with a French priest, whom he soon left for the College
of Navarre. He appears to have attended the college daily, and boarded
with one Guillaume le Gras, who, in June 1537, wrote to Lady Lisle that
her son would soon be able to speak French better than English. "I think
when he goes to see you," writes the Frenchman to her ladyship who did
not understand French, "he will need an interpreter to speak to you."
James himself wrote to tell his mother how he was progressing "at the
large and beautiful college of Navarre, with Pierre du Val his Master
and Preceptor."[576] The following letter[577] giving details on the
course pursued by a young English gentleman studying French in Paris may
no doubt be taken as fairly typical. "In the forenoone ... two hours he
spends in French, one in reading, the other in rendryng to his teacher
some part of a Latin author by word of mouth.... In the afternoon ... he
retires himself into his chamber, and there employs two other hours in
reading over some Latin author; which done, he translates some little
part of it into French, leaving his faults to be corrected the morrow
following by his teacher. After supper we take a brief survey of all....
M. Ballendine [apparently the teacher] hath commended unto us Paulus
Aemilius in French, who writeth the history of the country. His counsell
we mean to follow."

Girls also were occasionally sent to France for purposes of education.
Two of James Basset's young sisters, Anne and Mary, spent some time in
that country. To prevent their hindering each other's progress, Anne was
committed to the care of a M. and Mme. de Ryon, at Pont de Remy, while
Mary was sent to Abbeville to a M. and Mme. de Bours. Both girls wrote
letters in French to their mother, Lady Lisle, and it appears that they
had almost forgotten their mother tongue. When Anne returned to England,
where she became maid of honour to Jane Seymour, she had to apologize to
her mother for not being able to write in English, "for surely where
your Ladyship doth think that I can write English, in very deed I
cannot, but that little that I can write is French,"[578] and Mary wrote
to her sister Philippa in French expressing her wish to spend an hour
with her every day in order to teach her to speak French. In France the
two sisters acquired, besides French, the usual accomplishments
befitting their sex--needlework, and playing on the lute and
virginals.[579]

The traveller Fynes Moryson did not unreservedly approve of the custom
of sending children "of unripe yeeres" to France; "howsoever they are
more to be excused who send them with discreet Tutors to guide them with
whose eyes and judgments they may see and observe.... Children like
Parrots soone learne forraigne languages and sooner forget the same,
yea, and their mother tongue also." He relates how a familiar friend of
his "lately sent his sonne to Paris, who, after two yeeres returning
home, refused to aske his father's blessing after the manner of England,
saying _ce n'est pas la mode de France_."[580] Milton in the same vein
deplores the fact that his compatriots have "need of the monsieurs of
Paris to take their hopeful youth into their slight and prodigal
custodies and send them over back again transformed into mimics, apes
and kickshows."[581] [Header: ENGLISH CHILDREN IN FRANCE] "My
countrymen in England," wrote Sir Amias Poulet from Paris in 1577,
"would doe God and theire countreye good service if either they woulde
provide scolemasters for theire children at home, or else they woulde
take better order of their educacion here, where they are infected with
all sortes [of] pollucions bothe ghostly and bodylie and find manie
willinge scolemasters to teache theme to be badd subiects."[582]

Nor were such sentiments confined to individual cases. Queen Elizabeth
was constantly making inquiries concerning her subjects beyond the seas
generally, often for political reasons or on account of her Protestant
fears of popery. She found "noe small inconvenience to growe into the
realm" by the number of children living abroad "under colour of learning
the languages." In 1595 she ordered a list of such "children" to be sent
to her with the names of their parents or guardians and tutors,[583] and
there were frequent examinations of subjects suspected of desiring to go
abroad; in 1595 the Mayor of Chester writes to Burghley to know what he
is to do with two boys, aged fifteen and seventeen, who have been
brought before him on suspicion of intending to travel into France to
learn the language, and thence into Spain.

The objections raised against the journey to France were few, however,
in comparison with those alleged as regards Italy. Italy held a place
second only to France in the Grand Tour on the Continent, and in the
early sixteenth century the first enthusiasm awakened by the Renaissance
attracted many Englishmen there. Scholars, such as Linacre and Colet,
set the example. Then others, including most literary men of the time,
made their way as pilgrims to the centre of the revived learning,
passing through France on their way.[584] Soon the journey became
largely a matter of fashion. This rapid development of the custom of
continental travel was looked upon as a danger in matters political and
religious; popish plots were suspected and foreign intrigues of all
kinds feared. In Elizabeth's time leave "to resort beyond seas for his
better increase in learning, and his knowledge of foreign languages"[585]
was not freely granted to any who might apply. Lord Burghley would
often summon before him applicants for licences to travel, and look
carefully into their knowledge of their own country,[586] and if this
proved insufficient, would advise them to improve it before attempting
to study other countries.[587]

Voluble were the protests against foreign travel which were made in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. France and above all Italy were
made responsible for all the vices of the English. It was urged that
trade and state negotiations were the only adequate reasons for travel
abroad. "We are moted in an Island, because Providence intended us to be
shut off from other regions," Bishop Joseph Hall affirms, in his _Quo
Vadis: a juste censure of travel as it is commonly undertaken by
gentlemen of our own nation_ (1617). So strong were the prejudices of
some of these critics that the grandfather of the royalist Sir Arthur
Capell wrote--in 1622--a pamphlet containing _Reasons against the
travellinge of my grandchylde Arthur Capell into the parts beyond the
sea_, in which he draws an alarming picture of the dangers of infection
from popery, and seeks to prove that the time could be much better spent
at home.[588] The chronicler Harrison went so far as to assert that the
custom would prove the ruin of England.[589] And even the courtly Lyly
could write: "Let not your mindes be carried away with vaine delights,
as travailing into farre and straunge countries, wher you shall see more
wickednesse then learn virtue and wit."[590]

But it was Italy much more than France that excited the fears of these
alarmists. There was a common saying at the time that an Englishman
Italianate was a devil incarnate. "I was once in Italy myself," wrote
Roger Ascham,[591] "but I thank God my abode there was but nine
dayes"--in which he saw more wickedness than he had beheld during nine
years in London. "Suffer not thy sons to pass the Alpes, for they shall
learn nothing there but Pride, Blasphemy and Atheism; [Header: PROTESTS
AGAINST FOREIGN TRAVEL] and if by travelling they get a few broken
Languages, that will profit them no more than to have the same meat
served in divers dishes," was the advice of Lord Burghley.[592] Many
were the precautions taken to prevent English subjects from travelling
to Rome of all places. Travellers who were suspected of such intentions
or who had travelled abroad without permission were rigorously examined.
One such traveller confessed that he went to Brittany and France to see
the countries and learn the language, but swore he had never been to
Rome or spoken to the papist Cardinal Allen.[593] Many passports issued
for the Grand Tour stipulated specifically that the traveller should not
repair to Rome.[594]

George Carleton gave expression to the general feeling when he wrote to
his brother Dudley, afterwards Lord Dorchester: "I like your going to
France much better than if you had gone to Italy."[595] "France is above
all most needful for us to mark," was the advice Sir Philip Sidney sent
to his brother Robert on his travels.[596] Sir John Eliot gave similar
injunctions to his sons.[597] France was, he said, a country full of
noble instincts and versatile energy; and what his own experience had
been, he recommended his sons to profit by. Some friend had warned them
of possible dangers in France. Heed them not, says Eliot; any hazard or
adventure in France they will find repaid by such advantages of
knowledge and experience as observation of the existing troubles there
is sure to convey. But he will not allow them even to enter Spain; and
the Italian territories of the Church they must avoid as dangerous:
"stagnant and deadly are the waters in the region of Rome, not clear and
flowing for the health-seeking energies of man." He thought, however,
that some parts of Italy might be visited with profit. To attempt to
learn the Italian language before some knowledge of French had been
acquired, was not discreet. "Besides it being less pleasant and more
difficult to talk Italian first," he writes, "it was leaving the more
necessary acquirement to be gained when there was, perchance, less
leisure for it. Whereas by attaining some perfection in French, and then
moving onward, what might be lost in Italy of the first acquirement,
would be regained in France as their steps turned homeward."

Not only were fears of Roman Catholicism and corrupt manners directed
more specifically toward Italy than France, but the French language was
considered a much more necessary acquirement than Italian. It was
generally agreed that the country most requisite for the English to know
was France, "in regard of neighbourhood, of conformity in Government in
divers things and necessary intelligence of State."[598]. "French is the
most useful of languages--the richest lading of the traveller next to
experience--Italian and Spanish not being so fruitful in learning,"
remarks Francis Osborne in his _Advice to a Son_.[599]

Thus the main object of study of the traveller in France was usually the
language itself, and next to that the polite accomplishments. Those who
continued their travels into Italy were attracted chiefly by the country
and its antiquities. When Addison was in France, after a short stay in
Paris in 1699[600] he settled for nearly a year at Blois to learn the
language, living in great seclusion, studying, and seeing no one but his
teachers, who would sup with him regularly. In 1700 he returned to
Paris, qualified to converse with Boileau and Malebranche. But he spent
his time in Italy very differently, living in fancy with the old Latin
poets, taking Horace as his guide from Naples to Rome, and Virgil on the
return journey: there was no question of settling down in a quiet town
to study Italian. The experience of Lord Herbert of Cherbury at the end
of the sixteenth century and of Evelyn in the middle of the seventeenth
was of a similar nature. Though travellers continued to include Italy in
their tour, the feeling in favour of France became stronger and
stronger. It reached its climax in the latter half of the seventeenth
century, when Clarendon wrote: "What parts soever we propose to visit,
to which our curiosity usually invites us, we can hardly avoid the
setting our feet first in France." And he invites travellers, on
returning there after visiting Italy, to stay in Paris a year to
"unlearn the dark and affected reservation of Italy." [Header: THE
TRAVELLING TUTOR] As for Germany, he thinks they have need to remain two
years in France that they may entirely forget that they were ever in
Germany![601]

The sons of gentlemen setting out on the Grand Tour were usually
accompanied by a governor or tutor,[602] and the need for such a guide
was generally recognized by writers on travel; all urge the necessity of
his being acquainted with the languages and customs of the countries to
be visited. "That young men should Travaile under some Tutor or grave
Servant, I allow well: so that he be such a one that hath the language
and hath been in the Countrey before," wrote Bacon. And if any one was
not able or did not wish to "be at the charges of keeping a Governor
abroad" with his son, he was advised[603] to "join with one or two more
to help to bear the charges: or else to send with him one well qualified
to carry him over and settle him in one place or other of France, or of
other Countries, to be there with him 2 or 3 months, leave him there
after he hath set him in a good way, and then come home." We also gather
from Gailhard's _The Compleat Gentleman_ that it was "a custom with many
in England to order Travelling to their sons, as Emetick Wine is by the
Physician prescribed to the Patient, that is when they know not what
else to do, and when schools, Universities, Inns of Court, and every
other way hath been tried to no purpose: then that nature which could
not be tamed in none of these places, is given to be minded by a
Gouvernor, with many a woe to him."[604]

The suitable age for the Grand Tour, as distinct from the shorter
journey in France, was the subject of much discussion. It was usually
undertaken between the ages of sixteen and twenty, and occupied from
three to five years. Some, and among them Locke,[605] agreed with
Gailhard in thinking that travel should not come at the end. They
argued that languages were more easily learnt at an earlier age, and
that children were then less difficult to manage. Others, regarding
travel as a necessary evil,[606] held that, at a later age, travellers
are less receptive of evil influences and the snares of popery. This was
the current opinion.

In many cases, especially in later times, the travelling tutor was a
Frenchman. Many Englishmen, however, found in this capacity an
opportunity for travel which they might not otherwise have had. For
example, Ben Jonson visited Paris in 1613 as tutor to the son of Sir
Walter Raleigh, and became better known there as a reveller than as a
poet.[607] In the same way Ben Jonson's friend, the poet Aurilian
Townsend, accompanied Lord Herbert of Cherbury on his foreign tour in
1608, and was of much help to him on account of his fluent knowledge of
French, Italian, and Spanish.[608] The time-serving politician Sir John
Reresby travelled with a Mr. Leech, a divine and Fellow of
Cambridge.[609] And the philosopher Thomas Hobbes spent as travelling
tutor in the Cavendish family many years which he calls the happiest
time of his life. He visited France, Germany, and Italy. For a time he
left the Cavendishes to act as tutor to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton,
with whom he remained eighteen months in Paris. It was while travelling
with his pupils that Hobbes became known in the philosophic circles of
Paris.[610] Addison was offered a salary of £100 to be tutor to the Duke
of Somerset, who desired him "to be more of a companion than a
Governor," but did not accept the offer.[611] In some cases the
travelling tutor had several pupils. Thus Mr. Cordell, the friend of Sir
Ralph Verney, was tutor to a party of Englishmen.[612]

On the other hand, Sir Philip Sidney travelled without a governor.
[Header: BOOKS ON TRAVEL] At Frankfort, in the house of the Protestant
printer Andreas Wechel, he began his life-long friendship with the
Huguenot scholar Hubert Languet, who, to some degree, supplied his
needs. Languet, however, expresses his regret that Sidney had no
governor, and when the young Englishman continued his journey into Italy
they kept up a correspondence, in the course of which Languet sent
Sidney much good advice. At his instigation Sidney practised his French
and Latin by translating some of Cicero's letters into French, then from
French into English, and finally back into Latin again, "by a sort of
perpetual motion."[613] John Evelyn the diarist also travelled without a
governor, while the eldest son of Lord Halifax first made the Grand Tour
in the usual fashion, and afterwards returned to his uncle, Henry
Savile, English ambassador at Paris, without the "encumbrance" of a
governor. Savile superintended his nephew's reading, providing him with
books on such subjects as political treaties and negotiations, and
warning him against "nouvelles" and other "vain _entretiens_."[614]

The practice of travelling abroad called forth many books on the
subject, often written by travellers desiring to place their experience
at the service of others. Such books usually include indications of the
routes to be followed and the places to be visited, and sometimes advice
as to the best way of studying abroad. Some, such as those of Coryat,
Fynes Moryson, and Purchas,[615] are descriptions of long journeys.
Others deal more especially with the method of travel.[616] A few were
written for the particular use of some traveller of high rank; for
instance, when the Earl of Rutland set out on his travels in 1596, his
cousin Essex sent him letters of advice, which circulated at Court, and
were published as _Profitable Instructions for Travellers_ in
1633.[617] Further information was supplied in the treatises on polite
education.[618]

The subject of travel was thus continually under consideration, and the
different books of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries which deal
with this topic are of great interest. Robert Dallington, the author of
an early guide to France,[619] thought it necessary, seeing the few
teachers there were in France, to "set downe a course of learninge." "I
will presume to advise him," he says of the traveller to France, "that
the most compendious way of attaining the tongue is by booke. I mean for
the knowledge, for as for the speaking he shall never attaine it but by
continuall practize and conversation: he shall therefore first learne
his nownes and verbs by heart, and specially the articles, and their
uses, with the two words _sum_ and _habeo_: for in these consist the
greatest observation of that part of speech." He also urges the future
traveller to engage a Frenchman to assist him, chiefly, no doubt, with
reading and pronunciation. This "reader," as Dallington calls him,
"shall not reade any booke of Poetrie at first, but some other kinde of
stile, and I thinke meetest some moderne comedie. Let his lecture
consist more in questions and answers, either of the one or the other,
then in the reader's continued speech, for this is for the most part
idle and fruitlesse: by the other many errors and mistakings either in
pronunciation or sense are reformed. After three months he shall quit
his lectures, and use his Maister only to walk with and discourse, first
the one and then the other: for thus shal he observe the right use of
the phrase in his Reader, heare his owne faults reproved and grow readie
and prompt in his owne deliverie, which, with the right straine of the
accent, are the two hardest things in language." He should also read
much in private, and "to this reading he must adde a continuall talking
and exercising of his speech with all sorts of people, with boldnesse
and much assurance in himselfe, for I have often observed in others
that nothing hath more prejudiced their profiting then their owne
diffidence and distrust. [Header: A "METHOD OF TRAVEL"] To this I would
have him adde an often writing, either of matter of translation or of
his owne invention, where againe is requisite the Reader's eye, to
censure and correct: for who so cannot write the language he speaks, I
count he hath but halfe the language. There, then, are the two onely
meanes of obtaining a language, speaking and writing, but the first is
the chiefest, and therefore I must advertise the traveller of one thing
which in other countries is a great hinderer thereof, namely, the often
haunting and frequenting of our own Countrimen, whereof he must have a
speciall care,[620] neither to distaste them by a too much
retirednesse[621] nor to hinder himselfe by too much familiaritie."

A few years later Fynes Moryson[622] offered equally sound advice to the
traveller "for language." "Goe directly to the best citie for the
puritie of language," he tells him, and first "labour to know the
grammar rules, that thy selfe mayst know whether thou speaketh right or
no. I meane not the curious search of those rules, but at least so much
as may make thee able to distinguish Numbers, Cases, and Moodes."
Moryson thought that by learning by ear alone students probably
pronounced better, but, on the other hand, with the help of rules, "they
both speake and write pure language, and never so forget it, as they may
not with small labour and practice recover it again." The student, he
adds, should make a collection of choice phrases, that "hee may speake
and write more eloquently, and let him use himselfe not to the
translated formes of speech, but to the proper phrases of the tongue."
For this purpose he should read many good books, "in which kind, as also
for the Instruction of his soule, I would commend unto him the Holy
Scriptures, but that among the Papists they are not to be had in the
vulgar tongue, neither is the reading of them permitted to laymen.
Therefore to this purpose he shall seeke out the best familiar epistles
for his writing, and I thinke no booke better for his Discourse then
Amadis of Gaule.... In the third place I advise him to professe
Pythagoricall silence, and to the end he may learne true pronunciation,
not to be attained but by long observation and practice, that he for a
time listen to others, before he adventure to speake." He should also
avoid his fellow-countrymen, and, having observed these rules, "then let
him hier some skilfull man to teach him and to reprove his errors, not
passing by any his least omission. And let him not take it ill that any
man should laugh at him, for that will more stirre him up to endevour to
learne the tongue more perfectly, to which end he must converse with
Weomen, children and the most talkative people; and he must cast off all
clownish bashfulnesse, for no man is borne a Master in any art. I say
not that he himselfe should rashly speake, for in the beginning he shall
easily take ill formes of speaking, and hardly forget them once taken."

The learning of French in England before going abroad did not, as a
rule, enter into the plan of writers on the subject of travelling.
Moryson, however, realized that "at the first step the ignorance of
language doth much oppresse (the traveller) and hinder the fruite he
should reape by his iourney." And Bacon went a step further when he
wrote that "he that travaileth into a Country, before he hath some
entrance into the language, goeth to schoole, and not to travaile.... If
you will have a Young Man to put his Travaile into a little Roome, and
in a short time to gather much, this you must doe. First, as was said,
he must have some Entrance into the Language before he goeth. Then he
must have such a Servant, or Tutor, as knoweth the country."[623] Later
writers usually agree that it would be of benefit to have "something of
the French"[624] before leaving England, "though it were only to
understand something of it and be able to ask for necessary things," or
to have "some grammatical instruction in the language, as a preparation
to speaking it."[625] And indeed many travellers had some previous
knowledge of French. Sir Philip Sidney, for instance, could manage a
letter in French when he was at school at Shrewsbury; Lord Herbert of
Cherbury had studied the language with the help of a dictionary; Sir
John Reresby, at a later date, had learnt French at a private school,
though, like many students nowadays, he could not speak the language on
his arrival in France. [Header: STUDIES PREVIOUS TO TRAVEL] Several
went abroad to "improve" themselves in French, and no doubt the phrase
"to learn the French tongue"[626] often meant to learn to speak it.

In the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, however, many of those
who studied French seriously in England did not go to France. Among
these were the ladies, to whose skill Mulcaster[627] draws the attention
of travellers, as a proof that languages can be learnt as well at home
as abroad; and not a few of the younger sons of noblemen,[628] as well
as the prosperous middle class--the frequenters of the French schools in
St. Paul's Churchyard, and the pupils of Du Ploich and Holyband, neither
of whom makes any reference to the tour in France.

The "common practice" in the sixteenth century among young travellers
was to proceed to France knowing no French. They fully expected to learn
the language there, with no further exertion than living in the country.
They are constantly warned of the futility of such expectations.
Dallington, Fynes Moryson, and others lay much emphasis on the necessity
of some serious preliminary study of grammar and reading of good
literature. French teachers in England compared the poor results
obtained in France by these leisurely methods with those achieved by
their own efforts in England. No doubt they found the practice of
learning French by residence in France a serious rival to their own
methods. De la Mothe,[629] for instance, declares he knows English
ladies and gentlemen who have never left England and yet speak French
incomparably better than others who have been in France three or four
years trying to pick up the language by ear, as most travellers do.
Another French teacher[630] writes: "I have knowne three Gentlemen's
sonnes, although I say it that should not say it, who can testify yet,
that in their return from France (after they had remained foure yeares
at Paris, spending a great deal of money) perused my rules but six
moneths and did confesse they reaped more good language in that short
space I taught them then in all the time they spent in France. And
sundry others I have helped who never saw France, and yet could talke,
read and write better language in one yeare than those who have bene at
Paris two yeares, learning but the common phrase of the countrie,
shacking off a litle paines to learne the rules."

While holding that French could be better learnt in England with rules
than in France without any such assistance, the French teachers of
London admitted that the language could perhaps be best learnt in
France, but only with the help of a good teacher and serious study, as
in England. However, there were hardly any language teachers in France,
according to them, while in England it was easy to find many good ones.
Dallington more specifically bewails the fact that the traveller finds a
"great scarcitie" of such tutors, and directs him to a certain M.
Denison, a Canon of St. Croix in Orleans, after whom he may inquire,
"except his good acquaintance or good fortune bring him to better."

There was indeed little provision for the serious study of French in
France before the end of the sixteenth century. Most travellers, we are
told, "observed only for their owne use." Few Frenchmen took up the
teaching of their own language to foreigners as a profession, and those
who taught from time to time or merely upon occasion rarely proved
successful. Yet the earliest grammars produced in France were intended
largely for the use of foreigners. Special attention is paid to points
which usually offered difficulty to foreigners, such as the
pronunciation and its divergencies from the orthography.[631] Sylvius or
Du Bois, writing in Latin,[632] remarks that his principles may serve
the English, the Italians and Spaniards, in short, all foreigners; no
doubt those he had chiefly in mind were the numbers of English and other
foreign students at the University of Paris. [Header: LANGUAGE TEACHERS
IN FRANCE] When the earliest grammar written in French appeared, its
author, Louis Meigret,[633] sought to justify his use of the vernacular
by suggesting that foreign students should first learn to understand
French by speaking and reading good French literature, instead of
depending on Latin for the first stages. He had noticed the
peculiarities of the English pronunciation of French, especially the
habit of misplacing the accent; "they raise the voice on the syllable
_an_ in _Angleterre_, while we raise it on the syllable _ter_: so that
French as spoken by the English is not easily understood in France."
From other grammarians foreigners always received some attention.
Pillot[634] and Garnier[635] both wrote in Latin with a special view to
foreigners; and Peletier,[636] who used French, retains all the
etymological consonants, that strangers may find Latin helpful in
understanding French.

Not before the end of the sixteenth century, however, do we hear of the
first important language teacher in France--Charles Maupas of Blois, a
surgeon by profession, who spent most of his life, more than thirty
years, teaching French to "many lords and gentlemen of divers nations"
who visited his native town. He was "well known to be a famous teacher
of the French tongue to many of the English and Dutch nobility and
gentry." For his English pupils Maupas showed particular affection.[637]
And from them he received in turn numerous proofs of friendship. Among
the Englishmen who learnt French under his care was George Villiers,
Duke of Buckingham, who, at about the age of eighteen, travelled into
France, where "he improved himself[638] well in the language for one
that had so little grammatical foundation, but more in the exercises of
that Nobility for the space of three years and yet came home in his
naturall plight, without affected formes (the ordinary disease of
Travellers)."[639] Maupas bears stronger testimony to his pupil's
attainments in the French language, and some years later he gratefully
dedicated to the Duke his French grammar, first issued publicly in 1618.

Maupas's _Grammaire françoise contenant reigles tres certaines et
adresse tres asseurée a la naïve connoissance et pur usage de nostre
langue. En faveur des estrangers qui en seront desireux_, was first
privately printed in 1607.[640] He had not originally intended it for
publication. The work grew out of the notes and observations he compiled
in order to overcome his pupils' difficulties. As these rules increased
in number and importance, many students began to make extracts from
them; others made copies of the whole, a "great and wearisome labour."
Finally, Maupas, touched by this keenness, resolved to have a large
number of copies printed. He distributed these among his pupils and
their friends, till, contrary to his expectation, he found he had none
left. It was then that the first public edition was issued at Lyons in
1618, and was followed by six others, which were not always authorized.
A Latin edition also appeared in 1623.

Maupas insists on the necessity of employing a tutor. "Let them come to
me," he says, addressing foreigners desirous of learning French, "if it
is convenient."[641] To learn the language by ear and use alone is
impossible. The small outlay required to engage a teacher saves much
time and labour. As to the grammar, it should be read again and again,
and in time all difficulties will disappear; it will be of great use
even to those already advanced in French. He undertook to teach and
interpret the grammar in French itself, without having recourse to the
international language Latin, the usual medium of teaching French to
travellers; he tells us that many of his pupils were ignorant of Latin,
and that the practice of interpreting the grammar in French had been
adopted by many of his fellow-teachers in other towns. The great
advantage of this method was, he thought, that reading and pronunciation
are learnt conjointly with grammar, the phrases and style of the
language together with its rules and precepts. Besides, the student must
read some book; and a grammar was, in his opinion, preferable to the
little comedies and dialogues usually resorted to for this purpose. He
did not, however, forget that some light reading was a greater incentive
to the learner, and in practice used both.

Maupas died in 1625, when a new edition of his grammar was in
preparation. His son, who assisted him in teaching, saw the work through
the press, and invited students to transfer to him the favours they had
bestowed on his father. Apparently the younger Charles Maupas continued
to teach his father's clientèle for some time. [Header: CHARLES MAUPAS
OF BLOIS] In 1626 he gave further proof of his zeal for the cause in
editing and publishing a comedy which both he and his father had
frequently read with pupils not advanced enough for more serious matter.
We are told vaguely that this comedy, entitled _Les Desguisez: Comedie
Françoise avec l'explication des proverbes et mots difficiles par
Charles Maupas a Bloys_, was the work of one of the _beaux esprits_ of
the period.[642] Maupas, however, only had one copy, and knew not where
to procure more. He was induced to have it printed on seeing the great
labour and time expended by many of his pupils in making copies of it
for their own use. For the benefit of students who had no tutor, he
added an explanatory vocabulary of proverbs and difficult words.

Maupas's _Grammaire et syntaxe françoise_ is still looked on with
respect.[643] The reputation it enjoyed in the seventeenth century is
the more remarkable in that it was the work of a provincial who had no
relations with the Court, then the supreme arbiter in matters of
language. But the grammar passed into oblivion in the course of time, as
more modern manuals took its place. Maupas's hope that it would be used
by foreign students of French as long as the language was held in esteem
was not to be fulfilled.

His Grammar was superseded by that of Antoine Oudin--_Grammaire
Françoise rapportée au langage du temps_, Paris, 1632. Oudin's original
intention had been merely to enlarge the grammar of his predecessor. But
as his work advanced he found "force antiquailles" and many mistakes,
besides much confusion, repetition, and pedantry. He felt no compunction
in telling the reader that he had enormously improved all he had
borrowed from Maupas--although he is careful to note that he has no
intention of damaging his rival's reputation, and is proud to share his
opinion on several points. He had a great advantage over Maupas in
having spent all his life in close connexion with the Court; his father,
César, had been interpreter to the French king, and Antoine succeeded
him in that office. He also appears to have had continual relations with
foreigners, and he tells us on one occasion that he received from them
"very considerable benefits." His grammar was certainly much used by
foreign students, although it does not seem to have enjoyed as great a
popularity in England as that of Maupas. Oudin's _Curiositez Françoises_
(1640) was also addressed "aux estrangers," and his aim was to show his
gratitude by attempting to call attention to the mistakes which had made
their way into grammars drawn up for their instruction.[644]

_L'Eschole Françoise pour apprendre a bien parler et escrire selon
l'usage de ce temps et pratique des bons autheurs, divisée en deux
livres dont l'un contient les premiers elements, l'autre les parties de
l'oraison_ (Paris, 1604), by Jean Baptiste du Val, avocat en Parlement
at Paris and French tutor to Marie de Medicis, was also intended partly
for the use of foreigners. He seeks to console foreign students coping
with the difficulties of French pronunciation and orthography, by
assuring them that though the French themselves may be able to speak
correctly, they cannot prescribe rules on this score. As for his
grammar, the student will learn more from it in two hours than from any
other in two weeks. He also takes up a supercilious attitude, natural in
one who exercised his profession in the precincts of the Court, towards
anything that resembled a provincial accent; better no teacher at all
than one with a provincial accent.

Among other grammars of similar purport is that of Masset in French and
Latin, _Exact et tres facile acheminement a la langue Françoyse, mis en
Latin par le meme autheur pour le soulagement des estrangers_
(1606);[645] and to the same category belongs also the _Praecepta
gallici sermonis ad pleniorem perfectioremque eius linguae cognitionem
necessaria tum suevissima tum facillima_ (1607), by Philippe Garnier,
who, after teaching French for many years in Germany, settled down at
Orleans, his native town, as a language tutor.[646]

Another work widely used by travellers, and well known in England, was
the _Nouvelle et Parfaite Grammaire Françoise_ (1659) of Laurent
Chiflet, the zealous Jesuit and missionary, which continued to be
reprinted until the eighteenth century, and enjoyed for many years the
highest reputation among foreign students of French. [Header: FRENCH
GRAMMARS FOR TRAVELLERS] The Swiss Muralt relates how he and a friend
were inquiring for some books at one of the booksellers of the Palais,
the centre of the trade; and how the bookseller answered them civilly
and tried to find what they desired, until his wife interfered, crying,
"Ne voiez vous pas que ce sont des etrangers qui ne savent ce qu'ils
demandent? Donnez leur la grammaire de Chiflet, c'est là ce qu'il leur
faut."[647]

Chiflet is very explicit in his advice to foreign students. In the first
place the pronunciation should be learnt by reading a short passage
every day with a French master, and the verbs most commonly in use
committed to memory. Then the other parts of speech and the rules of
syntax should be studied briefly; but care should be taken not to
neglect reading, and to practise writing French, in order to become
familiar with the orthography. One of his chief recommendations is to
avoid learning isolated words; words should always be presented in
sentence form, which is a means of learning their construction and of
acquiring a good vocabulary at the same time. The rest of the method
consists in translating from Latin or some other language into French,
and in conversing with a tutor who should correct bad grammar or
pronunciation. When once a fair knowledge of French is acquired, it
should be strengthened by reading and reflecting upon some good book
every day. Such reading is the shortest way of learning the language
perfectly. Excellence and fluency in speaking may be attained by
repeating or reciting aloud the substance of what has been read.[648]

The acquisition of the French language was not the only ambition of the
English gentleman abroad. His aim was also to acquire those polite
accomplishments in which the French excelled--dancing, fencing, riding,
and so on. For this purpose he either frequented one of the "courtly"
academies or engaged private tutors; and "every master of exercise," it
was felt, served as a kind of language master.[649] We are indebted to
Dallington[650] for an account of the cost of such a course abroad.
"Money," he says, "is the soule of travell. If he travel without a
servant £80 sterling is a competent proportion, except he learn to ride:
if he maintain both these charges, he can be allowed no less than £150:
and to allow above £200 were superfluous and to his hurt. The ordinary
rate of his expense is 10 gold crowns a month his fencing, as much his
dancing, no less his reading, and 10 crowns monthly his riding except in
the heat of the year. The remainder of his £150, I allow him for
apparell, books, travelling charges, tennis play, and other
extraordinary expenses."

Some of the more studious travellers resorted to one or other of the
French universities. John Palsgrave and John Eliote, the two best known
English teachers of French in the sixteenth century, had both followed
this course. Palsgrave was a graduate of Paris, and John Eliote, after
spending three years at the College of Montague in Paris, taught for a
year in the Collège des Africains at Orleans. The religious question had
much influence in determining the plan of study in France. The
university towns of Rheims and Douay were the special resorts of English
Catholics.[651] On the suppression of the religious houses in England
and the persecution of the English Roman Catholics, English seminaries
arose at Paris, Louvain, Cambrai, St. Omer, Arras, and other centres in
France. English Roman Catholics flocked to the French universities and
colleges, and there is in existence a long list of English students who
matriculated at the University of Douay.

On the other hand, the schools,[652] colleges,[653] and academies[654]
founded by the Huguenots offered many attractions to Protestant England.
The colleges had much in common with the modern French lycée, and the
chief subjects taught were the classical languages. They did not take
boarders, with the exception of that at Metz, and the students lived _en
pension_ with families in the town. The same is true of the academies,
institutions of university standing. They were eight in number, and
situated at Nîmes, Montpellier, Saumur, Montauban, Die, Sedan, Orthez
(in the principality of Béarn[655]), and Geneva. Some Englishmen and
many Scotchmen[656] held positions in the Protestant colleges and
academies. [Header: BRITISH STUDENTS AT FRENCH UNIVERSITIES] Many
English Protestants, during their enforced sojourn on the Continent
during the reign of Mary, took advantage of their exile to study at one
or other of the Protestant academies, as well as to perfect their
knowledge of French. A great number flocked to Geneva, including the
Protestant author Michael Cope, who frequently preached in French.[657]

Of the colleges, that of Nîmes attracted a large number of foreigners.
Montpellier likewise was very popular during the short period at the
beginning of the seventeenth century when the town was Protestant. Among
the academies in France, Saumur, Montauban,[658] and Sedan were much
frequented by English travellers. Saumur in particular quickly attained
to celebrity; its rapid growth may be partly accounted for by the fact
that Duplessis Mornay, Governor of the town in 1588, naturally became a
zealous patron of the Academy. Three years after its foundation the
number of foreign students was considerable, and throughout the
seventeenth century students from England, Scotland, Holland, and
Switzerland thronged to the town.

The Academy at Geneva likewise was very popular.[659] Though not French,
it was largely attended by French students, who had some influence in
raising the standard of the French spoken in the town, which was rather
unsatisfactory in the sixteenth century. It greatly improved in the
following century, and when the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes
(1685), which dealt the death-blow to the French Protestant foundations,
drove many students to Geneva, their influence in all directions was
still more strongly felt. Some years before, in 1654, the regents were
enjoined to see to it that their pupils "ne parlent savoyard et ne
jurent ou diabloyent," but in 1691 Poulain de la Barre, a doctor of the
Sorbonne, could say that "à Geneve on prononce incomparablement mieux
que l'on ne fait en plusieurs provinces de France."[660]

The Protestant academies usually consisted of faculties of Arts and
Theology. At Geneva[661] there were lectures in Law, Theology,
Philosophy, Philology, and Literature; the teaching was chiefly in
Latin, but sometimes in French. At the end of the sixteenth century a
riding school, known as the _Manège de la Courature_, on the same lines
as the polite academies of France, was started. The instruction given at
Geneva was on broader lines than that of the less popular academies.
Nîmes and Montpellier, for instance, were mainly theological.[662]

Of the many Englishmen who went to Geneva, as to other Protestant
centres, not all attended lectures at the Academies. Some went merely to
learn French, "the exercises and assurance of behaviour," as the general
belief in England was that they did so with less danger in the towns
tempered by a Calvinistic atmosphere. Among the Englishmen who visited
Geneva in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century we find the names
of Henry Withers, Roger Manners, fifth Earl of Rutland, Robert Devereux,
third Earl of Essex, the son of Elizabeth's unfortunate favourite, and
others. Thomas Bodley, the celebrated founder of the Oxford Library,
followed all the courses at the University in 1559. It was considered a
great honour to lodge in the house of one or other of the professors;
Anthony Bacon, the elder brother of the great Bacon, had the good
fortune to be received into the house of de Bèze. Casaubon likewise
received into his house certain young gentlemen who came to the town
with a special recommendation to him. These included the young Henry
Wotton, then on the long tour on the Continent, during which he acquired
the remarkable knowledge of languages which qualified him for the
position of ambassador which he subsequently occupied. In 1593 Wotton
wrote to Lord Zouch: "Here I am placed to my great contentment in the
house of Mr. Isaac Casaubon, a person of sober condition among the
French." The learned professor soon became very fond of Wotton, so far
as to allow him to get into debt for his board and lodging, and the
young man left Geneva without paying his debts, leaving Casaubon to face
his numerous creditors in the town. Casaubon was in despair; but
fortunately the episode ended satisfactorily, for Wotton lived up to his
character, and paid his debts in full as soon as he was able.[663]

[Header: THE AFFECTED TRAVELLER]

When later Casaubon was at Paris (1600-1610) and his fame was
widespread, most travellers and scholars passing through the city seized
any opportunity of visiting him. Coryat relates his visit to the great
humanist as the experience he enjoyed above all others. Lord Herbert of
Cherbury was also among the English travellers received by Casaubon into
his house at this period. "And now coming to court," writes Lord
Herbert, "I obtained licence to go beyond sea, taking with me for my
companion Mr. Aurilian Townsend ... and a man to wait in my chamber, who
spoke French, two lacqueys and three horses.... Coming now to Paris
through the recommendation of the Lord Ambassador I was received to the
house of that incomparable scholar Isaac Casaubon, by whose learned
conversation I much benefited myself. Sometimes also I went to the Court
of the French King Henry IV., who, upon information of me in the Garden
of the Tuileries, received me with much courtesy, embracing me in his
arms, and holding me some while there."[664]

By the side of the serious traveller we are introduced to the frivolous
type, travelling merely as a matter of fashion. These "idle travellers,"
as they were called, were the cause of most of the objections raised
against the journey to France and the longer tour on the
Continent--apart from questions of religion and politics. Few such
travellers "scaped bewitching passing over seas."[665] When Lord Herbert
of Cherbury arrived in Paris he remarked on the great number of
Englishmen thronging about the ambassador's mansion. They had, most of
them, studied the language and fashions in some quiet provincial town,
such as Orleans or Blois, and returned to Paris full of affectations.
Herbert draws a picture[666] of one such "true accomplish'd cavalere":

    Now what he speaks are complimental speeches
    That never go off, but below the breeches
    Of him he doth salute, while he doth wring
    And with some strange French words which he doth string,
    Windeth about the arms, the legs and sides,
    Most serpent like, of any man that bides
    His indirect approach.

Many travellers did not follow Moryson's advice "to lay aside the
spoone and forke of Italy, the affected gestures of France, and all
strange apparrell" on their return to England. Their affectation of
foreign languages and customs proved disagreeable to many of their
countrymen. The Frenchified traveller and his untravelled imitators were
known as _beaux_ or _mounsiers_. Nash speaks of the "dapper mounsieur
pages of the Court," and Shakespeare of the young gallants who charm the
ladies with a French song and a fiddle, and fill the Court with
quarrels, talks, and tailors.[667] When the English nobles and gentlemen
who had held official appointments at Tournai returned to England, after
lingering some time at the French Court, the chronicler Hall[668]
declares they were "all French in eating, drinking, yea in French vices
and brages, so that all estates of England were by them laughed at."

The English _beau_ thought it his duty to despise English ways,
fashions, and speech, and to ape and dote upon all things French:[669]

                        He struts about
    In cloak of fashion French. His girdle, purse,
    And sword are French; his hat is French;
    His nether limbs are cased in French costume.
    His shoes are French. In short from top to toe
    He stands the Frenchman.

Above all, he loves to display his "sorry French" and chide his French
valet in public, and

                                  if he speak
    Though but three little words in French, he swells
    And plumes himself on his proficiency.

And when his French fails him, as it soon does, he coins words for
himself which he utters with "widely gaping mouth, and sound acute,
thinking to make the accent French":

    With accent French he speaks the Latin Tongue,
    With accent French the tongue of Lombardy,
    To Spanish words he gives an accent French,
    German he speaks with the same accent French,
    All but the French itself. The French he speaks
    With accent British.

Thus the _beau_ cannot be ranked among the genuine students of French.

    Would you believe when you this monsieur see
    That his whole body should speak French, not he?

asks Ben Jonson.[670] [Header: "FRENCH-ITALIANATE" GENTLEMEN] We have a
picture, in Glapthorne's _The Ladies' Privilege_, of a travelled gallant
who undertakes to teach French to a young gentleman desiring thereby to
be "for ever engallanted." They confer on rudiments; "your French," says
the gallant, "is a thing easily gotten, and when you have it, as hard to
shake off, runnes in your blood, as 'twere your mother language." Until
you have enough of the language to sprinkle your English with it, answer
with a shrug, or a nod, or any foreign grimace.[671] The author of the
_Treatyse of a galaunt_ bemoans the fact that "Englysshe men sholde be
so blynde" as to adopt the "marde gere" of the French.[672] Many were
the outbursts of patriotic indignation roused by the affectation of the
newly returned travellers, who "brought home a few smattering terms,
flattering garbes, apish cringes, foppish fancies, foolish guises and
disguises and vanities of neighbour nations."[673] In the sixteenth
century France was not exclusively responsible for the fopperies of the
English _beau_, who might often be described as "French Italianate."[674]
He spoke his own language with shame and lisping.[675] Nothing "will
down but French, Italian and Spanish."[676] "Farewell, Monsieur
Traveller," says Rosalind to Jacques, "look you lisp, and wear strange
suits; disable all the benefits of your own country; be out of love with
your nativity, and almost chide God for making you that countenance you
are."[677] The affected _beau_ will "wring his face round about as a man
would stirre up a mustard pot and talke English through the teeth."[678]
He sprinkles his talk with overseas scraps. "He that cometh lately out
of France will talke French-English, and never blush at the matter, and
another chops in with English Italianated."[679] And what profit has he
from the journey on which he has gathered such evil fruit? Nothing but
words, and in this he exceeds his mother's parrot at home, in that he
can speak more and understands what he says.[680] And this is often no
more than to be able to call the king his lord "with two or three
French, Italian, Spanish or such like terms."[681] His attire, like his
tongue, speaks French and Italian.[682] He censures England's language
and fashions "by countenances and shrugs," and will choke rather than
confess beer a good drink. In time the _beau_ forgot what little he had
learnt of Italian, and in the seventeenth century was generally known as
the _English monsieur_, or the _gentleman à la mode_.

There were two very different attitudes towards the journey to France,
as there were two types of traveller, the serious and the flippant. The
prejudiced and insular-minded asked with Nash:[683] "What is there in
France to be learned more than in England, but falsehood in fellowship,
perfect slovenry, to love no man but for my pleasure, to swear _Ah par
la mort Dieu_ when a man's hands are scabbed. But for the idle traveller
(I mean not for the soldier), I have known some that have continued
there by the space of half a dozen years, and when they come home, they
have hid a little weerish lean face under a broad hat, kept a terrible
coil in the dust in the street in their long cloaks of gray paper, and
spoke English strangely. Nought else have they profited by their travel,
save learned to distinguish the true Bordeaux grape and know a cup of
neat Gascoigne wine from wine of Orleans." The opposite view is
expressed in the message George Herbert sent to his brother at
Paris:[684] "You live in a brave nation, where except you wink, you
cannot but see many brave examples. Bee covetous then of all good which
you see in Frenchmen whether it be in knowledge or in fashion, or in
words; play the good marchant in transporting French commodities to your
own country."


FOOTNOTES:

[564] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ vol. xvi. No.
238.

[565] Sir Rt. Naunton, _Fragmenta Regalia_, 1824, p. 69.

[566] _Cal. State Papers, Dom.: Add., 1580-1625_, p. 99.

[567] _Ibid._ p. 119. A certain Charles Doyley wrote in similar terms
from Rouen.

[568] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1595-97_, p. 293.

[569] _Purchas Pilgrimes_, 1625.

[570] Howell, _Epistolae Ho-Elianae_.

[571] As did Sir James Melville (_Memoirs_, Bannatyne Club, 1827, p.
12), "to learn to play upon the lut, and to writ Frenche," at the age of
fourteen. Similarly, Barnaby Fitzpatrick, Edward VI.'s youthful
favourite and proxy for correction, was sent to Paris to study fashions
and manners (Nichols, _Literary Remains_, p. lxx).

[572] The practice was also very common in Scotland, especially when the
reformers assumed the power of approving private tutors as well as
schoolmasters. Gentlemen were driven to evade this restriction by
sending their sons to France in the care of what they considered
suitable tutors. The Assembly then tried to assert its power by granting
passports only to those whose tutors they approved. See Young, _Histoire
de l'Enseignement en Écosse_, p. 52.

[573] _Copy Book of Sir Amias Poulet's Letters_, Roxburghe Club, 1866,
pp. 16, 231.

[574] _The Compleat Gentleman_ (1622), 1906, p. 33.

[575] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 3rd series, iii. 377.

[576] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ vol. viii. 517;
vol. ix. 1086; vol. xii. pt. i. 972, etc.

[577] Dated 1610. Ellis, _Original Letters_, 2nd series, iii. 230.

[578] Green, _Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies of Great Britain_,
London, 1846, ii. pp. 294 _et seq._

[579] _Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII._ vol. xiii. pt. i.
512.

[580] _Itinerary_, 1617, pt. iii. bk. i. p. 5.

[581] _Of Education._ To Master Samuel Hartlib.

[582] _Copy Book_, p. 90.

[583] _State Papers, Dom., 1598-1601_, p. 162; and _1601-1603_, p. 29.
In 1580 a list of some English subjects residing abroad was sent to the
queen (_ibid., Addenda, 1580-1625_, p. 4.)

[584] Greene left an account of his impressions of France and Italy in
his _Never too Late_ (Works, ed. Grosart, viii. pp. 20 _sqq._).

[585] Frequently the wording in passports (_Cal. State Papers_).

[586] There were many complaints throughout the two centuries of the
travellers' neglect of everything concerning their own country. "What is
it to be conversant abroad and a stranger at home?" asks Higford. See
also Penton, _New Instructions to the Guardian_, 1694; and F. B. B. D.,
_Education with Respect to Grammar Schools and Universities_, 1701.

[587] Ellis, _Original Letters_ (3rd series, iv. p. 46), publishes one
of the licences which had to be obtained.

[588] Reprinted by Lady T. Lewis, _Lives from the Pictures in the
Clarendon Galleries_, 1852, i. p. 250.

[589] _Description of Britaine_, 1577, Lib. 3. ch. iv.

[590] _Euphues_, ed. Arber, 1868, p. 152.

[591] _Scholemaster_, ed. Arber, 1870, p. 82. Mulcaster was also
eloquent on the evil result of travel (_Positions_, 1581).

[592] _Instructions for Youth ..._, by Sir W. Raleigh, etc., London,
1722, p. 50.

[593] Who founded the English seminary at Douay.

[594] See entries in _Cal. of State Papers_.

[595] March 25, 1601 (_Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1601-1603_, p. 18).

[596] _Correspondence with Hubert Languet_, 1912, p. 216.

[597] Letter dated September 1, 1631 (J. Forster, _Sir John Eliot, a
Biography_, London, 1864, i. pp. 16, 17).

[598] J. Howell, _Instructions for Forreine Travel_, 1642 (ed. Arber,
1869), p. 19.

[599] 1656, p. 102.

[600] Spence's _Anecdotes_, 1820, p. 184; _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[601] _A Dialogue concerning Education_, in _Miscellaneous Works_,
London, 1751, pp. 313 _et seq._

[602] Cp. Entries of Passports, in the _Cal. State Papers_. The
necessity of such a course was considered specially urgent if the
traveller was himself ignorant of languages (_The Gentleman's Companion,
by a Person of Quality_, 1672, p. 55).

[603] Gailhard, _The Compleat Gentleman_, 1678, p. 16.

[604] Gailhard, _op. cit._ pp. 19, 20. A gentleman, he thinks, should be
sent abroad betimes to prevent his being hardened in any evil course.

[605] _Some Thoughts on Education_, 1693.

[606] Walker, _Of Education, especially of Young Gentlemen_, 1699, 6th
ed.

[607] _Notes on Ben Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond of
Hawthornden_ (1619), Shakespeare Soc., 1842, pp. 21, 47.

[608] _Autobiography_, ed. Sir Sidney Lee (2nd ed., 1906), p. 56.

[609] _Memoirs of Sir John Reresby_, ed. J. J. Cartwright, 1875, p. 26.

[610] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[611] Addison was well acquainted with French literature and criticism.
He frequently quotes Boileau, Racine, Corneille, and also Bouhours and
Lebossu. His _Tragedy of Cato_ is closely modelled on the French
pattern. See A. Beljame, _Le Public et les hommes de lettres en
Angleterre au 18e siècle_, 1897, p. 316.

[612] _Memoirs of the Verney Family_, 1892, iii. p. 36.

[613] _The Correspondence of Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet_, ed. W.
A. Bradly (Boston, 1912), p. 26.

[614] _Savile Correspondence_, Camden Soc., 1858, pp. 133, 138. O.
Walker, in his _Of Education_, differs from other writers in proposing
that young gentlemen should travel without a governor.

[615] In the same category may be placed the _Traveiles of Jerome
Turler_, a native of Saxony, whose work was translated into English in
the year of its appearance (1575). It was specially intended for the use
of students.

[616] T. Palmer, _Essay on the Means of making our Travels into Forran
Countries more Profitable and Honourable_, 1606; T. Overbury,
_Observations in his Travels_, 1609 (France and the Low Countries).
William Bourne's _Treasure for Travellers_ (London, 1578) has no bearing
on travel from the language point of view. Of special interest are
Dallington's _Method for Travell, shewed by taking the View of France as
it stoode in the Yeare of our Lorde 1598_, London (1606?), and his _View
of France_, London, 1604. Other works are _A Direction for English
Travellers_, licensed for printing in 1635 (Arber, _Stationers'
Register_, iv. 343); Neal's _Direction to Travel_, 1643; Bacon's _Essay
on Travel_, 1625; Howell's _Instructions for Forreine Travel_, 1624.

[617] The versatile master of the ceremonies to Charles I., Sir
Balthazar Gerbier, wrote his _Subsidium Peregrinantibus or an Assistance
to a Traveller in his convers with--1. Hollanders. 2. Germans. 3.
Venetians. 4. Italians. 5. Spaniards. 6. French_ (1665), in the first
place as a _vade mecum_ for a princely traveller, the unfortunate Duke
of Monmouth. It claimed to give directions for travel, "after the latest
mode." Cp. also _A direction for travailers taken by Sir J. S._ (Sir
John Stradling) _out of_ (the _Epistola de Peregrinatione Italica of_)
_J. Lipsius, etc._, London. 1592.

[618] List in Watt's _Bibliographia Britannia_, 1824 (heading
_Education_); and in _Cambridge History of English Literature_, ix. ch.
xv. (Bibliography).

[619] _Method for Travell_, 1598, and _View of France_, 1604.

[620] The constant warnings against mixing with Englishmen abroad show
how numerous the latter must have been. "He that beyond seas frequents
his own countrymen forgets the principal part of his errand--language,"
wrote Francis Osborne in his _Advice to a Son_ (1656).

[621] As did Lord Lincoln, who "sees no English, rails at England, and
admires France."

[622] _Itinerary_, 1617.

[623] Bacon, _Essay on Travel_, 1625.

[624] Gailhard, _op. cit._ p. 48.

[625] S. Penton. _New Instructions to the Guardian_, 1694, p. 104.

[626] Cp. Entries of passports to France in the _Calendar of State
Papers_.

[627] _Positions_, 1581.

[628] It appears from a deleted note in the MS. of Defoe's _Compleat
English Gentleman_ that travel was not always considered necessary for
younger sons (ed. K. Bülbring, London, 1890).

[629] _French Alphabet_, 1592: "Car la plus part de ceux qui vont en
France apprennent par routine, sans reigles, et sans art, de sorte qu'il
leur est impossible d'apprendre, sinon avec une grande longueur de
temps. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent en Angleterre, s'ils apprennent
d'un qui ait bonne methode, il ne se peut faire qu'ils n'apprennent en
bref. D'avantage ce qu'ils apprennent est beaucoup meilleur que le
françois qu'on apprend en France par routine. Car nous ne pouvons parler
ce que nous n'avons apris et que nous ignorons. Ceux qui apprennent du
vulgaire ne peuvent parler que vulgairement . . . d'un françois
corrompu. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent par livres, parlent selon ce
qu'ils apprennent: or est il que les termes et phrases des livres sont
le plus pur et naif françois (bien qu'il y ayt distinction de livres);
il ne se peut donc qu'ils ne parlent plus purement et naivement (comme
j'ay dict) que les autres."

[630] Wodroeph, _Spared houres of a souldier_, 1623.

[631] Livet, _La Grammaire française et les grammairiens au 16e siècle_,
1859, p. 2.

[632] _In linguam gallicam Isagoge_, 1531.

[633] _Le Traité touchant le commun usage de l'escriture françoise_,
1542, 1545; cp. Livet, _op. cit._ pp. 49 _sqq._

[634] _Gallicae linguae institutio Latino sermone conscripta_ (1550,
1551, 1555, 1558, etc.).

[635] _Institutio gallicae linguae in usum iuventutis germanicae_ (1558,
1580, 1591, 1593).

[636] _Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciacion françoese, departi en
deus livres_, 1555.

[637] "J'ay tousiours eu plus ordinaire hantise, plus de biens et
d'honneur et de civile conversation de la nation Angloise que de nul
aultre."

[638] Villiers had no doubt some previous knowledge of French. From the
age of thirteen he had been taught at home by private tutors.

[639] _Reliquiae Wottonianae_, London, 1657, p. 76.

[640] 12º, pp. 386.

[641]

    "Etranger desireux de nostre langue apprendre,
    Employe en ce livret et ton temps et ton soin,
    Que si d'enseignement plus ample il t'est besoin,
    Viens t'en la vive voix de l'autheur mesme entendre."

[642] It differs from _Les Desguisez_, a comedy written by Godard in
1594.

[643] E. Winkler, "La Doctrine grammaticale d'après Maupas et Oudin," in
_Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie_, Heft 38, 1912.

[644] Towards the end of his career, Oudin was appointed to teach Louis
XIV. Spanish and Italian; he was the author of several manuals for
teaching these languages, and it is worthy of note that sometimes the
German language is included.

[645] Printed with Nicot's edition of Aimar de Ranconnet's _Thresor de
la langue françoyse_, Paris, 1606.

[646] Garnier was also the author of familiar dialogues, published in
French, Spanish, Italian, and German in 1656.

[647] _Lettres sur les Anglais et sur les Français_ (end of seventeenth
century), 1725, p. 305.

[648] Another grammar specially intended for the use of strangers was
_Le vray orthographe françois contenant les reigles et preceptes
infallibles pour se rendre certain, correct et parfait a bien parler
françois, tres utile et necessaire tant aux françois qu'estrangers. Par
le sieur de Palliot secretaire ordinaire de la chambre du roy._ 1608.

[649] Gailhard, _op. cit._ p. 33.

[650] _Method for Travell_, 1598.

[651] _Records of the English Catholics_, i. pp. 275 _et sqq._; F. C.
Petre, _English Colleges and Convents established on the Continent ..._,
Norwich, 1849; G. Cardon, _La Fondation de l'Université de Douai_,
Paris, 1802.

[652] Cp. p. 343 _infra_.

[653] Cp. account by M. Nicolas, in _Bulletin de la société de
l'Histoire du Protestantisme Français_, iv. pp. 503 _sqq._ and pp. 582
_sqq._ Twenty-five such colleges are named.

[654] _Bulletin_, i. p. 301; ii. pp. 43, 303, 354 _sqq._; also articles
in vols. iii., iv., v., vi., ix., and Bourchenin's _Études sur les
Académies Protestantes_.

[655] Suppressed as early as 1620.

[656] Driven from Scotland, in many cases, by James I.'s attempt to
introduce the English Liturgy into the Scottish churches. Robert
Monteith, author of the _Histoire des Troubles de la Grande Bretagne_,
was professor of philosophy at Saumur for four years (_Dict. Nat.
Biog._).

[657] He composed in French _A faithful and familiar exposition of
Ecclesiastes_, Geneva, 1557; cp. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[658] Cp. Nicolas, _Histoire de l'ancienne Académie de Montauban_,
Montauban, 1885.

[659] There was an early Academy at Lausanne which emigrated to Geneva
and assured the latter's success (1559); cp. H. Vuilleumier, _L'Académie
de Lausanne_, Lausanne, 1891.

[660] _Essai de remarques particulières sur la langue françoise pour la
ville de Genève_, 1691. Quoted by Borgeaud, _Histoire de l'Université de
Genève_, 1900, p. 445.

[661] C. Borgeaud, _op. cit._

[662] They were united at Nîmes in 1617, and finally suppressed in 1644.

[663] Pattison, _Isaac Casaubon_, Oxford, 1892, pp. 40-42, 155. On the
English at Geneva, cp. _ibid._ p. 20.

[664] _Autobiography_, ed. Sir S. Lee (2nd ed., 1906), p. 56.

[665] T. Scot, _Philomythie_, London, 1622.

[666] _Satyra_ (addressed to Ben Jonson), 1608. _Poems of Lord Herbert
of Cherbury_, ed. J. Churton Collins, London, 1881.

[667] _Henry VIII._, Act I. Sc. 3.

[668] A. T. Thomson, _Memoirs of the Court of Henry VIII._, London,
1826, i. p. 259.

[669] Epigram by Sir Th. More: translated from Latin by J. H. Marsden,
_Philomorus_, 2nd ed., 1878, p. 222.

[670] _English Monsieur: Works_, London, 1875, viii. p. 190. Cp. other
satires and epigrams of the time: Hall, _Satires_, lib. iii. satire 7;
_Skialetheia_, 1598, No. 27; H. Parrot, _Laquei_, 1613, No. 207;
_Scourge of Villanie_, ed. Grosart, 1879, p. 158.

[671] H. Glapthorne, "The Ladies' Privilege," _Plays and Poems_, 1874,
ii. pp. 81 _sqq._ It was sometimes the good fortune of the gallant to
"live like a king," "teaching tongues" (T. Scot, _Philomythie_, 1622).

[672] 1510? Colophon: "Here endeth this treatise made of a galaunt.
Emprinted at London in the Flete St. at the sygne of the sonne by Wynkyn
de Worde." Alex. Barclay, Andrew Borde, Skelton and others, all satirize
the mania for French fashions. Every opportunity of getting the latest
French fashion was eagerly seized. Thus Lady Lisle, wife of Henry
VIII.'s deputy at Calais, constantly sent her friends in England
articles of dress "such as the French ladies wear" (_Letters and Papers
of the Reign of Henry VIII._, i. 3892). Moryson says the English are
"more light than the lightest French."

[673] Purchas, _Pilgrimes_, 1625.

[674] Sylvester, _Lacrymae Lacrymarum: Works_ (ed. Grosart), ii. p. 278.

[675] Sir T. Overbury, _Characters_, 1614: "The Affected Traveller."

[676] George Pettie, _Civile Conversation_, 1586 (preface to translation
of Guazzo's work).

[677] _As You Like It_, Act IV. Sc. 1.

[678] Nash, _Pierce Pennilesse_, quoted by J. J. Jusserand, _The English
Novel in the Time of Shakespeare_, 1899, p. 322.

[679] Wilson, _Arte of Rhetorique_ (1553), ed. G. H. Mair, 1909, p. 162.

[680] Hall, _Quo Vadis_, 1617.

[681] Humphrey, _The Nobles or of Nobilitye_, London, 1563.

[682] Overbury, _Characters_, 1614.

[683] _The Unfortunate Traveller_ (1587), Works, ed. McKerrow, ii. p.
300.

[684] _Letters_ (1618), ed. Warner, _Epistolary Curiosities_, 1818, p.
3.




CHAPTER VIII

    THE STUDY OF FRENCH AMONG MERCHANTS AND SOLDIERS


Merchants, always a very important and influential class in England,
claim a place by the side of the higher classes as learners of French.
They were continually in need of foreign languages, and French was
certainly the most useful, and, for those trading with France and the
Netherlands, quite indispensable. As to their own language, we are told
that when English merchants were out of England "it liketh them not, and
they do not use it."[685] Those sons of gentlemen and others who wished
to engage in trade were usually apprenticed to merchants. For instance,
Sir William Petty (b. 1623) first went to school where he got a
smattering of Latin and Greek, and, at the age of twelve, was bound
apprentice to a sea captain. At fifteen he went to Caen in Normandy
aboard a merchant vessel, and began to trade there with such success
that he managed to maintain and educate himself. He learnt French and
perfected himself in Latin, and had enough Greek to serve his turn.
Thence he travelled to Paris and studied anatomy.[686] Sylvester, no
doubt, had many opportunities of putting to the test the French he first
learnt in Saravia's school when later in life he became a merchant
adventurer. It appears that many merchants belonged to the class of
travellers who picked up the language abroad by mixing with those who
spoke it. Fynes Moryson accuses merchants, women, and children of
neglecting any serious study of languages and "rushing into rash
practice." "They doe many times," he admits, "pronounce the tongue and
speake common speeches more gracefully than others, but they seldome
write the tongue well, and alwaies forget it in short time, wanting the
practice." The many practical little manuals of conversation which had
appeared in the Middle Ages, and the "litle pages set in print without
rules or precepts" which succeeded them, would certainly encourage this
"rushing into rash practice"; such, indeed, was their aim. The majority
of merchants acquired their French, we may be sure, either by the help
of such little handbooks, intended to be learnt by heart, or simply by
"ear."

Dialogues for merchants are provided in almost all French text-books of
the time, giving phrases for buying and selling and enquiring the way.
Barclay describes his grammar (1521) as particularly useful to
merchants. There was, moreover, a very popular little book specially
intended for that class--_A plaine pathway to the French Tongue, very
profitable for Marchants and also all other which desire the same, aptly
devided into nineteen chapters_, which appeared first in 1575, and in at
least one,[687] and probably several other editions.[688] The aim of the
book would explain how it has come about that only one copy has survived
the wear and tear of the demands made upon it. Again James Howell
dedicated his edition of Cotgrave's dictionary (1650) to the nobility
and gentry, and to the "merchant adventurers as well English as the
worthy company of Dutch here resident and others to whom the language is
necessary for commerce and foren correspondence." Books such as those of
Holyband and Du Ploich were written for the use of the middle class,
and, no doubt, for merchants also; and a later writer, John Wodroeph,
describes his collection of common phrases as "more profitable for the
merchants than for the loathsome curtier who cannot digest such coarse
meats."

Dutch merchants are mentioned by Howell in the dedication of Cotgrave's
dictionary, and the close relations, existing between England and the
Netherlands in the time of Elizabeth, possibly account for the fact that
the Netherlanders took some part in instructing the English, chiefly
merchants, in the French tongue. It has already been seen how
unfavourably the Huguenot teachers in England criticized their
fellow-teachers of French from the Low Countries, and we are not
surprised to find that the latter contented themselves with teaching the
language orally, and avoided the risk of committing their views to
paper. [Header: FRENCH TEXT-BOOKS FOR MERCHANTS] In the Netherlands,
however, no such compunction was felt, and some manuals composed there
made their way to England. At an early date one was reprinted in London.
Holyband, the chief of the group of Huguenot teachers, was quickly up in
arms against it. "Je ne diray rien," he writes in 1573, "d'un nouveau
livre venu d'Anvers, et dernierement imprimé à Londres, à cause que, ne
gardant ryme ne raison, soit en son parler, phrase, orthographe, maniere
de converser et communiquer entre gens d'estat; et cependant qu'il
pindarise en son iargon il monstre de quel cru il est sorti, que si nos
chartiers d'Orleans, Bourges ou de Bloys avoyent oui gazouiller
l'autheur d'icelluy, ilz le renvoyeroient bailler entre ses geais, apres
luy avoir donné cinquante coups de leur fouet sur ses échines." Let this
writer teach his jargon to the Flemings, the Burgundians, and the people
of Hainault; it is a true saying that a good Burgundian was never a good
Frenchman. "Lesquelles choses considerées," concludes the irate
Holyband, "i'espere que l'autheur de ce beau livre ne nous contraindra
point de manger ses glands, ayans trouvé le pur froment."

What was this book newly come from Antwerp? Probably an edition of a
very popular collection of phrases and conversations, written originally
in French and Flemish in the early years of the sixteenth century, by a
schoolmaster of Antwerp, Noel de Barlement or Barlaiment.[689] By the
middle of the century the work had appeared in four languages. In 1556
it was printed at Louvain in Flemish, French, Latin, and Spanish, and in
1565 it appeared at Antwerp in Flemish, French, Italian, and Spanish. In
1557 a London printer, Edward Sutton, received licence to print "a boke
intituled Italian, Frynshe, Englesshe and Laten,"[690] and in 1568 a
"boke intituled Frynsche, Englysshe and Duche" was licensed to John
Alde.[691] Both of these volumes, we may safely conclude, were
adaptations of the Flemish handbook, and either may have been the "book
from Anvers" reviled by Holyband. Another English edition of the work
was issued in 1578, a few years after Holyband's attack, by George
Bishop, who received licence to print a _Dictionarie colloques ou
dialogues en quattre langues, Fflamen, Ffrançoys, Espaignol et Italien_,
"with the Englishe to be added thereto."[692]

This vocabulary of Barlement probably enjoyed considerable popularity in
England in its foreign editions also. It was widely used by English
merchants and travellers after it had been adapted to their use by the
addition of English to its columns; and they would, no doubt, bring
copies back with them from the Netherlands. The earliest edition in
which English has a place was probably that of 1576, entitled _Colloques
or Dialogues avec un Dictionaire en six langues, Flamen, Anglois,
Alleman, François, Espagnol et Italien. Tres util a tous Marchands ou
autres de quelque estat qu'ils soyent, le tout avec grande diligence et
labeur corrigé et mis ensemble. A Anvers 1576_. By the end of the
century a seventh and finally an eighth language were added. There are
copies of two further editions of the work issued in England in the
first half of the seventeenth century. The first included four languages
and appeared in 1637, under the title of _The {English French}{Latine
Dutch} Scholemaster or an introduction to teach young Gentlemen and
Merchants to travell or trade. Being the only helpe to attaine to those
languages_. It was printed for Michael Sparke, who issued another
edition in eight languages in 1639 as _New Dialogues or colloquies or a
little Dictionary of eight languages. A Booke very necessary for all
those that study these tongues either at home or abroad, now perfected
and made fit for travellers, young merchants and seamen, especially
those that desire to attain to the use of the Tongues._ Michael Sparke
recommends the convenience of this portable little volume: "And if
parents use to send their children beyond the sea to learne the language
and to gaine the learning of forraine nations, judge what may be said of
the benefit of this booke (I had almost said of the necessity of it)
which being read doth by daily experience furnish the Reader with a full
and perfect knowledge of divers tongues." He also tells you "in your
eare" that "since the worke has been published in England and the
Netherlands," not so perfect an edition has appeared.

Turning to the contents of the little handbook, we are at once struck by
the close resemblance between its dialogues and those of the French
text-books produced in England--still further evidence of the use of
the book in our country. [Header: THE DIALOGUES OF BARLEMENT] Its
contents, which in all the varied forms in which it appeared are
fundamentally the same, are divided into two parts. The first consists
of four chapters, and opens with table talk very similar to that of the
English-French dialogues, especially those of Du Ploich. There is a
passage, for example, in which the schoolboy speaks of his school, found
in varying form in several of the early manuals produced in England:

  Peter is that your son?             Pierre est cela vostre filz?
  Ye it is my sonne.                  Ouy c'est mon filz.
  It is a goodly child.               C'est un bel enfant.
  God let him alwayes                 Dieu le laisse tousiours
  prosper in vertue.                  prosperer en bien.
  I thanke you cousen.                Je vous remercie cousin.
  Doth he not goe to schoole?         Ne va-il point a l'escole?
  Yes, he learneth to speake French.  Ouy, il apprend a parler François.
  Doth he?                            Fait-il?
  It is very well done.               C'est tres bien fait.
  John can you                        Jean sçavez vous bien
  speake good French?                 parler françois?
  Not very well, cousen,              Ne point fort bien, mon cousin,
  but I learne.                       mais ie l'apprends.
  Where go you to schoole?            Ou allez vous a l'escole?
  In the Lombarde Street.             En la rue de Lombarts.
  Have you gone                       Avez vous longuement
  long to schoole?                    allé à l'escole?
  About halfe a yeare.                Environ un demy an.
  Learn you also to write?            Apprenez vous aussi a escrire?
  Yea, cousen.                        Ouy, mon cousin.
  That is well done,                  C'est bien fait,
  learne alwayes well.                apprenez tousiours.
  Well cousen, if it please God.      Bien mon cousin, s'il plait a Dieu.

The second chapter deals with buying and selling; the third with
counting, demanding payment of debts, and so on; and the fourth gives
specimens of commercial letters and documents. The second part contains
an alphabetical vocabulary of common words, followed by directions for
reading and speaking French, in the guise of a slight grammar. A few
rules for pronunciation and the different parts of speech are
accompanied by advice to seek fuller information in other French
grammars. Then come a few rules for the other languages--Italian,
Spanish, and Flemish.

So popular was this handbook in England that it was reprinted without
much alteration, and no modernization, at the beginning of the
nineteenth century: _The Dialogues in six languages Latin, French,
German, Spanish, Italian, and English_, appeared at Shrewsbury in 1808.
We are informed that "this book contains common forms of speach, one
being a literal translation of the other, and as near as the idiom of
the language will bear, so that they correspond almost word for word,
and will be found extremely useful for beginners." The second part of
the work, although mentioned in the table of contents, is omitted.

A similar polyglot manual, which was probably less well known in
England, was the _Vocabulaire de six langues, Latin, François,
Espagniol, Italien, Anglois et Aleman_, printed at Venice, probably in
1540--an enlarged edition of a vocabulary in five languages (Antwerp,
1534, and Venice, 1537) in which English had no place. This handbook
passed through several other editions,[693] and no doubt became fairly
well known in England through the intermediary of the numerous Italian
merchants who came to London, and the English traders and travellers
visiting Italy; editions which appeared at Rouen in 1611 and 1625 would
also be easily obtainable. The dictionary is described as a very useful
vocabulary for those who wish to learn without going to school--artisans,
women, and especially merchants. The first part consists of a
vocabulary, arranged under fifty-five headings, dealing with the usual
subjects, beginning with the heavens; the second contains a list of
verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns, together with a
collection of phrases and idioms. The interesting dialogue of the
Flemish vocabulary is lacking.

In the second half of the sixteenth century there lived at Antwerp a
language master, Gabriel Meurier, who counted many English among his
pupils. Meurier was a native of Avesnes in Hainault, where he was born
in about 1530. But for many years he taught languages--French, Spanish,
Flemish, and Italian--at Antwerp, which had by this time supplanted
Bruges as the chief trading centre of the Low Countries. His pupils were
largely merchants, and his first work on the language, the _Grammaire
françoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres et necessaires
pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte Langue_, 1557,[694] was
dedicated to "Messeigneurs et Maistres, les gouverneurs et marchans
Anglois." [Header: GABRIEL MEURIER] In 1563 was issued at Antwerp
another work specially for the use of the English--_Familiare
communications no leasse proppre then verrie proffytable to the Inglishe
nation desirous and nedinge the ffrench language_, dedicated to his most
honoured lord, John Marsh, governor of the English nation, and intended
for the use of "Marchands, Facteurs, Apprentifs, and others of the
English nation." These dialogues on subjects specially useful to
merchants are divided into seventeen chapters, giving familiar talk for
the members of the different trades with lists of their merchandise,
directions for travellers, the names of different artisans and
tradesmen, instructions for collecting debts, receiving money and
writing receipts. Meurier teaches his pupils the words used daily by
merchants at the Exchange, and then the degrees of kinship, numbers,
coins, the days and feast days, the parts of the body and clothing, food
and table talk, and, finally, commercial notes and letters.[695] Another
edition of the book was published at Rouen in 1641, being intended, in
this case, to teach both French and English. The title given to it was
_A treatise for to learne to speake Frenshe and Englishe together with a
form of making letters, indentures, and obligations, quittances, letters
of exchange, verie necessarie for all Marchants that do occupy trade or
marchandise_. Meurier also composed numerous other books which have no
direct bearing on the teaching of French to Englishmen. They were almost
all written for the use of merchants, whom they sought to instruct in
French and Flemish, and sometimes in Spanish and Italian as well. That
the English were always in the author's mind is shown by the fact that
he sometimes explains pronunciation by comparison with English sounds.
He also did important lexicographical work. He prepared French-Flemish
vocabularies in 1562 and 1566, and in 1584 his French-Flemish Dictionary
was published at Anvers. This dictionary is said to have been one of the
sources which helped Cotgrave to compile his famous work, and Meurier
seems to have outdone the later writer in collecting rare and obsolete
words.[696]

There were thus many faculties for learning French in the Netherlands.
Francis Osborne wrote regarding the study of French abroad:[697] "for
the place I say France, if you have a purse, else some town in the
Netherlands or Flanders, that is wholesome and safe: where the French
may be attained with little more difficulty then at Paris, neither are
the humours of the people so very remote from your owne." Thus the
Netherlanders taught French to the English both in their own
country[698] and in England. The connexion was a long-standing one.
Caxton had taken his French and English Dialogues from a Flemish
text-book, and in later times, as has been seen, Flemish works were
published in England, and had some influence on the dialogues of the
English manuals of French. The debt, however, was not all on one side.
Holyband's _French Schoolemaister_, for instance, was adapted to the use
of Flemings and printed at Rotterdam in 1606,[699] and in 1647 was
published at the end of the _Grammaire flamende et françoise_ (Rouen) of
Jan Louis d'Arsy. Moreover, the grammar of the seventeenth-century
French teacher whose popularity equalled that of Holyband in the
sixteenth century--Claude Mauger--was published in the Low Countries at
the same time as in England.

Another link between the teaching of French in the Netherlands and in
England is found in the book by John Wodroeph--an interesting figure
among teachers of French. He spent many years in the Netherlands, and in
his French text-book he adapted what he called his "court and country
dialogues" from some French-Flemish ones written for the instruction of
the Court of Nassau in the former language. Writing of the importance of
a knowledge of French, he emphasises its usefulness to the nobility.
But, he adds, it is still more profitable to merchants, for, excepting
Latin, it is the most widely used language in Christendom, and, "si
j'osoye dire," much more useful.

Wodroeph was a soldier, and soldiers, like merchants, gave much impetus
to the study of French. [Header: FRENCH IN MILITARY CIRCLES] In
Barlement's book of dialogues, soldiers are ranked with merchants,
travellers, and courtiers as those to whom the knowledge of languages
is most necessary: "soit que quelcun face merchandise ou qu'il hante la
court, ou qu'il suive la guerre, ou qu'il aille par villes et champs."
The wars raging almost incessantly in France and the Low Countries
attracted numbers of Englishmen. The army was an opening for younger
sons, and so "Some to the wars to try their fortunes there." Judging
from the epigrams and satires of the time, the swaggering gallant home
from the wars was a familiar figure in London. This sworded and martial
_beau_ is

    He that salutes each gallant he doth meete
    With "farewell sweet captaine fond heart _adieu_";

one who

                    hath served long in France,
    And is returned filthy full of French,

and who, at night when leaving the inn, "thinking still he had been
sentinell of warlike Brill, crys out _que va la? Zounds que?_ and stabs
the drawer with his Syringe straw."[700]

Those who were moved by the spirit of adventure and liked the
picturesque crowded to the camp of Henry IV. of France who counted many
admirers in this country. One of these, Dudley Carleton, afterwards Lord
Dorchester, writes from the king's camp in 1596 that he is busy studying
French, though "Mars leaves little room for Mercury." Later he perfected
his knowledge by studying at Paris, and wrote thence to John
Chamberlain, the letter writer, to tell him how one Sir John Brooke,
with Coppinger, a Kentish gentleman, "lately come to learn the
language," are the "logs in our French school."[701] Unfortunately we
have no more details of this little group of Englishmen studying French
at Paris. One of the Englishmen who served in Normandy in 1591 with the
troops sent by Queen Elizabeth to help Henry IV. against the League kept
a daily journal from the 13th of August till the 24th of December
following.[702] This soldier, Sir Thomas Coningsby, a friend of Sir
Philip Sidney, acted as muster master to the English detachment, and was
in frequent intercourse with Henry before Rouen.

An interesting example of how the army and service abroad offered
opportunities for the study of French is found in the memoirs of the
Verney family. The three younger sons of Sir Edmund Verney (1590-1642)
all became soldiers. Tom took service in the army of France, while
Edmund (1616-1649), after studying at Oxford, joined the army of the
States in Flanders (1640). When in winter quarters at Utrecht, he "made
up for his former idleness," and studied for seven or eight hours a day
for many months to improve his knowledge of French and Latin. His
Frenchman, he writes to tell his father, is the same that was Sir
Humphry Sidenham's; he "warrants I shall speak it perfectly before we
draw into the field, and truly, I am confident I shall."[703] He was
reading Plutarch's _Lives_ in French. Edmund was soon after killed in
the Civil War. His younger brother, Harry, was intended from his youth
for a soldier, and early sent to Paris to study French. There he seems
to have spoilt his English without making any very rapid progress in
French, for French grammar had a powerful rival in horses and dogs--his
chief interest in life. "Pleade for me in my behalfe to my father," he
implores his eldest brother, "if I have not write in french so well as
he expects, but howsoever, I presume a line to testifie some little
knowledge in the same, and hope in time to expresse myselfe more radier,
as the old proverbe is ... _il fault du temps pour apprendre_." Harry
Verney later took part in the Thirty Years' War, and was present at the
recapture of Breda by the Prince of Orange in 1637.[704]

It was during the Thirty Years' War also that John Wodroeph served in
the Netherlands. He tells us in 1623 that he had been "following the
uncertaine warres" for "these seven years past." During this period of
service, "by the spared dayes and houres of (his) watch and guarde," he
composed a book for teaching French, to which he gave the title of _The
Spared Houres of a Souldier in his travells or The true Marrowe of the
French tongue_. It was printed at Dort, near Rotterdam, in 1623, and
dedicated to the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I. Wodroeph was a
"gentleman," and we gather from the interest he shows in Scotland that
he hailed from that country. [Header: JOHN WODROEPH] At both the
beginning and the end of his book are several poems of all sorts
dedicated to courtiers who had followed James from Scotland to
England--the Duke of Lennox, Earl Ramsey, James, Lord of Hay, and
others. He also addresses the Elector Palatine and his queen, Elizabeth,
James I.'s daughter. Many other poems, some in French and some in
English, are written in honour of the Lords of the States-General and of
sundry Flemish gentlemen. All these give this work, written in the midst
of the British army abroad, a strong local colour. In addition, Wodroeph
wrote poems to celebrate the virtues and learning of numerous Scottish
and English officers--Colonel William Brog, Colonel Robert Henderson,
Captain Roger Orme, Captain Edwards, Captain Drummond, and John
Monteith, his very kind captain. To many of these and other "sons of
gentlemen" Wodroeph had taught French, when his military duties
permitted, and he mentions Captain Drummond as being among his most
enthusiastic pupils. He also addresses lines to his very good friend
John Cameron, the Scotch theologian and the minister of the French
Church at Bordeaux, one of the many Scotchmen who held important
scholastic positions in France. These verses must have been written
between 1608 and 1617, the period when Cameron was at Bordeaux. Later
Cameron became professor of divinity at Saumur and Montauban. He spoke
French with unusual purity, and also wrote some of his theological
treatises in French.[705]

Apart from its martial atmosphere, this curious volume has also a strong
Calvinistic flavour, another indication of Wodroeph's Scottish
sympathies. He wrote many "godly songs" in French, to be sung to various
psalm tunes, and even introduced the spirit into his grammar itself. His
verbs are "truly formed and constructed after the order of Geneva, which
retaineth alwaies entirely the true marrow, method and rules of verbs,
or any other part of speech, both in their Bibles, Psalms, and other
godly books: forsaking all new corruptions, of poets, and other vaine
toyes, threatening to deface the old authority of the Orthographie."
Moreover, a godly gentleman, "maister John Douglas, minister of the Word
of God to the English and Scotch troopers within Utrecht," persuaded him
to undertake the translation into French of Sir William Alexander's
_Doomesday_, which at this date embraced four books or "houres,"
subsequently extended to twelve. _Doomesday_, thought Wodroeph, would be
greatly "liked of in France, yea, even as well as a second Du Bartas."
He was, however, unable to complete his task, "finding the style so
excellent and so high, and also somewhat harsh, to agree with French
verse, because that our English tongue (and chiefly by this
extraordinary poet) can affoorde more sense and matter with ten of its
syllables than ever I have been able to construe with twelve or thirteen
of the French. Therefore I was constrained to leave it off, partly for
want of tyme and commoditie, and partly that it was so constrained." The
one 'Houre' he completed was included in his book, with an apology and
the expression of the hope that "any kind French poet would end out the
rest, and also help these few rude lines which are translated in haste
out of his week and shallow braine."

Wodroeph wrote French, both verse and prose, with remarkable ease. In
addition to the poems already mentioned, there are many others scattered
through his works. One of these, "Chanson Spirituelle de la vie des
vertueux hommes," is written to the tune of Desportes' song, "O nuit,
jalouse nuit, contre moy conjurée." He tells us that whenever possible
he used French in correspondence in preference to English. He spoke the
language with equal fluency, and assures us that he did so with greater
facility than English. He had not acquired this mastery of the language
without much study, but by "many cold winter nights sitting at it," and
by much practice. He appears to have been fairly widely read in French
literature, and shared the admiration felt by many of his countrymen for
Du Bartas and the _Quatrains_ of Pibrac.

Thus Wodroeph was perfectly conscious of the many difficulties offered
by the French language, and censured in strong terms those who pretend
to teach it in a short space of time. "I have shamefully heard say a
teacher (in my tyme) that he could give rules, that any might read and
write and understand the French language in six weeks. O what a weake
ground should hee build therein! Yea not in sixteene months, hee and his
gentle teaching! Unlesse he dazell his eyes much, and straine his memory
out of her limits." [Header: METHOD OF STUDY] At an earlier date,
Holyband had deplored the existence of the many "thornie and inepte
bookes" claiming to give a knowledge of the language, and Wodroeph, in
his turn, shows the small esteem in which he held the many "small wares"
by which it is impossible to prove a good speaker. He had seen very many
treatises on verbs, "confused (for want of space), confusing those who
read them," and so many pamphlets and books making believe "by wordes
rather than by effects that the French tongue can be truly learned by
the same." No doubt most of these little pamphlets are among the many
school-books of which all trace has been lost. There is, however,
mention of one, _A shorte method for the Declyning of Ffrench Verbes_,
by J. S., licensed in 1623 to the printer, Richard Field.[706]

Wodroeph, therefore, earnestly begs the student of French not to fancy
he can "spare the marrow of his famous braines" and pick French up by
ear alone, as many seek to do. He must, on the contrary, be prepared "to
storm the citadel of grammar, and do as the valiant captaine, that is to
say, besiege the strongest houldes which commande over the lesser and
weaker sort." "Loving Reader," he writes, "if I could persuade thee to
believe what profit the diligent and serious Man doth reape learning the
true methode of French Tongue and what advantage he gaineth above him
who thinketh to obtaine the said Tongue by the eare only: truly thou
wouldest use thine earnest diligence and celeritie perusing these
rules." Otherwise learners will speak "scurvily, harshly and painfully,
that they make the Frenches take their sport at them, even as the
English do at the Welshes ... taking sometyme the male for the female,
and the hand for the foote; applying to the woman that which should
apply to the man: and to the leg which ought apply to the arme: as _la
garçon_, _le femme_, _ma sieur_, and _mon dame_: ... O what language
this is in the eares of the Frenches! I think truely it should make Père
Coton him selfe to laugh at it, who said in a sermon (the King and Queen
present), that hee had neither sinned nor laughed in fiftene yeares
tyme, yea and any man else." Verbs are a special difficulty, and there
"be many that can never speake true French for lack of knowing their
methode. For where it ought to be spoken thus: _Il y eut_ or _il y avait
un homme là_, some will say _il fut_, _il estoit un homme là_. Fine
French! And so will the ignorant speake through all the moodes and
tenses, whereat the Frenches take often their sport." Thus those who
have learnt no grammar "go wallowing in the painefull and muddy mire of
confused and backward broyles, doubting and fearing (without any
assurance) what words to speak first in framing their phrases."

But Wodroeph, in spite of the great emphasis he laid on the study of
rules, fully recognizes the importance and value of practice. "I do not
meene (for all this)," he writes, "to condemne common practice of the
tongue by the eare, but do praise both wayes; esteeming (nevertheless)
the method of the rules for the better and surer way, as I have
certainlie found (and many others), by myne owne experience practicing
them bothe." "Certes il vous faut parler tousiours," he says, "soit-il
ou en bien ou en mal." To make progress "il vous faut frequenter,
hanter, accoynter, accoster, discourir, babiller, caquetter, baiser,
lecher, parler hardiment et discretement, aymer, rire, gausser, jouer,
vous rejouir, et jouir de leurs bonnes faveurs et graces: et
principalement ès compagnies honestes: asçavoir, parmi les seigneurs et
Dames, Damoiselles honestes, pudiques matrones, femmes et filles de
vertu et d'honneur; captaines et dignes chefs de guerre, là où il y a
tousiours quelque chose a esplucher, si c'est de leurs prouesses,
entreprises, ou de leurs faicts heroiques et memorables . . . sans vous
esbahir pour le bruit non plus que fait le bon cheval de trompette."
Wodroeph doubtless based his advice on his own experience. Moreover, a
bold and enterprising spirit has much to do with the successful study of
French: "si vous n'estes hardi prompt, diligent, et vigilent, vous
n'apprendrez pas la langue françoise par songe . . . mais cela vient par
grande peine, diligence et priere a Dieu. Certes, . . . si un homme
estoit marié a une femme françoise . . . il me semble qu'il apprendroit
plustost en disant, Mme, ou m'amie, permettez moy que ie vous recerche
en tout honeur et mariage . . . a celle fin de vous faire ma chere
moitié, et fidele espouse: que par ce moyen, ie puisse et avoir vostre
alliance et apprendre vostre language, autrement, madame, il me
cousteroit beaucoup plus de temps, de peine et de mes moyens."

Wodroeph's book for teaching French is one of the most comprehensive. He
assures the student that it lacks "nothing to make him a perfect
Frenchman but the birth and delygence though he never read any other."
It fills more than five hundred folio pages. [Header: "THE SPARED HOURES
OF A SOULDIER"] Putting his theories into practice, he begins with rules
of pronunciation and grammar, "set downe by God's helpe as I have
practiced in my time and by the tracke of best Authours, which have
professed this tongue heretofore." His debt to Holyband makes it evident
that he ranked the popular sixteenth-century teacher among these. He
would have the student pay special attention to three things: first the
pronunciation, which, as was usual, he bases on comparison with English
sounds; then the genders, learning every noun with its article "to lead
to the same in right gender"; and, finally, and most important of all,
the verbs, which should be committed to memory. In his grammar he
follows the usual order, treating each part of speech in turn. He
endeavours to avoid all superfluous rules, fearing the "loathsomeness of
the unlearned."

The rules occupy about a hundred pages. Then follows a most
comprehensive collection of practical exercises, intended for all sorts
and conditions--courtiers, merchants, and the middle classes, "the
learned and the unlearned." The dialogues are accompanied by a verbatim
English translation. In the introductory ones the reader is referred to
the margin for the pronunciation of the most difficult words, where it
is given in English spelling. The "true English phrase" is added in the
footnote where necessary. Wodroeph was strongly in favour of sacrificing
if need be the purity of the English for the sake of rendering the
meaning of the French clearer. He did not pretend, he says, to teach his
countrymen their "own ornate English." "Verbatim, therefore, sometimes
must be had, because it is requisite that it should not always be closed
up in a phrase, but showed bare, as it fals very often: then (nil thou
wilt thou) thou must have a coat to cover it, that is to say his true
signification, or else thou must leave it, and run to the Dictionarie,
and dazle thy eyes there awhile, and be even so wise as thou wast
before; for sometymes they are not to be found at all in it, and
sometymes it will fall in some tense of some mood which no Dictionarie
can yield: yea even thousands."

The first section of the dialogues, that accompanied by the guides to
pronunciation, deals with familiar subjects, more useful than elegant
and more profitable for the middle classes and merchants than for the
"loathsome courtier." "Thou hast in this Booke all household stuffe and
other pretty necessary words meete for thy dailie use in this tongue.
Also an Introduction to frame all common and ordinarie phrases
pertaining to a house: as of victuals, dressing, voyaging through the
land. Also the partes and cloathing of a Man, his body, all in
remarkable phrases; whereof I will shew thee vively, yea every Member,
from the crowne of the Head unto the Foot." Though Wodroeph's dialogues
are on a much larger scale than usual in French manuals, they treat of
much the same topics. He advises the student to read this first set of
dialogues several times, as much to get a good foundation of common
talk, as to learn the pronunciation by means of the guides provided.
They are followed by lists of common phrases to be learnt by heart,
"every day one or two, for ordinarie use," and to facilitate an early
use of French in conversation, and also by French idioms "very necessary
for Translations of this tongue into any other."

After about sixty pages of this introductory matter we pass to what
Wodroeph calls "The first booke of familie Dialogues, wherein is treated
of all kinds of common necessary phrases as well for the use of the
fields, labourage and contries, as for all sortes of home affaires for a
house"--all accompanied by a verbatim English translation. These
dialogues comprise conversations between members of most ranks of
society, from a king and queen, ladies and gentlemen, to family scenes,
and discussions between various tradesmen and peasants, not forgetting
the schoolmaster and his pupil and the military officer and his
subordinates; for, whenever occasion arises, Wodroeph introduces
military talk. This section of the work closes with a list of the proper
terms in which to address the higher and lower classes.

Next come the dialogues taken from _Le verger des Colloques recréatifs_,
offered by a Walloon to Prince Henry of Nassau, for his furtherance in
the same tongue in his younger years. Wodroeph claims to have purified
this book, written in "scurvie Wallons language." It had already been
adapted to the instruction of the English in the Italian language, by
John Florio in his _Second Frutes_. These dialogues are naturally more
of the courtly type, and are concerned with the daily occurrences of the
life of a gentleman.

They are followed by _The Springwell of Honour and Vertue_, a collection
of moral sayings and counsels, "composed both by ancient and moderne
philosophers not only for the benefit of the corrupted youth, but also
for all folkes, of all qualities, and chiefly for the yong gentilitie."
[Header: END OF WODROEPH'S CAREER] Wodroeph explains how this
collection came to have a place in his book: "being once invited to
supper of a worthy and virtuous gentleman (one who had showed me much
favour for clearing his eldest sone of some doubts of the French
tongue), I saw that hee (his owne selfe) did copie some Theames out of
this same Worke ... for to instruct one of his children being (for that
present) at the French schoole; I entreated him to lend it me for a
Tyme, who did it willingly until I had viewed it, and corrected the
French and read it all out." The _Springwell_ is divided into three
bookes: the first deals with the "means of acquiring Honour and Vertue";
the second with the old subject of the six or, as Shakespeare has it,
seven ages of man; and the third with the worship of God and our duty to
our neighbours.

After sundry poems, addressed to English, Scottish, and Flemish
gentlemen, and the translation of Sir William Alexander's _First Hour_,
given in both French and English, come directions for writing letters,
with thirty-six epistles in French and English, and themes gathered out
of French authors for the use of some of his pupils, "before I made them
frame any letters: very profitable to begin with and out of the best and
purest French." Finally we have the usual proverbs, so much in favour at
this period, "picked" from those of the learned Mathurin Cordier, and
"sundry other Authours and writers." The work closes with "a
Thankesgiving (of the Authour) unto God for his helpe in the finishing
of this worke," and the quotation of Wodroeph's device--"Vers Dieu c'est
le meilleur."

In 1625 a second edition of this curious volume appeared in London,
under the title of _The Marrow of the French Tongue_. This edition is
said to be "revised and purged of much gross English" which had made its
way into the former edition, printed abroad. It is considerably
abridged, and lacks the living interest of the Dort edition. The actual
instructions for the French tongue remain intact, but all the little
chatty autobiographical scraps, and observations to the "Loving Reader,"
as well as the addresses to officers, which gave such a characteristic
personal touch to the earlier edition, are here omitted, and the work is
about one hundred and seventy pages shorter. The dedication to Charles
Stuart, now newly crowned Charles I., still stands. Wodroeph had no
doubt returned to England, where he was known to several of the
prominent men of the time. In 1623 he had mentioned favours received
from James, Lord of Hay, at Hampton Court, sixteen years before. We may
presume that he continued to teach French among the higher classes of
society after his return, though there does not appear to be any further
trace of him.


FOOTNOTES:

[685] Florio, _First Frutes_, 1578.

[686] J. Aubrey, _Brief Lives_ (ed. A. Clark, Oxford, 1898), ii. p. 140.

[687] A fragment of one leaf, the title page, leaving no date; British
Museum, Harl. MSS. 5936.

[688] Arber, _Transcript of the Stationers' Register_, iii. 413; iv. 152
and 459.

[689] _Vocabulaire de nouveau ordonné et derechief recorigé pour
aprendre legierement a bien lire, escripre, et parler françoys et
flameng_, Anvers, 1511 (E. Stengel, _Chronologisches Verzeichnis_, p. 22
n.; and Michelant, _Livre des Mestiers_, Introduction).

[690] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, i. 343.

[691] _Ibid._ i. 389.

[692] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, ii. 338.

[693] Cp. Ch. Beaulieux, "Liste de Dictionnaires, Lexicographes et
vocabulaires français antérieurs au Thrésor de Nicot" (1606), in
_Mélanges de Philologie offerts à Ferdinand Brunot_, Paris, 1904.

[694] Cp. E. Stengel, "Über einige seltene französische Grammatiken," in
_Mélanges de Philologie romane dédiés à Carl Wahlund_. Macon, 1896, pp.
181 _sqq._

[695] Of similar import, no doubt, were the _Boke of Copyes Englesshe,
Ffrynshe and Italion_, licensed to Vautrollier in 1569-70 (_Stationers'
Register_, i. 417); and the _Bills of Lading English, French, Italian,
Dutch_, licensed to Master Bourne in 1636 (_ibid._ iv. 364).

[696] H. Vaganey, _Le Vocabulaire français du seizième siècle_, Paris,
1906, pp. 2 _sqq._

[697] _Advice to a Son_, 1656, p. 83.

[698] Cp. _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1666-67_, pp. 57, 104. At a later
date A. de la Barre, a schoolmaster of Leyden, published a _Methode ou
Instruction nouvelle pour les etrangers qui desirent apprendre la
manière de composer ou écrire a la mode du temps et scavoir la vraye
prononciation de la langue françoise_, Leyden, 1642. In 1644 he issued,
also at Leyden, a book probably intended as reading material for his
pupils, and called _Les Leçons publiques du sieur de la Barre, prises
sur les questions curieuses et problematiques des plus beaux esprits de
ce temps_.

[699] Farrer, _La Vie et les oeuvres de Claude de Sainliens_,
Bibliography.

[700] G. S. Rowlands, _The Letting of Humour's blood in the Head-Vaine_
(1600). Edinburgh, 1814.

[701] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1595-97_, p. 173; _1601-1603_, pp. 18,
111.

[702] Printed in the _Camden Miscellany_, vol. i., 1847, pp. 65 _sqq._

[703] _Memoirs of the Verney Family_, i. 171.

[704] During the Commonwealth there were many English troops in the
service of France, and the Duke of York, afterwards James II., spent
much of his first exile in serving under Turenne.

[705] Cp. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom. An Englishman, Gilbert Primrose,
was for a time minister at Bordeaux (till 1623), and afterwards of the
Threadneedle Street Church, London (_Dict. Nat. Biog._).

[706] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, iv. 100.




PART III

STUART TIMES




CHAPTER I

    FRENCH AT THE COURTS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I.--FRENCH STUDIED BY
    THE LADIES--FRENCH PLAYERS IN LONDON--ENGLISH GENERALLY IGNORED BY
    FOREIGNERS


The coming of the Stuarts strengthened considerably the connexion
between France and England. French was widely used at the Court of James
I. The King himself does not appear to have been well acquainted with
other foreign languages than French and Latin, both of which he employed
freely in conversation[707] and correspondence.[708] In one or other of
these tongues he conversed with the learned foreigners he loved to
gather at his Court, such as Isaac Casaubon[709] and the famous
Protestant preacher, Pierre Du Moulin, minister of Charenton. The latter
has left an account[710] of the warm welcome he received from the
English monarch; he tells us that at meal times he usually stood behind
His Majesty's chair and conversed with him. James requested Du Moulin to
write an answer to Cardinal Du Perron's pamphlet concerning the power of
the Pope over monarchs, in which he had been attacked. Du Moulin
complied, and his work was printed at London in 1615 as the _Declaration
du Sérénissme Roy Jacques I_. He also preached in French before James at
the Chapel Royal at Greenwich, and received marks of distinction from
the University of Cambridge, which conferred the degree of D.D. upon
him.[711]

An idea of the extent to which French was used in intercourse with
ambassadors and other foreigners may be gathered from the _Finetti
Philoxenus_, a series of observations by Sir John Finett, knight and
master of the ceremonies to the two first Stuart kings of England,
touching the reception and precedence, treatment and audience of foreign
ambassadors. The French language was making important progress at this
time, and Latin was rapidly losing ground. James was the last king of
England to employ Latin in familiar conversation, and this is partly
accounted for by his pedantic turn of mind. The spread of the use of
French in England was hastened too by its growing popularity all over
Europe. The Flemish Mellema, in his Flemish-French Dictionary of 1591,
says French is used everywhere in Europe and the East.[712] To be
unacquainted with French was accounted a great deficiency in a
gentleman. It was said of the language that _qui langue a jusqu'à Rome
va_,[713] and in England the general conviction was that "No nobleman,
gentleman, soldier, or man of action in business between Nation and
Nation can well be without it."[714]

James seems to have acquired his knowledge of French chiefly by means of
intercourse with the many Frenchmen at the Scottish Court, one of whom,
Jérôme Grelot, was among the young noblemen who shared his studies.[715]
He also read much French literature, however, and later took a great
interest in the language studies of his children. They were constantly
required to send him letters in French and Latin to allow him to judge
of their progress.

    "Sir," wrote the Princess Elizabeth, afterwards Queen of Bohemia,
    "L'esperance que j'ay de vous voir bien tost et d'avoir l'honneur
    de recepvoir voz commandemens m'empeschera de vous faire ma lettre
    plus longue que pour baiser tres humblement les mains de vostre
    Majesté."[716]

The king's eldest son, Henry, made acquaintance with French at a very
early age. In 1600, when only seven years old, he addressed a letter in
French to the States-General of Holland. He calls this epistle "les
primices de nostre main,"[717] and probably received some help in its
composition. He also wrote in French to Henry IV., who had recommended
to him his riding master, M. St. Antoine,[718] and to the Dauphin,
offering him two _bidets_.[719] [Header: FRENCH STUDIES OF THE STUART
FAMILY] At this time many of the riding-masters in England were
Italians, but almost all the dancing-masters were Frenchmen.[720]
The young prince, however, had a French master for both these
exercises.[721] One of his language masters was John Florio, best known
by his translation of Montaigne's _Essais_, published in 1600, who
taught both French and Italian and was the author of several books for
teaching the latter. Florio had spent many of his earlier years at
Oxford, and at the beginning of the seventeenth century was in London,
teaching languages, and well acquainted with many of the chief men of
the day. It is uncertain at what date he became tutor to Prince
Henry,[722] but in 1603 he was appointed Reader in Italian to Queen
Anne, and in the following year "Gentleman extraordinary and Groom of
the Privy Chamber." His royal pupil was a great lover of Pibrac's
_Quatrains_, popular among teachers of French. The prince wrote to his
mother in 1604, sending her a copy of one of the quatrains, and telling
her that if she likes he will undertake to learn the whole by heart
before the end of the year; and, in reminding his father of a promise to
give ecclesiastical preferment to his tutor, Mr. Adam Newton, he quotes
one of them as appropriate:[723]

    Tu ne saurois d'assez ample salaire
    Recompenser celui qui t'a soigné
    En ton enfance et qui t'a enseigné
    A bien parler et sur tout a bien faire.

Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., seems to have been the most
accomplished of James's family in so far as French is concerned. He was
able to carry on a conversation in it with his father and the Duke John
Ernest of Saxe-Weimar when he was thirteen years old.[724] Evidence of
his fluency is provided by the well-known episode of his visit to Spain
to see the Infanta. The Queen of Spain, daughter of Henry IV. and sister
of Henrietta Maria, was delighted when the English prince, on his
arrival at the Spanish Court, addressed her in her native idiom. She
warned him not to speak to her again without permission, as it was
customary to poison all gentlemen suspected of gallantry towards the
Queen of Spain. She managed to obtain leave to speak with Charles,
however, and had a long conversation with him in her box at the theatre,
in the course of which, it is said, she confided to him her desire for
his marriage with her sister.[725] When Charles married Henrietta she
was quite ignorant of English, and his knowledge of French was again put
to the test. He was also called upon to employ French with his
mother-in-law, Marie de Medecis, during her stay in England. His letters
to her show how accomplished a writer of French he was. He possessed a
more elegant style than his French wife, thanks largely to Guy Le
Moyne,[726] who was also French tutor to the Duke of Buckingham[727] and
other members of the nobility.

Among the French masters employed in the family of Charles I. was Peter
Massonnet, a native of Geneva, who attended the princes, Charles (II.)
and James (II.), in the capacity of sub-tutor, writing-master, and
French teacher. We have no details as to how he taught them, nor do we
know if Charles learnt from one or other of the French manuals which had
been dedicated to him. Massonnet received a salary and pension from
Charles I., in whose service he remained for thirty-two years, first as
French tutor to his children and then, in the time of his adversity, as
clerk to the Patents, and Foreign Secretary. During the Commonwealth he
spent some time at Oxford, and was created D.Med. on the 9th of April
1648, being described as second or under tutor to James, Duke of
York.[728] At the time of the Restoration Massonnet was in a very
destitute condition. His pension had not been paid during the troubled
period of the Civil Wars and the Commonwealth, and to crown all he was
outlawed for debt. He had to petition Charles II., his former pupil,
several times for the payment of his salary and arrears before his
appeal had any real effect. From time to time he received instalments,
but in 1668 he was still "the saddest object of pity of all the king's
servants, and ready to perish."[729]

[Header: FRENCH TUTORS AT COURT]

In 1633 Sir Robert le Grys, Groom of the Chamber to James I. and Charles
I.,[730] offered his services as tutor to Prince Charles (II.), then
three years old. He undertook to make Latin the prince's mother tongue
by the age of seven, using an easy method, not "dogging his memory with
pedantic rules, after the usual fashion." French was to be the language
first studied, and Italian and Spanish also entered the programme.[731]
What sort of reception these proposals met with is not known, but in May
of the same year Sir Robert was granted the office of captain of the
Castle of St. Mewes for life.[732] Another tutor, named Lovell, taught
French and Latin to two of Charles I.'s children during the Civil War.
He was employed at Penhurst by the Countess of Leicester, to whose care
the children had been committed.[733]

Ladies were among the most eager lovers of the French language at the
Court of the early Stuarts, and were noted for their proficiency in that
tongue. We hear that wealthy ladies go to Court, "and there learn to be
at charge to teach the paraquetoes French."[734] Not only was he that
could not _parlee_ not considered a gentleman, but the ladies had to
talk French if they wished to play a part at Court. French had entirely
supplanted Euphuism, the high-flown, bombastic speech which had held
sway in polite circles after the appearance of Lyly's _Euphues_ in 1579.
"Now a lady at Court who speaks no French," wrote Th. Blount in
1623,[735] "is as little regarded as she who did not parley euphuisme"
in the earlier days. Girls, to be considered well brought up, had to
"speak French naturally at fifteen, and be turned to Spanish and Italian
half a year later."[736] It is improbable that Spanish was learnt in any
but a few exceptional cases. Italian, however, was fairly widely learnt
for purposes of reading as we may conclude from the title of a book
printed at London in 1598 by Adam Islip--_The Necessary, Fit and
Convenient Education of a young Gentlewoman, Italian, French, and
English_.[737] John Evelyn's favourite daughter, Mary, was as familiarly
acquainted with French as with English. Her knowledge of Italian was
limited and characteristic of the general attitude taken up towards that
language; she understood it, and was able "to render a laudable account
of what she read and observed." His other daughter, Susanna, was also a
good French scholar, but apparently knew no Italian, though she had read
most of the Greek and Roman authors. Sir Ralph Verney, who dissuaded
women from deep study, recognised that French was indispensable, and
encouraged them to read French romances especially.

While Italian was sometimes read, French was almost always spoken in
polite circles. Milton's avowed preference for Italian forms a
noticeable exception to the general rule, and even he acquired some
knowledge of French at an early age.[738] There were also many more
facilities for learning French than there were for Italian. It is
certain--some of the dialogues of the French text-books prove it--that
many ladies picked up a conversational knowledge of the language from
their French maids. This was how the young daughters of Lord Strafford
acquired their knowledge, as we see from the following account of their
progress which he sent to their grandmother: "Nan, I think, speaks
French prettily ... the other (Arabella) also speaks, but her maid,
being of Guernsey, her accent is not good."[739]

Women, however, had had at all times no small influence on the
production of French text-books. One of the first written in England,
the _Treatyz_ of Walter de Bibbesworth, was composed in the first place
for the use of Lady Dionysia de Mounchensy. [Header: LADIES STUDY
FRENCH] The two chief grammars of the early sixteenth century, the
_Introductorie_ of Duwes and the _Esclarcissement_ of Palsgrave, both
owed their origin to royal princesses, and early in the seventeenth
century there appeared a grammar written specifically to enable women to
"match old Holliband" and "_parlee_ out their part" with men--_The
French Garden for English Ladyes and gentlewomen to walke in, or a
Summer dayes labour_, by Peter Erondell or Arundell, a native of
Normandy, and one of the group of refugee Huguenots, who taught the
French language in London. Erondell informs us he had long felt the
urgent need of such a book in his own teaching experience. "It is to be
wondered," he writes, "that among so many which (and some very
sufficiently) have written principles concerning our French Tongue
(making the dialogues of divers kinds), not one hath set forth any
respecting or belonging properly to women, except in the French
Alphabet,[740] but as good never a whit as never the better; not that I
finde faulte with it, but it is so little, as not to contayne scarce a
whole page, so that it is to be esteemed almost as nothing. I knowe not
where to attribute the cause, unles it be to forgetfulnes in them that
have written of it. For seeing that our tongue is called _Lingua
Mulierum_, and that the English ladyes and gentlewomen are studious and
of a pregnant spirits, quicke concertes and ingeniositie, as any other
country whatsoever, me thinketh it had been a verie worthie and specious
subject for a good writer to employ his Pen." Accordingly Erondell
undertook "to break the yce first," as he puts it.

He opens his _Garden_ with some rules of pronunciation in English, "as a
gate through the which wee must (and without the which we cannot) enter
into our French Garden." He acknowledges that he has selected these
rules "out of them which have written thereof." Many are taken from De
la Mothe's _French Alphabet_, and Holyband, as well as Bellot, are also
reckoned amongst those "which have written best of it." On one point,
however, Erondell claims to make an observation "never noted before in
any book." This had to do with the change in pronunciation of the
diphthong _oi_.[741] "Whereas our countrymen were wonte to pronounce
these words _connoistre_ ... as it is written by _oi_ or _oy_; now since
fewe yeeres they pronounce it as if it were written thus, _conètre_."

Erondell reduces the grammar rules to the smallest possible number. "He
wishes the student to learn by heart" the first two verbs _avoir_ and
_estre_, and for the rest to "help him selfe by the treatise that M.
Holliband made thereof,[742] as being the best (French and English) that
I have yet seen, notwithstanding it is not amisse to make you knowe our
persons and the number of our conjugations, which M. Bellot, in his
_French Guide_,[743] saith to be sixe, and I can number no more." In
dealing with grammar, Erondell claims to correct a gross error common in
England--the use of _de_ for the preposition _from_ before a masculine
noun preceded by _le_; "because that in English it is said ... _I come
from the country_, so the English students do commonly say, insteade of
_Je viens du pays_, ... _Je viens de le pays_.... But why should I finde
faulte in the English students," says Erondell, "whereas I my selfe have
heard the French teachers (I mean of our language) commit commonly that
error?"

Erondell's grammar rules occupy but ten pages. They contain a few
observations on the gender and number of nouns, on verbs, notes on _du_,
_au_, _de la_, _a la_, _en_, _y_, and on the negative and degrees of
comparison. He considers that the rules usually contained in French
text-books are too many. Except for a few indispensable rules, "without
the which our language can never be intelligiblie spoken," the rest are
"rather a trouble and discouragement to the student then any
furtherance." He compiled his book "for them of judgement and capacity
only, which may far sooner attaine to the perfect knowledge of our
tongue, by reason of cutting off those over-many rules, wherein the
student was overmuch entangled." His first idea, indeed, had been to
make a set of dialogues for women without any rules, but he realised
that to do this would have been like building a "house without a doore";
"and so, the gate being wider open, they may walke in who will."
Gentlemen also may find some "flowers" to please them, and the garden is
an "arbour for the child":

    Who with the busie mother now and then
    May prattle of each point, in phrases milde
    The witty Boies, of bookes of sport and play,
    The pretty lasses of their worke all day.

The dialogues, thirteen in number, and all of considerable length, form
the main part of the work. As usual they are in French and English, and,
in addition, the pronunciation of the more difficult French words is
given in English spelling in the margin. [Header: PETER ERONDELL] They
deal with the events in the daily life of a lady, from her rising in the
morning till bed-time. The first portrays the lady, who is of a rather
pedantic turn of mind, rising and dressing. The second introduces her
two daughters and their French governess. There is much talk on the
education of children, and we are spectators of the French tutor's
(Erondell) arrival and of the French lesson, which forms the fourth
dialogue. Each of the two girls in turn reads in French and then
translates. The more advanced is given some English to translate into
French, and the beginner is asked to conjugate certain French verbs.
This is how the lesson opens:

  Sister Charlotte I pray you goe,     Ma soeur Charlotte, Je vous prie
  fetch our bookes, bring our          allez querir nos livres, apportez
  French Garden, and all our           nostre jardin Francois, et tous
  other bookes:                        nos aultres livres:
  now in the name of God let us begin. or ça commençons au nom de Dieu.
  Mistres Fleurimond read first:       Mlle. F. lisez premierement:
  speake somewhat louder               parlez un peu plus haut
  to th' end I may heare               afin que j'oye
  if you pronounce well:               si vous prononcez bien:
  say that worde againe.               dites ce mot la derechef.
  Wherefore do you sounde              Pourquoy prononcez vous
  that s?                              cette s la?
  Doe you not knowe that it must be    ne savez vous pas qu'il la faut
  left? Well, it is well said,         laisser? Et bien, c'est bien dit,
  read with more facilitie,            lisez avec plus de facilité,
  without taking such paines.          sans tant vous peiner.
  Construe me that, what is that?      Traduisez moy cela, qu'est cela?
  Do you understand that? tell me      Entendez vous cela? dites m'en
  the signification in English--Truly  la signification en Anglois--Certes
  Sir I cannot tell it,                Mons. je ne le scauroye dire,
  I understand it not,                 je ne l'entend point,
  I beseech you tell it me,            je vous supplie de me le dire,
  and I will remember it against       et je le retiendray pour une
  another time--Give me your paper     autre fois--Baillez moy vostre
  and I will write it, to th' end      papier et ie l'escripray, afin
  you forget it not ... etc.           que vous ne l'oubliez. . . .

At the end of her lesson, Florimond has to point out her younger
sister's mistakes; for, says Erondell, "in teaching others, one learns
oneself." His rule for learning to read was, "observe your rules and
read as you do in English"--a method which explains his system of guides
to pronunciation. From the dialogues the student passes to the reading
of French literature. The girls' French tutor came between seven and
eight in the morning, the dancing-master at nine, the singing-master at
ten, and another music-master at four in the afternoon.

In the following dialogues the lady visits first the nursery, and next
her sons and their tutors. She is then pictured receiving guests, going
out shopping, presiding at the dinner-table,[744] and taking part in
the conversation. Finally, in the evening, the company take a walk by
the Thames, and the thirteenth and last dialogue "treateth of going to
bed, prayers (including the Creed), and night-clothes."

In order to give students an introduction to French verse as well as
prose, Erondell adds to his book the story of the Centurion in the New
Testament put into French verse by himself. He does not provide any
English translation, and considers that the pupil who has progressed so
far in the study of the language can very well do without it. For the
same reason he here omits, as he does in the last dialogue also, the
guides to pronunciation.

For a time Erondell had been tutor in the Barkley family, and dedicated
the _Garden_ to the Lady Elizabeth Barkley, with an expression of his
gratitude for the many favours he had received from her. The verses on
the Centurion are dedicated to Thomas Norton, of Norwood, whom he calls
his "très intime et très honoré amy." As was usual at this time,
Erondell's book is preceded by commendatory poems, including lines by
William Herbert, author of _Cadwallader_, and by Nicholas Breton. There
is also a sonnet by the "Sieur de Mont Chrestien, Gentilhomme françois,"
possibly the famous Antoine de Montchrétien, who in about 1605 was
forced to leave France on account of a duel, and visited both England
and Holland. Erondell appears to have been many years in England before
he produced his _Garden_. At this date he had a large clientèle,
including "many honourable ladies and gentlemen of great worth and
worship." In about 1613 he engaged an assistant to help him, one John
Fabre, a Frenchman, "born in the precinct of Guyand, a town of Turnon";
in 1618 Fabre was still "professeing the teaching of the French tongue
with Mr. Peter Arundell."[745]

In addition to compiling the _French Garden_, Erondelle prepared four
new editions of Holyband's _French Schoolemaister_. Although they are
said to be "newly corrected and emended by P. Erondell," he made no
noticeable changes. The first of these editions appeared in 1606, and
the others in 1612, 1615, and 1619. This last date is the latest at
which we hear of him.

[Header: ERONDELL'S WORKS]

The earliest notice we have of Erondell is found in 1586, when he
published a _Declaration and Catholic Exhortation to all Christian
Princes to succour the Church of God and Realme of France_,[746]
faithfully translated out of French, and printed side by side with the
original--another of the many similar pamphlets in French and English.
He had thus been in England at least twenty years when his book for
teaching French was published, and its tardy appearance led one of his
admirers to ask:

    Swift Erondell, why hast thou been so slowe
    Whose nature is to bring the summer in?

In earlier years Erondell had no doubt made use of Holyband's works; he
evinces a high esteem for the sixteenth-century teacher, and shows
intimate acquaintance with his _Schoolemaister_ and his _Treatise on
Verbs_. It is an interesting fact that until the middle of the
seventeenth century and probably much later Holyband's sixteenth-century
French was still being taught in England; as late as 1677 the _French
Schoolemaister_ was among the books advertised for sale by Thomas
Passenger at the sign of the Three Bibles on London Bridge.[747] The
great changes taking place in the evolution of the French language
reached England but slowly.

Erondell translated another French work into English.[748] One day
Richard Hakluyt, the geographer, brought him the whole volume of the
Navigations of the French Nation to the West Indies to translate. From
this Erondell selected the _Nova Francia, or the Description of that
part of New France, which is one continent with Virginia, described in
the three late voyages ... made by M. de Monto, M. du Pont Grave, and M.
de Poutrincourt, into the countries called by the French men La Cadre,
lying to the southwest of Cape Breton ..._, which was published in 1609
and dedicated to the "Bright Starre of the North, Henry, Prince of Great
Britaine."

The arrival of the French Queen of England, Henrietta Maria, in 1625,
gave further stimulus to the already strong French influence at the
Court. When she came she knew no English, and for many years after her
arrival waywardly refused to study the language. Her numerous suite of
French ladies and gentlemen, including Mme. Georges, the Duc and
Duchesse de Chevreuse, and Père Sancy, shared her ignorance, as indeed
did practically all foreigners. The English Court was thus called upon
to exercise its French to the uttermost. The small French colony in
London managed to make itself very unpopular, not only with the King but
also with the whole Court. Their ignorance of English and English ways
caused them to commit blunders which prejudiced people against them.
Such was the case when Henrietta and her suite strolled, chattering and
making a great noise, through an assembly of English people listening to
a sermon. The preacher asked if he must stop, but no notice was taken,
and soon the whole retinue returned in the same fashion, evidently not
understanding a word of what was going on.[749] Within a year of their
arrival, however, most of the French attendants were dismissed.

Four years after the arrival of the French queen, who had a passion for
the theatre, a French company arrived in London and acted before an
English audience.[750] They first played a farce at Blackfriars on the
17th of November, but did not meet with much success, being "hissed,
hooted, and pipinpelted." This hostile reception was partly due to the
fact that women[751] took part in the acting--a thing hitherto unknown
in England--and partly because the play was a "lascivious and unchaste
comedye," and the company was formed of "certain vagrant French players
who had beene expelled from their owne country." No wonder that they
gave "just offence to all vertuous and well disposed persons in the
town." Yet the French actors were not discouraged. They waited a
fortnight, and then obtained a licence to play at the Red Bull. This
second attempt does not appear to have been more successful than the
first. After some three weeks had elapsed, however, the company decided
to make a last effort. This time they acted at the Fortune, but with so
little success, that the Master of the Revels refunded them half his fee
"in respect of their ill-fortune." The failure of the venture was due
largely to its novelty, and the popular dislike of the French. [Header:
FRENCH PLAYERS IN LONDON] Though we are told that there was a "great
resort" to the French plays,[752] apparently people went more for the
sake of rioting than for the pleasure of hearing the French plays.

The stormy reception of 1629 did not, however, hinder other French
actors from coming to our country. In 1635 a new company arrived, this
time under the special patronage of the Queen.[753] They first played
before Her Majesty, who recommended them to the King. Through his
influence they were allowed the use of the Cockpit Theatre in Whitehall.
There, on the 17th of February, they presented a French comedy called
_Mélise_--either Corneille's _Mélite_, or more probably Du Rocher's
comic pastoral, _La Mélize, ou les Princes Reconnus_.[754] The King,
Queen, and Court were present. The acting met with approval and the
players received £10. There was no repetition of the riotous behaviour
which had characterised the performances of 1629, probably because there
were no women in the company, and also because the players were
specially patronised by the Court and the aristocracy. A few days after
the King gave orders to the Master of the Revels, Sir Henry Herbert,
brother of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, that the French company should be
allowed to act at Drury Lane Theatre on the two sermon days of each week
during Lent, and through the whole of Passion week, when they would
avoid rivalry with Beeston's English players, who did not perform on
those days. Sir Henry Herbert, himself a good French scholar, tells us
he "did all these courtesies to the French gratis," wishing to render
the Queen his mistress an acceptable service.

The French actors now enjoyed increasing popularity. When, at the end of
Lent, they had to relinquish the Cockpit, Drury Lane, to the English
players, their services were still in demand. On Easter Monday they
acted before the Court in a play called _Le Trompeur puny_, no doubt the
tragi-comedy of that name by Georges de Scudéry.[755] Their success was
even greater than on the occasion of the Court performance of _Mélise_,
and on the 16th of April following, they presented _Alcimedor_,[756]
under the same circumstances, and "with good approbation." These three
plays acted at the Court are the only part of their repertoire that is
named in the record of the Master of the Revels. On the 10th of May they
received £30 for three plays acted at the Cockpit, probably that in
Whitehall, where they first acted _Mélise_ before the Court, nearly four
months earlier, and not the Cockpit, Drury Lane, where they had played
during Lent.

The question now arose of providing the French players with a special
theatre of their own. Arrangements were made for converting part of the
Riding School in Drury Lane into a play-house, and on the 18th of April
the King signified to Sir Henry Herbert his royal pleasure that "the
French comedians should erect a stage, scaffolds and seats, and all
other accommodations." On the 5th of May following a warrant was granted
to Josias d'Aunay and Hurfries de Lau (so Sir Herbert spells their
names)[757] and others, empowering them to act at the new theatre
"during pleasure." How long the French company, whose director was
Josias Floridor, continued to act in London is not known. But it is a
striking fact that in 1635 there was a regular French theatre
established in the city, and its presence must have had considerable
effect. The French company under Floridor again appeared before the
Court, in December 1635; we do not know what they played, beyond the
fact that it was a tragedy. On the twenty-first of the same month, the
Pastoral of _Florimène_ was acted in French at Whitehall by the French
ladies who attended the Queen. The King, the Queen, Prince Charles, and
the Elector Palatine, were present, and the performance was a great
success.

The Queen did not persist in her obstinate refusal to learn English.
When she had been in the country about seven years, she began to study
the language seriously. Mr. Wingate was her tutor, and her love of the
theatre was put to practical use by the performance of long masques and
pastorals in English in which she took part. It is not surprising that
Henrietta Maria was ignorant of English, for our language was
practically unknown in France in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. [Header: ENGLISH IGNORED ON THE CONTINENT] Italian and
Spanish were the fashionable modern foreign languages in France. English
was either entirely ignored or regarded as barbarous, and since French
was widely spoken at the English Court, and Latin was used by scholars,
the need for it was not felt.[758] No foreign ambassador ever knew
English. Of the Frenchmen who visited England,[759] only a few learnt
the language. Chief among these were the French teachers, the pioneers
among Frenchmen in the study of the English tongue. Of individuals, the
Sieur de la Hoquette, man of letters and traveller, is said to have
visited England to see Bacon, and learnt English in order to read the
Chancellor's works in the original. He discussed Bacon's works and
English novels with J. Bignon, and was surprised to find that scholar
acquainted with them. Jean Doujat also knew English, as did La Mothe le
Vayer, who married a Scotchwoman, and also perhaps Regnier Desmarais,
who draws a few comparisons with it in his grammar.[760] But these were
isolated exceptions. Among the languages in which Panurge addresses
Pantagruel on their first meeting, English has a place, but is hardly
recognisable in its Scottish dress.[761] And the Maréchal de Villars
relates in his memoirs[762] that the Duc de la Ferté, "quand il avait un
peu bu," would break out in English to the great astonishment and
amusement of all who were present. There is a tradition that Corneille
kept a copy of the English translation of the _Cid_, which he showed to
his friends as a curiosity.

Yet the general ignorance of English outside England did not discourage
English actors from making professional tours abroad. They seem to have
enjoyed considerable popularity in Germany and the Low Countries,[763]
where they played at first in English. No doubt dancing, mimicry, and
music had much to do with their success, and the clown probably took
advantage of his position to offer interpretations from time to time.
However, the actors soon learnt some German by mixing with German
actors. A band of English acrobats had performed at Paris in 1583. Some
years later, in 1598, a troupe of English comedians hired the Hôtel de
Bourgogne,[764] the only theatre in Paris, from the _Confrérie de la
Passion_, who usually played there. The English actors, at whose head
was one Jehan Sehais, got into trouble for playing outside the Hôtel,
contrary to the privileges of the _Confrérie_, and had to pay an
indemnity. How much these actors made use of their language for
attracting an audience is not certain. At a somewhat later date, another
company played at Fontainebleau before Henry IV. and his son, afterwards
Louis XIII. The "wild dramas" acted by the English players seem to have
made a great impression on the young prince, who afterwards would amuse
himself by dressing as a comedian and crying in a very loud voice,
"Toph, toph, milord!" pacing about with great strides in the fashion of
the English actors.[765] But it is highly probable that these few words
were all the English the future king of France could muster.

Like the language, English literature was generally ignored in France.
Those men of letters who wrote Latin--More, Camden, Selden, etc.--were
known under their Latin names. In the early years of the seventeenth
century, however,[766] the French began to take an interest in English
literature, and a few translations of prose works appeared, though
English poetry and drama remained unnoticed. The first French version of
an English work was that of Bishop Hall's _Characters of Vertues and
Vices_ which appeared in 1610, and again in 1612 and 1619, and may have
had some influence on La Bruyère's _Caractères_. [Header: NEGLECT OF
ENGLISH] It is also interesting to note that this enterprising
translator was no other than J. L'Oiseau de Tourval, Parisien, who wrote
so enthusiastically of Cotgrave's dictionary, which appeared in the
following year (1611).[767] In the course of the next twenty years about
a score of other translations saw the light, including versions of
Greene's _Pandosta_ (1615), of Sidney's _Arcadia_, and of Bacon's
_Essays_. The translation of the _Arcadia_ was the subject of a violent
literary quarrel. Two versions came out at the same time, and both
claimed priority. One was due to J. Baudouin, who had lived two years in
England learning the language. He was also responsible for the
translation of Bacon.[768] His rival was one Mlle. Chappelain.

"English is a language that will do you good in England, but past Dover
it is worth nothing," wrote John Florio the language teacher, in his
_First Frutes_ (1578). And more than half a century later English was
still despised in foreign countries. While French was of use "in all
furthest parts of Europe," English still served "but in the Brittaine
lland,"[769] and even there did not receive due homage. English, we are
told by an indignant upholder of the claims of our language,[770] was
left for him who drives the plough; all the scholars, all the courtiers
you passed in the street, were good scholars in foreign tongues; many of
them chatted French as glibly as parrots, but could not write a single
English line without a solecism. But in the meantime the study of
English had had its advocates.[771] Richard Mulcaster has already been
mentioned as the first Englishman who emphatically urged that English
should be studied as thoroughly as foreign languages. "What reason is
it," he asked, "to be acquainted abrode and a stranger at home? to know
foreign things by rule, and our own but by rote? If all other men had
been so affected, to make much of the foren and set light by their own,
we should never by comparing have discerned the better. They proined
their own speche, both to please themselves and to set us on edge." This
was in 1582. Scholars took up the defence of the claims of English
against French, just as they did the claims of Latin. Camden seeks to
prove that English contains as many Greek words as French,[772] and so
is as worthy of respect. And Osborne, in his _Advice to a Son_, tells
the young diplomat to employ an interpreter in his dealings with these
foreigners who refused to recognize the value of English, "it being too
much an honouring of their Tongue, and undervaluing of your owne, to
propose yourself a master therein, especially since they scorn to learn
yours." There were, however, a few facilities for learning English at
the disposal of foreigners, in addition to residence in England. The
marriage of Charles I. with Henrietta Maria had been hailed both in
France and England by books which taught the languages of the two
countries conjointly, and so strengthened the new bond between them. In
England appeared a new edition of Du Bartas, in French and English, for
teaching "an Englishman French, or a Frenchman English." Wodroeph's
_Marrow of the French Tongue_ (1625), which saw the light at the same
time, was said to be "aussi utile pour le François d'apprendre l'Anglois
que pour l'Anglois d'apprendre le François," though only the dialogues
in French and English could serve this purpose, as, indeed, they might
in any other French text-book.[773] This notice is evidently added
merely as a concession to topical events; it had not figured in the
earlier edition (1623).

In France, on the other hand, was published a work in which English was
treated more seriously. This was a _Grammaire Angloise pour facilement
et promptement apprendre la langue angloise. Qui peut aussi aider aux
Anglois pour apprendre la langue Françoise: Alphabet Anglois contenant
la pronunciation des lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons_,
dedicated to Henrietta Maria, and probably arranged by one of the
professors of the Collège de Navarre, from which it is dated. We are
informed that the princess, and those intending to accompany her to her
new home, studied English daily. These lessons, if they were really
given, were no doubt a matter of form, and we may judge from the results
that they were not taken seriously.

[Header: ENGLISH GRAMMARS]

This grammar issued in 1625 was not original; it had appeared at Rouen
in 1595,[774] and before that date there had been several other
editions. The 1595 edition was enlarged and corrected by a certain E.
A., who, for about ten years previously, had spent much of his time
translating French pamphlets on topical events and similar works from
French into English.[775] E. A., who was probably the original compiler
of the work, dedicated it to Queen Elizabeth. He says he had collected
the material from different authors in the leisure time allowed him by
his studies. In its contents the work resembles the usual French manuals
produced in England. It opens with rules for the pronunciation of
English, followed by grammar rules for the same language, all given in
French and English. Then come the dialogues, taken textually and without
acknowledgement from Holyband's _French Littleton_, and one dialogue
specially for courtiers, which may have been original.[776] The book
closes with the vocabulary of Holyband's _French Schoolemaister_. The
grammatical part of the work is also taken from one of the productions
of the French teachers in England--the _Maistre d'escole anglais_
(1580), written by Jacques Bellot for teaching English to foreigners in
England and dedicated to a member of the royal family of France.

Bellot protests against the general neglect of the English language,
rich enough in his opinion to rank with the most famous living tongues.
He claims to be the first to draw up precepts for teaching it. There is
little exaggeration in Bellot's claim, for hardly any works on English
had as yet been written, and these were chiefly treatises on the
orthography, more scholastic than pedagogic in intention.[777] At the
close of the year in which Bellot's work was published, however,
appeared the first work on English by an Englishman, designed to give
instruction to foreigners as well as his own countrymen. This was
William Bullocker's _Booke at large for the Amendment of Orthographie
for English Speech_, to which was added "a ruled grammar ... for the
same speech to no small commoditie of the English Nation, not only to
come to easie, speedie and perfect use of our owne language, but also to
their easie and speedie and readie entrance into the secrets of other
Languages, and easie and speedie pathway to all strangers, to use our
language, heretofore very hard unto them."

Two years later came Mulcaster's _Elementarie_, urging the claims of the
vernacular, and expounding his method for teaching it. Other grammars
followed, some in Latin, some in English,[778] but in hardly any of them
is any attention paid to foreigners--a striking contrast with those
published in France, in which foreigners were always an important
consideration. In 1632, however, appeared Sherwood's English-French
Dictionary, of which, it is said, the French were "great buyers."
Towards the middle of the seventeenth century foreigners received more
and more attention in such books, as English became better known. Simon
Daines's _Orthoepia anglicana_,[779] for instance, intended for the use
of both natives and foreigners, was published in 1640, as was also _The
English grammar made by Ben Jonson for the benefit of all strangers out
of his observation of the English language now spoken and in use_.[780]
Ben Jonson had made a collection of grammars, and he speaks of a most
ancient work written in the Saxon tongue and character. "The profit of
grammar is great to strangers, who have to live in communication and
commerce with us," he wrote, "and it is honourable to ourselves." In
1644 another work of like aim was issued under one of the usual florid
titles affected at that time: _The English Primrose far surpassing
others of this kind that ever grew in any English garden._ It professed
to teach "the true spelling, reading and writing of English," and was
"planted" by Richard Hodges, schoolmaster in Southwark, "for the
exceeding great benefit both of his own countrymen and strangers."
Similarly J. Wharton's grammar of 1655 claimed to be "the most certain
guide that ever yet was extant" for strangers that desire to learn our
language.

[Header: ENGLISH GRAMMARS FOR FOREIGNERS]

Thus travellers to England would find some provision for learning
English. In the early seventeenth century several French teachers in
London undertook to teach English to foreigners, and these were the
earliest professional teachers of the language. They had all learnt
English after their arrival in the country on very practical methods, an
experience which must have reacted on their methods of teaching French.
Most of them wrote English with ease, if not always idiomatically. As
time advanced, especially in the latter part of the seventeenth century,
they composed several English grammars for teaching the language to
their pupils. Merchants as well as French teachers were pioneers in
advancing the study of English by foreigners. In 1622 George Mason, one
of the merchants in London skilled in the French tongue, wrote a
_Grammaire Angloise, contenant reigles bien exactes et certaines de la
Prononciation, Orthographie et construction de nostre langue, en faveur
des estrangers qui en sont desireux_, but especially, he tells us, for
the use of "noz françois tant a leur arrivée en ce pais, que en leur
demeure en iceluy." This English grammar[781] is written in French, and
gives rules for pronunciation and the parts of speech. It is followed by
dialogues[782] in French and English, in the usual style, bearing much
resemblance to the Latin colloquies and the dialogues of De la Mothe's
_French Alphabet_. A new edition was issued at London in 1633. The
earliest conversation books in French and English printed by Caxton,
Wynkyn de Worde, and Pynson are called books for teaching English as
well as French. They were indeed equally adapted for either language,
but it is very improbable that at this early date even the most
enterprising merchants learnt English.

Yet the first foreigners to recognize the importance of English were
merchants. English was given a place by the side of Latin, French,
Spanish, Italian, and German in the edition of the polyglot dictionary
for the use of merchants and travellers, printed at Venice in 1540,[783]
and at a later date in the polyglot collection of dialogues which
developed from the French and Flemish dialogues of Noel de Barlement;
not, however, till 1576, when the book had been in vogue for about
three-quarters of a century. Gabriel Meurier, schoolmaster of Antwerp,
who taught French to many of the numerous English merchants always in
the town, was acquainted with our language, but does not appear to have
had any opening for teaching it, as he did French, Flemish, Italian, and
Spanish. At a later date, however, we find an Englishman gaining his
livelihood by teaching his own language in the Netherlands. In 1646 he
published at Amsterdam _The English schole-master; or certaine rules and
helpes, whereby the natives of the Netherlands may be in a short time,
taught to read, understand and speake the English tongue, by the helpe
whereof the English may be better instructed in the knowledge of the
Dutch tongue, than by any vocabulars, or other Dutch and English Books,
which hitherto they may have had for that purpose_. This work contains
an English grammar, followed by selections from the Scriptures, moral
and familiar sayings, proverbs, dialogues, letters in English and Dutch.
The "Vocabulars" to which he refers furnished him with most of his
dialogues. A new edition appeared in 1658.

Rouen, ever a busy centre for merchants, was the place where provision
for teaching English was first made in France. Editions of the polyglot
dictionary, which included English in the edition of Venice in 1540,
were printed at Rouen in 1611 and 1625, and again at Paris in 1631. The
1595 edition of E. A.'s English grammar appeared at Rouen, as had
probably the earlier editions. This compilation of the English grammar
of Bellot and the dialogues of Holyband was in vogue for a very long
time. In addition to the Paris issue on the occasion of the marriage of
Henrietta Maria with Charles I. (1625), editions appeared at Rouen in
1639, 1668, 1670, 1679, and most probably at other dates also; another
was issued at London, 1677. Perhaps the first book for teaching English
printed in France was a _Traicté pour apprendre a parler Françoys et
Anglois_, published at Rouen in 1553, apparently an early edition of
Meurier's work, printed at Rouen in 1563 as a _Traité pour apprendre a
parler françois et anglois, ensemble faire missives, obligations,_ etc.,
and again at Rouen in 1641.

It was long before English won recognition from foreigners other than
merchants. Not until the eighteenth century was it learnt for the sake
of its literature, and as a means of intercourse with the people who
spoke it. This state of things made it incumbent on Englishmen to equip
themselves with some foreign tongue, and they naturally chose French,
the most universal language at that time.


FOOTNOTES:

[707] See accounts in Rye, _England as seen by Foreigners_.

[708] J. O. Halliwell, _Letters of the Kings of England_, London, 1846.

[709] Rye, _op. cit._ p. 153.

[710] "Autobiographie," _Bull. de la Soc. de l'Hist. du Protestantisme
Français_, vii. pp. 343 _sqq._

[711] Another famous Frenchman at the Court of James I. was Theodore
Mayerne the Court Doctor (cp. _Table Talk of Bishop Hurd_, Ox. Hist.
Soc. Collectanea, ser. 2, p. 390); also Jean de Schelandre and
Montchrétien among men of letters. James refused to give audience to the
poet Théophile de Viau, exiled for his daring satires. Boisrobert, St.
Amant, Voiture, likewise visited England at this period.

[712] Thurot, _Prononciation française_, i. p. xiv.

[713] Gerbier, _Interpreter of the Academy_, 1648.

[714] Aufeild: Translation of Maupas's _Grammar_, 1634.

[715] Young, _L'Enseignement en Écosse_, p. 78.

[716] Ellis, _Original Letters_, 1st series, iii. 89.

[717] T. Birch, _Life of Henry Prince of Wales_, London, 1760, p. 20.

[718] On Henry's death, St. Antoine became equerry to his brother
Charles (Rye, _op. cit._ p. 253).

[719] Ellis, _Orig. Letters_, ser. 1, iii. 95.

[720] "The French fashion of dancing is most in request with us"
(Dallington, _Method for Travell_, 1598).

[721] His dancing-master was a M. du Caus. There were other Frenchmen in
his service. Cp. "Roll of Expenses of Prince Henry," _Revels at Court_,
ed. P. Cunningham, New Sk. Soc., 1842.

[722] J. Aubrey, _Brief Lives_, ed. Clark, 1898, i. p. 254; Wood,
_Athen. Oxon._ (Bliss).

[723] T. Birch, _op. cit._ pp. 38, 66, 67.

[724] Rye, _op. cit._ p. 155.

[725] _Mémoires de Madame de Motteville_, in Petitot et Monmerqué,
_Collection des Mémoires relatifs à l'Histoire de France_, tom. 37,
1824, pp. 122-3.

[726] _Cal. State Papers, 1660-61_, p. 162; cp. p. 207, _supra_.

[727] Probably the second Duke, whom Charles, out of friendship for his
father, the first Duke, brought up in his own family.

[728] Foster, _Alumni Oxon._, ad nom.

[729] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1663-64_, pp. 384, 526, 527; _1668-69_,
p. 129; Shaw, _Calendar of Treasury Books, 1667-68_, pp. 346, 365, 620.

[730] He received the order of knighthood from Charles I. in 1629.

[731] _Cal. State Papers, 1633_, p. 349.

[732] Le Grys translated several works from Latin into English. He died
early in 1635; cp. _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[733] E. Godfrey, _English Children in Olden Time_, New York, 1907, p.
133.

[734] Davenant, _The Wits_, Act II.; cp. Upham, _French Influence in
English Literature_, p. 7.

[735] Preface to Lyly's _Euphues_, 1623.

[736] T. Middleton, _More Dissemblers among Women_, Act I. Sc. 4; cp.
Upham, _op. cit._ p. 6.

[737] Watt, _Bibliotheca Britannica_, 1824, ad nom.

[738] Probably before he left school (Masson, _Life of Milton_, 1875, i.
p. 57).

[739] E. Godfrey, _op. cit._ p. 178.

[740] De la Mothe devoted a short chapter to enumerating women's
clothing.

[741] Thurot, _Prononciation française_, pp. 374, 376.

[742] _Treatise for Declining French Verbs_, 1580, 1599, and 1641.

[743] Perhaps this is Bellot's _French Methode_ of 1588, of which there
is no copy in the British Museum, the Bodleian, or Cambridge University
Library. There is no trace of his having written a third grammar called
the _French Guide_; in his French Grammar of 1578 the verbs are arranged
in five conjugations.

[744] This section in particular bears a close resemblance to the
_Exercitatio_ of Vives. See Dialogue 17, in F. Watson's _Tudor Schoolboy
Life_.

[745] In Broad Street Ward; see Cooper, _List of Aliens_, Camden Soc.,
1862; Hug. Soc. Pub., x. Pt. iii. p. 187.

[746] Lambeth Library, 8vo, B-E in fours. Hazlitt, _Bibliog. Collections
and Notes_, ii. 206.

[747] It is included in almost all the Sale Catalogues of private
libraries at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the
eighteenth century.

[748] Erondell was probably also responsible for numerous other
translations from French into English; cp. p. 277, note 2, _infra_.

[749] Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_, 1884, iv. p. 160.

[750] J. Payne Collier, _History of English Dramatic Poetry, and Annals
of the Stage_, 1879, i. pp. 451 _sqq._; F. G. Fleay, _A Chronicle
History of the English Stage_, 1890, p. 334.

[751] "Not women but monsters," wrote the Puritan Prynne in his
_Histriomastrix_, 1633, p. 114.

[752] Prynne, _op. cit._ p. 215.

[753] Payne Collier, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 2 _sqq._; Fleay, _op. cit._ p.
339.

[754] The former was first acted in France in 1629 and the latter in
1633; cf. Upham, _French Influence in English Literature_, p. 373.

[755] Scudéry's work is in verse; a king and queen of England figure
among the characters. It was first performed in France in 1631.

[756] Probably a tragi-comedy by Du Ryer, acted in 1634; Upham, _op.
cit._ p. 373.

[757] Diary, reprinted: Malone's _Historical Account of the English
Stage_, in an edition of Shakespeare's works, completed by Boswell,
1821, iii. pp. 120, 122. Herbert makes many of his entries in French.

[758] Meurier, _Communications familières_, 1563.

[759] While the English visited France in great numbers, very few
Frenchmen came to England, except those engaged on diplomatic missions,
or exiles. Thus, Ronsard, Jacques Grévin, Brantôme, Bodin, in the
sixteenth century; Schelandre, d'Assoucy, Boisrobert, Le Pays, Pavillon,
Voiture, Malleville, and a few others in the early seventeenth century,
spent a short time in England. Among scholars, Peiresc, Henri Estienne,
Justel, Bochart, and Casaubon visited our country. St. Amant was twice
in England, and on the occasion of his second visit wrote a satirical
poem, _Albion_, in which he gave vent to his dislike of the people and
the country (_Oeuvres_, ed. Livet, 1855, vol. ii.). Guide-books to
England were few, and far from giving a good impression of the country.
See Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, pp. 8, 129.

[760] Rathery, _Relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la France et
l'Angleterre_, pp. 22-23, 48 sqq.

[761] "Lord ghest tholb be sua virtiuff be intelligence, aff yi body
schal biff be naturall rehutht tholb suld of me pety have for natur ..."
(_Oeuvres de Rabelais_, ed. C. Marty Laveaux, i. 261).

[762] Petitot et Monmerqué, _Collection des Mémoires_, tom. 68, Paris,
1828.

[763] A. Cohn, _Shakespeare in Germany in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
Centuries_, London, 1865, pp. xxviii, cxxxiv, cxxxv.

[764] Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, 1899, pp. 51 _sqq._; E.
Soulié, _Recherches sur Molière_, Paris, 1863, p. 153.

[765] _Journal de Jean Hervard sur l'enfance et la jeunesse de Louis
XIII, 1601-28_, Paris, 1868. Quoted by Jusserand, _op. cit._ p. 57 n.
One of Louis's tutors was an Englishman, Richard Smith.

[766] S. Lee, "The Beginnings of French Translations from the English,"
_Proceedings of the Bibliog. Soc._ viii., 1907, pp. 85-112.

[767] Tourval was for long engaged on turning James I.'s compositions
into French, and complains of not receiving any reward nor even his
expenses.

[768] He also translated Godwin's _Man in the Moon_, 1648, which had
some influence on Cyrano de Bergerac. He was probably the Jean Baudouin
who studied at Edinburgh in 1597.

[769] Gerbier, _Interpreter of the Academy_, 1648.

[770] T. B. Squire, in Simon Daines's _Orthoepia Anglicana_, reprinted
by R. Brotanek in _Neudrucke frühneuenglischer Grammatiken_, Bd. iii.,
1908.

[771] By the end of the sixteenth century it was quite a usual thing for
learned subjects to be treated in English. Ascham apologised for using
English in his _Toxophilus_ (1545), but in his _Scholemaster_ (1570) he
used it as a matter of course.

[772] Jusserand, _Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, 1904, p. 316.

[773] Florio makes the same claim in his _First Frutes_ for teaching
Italian and English.

[774] _Grammaire Angloise et Françoise pour facilement et promptement
apprendre la Langue angloise et françoise._ A Rouen, chez la veuve
Oursel, 1595, 8vo. The Brit. Mus. copy contains MS. notes of a French
student.

[775] In 1586 he translated three letters of Henry of Navarre, and in
following years a continuous series of similar works; in 1587 the
_Politicke and Militarie Discourse_ of La Noue; in 1588 the _Discourse
concerning the right which the House of Guise have to the crown of
France_, etc. His latest translation appears to have been Louis XIII.'s
_Declaration upon his Edicts for Combats_, 1613. This E. A. may have
been identical with Erondell (or, as sometimes written, Arundel), who
gives his name as "P. Erondell (E. A.)" in his translation of the
_Declaration and Catholic exhortation_ (1586).

[776] It bears a strong resemblance to the first dialogue in Erondell's
_French Garden_.

[777] Such as the works of Sir Thomas Smith, John Cheke, John Hart, all
of which appeared before 1580.

[778] By P. Greenwood (1594), Ed. Coote (1596), A. Gill (1619), J.
Herves (1624), Ch. Butler (1633). Some are reprinted by Brotanek, _op.
cit._; cp. F. Watson, _Modern Subjects_, chap. i.

[779] Reprinted by Brotanek, _op. cit._ vol. iii., 1908.

[780] _Works_, 1875, vol. ix. pp. 229 _sqq._

[781] Reprinted by R. Brotanek, _op. cit._ Heft i., 1905, pp. 105.

[782] Pp. 60 _sqq._

[783] It had no place in the earlier editions of 1534 and 1537.




CHAPTER II

    FRENCH GRAMMARS--BOOKS FOR TEACHING LATIN AND FRENCH--FRENCH IN
    PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS


One of the most noted teachers of English as well as of French was
Robert Sherwood, who in 1632 completed his English-French Dictionary
which was appended to the new edition of Cotgrave's work issued in that
year.[784] Sherwood was born in Norfolk,[785] although he later called
himself a Londoner. In July 1622 he entered Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge, and graduated B.A. in 1626. He then moved to London and
opened a language school in St. Sepulchre's Churchyard, where he
continued to teach for many years. He also taught English to many
French, German, Danish, and Flemish nobles and gentlemen who visited
London. To these distinguished visitors he dedicated his dictionary in
1632, as well as the second edition of his French grammar in 1634,
expressing the hope that he would soon be able to produce an English
grammar "toute entière," for only the practical exercises in French and
English could be of use to them in their study of English. His French
grammar was intended "for the furtherance and practice of gentlemen,
scollers and others desirous of the said language." We gather that
Sherwood's school was limited entirely to the higher classes, and was
very different from Holyband's noisy and bustling establishment.

The first edition of Sherwood's _French Tutour_, as he called his
grammar, saw the light in 1625,[786] just before he graduated at
Cambridge. He had probably worked at it as well as at his dictionary
during his residence there, and appears to have taught French to private
pupils. How he first acquired his knowledge of French, we do not know.
He may have spent some years in France before going to Cambridge, since
he would not find much opportunity of studying the language there. His
work is little more than a translation of selections from the French
grammar of Charles Maupas of Blois (1625). Perhaps he studied the
language with Maupas himself, of whom he speaks with great respect. In
parts of his grammar, however, Sherwood drew on his own "long
experience" in teaching French.

The second edition of the _French Tutour_ (1634) is said to be carefully
corrected and enlarged. In it Sherwood follows the usual order of
treatment. First come rules of pronunciation, then of grammar, which
show "the nature and use of the Articles, a thing of no small importance
in this language: also the way to find out the gender of all nounes: the
conjugation of all the verbs regular and irregular; and after which
followeth a list of most of the indeclinable parts (which commonly do
much hinder learners) Alphabetically Englished; with a most ample syntax
of all the parts of speech." This section closes with an alphabetical
index "interpreting such nounes and verbes as are unenglished in the
grammar." The practical exercises are in the form of "three dialogues
and a touch of French compliments," in French and English, arranged in
two parallel columns on a page. The first deals with familiar talk by
the wayside, depicting travellers on their road to London, and, on their
arrival, taking lodgings at the Black Swan in Holborn, doing their
shopping, and taking their evening meal. The other two dialogues treat
of less familiar subjects; and, on the whole, Sherwood's book was not of
a popular kind, but was intended for the "learned." One describes the
exercises and studies of the nobility, dancing, riding, fencing,
hunting, geography, cosmography, and so forth; and the other turns on
the subject of travel in foreign countries, in which Sherwood emphasizes
the necessity for the traveller of "some good and fundamental beginning
in the language of the country whither he goeth." The _Tutour_ closes
with a selection of French compliments from the book of M. L. Miche on
French courtesy, to which Sherwood added an English version.

Another Englishman also ventured in the early years of the seventeenth
century to write on the French language--William Colson, who called
himself a Professor of Literal and Liberal Sciences. He had spent many
years abroad as [Header: WILLIAM COLSON] travelling companion to young
English gentlemen, "as well learning as teaching such laudable arts and
qualities as are most fitting for a gentleman's exercise." Seemingly he
spent some time in the Low Countries, and he may have found his pupils
among the English troops serving there, as in 1603 he published at Liége
a book in French on arithmetic which also provides military information.
Before 1612 he had returned to London, where he composed a similar work
in English, dedicated to the Lords of the Privy Council.[787] He tells
us that on his return from his travels he wrote "certaine litteral
workes," mostly on the teaching of languages, and like an earlier
English writer, John Eliote, evolved a special method which he called
"arte locall or the arte of memorie." He expounds his "method," which is
very vague and obscure in its application, in one of his French
text-books which appeared in London in 1620 and was called _The First
Part of the French grammar, Artificially Deduced, into Tables by Arte
Locall, called the Arte of Memorie_. Colson desired to reconcile the old
orthography with the new, as Holyband had done earlier, by means of a
reformed alphabet of twenty-six letters, and of a triple distinction of
characters, Roman, Italian, and English. Roman type was to stand for the
_proper_ pronunciation, that is, letters which are pronounced as they
are written; the Italian for the _improper_, that is, letters which are
not given their usual pronunciation; and finally the letters written but
not sounded were to be printed in black letter. In his reformed alphabet
he divides the letters into seven vowels and eighteen consonants, and
subdivides the consonants into semivowels and mutes. He gives each
letter its usual name, and then its special name according to his own
scheme, as follows:

    A E' E O I Y V  | H  | S  Z  X  I  | L  R  N  M  |
    a é  e o i y u  | éh | és éz éx éi | él ér én ém |
    proper names    |    |             |             |
    speciall names  | he | sé zé xé ié | lé ré né mé |
     \_____________/      \__________________________/
               Aspiration     8 semivowels

                                  F  [^]  B  P  : D  T  G  K  | C  Q
                                  éf é[^] éb ép : éd ét ég ék | éc éq
                                                              |
                                  fé [^]é bé pé : dé té gé ké | cé qé
                                   \________________________________/
                                                   10 mutes
                          \______________________________/
     7 vowels                             18 consonants
      \___________________________________________________________/
                     Elements and Letters

And all the said Alphabet is briefly contained in these five artificiall
words to be learnt by heart:--Haeiou--sezexeie--lereneme--fe[^]ebepe--
detegeke.

After treating of the letters, Colson proceeds to deal with the other
three chief parts of grammar--"the sillible, the diction, and the
locution" (the last two dealing with accidence and syntax respectively)
in a similarly intricate and obscure style. It is difficult to imagine
what can have been his reasons for his scheme of complicated divisions
and sub-divisions, more like a puzzle than anything else. Yet he appears
to have been serious, and assures us that once his reformed alphabet is
mastered "the perfect pronunciation, reading, and writing of the French
tongue is gotten in the space of one month or thereabouts." It is not
surprising that his attempted reform passed quite unheeded.

This _First Part of the French grammar_, which is dedicated to "the
Worshippfull, worthie and vertuous gentleman, M. Emanuel Giffard,
Esquire," seems to be the only one of Colson's works on the French
language which has survived. At its close is a large folding sheet,
containing the table of his reformed alphabet, dedicated to Sir Michael
Stanhope and Sir William Cornwallis by their affectionate servant. The
date is 1613. Colson informs us that he had also compiled a French
grammar divided into four parts, after a new method. He likewise refers
to "all his bookes tending to the instruction of the French tongue,"
such as his "booke of the declination of nouns, and conjugation of
Verbes," and his "three repertories of the English, French, and Latine
tongues, compounded by arte locall for aiding the memorie in learning
most speedily the words of the foresaide tongues by heart in halfe
time": his "Repertoire of all syllables in general and of all French
words in particular containing the Art to learn them easily by heart in
verie short time and with little labour to the great contentment of him
which is desirous of the French tongue, all reduced into Tables by Art
Locall as before said": and "other works of ours shortly to be printed
tending to the knowledge of the foresaid tongues, in which works is set
downe by Art and order local (called the Art of Memory) most easy and
brief rules to learne the foresaid bookes by heart." Most of these, no
doubt, were short pamphlets, perhaps in the shape of the large folding
sheet inserted at the end of the Grammar of 1620, and so stood but
little chance of survival.

At this same period the popular French grammar of Charles Maupas, well
known to many travellers to France, was translated into English by
William Aufeild and published in 1634. [Header: WILLIAM AUFEILD]
Maupas's grammar, first printed at Blois in 1607, had won a considerable
reputation in England, and was not without noticeable influence on the
French grammars published in London. Sherwood, who had made free use of
Maupas, praised him very highly. James Howell, in his edition of
Cotgrave's Dictionary, advises students to seek fuller grammatical
information in Maupas's Grammar, "the exactest and most scholarlike of
all." William Aufeild, the translator of the book--"the best
instructions for that language by the consent of all that know the book,
that were ever written"--considers that it excels all the French
grammars ever produced in England: "all of them put together do not
teach half so well the idiom of the French tongue as this one doth." We
are assured that the work was in great demand when it first appeared in
England, and that a great number of the nobility and gentry were
commonly taught by means of it. Finding that the fact that it was
written in French was a great drawback, as it could only be used by
those who already understood French, Aufeild decided to translate it into
English, and dedicated his work to the young Duke of Buckingham,[788]
son of the duke to whom Maupas had offered the original. Aufeild tells
that he had been studying French for ten years when he undertook his
task. He called the translation _A French grammar and Syntaxe,
contayning most exact and certaine Rules for the pronunciation,
Orthography, construction and use of the French language_.[789]

To adapt the work to the use of the English, the translator placed a
small cross under letters not pronounced in the French word, thus
adopting Holyband's plan. These letters were also printed in a different
type, "that better notice might be taken of them." He also endeavours to
give the sounds of the French alphabet in English spelling, so that if
the student "pronounce the one like an Englishman, he must needs
pronounce the same sounds, written after the French manner, like a
Frenchman." This, he says, is the only invention which he claims as his
own in the whole work. "The examples as well as the text, are englished
to save the reader so many lookings in his Dictionary"; and the word to
which the rule has special reference is printed in different type from
the rest of the example. Occasionally the text is expanded by additional
explanations, included in parentheses.

Aufeild advises the student of French to read the whole grammar through
first, in order to get a general notion of the language. It is vain, he
argues, to begin learning rules for the pronunciation of a language of
which you are totally ignorant. Especially is this so in the case of the
"unlearned," that is, those unacquainted with Latin grammar. For
instance, "you shall find that in all the third persons plural of verbes
ending in _-ent_, _n_ is not pronounced," and so on. Now, "unless a man
can distinguish an adverbe from a verbe," he says, "or till he know how
the plurall number is made of the singular how shall he know ... when to
leave out _n_ before _t_?" "In my opinion," he adds, "it is but a dull
and wearisome thing for a man to take a great deale of paines, in
learning to pronounce what he understandeth not." Clearly his ideal was
a preliminary grounding in the general principles of grammar. When you
have a general knowledge of the whole language you may begin at the
pronunciation and "so goe through it againe in order as it lieth." In
the second reading the student should take into account the less
important rules which are omitted in the first perusal.

Aufeild's final piece of advice is at variance with the general practice
among teachers of the time. He would have the pupil postpone all
attempts at speaking the language until the last stages: "be not too
greedy," he warns the reader, "to be thought a speaker of French before
you are sure you understand what you read." The best known teacher of
Italian in the seventeenth century, Torriano, was of the same opinion:
"for the avoiding of a vulgar error or fault very predominant in many,
namely of being over hasty to be speaking of a language, before it be
well understood, I thought not amiss to produce the quotation of one Mr.
Wm. Aufeild.... I jump with him that they who are last at speaking speak
the best and surest and so much I find by my experience among my
scholars."[790] Many years before, Roger Ascham had expressed the same
view with regard to the teaching of Latin. [Header: AUFEILD'S ADVICE TO
STUDENTS] He admitted that the "dailie use of speaking was the best
method," but only provided the learner could always hear the language
spoken correctly and avoid "the habit of the evil choice of words, and
crooked forming of sentences"; but as it is, _loquendo male loqui
discunt_, and he advises the postponement of speaking until some
progress had been made.[791]

Considering Aufeild's ideas as to the speaking of French, we quite
expect to find him condemning attempts to pick up the language without
the help of rules; "for if with Rules, you shall be often at a loss,
certainly you shall stick at every word without them." It may be that
"they which take another way, may speake more words in halfe a yeare
then you shall in twelve month; but in a year's space you may, with
diligence and industry, speake better (and after a while more) than
another shall doe all his life time, unless there be a vast disparity
between your abilities of mind."

His attitude as to the respective importance of grammatical study and
its practical application was not in keeping with that of Maupas, of
whom he said, "I know not whom you can equal to him." Maupas had written
his grammar in French instead of the international language, Latin,
because he advocated the study of the grammar in the French language
itself; he taught reading and pronunciation by means of reading the
grammar in French. Aufeild, on the contrary, considered it a drawback
that when English students travelled into France they had to learn
enough French to converse with their teachers before they could learn of
their teachers how to converse with others. This was the reason which
induced him to translate the grammar, although in doing so he, no doubt
unconsciously, set at nought Maupas's principal reason for writing it in
French.

We know of no other French grammar produced in France which was
specially favoured by English learners of French. But no doubt many
Englishmen, besides those who travelled, studied from French grammars.
English travellers returning from France would, no doubt, bring back
grammars which might also arrive through other channels. Even in the
time of Elizabeth foreign books had been freely imported into England,
and the foreign trade of the stationers of London was very extensive.
That the early French grammars were known in England is shown by their
influence on those produced in England, although in many cases this is
more readily explained by the circumstance that they were the work of
Frenchmen newly arrived from France. However, it is not likely that
these French grammars were ever widely used in England for learning the
language, when books in English were ready to hand and easier to use. In
Scotland, on the other hand, where such books were not in existence,
they were probably more widely employed. Both countries, Scotland in
particular, made free use of foreign text-books for the teaching of
Latin; but the case is hardly the same for the international language.

In the meantime the production of French grammars in England continued
uninterruptedly. _The Flower de Luce planted in England_ was the title
of a grammar which appeared in 1619. This work was due to one Laur Du
Terme, of whom nothing is known beyond the fact that he was a Frenchman
and a protégé of Bacon, then Lord Chancellor. Du Terme had evidently
been in England long enough to acquire some knowledge of English, in
which he wrote his grammar. After imploring his patron to water his
'flower' with a few drops of favourable approbation, he proceeds to
address the gentle reader in these words: "Looke not in this Treatise,
for any eloquent words, nor polished sentences, for I doe not go about
to begge any favour nor insinuate into any man's love by coloured and
misticall phrases.[792] Neither do I intend to teach my masters, but in
requitall of your kind curtesie in teaching mee this little English I
have, do in the same set downe suche precepts as I find best for the
pronouncing, understanding, and speaking of the French tongue." These
precepts he selected from other grammars "used by many both teachers and
learners, yet I presume this will be as agreeable as any were yet, and
in brief containing more than ever I saw yet in English." The
pronunciation is explained by comparison with English sounds, and then
each part of speech is treated in turn; constant analogies with Latin
occur, and he also gives a list of French suffixes with their Latin
roots, and endeavours to introduce the Latin gerund and supine into
French grammar, not being of those who sought to delatinize French
grammar. For the verbs he refers the student to the rules given by
Cotgrave at the end of his dictionary, "very profitable for every
learner to reade," where they are arranged in four conjugations, "while
some authors make three, some five, some six, and little enough for the
understanding of all the verbs." [Header: LAUR DU TERME] He makes no
claim to completeness--"and if by chance I have applied a rule instead
of an exception or an exception instead of a rule, the teacher may
easily mend it, and your courteous censure in reciprocall of the
good-will I beare unto you I hope will excuse it. Reade it over, but not
slightly, consider every rule and way every word in it."

Du Terme's aim in his rules is to be brief and plain. He desired them to
be regarded in the light of a reference book. The student was to begin
to read from the very first. The _Flower de Luce_ does not provide the
usual stock of reading-exercises, and Du Terme advises the student to
use "any good French author he likes best; and what word soever he goes
about to reade, let him looke upon his Rules concerning the
pronunciation of the letters, how they are pronounced in several places,
first the vowell, then what consonants are before and after, and, having
compared and brought all the Rules concerning those letters together, he
shall easily finde the true pronunciation of any word." The sounds of
the language should be thoroughly mastered at the outset: "Bestow rather
five days in learning five vowels, then to learne and passe them over in
a day, as being the chief and only ground of all the rest, without the
which you shall loose your labour, not being able to pronounce one
diphthongue unless you pronounce the vowels well, perfectly, neatly and
distinctly, without confounding one with another. The which case you
must observe in the consonants." For the proper understanding of the
matter read, he recommends the use of "some bookes that are both English
and French, as the Bible, the Testament, and many others that are very
common in England." He admits that this method is slow and difficult at
first, "yet notwithstanding, after a little labour, will prove exceeding
easie, as by experience hath been tryed: in so much as some have learned
perfectly to reade and understande the most part in less than the
quarter of a year, onely applying themselves unto it one hour and a half
in a day."

Paul Cougneau or Cogneau, another French teacher of London, also wrote a
French grammar at this period. He called it _A sure Guide to the French
tongue_, and published it in 1635. Cogneau had no mean opinion of his
book. "It hath in some things a peculiar way, not commonly traced by
others," he tells us. "In the beginning are rules of pronunciation, then
for the declension of articles, nouns and pronouns, and in the end the
conjugation of diverse verbs, both personal and impersonal ... and
throughout the whole book there is so great a multiplicity of various
phrases congested as no one book for the bulk contains more. All which
besides are set forth with plainness as fit it for the capacity even of
the meanest. Much pains hath been employed about it, and I hope not
without great benefit and profit in the right use of it, and
consequently not unworthy of the kind acceptance which I heartily wish."
But the work has little value or originality, in spite of its interest
to the modern reader. The rules occupy thirty pages only. They are taken
mainly from Holyband and De la Mothe. The nouns, articles, and pronouns
receive very meagre treatment, but the auxiliaries and verbs, the
regular and a few irregular verbs, are fully conjugated at the end of
the book, being arranged in sentence form, as in many modern text-books:

    J'ay bien dormi ceste nuit.
    Tu as trop mangé.
    Il a trop bu, etc.

The practical exercises, which fill the next three hundred pages,
reproduce the dialogues of the same sixteenth-century writers--the only
two who retained their popularity in the seventeenth. The exercises of
the _French Schoolemaister_, the _French Littleton_, and the _French
Alphabet_ are all repeated without any acknowledgement.

Like Du Terme, Cogneau attached much importance to pronunciation and
reading. He held that pronunciation was best learnt with the help of a
teacher, and that rules were not of much use in this case.

    "I have observed," he writes, "how many of my countrymen have taken
    great pains and labour to show the English how to pronounce the
    French letters, by letters; but these men labour in vain: for I
    know that the true pronunciation of any tongue whatsoever cannot be
    taught so: nor none can learn it so; I mean, to speak it well and
    truly as it ought to be: to learn to understand it by such rules,
    one may in time and with great pains, but, as I have said, never to
    speak it well and perfectly, without he be taught by some master. I
    say not that the rules are unprofitable, no, for they are very
    profitable being well used, and the learner being well directed to
    understand them aright; but, as I have said, so I say still, that
    whosoever will learn this noble and famous tongue, must chuse one
    that can speak good French, and one that hath a good method in
    teaching, and the first thing to learn of him must be to pronounce
    perfectly our 22 letters, and give every one its due sound and
    pronunciation."

The student should undertake nothing until he has mastered the sounds of
the letters and syllables. [Header: PAUL COGNEAU] Then he may pass to
the reading, "and in that reading learn to spell perfectly, for it is
that which will perfect thee, so that thou wilt be able to correct many
Frenchmen both in their speaking and writing, if thou wilt take pains to
learn it perfectly and be as perfect in it as in thy native tongue. If
thou dost mark well what I have said, and do it, and if thou hast a good
teacher, thou maiest learn the French tongue easily in a year." Cogneau
gives his grammar rules in both French and English, and evidently
intended them to form part of the reading material on which the student
was to begin as soon as he had mastered the French sounds. From these he
proceeds to the dialogues. "Thou must learn this book perfectly, to read
the French in English and also the English in French perfectly, and I
durst warrant that whosoever shall learn this book perfectly will be a
perfect Frenchman, and shall be able both to speak and write the French
tongue much better than the most part of Frenchmen." The only
differences, then, between the methods advocated by Laur Du Terme and
Cogneau are that the first would have the student learn the
pronunciation by reading, and the second from the lips of a master
before the student begins to read; and that Cogneau adopts the method of
double translation, so strongly urged by De la Mothe, while Du Terme
mentions only translation of French into English. In fact, Cogneau's
method was probably suggested by the sixteenth-century teachers.

Cogneau's _Guide_ was in vogue for a number of years. In 1658 a French
teacher, Guillaume Herbert, who appears to have had no mean opinion of
his own abilities, edited the fourth edition. He describes the earlier
form of the work as a "blind" guide rather than a sure one, but now that
it has been revised by him "both masters and scholars may with more
confidence venture upon it as the most correct book now extant of this
kind and in these tongues, and I dare promise them that if I live to see
and oversee the next edition, I will so purge and order it that every
reader may (if ingenious and ingenuous) give it deservedly the name of a
Sure Guide." It is difficult to see in what the improvements he boasts
of consist, for his is little more than a reprint of the earlier
editions. With Herbert's edition the popularity of the _Sure Guide_ came
to an end, no doubt owing to the appearance of more recent works.

William Aufeild complained, not without reason, that most professors
teach only what other men "have set downe to their hand in English many
years agoe," and it is undeniable that several of the sixteenth-century
French grammars continued to be used in England as late as the middle of
the seventeenth century. Holyband was specially in favour, and so was De
la Mothe. Peter Erondell, it has been seen, prepared new editions of the
_French Schoolemaister_ in 1606, 1612, 1615, and 1619. Another French
professor, James Giffard, was responsible for other editions in 1631,
1636, 1641, 1649, 1655, and it appears to have been printed again in
1668; this Giffard was probably the Jacques Giffard who attended the
Threadneedle Street Church;[793] he is said to have been a native of the
isle of Sark, and in 1640 he married Elizabeth Guilbert of Guernsey.
Editions of the _French Littleton_ saw the light in 1602, 1607, 1625,
1630, 1633, and 1639. None of these editions contains any very
noticeable alterations. The new editions of De la Mothe's _French
Alphabet_ (1625, 1631, 1633, 1639, and 1647) are merely reprints of the
first edition of 1592. Thus it came about that the French of the
sixteenth century was still taught in England in the seventeenth,
regardless of the great changes which had been accomplished in the
language in the meantime.

The first half of the seventeenth century was also a period during which
French began to receive greater recognition in the educational world.
Latin, it is true, retained its supremacy in the grammar school; but it
is significant that a considerable number of Latin school-books were
adapted to teaching French, and helped to swell the number of such
manuals at the service of students. Thus French gained a place by the
side of Latin, and some went so far as to question the supremacy of
Latin as the "learned" tongue of Europe. In 1619 Thomas Morrice[794]
deemed it necessary to refute the "error" of those of his countrymen who
placed French before Latin--"a most absurd paradox" in his opinion, for
"French was never reckoned a learned tongue; it belongs by right to one
country alone, where the people themselves learn Latin." Such protests
had little effect. In the first years of the century we have the
earliest recognition of French as distinct from other modern languages,
at the hands of a writer on education; [Header: FRENCH MAKES HEADWAY] J.
Cleland held that a young gentleman's tutor should be skilled in the
French as well as the Latin tongue, because "it is most used now
universallie,"[795] and that the student, after translating English into
Latin, should proceed to turn his Latin into French, "that he may profit
in both the Tongues together."[796]

It was indeed by no means uncommon for French and English tutors to give
instruction in both these tongues. Denisot, Palsgrave, Holyband, and
many other French teachers had done so. Joseph Rutter, tutor to the son
of the Earl of Dorset, at whose request he translated the _Cid_ into
English, is said to have made his pupil his collaborator in this task,
and probably taught him French as well as Latin, and his case does not
appear to have been exceptional. Evelyn, the diarist, learnt the
rudiments of Latin from a Frenchman named Citolin, and probably picked
up some French at the same time; travel abroad and his marriage with the
daughter of Sir Richard Browne, English ambassador at Paris, who from
her youth upwards had lived in France, gave him opportunities for
improving his knowledge of the language, in which he was soon able to
converse with ease.[797] Evelyn's son Richard also studied the two
languages together; when he died in 1658, at the early age of five, he
was able to say the catechism and pronounce English, Latin, and French
accurately, also "to read an script, to decline nouns and conjugate all
regular and most of the irregular verbs." He had likewise "learn'd
_Pueriles_, got by heart almost the entire vocabulary of Latine and
French primitives and words, and could make congruous syntax, turne
English into Latine and _vice versa_, construe and prove what he read,
and did the government and use of relatives, verbs, substantives,
elipses, and many figures and tropes, and made a considerable progress
in Comenius's _Janua_, began himself to write legibly, and had a strong
passion for Greek."[798]

The manuals for teaching Latin and French together, either Latin
school-books with French added, or works specially written for giving
instruction in the two languages, probably resulted from this connexion.
At an early date French had found a place in several Latin
dictionaries.[799] Soon afterwards it made its way into some of the
Latin Colloquia and school authors. In 1591 the printer John Wyndet
received a licence to print the dialogues of Corderius in French and
English.[800] There is also a notice of an edition of Castellion's
_Sacred Dialogues_ in the same two languages.[801] Aesop's _Fables_ were
printed in English, French, and Latin in 1665, with the purpose of
rendering the acquisition of these languages easier for young gentlemen
and ladies; each fable is accompanied by an illustration due to Francis
Barlow, and followed by a moral reflection. Thomas Philpott was
responsible for the English version, and Robert Codrington, M.A., a
versatile translator of the time, for the Latin and French. At least two
other editions appeared in 1687 and 1703. Another favourite author was
published in the same three languages at a later date--the _Thoughts of
Cicero ... on (1) Religion, and (2) Man.... Published in Latin and
French by the Abbé Olivet, to which is now added an English translation,
with notes_ (_by A. Wishart_) (1750 and 1773). Of these few examples of
Latin and French text-books, two are known only by hearsay. It is likely
that others, adapted to the same purpose, have disappeared without
leaving any trace at all; as such school-books were usually printed with
a privilege, their names are not preserved in the registers of the
Company of Stationers. Little wonder that such manuals, subjected to the
double wear and tear of teaching both Latin and French, have been
entirely lost. The one volume which has come down to us is Aesop's
_Fables_ in French, Latin, and English, and its survival is explained by
the elaborate and costly form in which it was issued.

In 1617 was published the _Janua Linguarum Quadralinguis_ of Jean
Barbier, a Parisian. The work, originally written in Spanish and Latin
(1611) for the use of Spaniards, was in time adapted to teaching Latin
and incidentally Spanish to the English, by the addition of an English
translation in 1615. The fact that French was added two years later by
Barbier is not without significance. Foremost among books for teaching
French and Latin together, however, was the famous _Janua Linguarum_ of
Comenius, from which Evelyn's son learnt his Latin, and presumably his
French also. It was printed in England in English, French, and Latin, in
the very year in which it had first come out at Leszna in Latin and
German (1631). [Header: BOOKS FOR TEACHING LATIN AND FRENCH] In this
form it was given the title of _Porta Linguarum trilinguis reserata et
aperta, or the Gate of Tongues unlocked and opened_. The _Janua_
contains a thousand sentences, dealing with subjects encyclopaedic in
plan, beginning with the origin of the world, and ending with death,
providence, and the angels. The intervening chapters treat of the earth
and its elements, animals, man, his life, education, occupations,
afflictions, social institutions, and moral qualities. J. A. Anchoran,
Licentiate in Divinity, a friend of Robert Codrington and apparently a
Frenchman, was responsible for the edition of the _Porta Linguarum_ in
English, French, and Latin. He declares he prepared it "in behalf of"
the young Prince Charles (II.), then about a year old, and of "British,
French and Irish youth." His efforts proved successful; there were two
issues of the work in 1631, and other editions appeared in 1633, 1637,
and 1639.

With the second and following editions was bound an index to the French
and Latin words contained in the _Porta Linguarum_, entitled: _Clavis ad
Portam or a Key fitted to open the gates of tongues wherein you may
readily find the Latine and French for any English word, necessary for
all young scholars._ It was dedicated to the schoolmasters and ushers of
England, and printed at Oxford, being the work of Wye Saltonstall,
teacher of Latin and French in that University.

Yet another brief treatise was commonly bound with the 1633 edition of
the _Porta Linguarum_--_The Pathway to the Gate of Tongues, being the
first Instruction for little children_, intended as an introduction to
Comenius, but chiefly to give instruction in French. It was due to one
of the French teachers in London, Jean de Grave, no doubt the son of the
"Jean de Grave natif d'Amsterdam" who came to England in the early years
of the seventeenth century and died some time before 1612. De Grave was
a member of the French Church, and in 1615 was twice threatened with
expulsion owing to his sympathy with the Brownists; but he saved the
situation by recanting.[802] De Grave's _Pathway_ to Comenius opens with
a table of the numbers, the catechism, graces, and prayers, all given in
Latin, English, and French. The main section gives the conjugation of
the four regular verbs (_j'aime_, _je bastis_, _je voy_, _je li_) and
of _aller_, _avoir_, _estre_, _il faut_ and _on aime_, in French
accompanied by English and Latin equivalents in parallel columns. De
Grave makes a point of omitting all the compound tenses usually
introduced into French verbs on the model of the Latin ones, as such
forms can only be expressed by means of paraphrases or of the verbs
_avoir_ and _estre_; thus French rather than Latin was in the author's
mind: "Or m'a semblé qu'il ne fallait pas charger au commencement la
memoire des petits enfants de choses desquelles le maistre diligent et
industrieux, pourveu qu'il soit homme lettré et bien entendu en la
grammaire françoise, pourra instiller peu à peu en leur esprit, plus par
diligente pratique que par cette facheuse et prolixe circonlocution qui
n'apporte aucun profit." He agreed with most of the French teachers of
the time that few rules and much practice under the guidance of a good
master, was the best way of learning French.

In the first half of the seventeenth century also, the private
institutions in which French had a place increased considerably in
number, especially during the latter years of the reign of Charles I.
and the Commonwealth. There were several projects, of which a few were
actually realized for a time, for founding academies in England on the
model of those in France. Their aim was to provide instruction in modern
languages and polite accomplishments, in order to counterbalance the
one-sidedness of the Universities, and save parents the expense of
sending their children abroad, and protect the latter from the dangers
to which they might be exposed in foreign countries.

In 1635 the accomplished courtier Sir Francis Kynaston founded the
_Museum Minervae_ at his house in Bedford Square, Covent Garden. Latin,
French, and Italian were the chief languages of the curriculum. No
foreigner was allowed to act as either regent or professor. A regulation
stipulated that "noe Gentleman shall speak in the forenoon to the Regent
about any businesse, but either in Italian, French, or Latin; but if any
gentleman be deficient in all these languages, then shall he deale with
some professour or other to speak unto the regent for him in the
morning, but in the afternoon free accesse shall be granted to all that
have any occasion to conferre with him."[803] A certain Michael Mason
was the professor of languages. The Academy was short-lived, and
probably did not survive its founder, who died at the beginning of the
Civil War.

[Header: FRENCH IN PRIVATE ACADEMIES]

On the 19th of July 1649, another Academy of similar nature but wider
scope was opened by the adventurous Sir Balthazar Gerbier in his house
at Bethnal Green. In 1648 he published a prospectus, which appeared in
several different forms, announcing to "all fathers of noble families
and lovers of vertue" that "Sir Balthazar Gerbier, knight, erects an
Academy wherein forraigne Languages, Sciences and all noble exercises
shall be taught ... whereunto shall serve several treatises set forth by
the said Sir B. G. in the Forraigne languages aforesaid, the English
tongue being joyned thereunto ... whiche Treatises shall be continually
at Mistresse Allen's Shop at the signe of the crown in Pope's head Alley
neere the olde Exchange, London." Gerbier's intention was to teach the
sciences and languages simultaneously, and by means of each other.
French seems to have been the only foreign language which received
special treatment at his hands. He was the author of _An Introduction to
the French Tongue_, a work of very slight value, treating of the
pronunciation and parts of speech and followed by a lengthy and
wearisome dialogue between three travellers. Carrying out his expressed
aim, he wrote several pamphlets on the subjects of polite education in
French accompanied by a literal English translation.[804] Every Saturday
afternoon a public lesson was read in the Academy, "as well concerning
the grounds and rules of the aforesaid languages, as touching the
sciences and exercises, which will give much satisfaction to all Fathers
of noble families and lovers of vertue." There was also an "open
lecture" by which the deserving poor were to be instructed gratis, on
due recommendation. Gerbier is also said[805] to have started an Academy
for languages at Whitehall. None of his efforts, however, met with much
response. The private Academy as such was an institution which never
really took root in England. Moreover, Gerbier was not a gifted man. The
works he wrote for use in his Academy have very little value, and his
lectures were severely criticised. Walpole calls one of them, typical of
the rest, "a most trifling superficial rhapsody."

Several other schemes[806] for courtly academies were never realised at
all. Such were those of Prince Henry, son of James I., and of Lord
Admiral Buckingham. A play of the Commonwealth period, Brome's _New
Academy_ (1658), gives an amusing picture of one of these institutions
and introduces us to a group of pushing French men and women who profess
_inter alia_ to "teach the French Tongue with great alacrity."

Private schools, on the contrary, were better patronised. There were
undoubtedly numerous French schools in the style of those of the
sixteenth century; Wodroeph refers to one, without giving any details,
and the language school kept by Sherwood was well known. In many
instances also French found a place in other private schools alongside
the more usual studies. Sir John Reresby, for example, was sent at the
age of fifteen to a school at Enfield Chase, where he was instructed in
Latin, French, writing, and dancing. There he stayed two years and "came
to a very passable proficiency in Latin, Greek, French, and
rhetoric."[807] The elder brother of Thomas Ellwood, Milton's
amanuensis, also learnt French and Latin at a private school at Hadley,
near Barnet in Hertfordshire, before going with Thomas to learn Latin
and some Greek at the free school of Thame.[808] Such schools seem to
have been relatively numerous at the time of the Commonwealth. One was
kept by Edward Wolley, D.D. of Oxford, who had been domestic chaplain to
Charles I., and taken refuge in France on his sovereign's death. After
spending seven years abroad as chaplain to Charles II. in exile, he
returned to England and opened a school at Hammersmith. In 1654 the
Protector issued stringent orders against "scholemasters who are or
shall be Ignorant, Scandalous, Insufficient or Negligent." Many
royalists were affected, and it was no doubt as a result of this measure
that in 1655 Wolley had to petition Cromwell to allow him to continue
his "painful employment" of instructing youth in Latin, Greek, French,
and other commendable exercises. He pleads that since his return from
France he has demeaned himself irreproachably, and that he causes "the
Holy Scriptures to be read and religious duties to be daily used" in
his school, and takes the children to church on Sunday; [Header: FRENCH
IN PRIVATE SCHOOLS] moreover "they have always spoken with honour and
reverence of his Highness."[809] Among the few royalist and episcopal
schoolmasters who were not affected by the measure of 1654 was Samuel
Turberville, a "very good schoolmaster," who kept school in Kensington.
Sir Ralph Verney's second son Jack, afterwards apprenticed to a
merchant, spent three years there (1656-59), and Turberville commends
his "amendement in writing, the mastery of his grammar and an
indifferent Latin author, his preservation of the ffrench, and the
command of his Violl."[810] Sir Ralph Verney's son had previously
acquired French in France, and wrote it fluently though not always
correctly.[811] His fellow-pupils, we are told, called him the "young
mounseer."

There were also numerous schools for young ladies and gentlewomen in and
about London and elsewhere. One French teacher, Paul Festeau, advertises
the French boarding-school of Monsieur de la Mare at Marylebone, where
girls were taught "to write, to read, to speak French, to sing, to
dance, to play on the guitar and the spinette."[812] M. de la Mare was a
Protestant, and a reader at the French Church. His wife was a good
mother to the girls, we are told, and his daughter spoke French with
much elegance. Another French teacher, Pierre Berault, mentions the
pension for young ladies kept by his friend M. Papillon in Charles
Street, near St. James's Square. French, writing, singing, dancing, and
designing were the subjects of study. In other cases schools for girls
and young ladies were attended by a visiting French master. The most
popular French teacher of the time, Claude Mauger of Blois, was employed
for some time after his arrival in England as French teacher to the
young ladies of Mrs. Kilvert's once famous Academy. This practice became
more and more widespread as the seventeenth century advanced, and was
very common in the eighteenth century, as it still is nowadays.


FOOTNOTES:

[784] See p. 191, _supra_.

[785] _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[786] _Catalogue of Books of some learned Men deceased_, 1678. It was
licensed to the printer Humphrey Lownes on 3rd January 1625 (Arber,
_Stationers' Register_, iv. 133).

[787] General Treasury of Accounts, London, 1612.

[788] Guy Le Moyne was probably his French tutor; cp. p. 262, _supra_.

[789] _Written in France by Charles Maupas of Bloys. Translated into
English with additions and explications peculiarly useful to us English,
together with a preface and an introduction wherein are contained divers
necessary instructions for the better understanding of it._

[790] _Italian reviv'd_, 1673.

[791] _The Scholemaster_, ed. Arber, 1869, p. 28; cp. p. 182, _supra_.

[792] Is this a reference to Eliote's _Ortho-Epia Gallica_?

[793] _Threadneedle Street French Church Registers_, Hug. Soc. Pub.
xiii. Pts. i. and ii. The earliest mention of Giffard occurs in 1629,
and the latest in 1649.

[794] _Apologie for Schoolmasters._

[795] Cleland, _Institution of a young nobleman_, 1607, pp. 28-29.

[796] _Ibid._ p. 80.

[797] His first literary attempt was a translation (1648) from the
French of La Mothe le Vayer's essay on Liberty and Servitude.

[798] _Diary_, January 27, 1658.

[799] Cp. pp. 187 _sqq._, supra.

[800] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, ii. 576; iii. 466. An edition in
French and Latin was printed in London as late as the eighteenth
century.

[801] R. Clavell, _Catalogue of Books printed in London, 1666-1680_.

[802] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, i. 409. His name occurs frequently
in the _Threadneedle Street Church Registers_, Hug. Soc. Pub. ix. and
xiii.

[803] _The Constitution of the Museum Minervae_, 1636. Charles I.
granted £100 from the Treasury, and Kynaston himself provided books and
other material.

[804] _The Interpreter of the Academy for forrain languages and all
noble sciences and exercises_, 1648.

[805] Pepys, _Diary_, ed. Wheatley, iv. p. 148 n.

[806] Oxford Historical Soc., 1885, _Collectanea_, series 1, pt. vi. pp.
271 _sqq._ John Dury proposes a special class of schools for languages,
which should teach the classics to those desiring "learning," and modern
languages to those intended for commerce (_Reformed School_, 1650,
quoted by F. Watson, _Modern Subjects_, p. xxvii).

[807] _Memoirs of Sir John Reresby_, 1875, p. 22; and _Memoirs and
Travels_, ed. A. Ivatt, London, 1904, p. xv.

[808] _Ellwood's Autobiography_, London, 1714, p. 4.

[809] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1655-56_, p. 76. On the Restoration,
Wolley enjoyed ecclesiastical preferment, and finally became Bishop of
Clonfert. He published an English translation from the French of
Scudéry's _Curia Politiae_, in 1546, and other works in English, of no
special interest. See _Dict. Nat. Biog._, ad nom.

[810] _Memoirs of the Verney Family_, iii. p. 361.

[811] He usually wrote home in French. In the following extract he asks
for a taper, then in fashion among his school-mates: "Je vous prie de
m'anvoier de la chandelle de cirre entortillée, car tous les garçons en
ont pour brullay (_sic_) et moy ie n'en ay point pour moy."

[812] Two parents discuss the school in a dialogue:

    Où allez vous?                    Whither are you going?
    Je m'en vais voir ma fille.       I am going to see my daughter.
    En quel lieu?                     In what place?
    A Maribone.                       At Maribone.
    Que fait elle là?                 What doth she do there?
    Comment, ne sçavez vous pas       What, do you not know that I
    que je l'ay mise en pension?      have put her at a Boording school?
    Chez qui?                         With whom?
    Chez un nommé Mons. de la         At one Mons. de la Mare that
    Mare qui tient escole Françoise.  keeps a French school.
    Vrayement, je n'en sçavois rien.  Truly, I did not know it.
    Qu'apprend elle là?               What does she learn there?
    Elle apprend à écrire, à lire,    She learns to write, to read,
    à parler françois, à chanter,     to speak French, to sing,
    à danser, à jouer de la guitare,  to dance, to play on the guitar,
    et de l'épinette.                 and the spinette.




CHAPTER III

    THE "LITTLE BLOIS" IN LONDON


In the second half of the seventeenth century we come across a band of
French teachers in London, which corresponds, in importance, to that
which grouped itself round Claude Holyband in the vicinity of St. Paul's
Churchyard at the same period in the sixteenth century. At its head was
Claude Mauger, a native of Blois. Mauger had as long a teaching
experience in London as Holyband; he arrived in about 1650, and we do
not hear the last of him till the first decade of the next century. He
was forced to quit his native town by "intestine distempers," probably
an allusion to the persecutions which broke out there in the middle of
the century. He appears to have been a Huguenot. Before coming to
England he had been a student at Orleans, and for seven years had taught
French to travellers, "the flowre of all Europe," at Blois,[813] where
some years previously Maupas had laboured at the same task; among his
pupils was Gustavus Adolphus, Prince of Mecklenburg. On arriving in
England, Mauger exercised the same profession. And several others,
driven from Blois like himself, gathered around him as friends,
admirers, and fellow-workers. Among these, he tells us, he reckons
Master Penson and Master Festeau as specially good masters of language.
Of Penson nothing is known, save that he wrote some lines addressed to
Mauger's critics. Festeau, however, is mentioned elsewhere by Mauger
with high commendation, and the two seem to have been close friends. He
came to England about the same time as Mauger, and may have accompanied
him. These members of the "Little Blois" in London prided themselves on
teaching the accent of Blois, "where the true tone of the French tongue
is found, by the unanimous consent of all Frenchmen." The accent of
Blois had already been recommended by some of the earlier French
teachers. Charles Maupas was its foremost champion.

Fate had been very unkind to him before his arrival in England, Mauger
tells us. But he soon forgot his sorrows in his busy and successful life
in London. Pupils flocked to him, and, as we saw, he was called upon by
Mrs. Margaret Kilvert to teach French in her Academy for young
gentlewomen--a place, according to him, "which needs nothing, only a
name worthy to expresse its excellency." At the same time he was busy
writing a French grammar, which appeared in 1653, and was dedicated to
Mrs. Kilvert--_The True Advancement of the French Tongue, or a New
Method and more easie directions for the attaining of it than ever yet
have been published_, preceded by verses addressed to no less than fifty
of his lady pupils. It does not differ materially as regards its
contents from previous works of the kind and had apparently been first
written in French, for Mauger says his work "hath now put on a language
to which it was before a stranger." Rules of grammar and pronunciation
occupy the first hundred and twenty pages, and the remaining half of the
book comprises reading exercises in French and English, and a
vocabulary. The sound of each letter is explained, then the declinable
parts are treated in turn, and followed by a few scattered rules of
syntax. The whole is a little incoherent, and lacks order. Mauger was
evidently acquainted with the work of his fellow-townsman Charles
Maupas.

The second section of Mauger's grammar begins with lists of anglicisms
to be avoided,[814] and then of "certaine francisms," or French idioms,
and of familiar French phrases for common use. The dialogues turn
chiefly on the study of French, and include discussions between students
of French, talk of travel in France, and polite and gallant
conversations between French and English ladies and gentlemen.
Considering Mauger's many women pupils, it is not surprising to find a
considerable part of his book devoted to them: two ladies discuss French
and their French teacher, criticise the French accent of their friends,
or receive visits or lessons from their French, music, or dancing
masters. [Header: CLAUDE MAUGER] And as the two latter, especially the
dancing-master, were usually French, they did much to assist the
language tutor. French maids are also often introduced, and represented
as instructing their mistresses in the French language as well as in
French fashions. It is no doubt Mrs. Kilvert's Academy that is referred
to in the following dialogue:

  Mon père, je vous prie, donnés moy    I pray, Father, give me
  vostre bénédiction.                   your blessing.
  Ma fille, soyés la bien revenue.      Daughter, you are welcome home.
  Comment se porte                      How does
  Mme. votre Maîtresse?                 your mistress?
  Mons. elle se porte bien.             She is very well, Sir.
  N'avés vous point oublié votre        Have you not forgot your
  Anglois?                              English quite?
  Non, mon père.                        No, sir.
  Je croy que vous parlés extrêmement   I suppose you speak French
  bien.                                 excellently well by this time?
  J'entends beaucoup mieux que          I understand it better than
  je ne parle.                          I can speak it.
  Laquelle est la plus sçavante de vous Which of you two is the best
  deux?                                 proficient?
  C'est ma soeur.--Je ne pense pas.     My sister, Sir.--I don't believe
                                        that.
  Expliqués moy ce livre là en          Render me some of that book back
  François.                             into French.
  Que signifie cela en François?        What's that in French?
  Entendés vous cette sentence là?      Do you understand that sentence?
  Ouy, Mons.                            Yes, Sir.
  Vous avez bien profité. . . .         You have made good proficiency....
  Sçavez vous travailler en ouvrages?   Have you learnt any needlework
                                        there?
  Vostre luth n'est pas d'accord. . . . Your lute is out of tune....
  Et vous, ma fille, vous ne dites      But you, daughter, have you
  rien?                                 nothing to say?
  J'attendois vos ordres.               I expect your commands.
  Qu'avez vous appris?                  What have you learnt?
  Approchez vous de moy.                Come nearer to me.
  Dancés une courante.                  Dance me a Courante.

In another dialogue a French gentleman compliments an English lady on
her French:

    Où avés vous appris à parler François, Mademoiselle?

    Monsieur, je ne parle pas, je ne fais que bégayer.

    Je vous proteste que d'abord j'ay creu que vous fussiés Françoise.

    Il est impossible à une Angloise de posséder vostre langue.

    Vous m'excuserés, il s'en trouve beaucoup.

    J'eus l'honneur il y a quelque temps d'entretenir une Dame qui
    parle aussi nettement qu'une Françoise.

    Je voy que vous avez inclination pour le François.

    Fort grande.

    Vous avez l'accent fort pur et net.

    De qui apprenés vous?

    D'un François nouvellement arrivé qui est de Blois.

    Il est vray que la pureté du langage se trouve là, non pas
    seulement l'accent, mais la vraye phrase.

    Tout le monde le dit.

    Vostre langue est fort difficile.

    Je voudrois parler aussi bien que vous.

There is only one dialogue on a subject usually contained in French
manuals--phrases for buying and selling. The vocabulary, which closes
the book, is of a more usual kind. It is arranged under headings,
beginning with the Godhead and ending with a list of things necessary in
a house.

This book of Mauger's enjoyed a greater and longer-lived popularity than
any that had yet appeared. Edition followed edition until the end of the
first decade of the eighteenth century, and it continued to be
plagiarised for another fifty years. Its success can hardly have been
due to the scholastic value of its rules, which are few and confused,
but rather to its practical nature and lively dialogues. Mauger
constantly revised his grammar; of the earliest editions, no two are
identical. In each case he wrote new dedications, new addresses to the
reader, new dialogues, and varied the form of the grammar rules. The
second edition is much more typical than the first. Mauger had been ill
in 1653, and had not been able to correct the proofs himself. This task
he entrusted to a friend (perhaps Festeau), who "betrayed his
expectation, and corrected it not exactly." He was likewise unable to
add the English column to the dialogues, a task which was undertaken by
the corrector of the press. In the case of the second edition, however,
he attended "three times a day at the Presse," that he might correct it
according "to the expectation of those who will honour it with their
reading." He called it _Mr. Mauger's French Grammar_, and this was the
title under which it continued to be published.

Mauger dedicated the second edition to Colonel Bullar, mentioning the
many favours heaped upon him by that officer. He again addresses French
verses to numerous English ladies, his pupils. The grammar rules are
much the same; the chief change in this part is the addition of a Latin
translation to the English, "for to render it generally useful to
strangers" visiting London, "which is this day accounted one of the most
glorious cities of the world." That Mauger provided for the teaching of
French to foreign visitors to England shows how important a place the
study of the language held in our country, and we know that he numbered
a few foreigners among his many students of the language. In this second
edition he attempted, as Holyband had done before him, to adapt the
orthography to the pronunciation, but without success. [Header: MAUGER'S
FRENCH GRAMMAR] "I had thought," he writes, "for your greater advantage,
to have fitted the writing to the pronunciation, but having found that
I could not do so, without an absolute totall subverting of the
foundations of the language, I had rather teach you to read and speak
together than to show you how to speak without being able to read, or to
read without knowing how to speak. They might say nevertheless that it
would prevent many difficultyes if we did write as we speak." Mauger
decided to follow the rules of the French Academy, instead of his own
_caprichio_ which would "teach you to speak French without being able to
read any other book than that I should present you with": for "our
language," he said, "which is so highly esteemed by all strangers for
its noble etymologies of Greeke and Latine, will not suffer itself to be
so dismembered by the ignorance of those which profess it, not having
one letter which doth not distinguish one word from another, the
singular number from the plurall, the masculine gender from the
foeminine, or which makes not a syllable long or short."

The dialogues are new, but very similar to those of the first edition,
the chief change being the introduction of a long and "exact account of
the state of France, ecclesiastical, civil, and military as it
flourisheth at present under King Louis XIV.," which was brought up to
date in each subsequent edition.

In following years the dialogues become more numerous; they number
eighty in the sixth edition (1670). Each new issue promises additions,
"of the last concern to the reader." A new feature in the sixth and
seventh editions is a versified rendering of the grammar rules, entitled
_Le Parterre de la langue françoise_. The verses were written at the
request of the Duke of Mecklenburg, his former pupil, and arranged in
the form of a dialogue between Mauger and the Duke, who first addresses
his master:

    Le Langage françois est si plein de merveilles
    Que ses charmans appas, ravissans nos oreilles,
    Nous jettent sur vos bords pour gouster ses douceurs,
    Et pour en admirer les beautéz et les fleurs.
    Mais, pour nous l'acquérir il faut tant d'artifice,
    Qu'en ses difficultés il estreint nos delices,
    Estouffe nos desseins, traverse le plaisir
    Qui flatoit nostre espoir d'y pouvoir réussir.
    Les articles _de la_, _de_, _du_, sont difficiles.
    Si vous ne les monstrez par vos reigles utiles,
    Ils nous font bégayer presques à tous momens,
    Et ternissent l'éclat de nos raisonnemens.

And Mauger answers him with an invitation to take what he will from the
"parterre."

Additional matter was introduced in 1673 in the shape of short rules for
the pronunciation of English, which in the following editions were
developed into a short English grammar, written in French dialogues.
Later Mauger modified the arrangement of his French grammar rules,
giving them in parallel columns of French and English, in the form of
question and answer. The section dealing with the parts of speech is
recast in the form of a conversation between a French master and his
lady pupil. As to the dialogues, which are all "modish"--there is not a
word in them but is "elegant"--they were divided into two categories,
one elementary and the other advanced. In the twelfth edition, for
instance, we have forty-six dialogues, in the style of those of the
earlier editions, and then ten longer and more difficult ones. Mauger
made hardly any changes in the issues that followed the twelfth, and in
this shape it passed down to the eighteenth century. In the course of
its development it had grown to nearly twice its original size.

Mauger's popularity as a teacher of French grew apace with his grammar.
The commendatory poems, one by John Busby, which are prefixed to the
first two editions, show that even at that early date he was held in
high esteem by many influential Englishmen; and each new edition was
offered to some new patron.

Mauger also published a collection of letters in French and English,
which he considered "a great help to the learner of the French tongue,"
for "those who understand it with the help of the English, are capable
of explaining afterwards any French author, being written on several
subjects." The _Lettres Françoises et Angloises de Claude Mauger sur
Toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres_ were dedicated to Sir
William Pulteney. They were first issued in 1671, and again in 1676,
with the addition of fifty letters. Many are addressed to gentlemen of
note who had been his students at Blois, and continued to correspond
with him for the purpose of practice in French. "Puisque vous désirez
que je continue à vous écrire des Lettres Françoises," he wrote to the
Count of Praghen in 1668, "pour vous exercer en cette langue qui est
tant usitée dans toutes les cours de l'Europe, je reçois vos ordres avec
joye." Others are addressed to pupils in London, including some of his
large clientèle of ladies. [Header: MAUGER'S FRENCH AND ENGLISH LETTERS]
For instance, he writes to a certain Mrs. Gregorie:

    Ayant ouï dire que vous estes allée a la campagne pour quinze
    jours, durant cette belle saison en laquele la nature déploye ce
    qu'elle a de plus beau, j'ay pris la hardiesse de vous écrire cette
    lettre en François pour vous exercer en cette langue que vous
    apprenez avec tant de diligence. Je suis bien aise que vous vous y
    adonniez si bien, car, comme vous avez la mémoire admirable, vous
    en viendriez bien tost à bout.

He seems to have made a regular practice of exercising his pupils'
French by writing to them in the language.[815] Among his young English
pupils was William Penn, the Quaker, to whom he wrote a letter dated
1670:

    Je n'entendrois pas bien mes interests si Dieu m'ayant fait si
    heureux de vous monstrer le François que vous apprenez si bien, je
    n'en témoignois de la joye, en faisant voir à tout le Monde, que
    l'honneur que vous me faites de vous servir de moy, pour vous
    l'acquérir est tres grand. En effet monsieur, n'est-ce pas un
    bon-heur? Car je perdrois mon credit si Dieu ne me suscitoit de
    tems en tems des personnes comme vous, qui par leur diligence et
    capacité avec l'aide de ma méthode le soutiennent. . . . J'ay bien
    de la satisfaction qu'elle [_i.e._ l'Angleterre] sçache que vous
    m'avez choisy pour vous donner la connaissance d'une langue qui
    vous manquoit, qui est si estimée, et si usitée par toute la Terre.
    Terre. . . .

Whether these letters were ever actually sent to his pupils is a
question of some uncertainty, which we are inclined to answer in the
affirmative. In any case, they provided him with an excellent
opportunity of advertising himself by calling attention to some of his
well-known pupils. Many were addressed to friends in France, where he
seems to have had a very good connexion. He closes his collection with a
short selection of commercial letters.

Mauger was the author of several other short works--a _Livre d'Histoires
curieuses du Temps_, destined for his pupils' reading; a _Tableau du
jugement universal_ (1675), which sold so well that there were very few
copies left at the end of the year; and a Latin poem of one hundred and
four lines, entitled _Oliva Pacis_, celebrating the declaration of peace
between Louis X. of France and Philip II.

Besides many influential friends, he seems to have had several relatives
in London.[816] One of these was a Master Keyser, his brother-in-law, a
Dutch gentleman and painter, who lived in "Long Aker between the
Maidenhead and the Three Tuns Tavern," and acted as a sort of agent for
Claude. Mauger himself lived "in Great Queen Street, over against Well's
Street, next door to the strong water shop," in 1670. Before 1673 he had
moved to "within two doors of Master Longland, a Farrier in Little Queen
St., over against the Guy of Warwick near the King's Gate in Holborn";
and in 1676 to "Shandois Street, over against the Three Elmes, at Master
Saint André's." It was probably about the year 1670 that he began to
teach English to foreigners visiting England. He had the honour "of
helping a little to the English tongue both the French ambassadors,
Ladyes, ambassadresses and several great Lords, who come daily from the
court of France to the court of England." With many of these he had much
familiar intercourse, and it was at their request that he wrote his
rules for the English language. One of his letters is addressed to the
sharp-witted Courtin, and others to the Marquis de Sande and Monseigneur
Colbert's surgeon. Some of the numerous French nobility, "who come daily
from the court of France to the court of England," attracted by the gay
and Frenchified court of Charles II., also studied English under Mauger.

He describes his method of teaching as discursive, "avec raisonnement."
Practice and reading are the chief exercises. In one of his dialogues a
lady pupil describes her French lesson;[817] it consisted in reading,
with special attention to the pronunciation, and telling a story in
French, no doubt a repetition of the matter read. For the pronunciation,
Mauger considered "the living voice of a master better than all that can
be set down in writing"; but none the less he provided rules for
acquiring the true accent of Blois. He took little interest in grammar,
but fully realized the necessity of guiding rules; "some man perhaps,"
he writes, "will answer me that he speaketh his naturall tongue well
enough, without all these rules. I confesse he may speak reasonably
well, because it is a natural thing for him to do. But you needs must
confesse that a Latine schollar, who hath been acquainted with all such
rules of grammar, speaketh better than such a one." Mauger would have
the student first master his rules, and then begin "by all means" to
read, "pour joindre la pratique à la speculation des règles." [Header:
MAUGER'S METHOD OF TEACHING] He no doubt intended the student to attempt
to speak at the outset with the guidance of a French master, whom he
held absolutely indispensable. The following talk between two students
throws light on the practical methods advocated:

  Apprenez-vous encore le françois?        Do you learn French still?
  Ouy, je n'y suis pas encore parfait.     Yes, I am not yet perfect in it.
  Et moi je continue aussi.                And I continue also.
  Je commence à l'entendre.                I begin to understand it.
  J'entens tout ce que je lis.             I understand all I read.
  Avez vous un valet de pié françois?      Have you a French foot boy?
  Ouy, monsieur.                           Yes, Sir.
  L'entendez-vous bien?                    Do you understand him well?
  Fort bien.                               Very well.
  Quel Autheur lisez vous?                 What author do you read?
  Je lis l'_Histoire de France_.           I read the _French History_.
  L'avez-vous leüe?                        Have you read it?
  Je l'ay leüe en Anglois.                 I have read it in English.
  Je l'acheteray.                          I will buy it.
  Ou la pourray-je trouver?                Where shall I find it?
  Partout.                                 Everywhere.
  Avez-vous leüe l'_Illustre               Have you read the _Illustrious
  Parisienne_?                             Parisien_?
  Allez-vous au sermon?                    Do you go to sermon?
  Ouy, Monsieur.                           Yes, Sir.
  Qui est-ce qui prêche?                   Who preaches?
  C'est un habile homme.                   'Tis an able man.
  Avez-vous le Dictionnaire de Miège?[818] Have you Miège's Dictionary?
  Ouy, je l'ay.                            Yes, I have it.
  Voulez-vous me le prêter?                Will you lend it me?
  Il est à votre service.                  It is at your service.
  Je vous remercie.                        I thank you.
  La langue françoise n'est-elle pas       Is not the French tongue
  belle?                                   fine?
  Je l'aime fort.                          I love it extreamly.
  Elle est fort à la mode.                 'Tis very modish.

"My dialogues," writes Mauger, "are so useful and so fit to learn to
speak, that one may easily attain the French tongue by the assistance of
a Master, if he will take a little pains on his side." He also advises
his pupils to read the lengthy heroical romances so popular at the
time--_L'Astrée_, and the enormous folios of De Gomberville, La
Calprenède, Mlle. de Scudéry, and other romances of the same type--as
well as the works of Corneille, Balzac, and Le Grand. With Antoine le
Grand, Mauger claims personal acquaintance, and recommends his works
with special emphasis, giving his pupils notice of a book newly
published by him: "There is a French book newly printed at Paris called
_L'Epicure spirituel_, written in good French by M. Antony le Grand,
Author of _L'Homme sans passions_. You may have it at Mr. Martyn's shop
[Mauger's publisher] at the sign of the Bell in St. Paul's Churchyard."
He also advocates, for purposes of translation, the reading of the Bible
and Common Prayers in French, books specially suitable owing to the ease
with which English renderings could be found; and adds further that "at
Mr. Bentley's shop, in Russel St. in Covent Garden, you may be furnished
with French Bibles, French Common Prayers, French Testaments, and French
Psalms." These would be of special use to his own students, as he
encouraged them to frequent the French Church for the benefit of hearing
the language. As for Mauger himself, although he appears to have
professed the Protestant religion and to have come first to England as a
refugee for the sake of his principles, he does not seem to have given
much attention to religious matters. Neither does he manifest any
particular interest in the French Church,[819] other than as an
excellent place for his pupils to accustom themselves to the sounds of
the French language.

After he had spent some thirty years in England we find him moving to
Paris, where he was constantly with "some of the ablest gentlemen of
Port Royal," who assured him that his French Grammar and his Letters in
French and English were in their library. This break in Mauger's long
teaching career in England occurred some time about 1680, after the
appearance of the eighth edition of his grammar in 1679. He now took up
his residence in the fashionable quarter of Paris, usually frequented by
foreigners, the Faubourg St. Germain, where he taught French to English
travellers, and English to any one wishing to learn it. This change of
abode modified his exclusive attitude towards the Blois accent. At an
earlier date he had acknowledged that "after Blois the best
pronunciation is got at Orleans, Saumur, Tours, and the Court," and in
1676 he writes, "Je suys exactement le plus beau stile de la Cour," and
tells us that he had daily intercourse with French courtiers "tant
ambassadeurs qu'autres grands seigneurs, à qui j'ay aussi l'honneur de
monstrer la langue angloise." He also read all the latest books, and
carried on a correspondence with learned men in Paris, among others
Antoine le Grand. But in the same year that he was praising the French
of Paris, he wrote, encouraging a noble Englishman to take up the study
of French in England: [Header: MAUGER IN PARIS] "Si vos affaires ne
vous permettent pas d'aller à Paris, pour vous y adonner, de quoy vous
souciez-vous si vous avez Blois dans Londres qui est la source? En effet
sa prononciation ne change jamais: de plus à cause du commerce qu'il y a
entre les deux cours, l'une communique à l'autre sa pureté. Et je dy
assurément qu'il y a icy quantité de personnes qui parlent aussi bien à
la mode qu'au Faubourg Saint Germain. Et comme les fonteines font couler
leurs eaux bien loin par de bons canaux sans se corrompre, vous
trouverez des Maîtres en cette ville qui vous enseigneront aussi
purement que sur les lieux." However, when he had himself spent two
years in Paris, he gave up praising the merits of Blois, and always
describes himself as "late professor of languages at Paris," which he
now called "the centre of the purity of the French Tongue, where the
true French phrase is to be found." From this time on his grammar claims
to contain everything that can be desired in order to learn French as
spoken at the Court of France, and "all the improvements of that Famous
Language as it is now flourishing at the Court of France."

During his stay at Paris, which extended from about 1680 to 1688, the
popularity of his grammar in England did not diminish. Four editions
were printed in London after having been corrected by himself at
Paris--the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth. The last was dedicated
to the young Earl of Salisbury, who had studied French with Mauger when
on the usual continental tour.

Three motives, he states, induced him to return to England, "after
having gathered the finest flowers of the French tongue at Paris to
enrich my workes withall for the better satisfaction of those that learn
it: The first the extream love which I bear to this generous
country,[820] that has obliged me so much as to approve so generally of
my books, that for her sake they are received very well beyond Sea, and
especially in France. The second, to correct the thirteenth edition my
self exactly, many faults of printing having crept into the four last
editions which were Printed here in my absence though I corrected them
at Paris. The third to see my relations and friends."

After his return to England, he composed his _Book of Curious stories of
the Times_ in French and English for the use of his pupils. The new
editions of his grammar, however, are identical with the thirteenth,
which itself bears very great resemblance to the twelfth issued while
Mauger was still at Paris. How many years he continued to superintend
the new issues of his grammar is not certain; the nineteenth edition of
1702 is the last described as "corrected and enlarged by the Author."

Again and again he refers to the popularity of his book in England, and
the "unexpressible courtesies" he received at the hands of his English
patrons. "This grammar sells so well," he wrote in the sixth edition
(1670), "as you may see, being printed so often, and many thousands
every time, that I cannot but acknowledge the kindness of this generous
nation towards me in raising its credit both at home and abroad, in so
much that other Nations, following the general approbation concerning it
of so wise a people, use it as commonly everywhere beyond the Sea, as
they do here in London, and in all the dominions of his majesty of Great
Britain." It was also looked on with much favour in France. In 1689 a
French edition, called the thirteenth, was printed at Bordeaux. But it
was in the Netherlands that the grammar received almost as warm a
welcome as in England. The book thus forms another link between the
study of French in England and the Low Countries. In 1693 this Dutch
edition of the grammar was issued for the thirteenth time, and in 1707
for the fifteenth, both at the Hague. It was usually published with an
English grammar of more importance than the short one added by Mauger to
the English editions--that of Festeau, Mauger's friend and
fellow-townsman. Their combined work was known as the _Nouvelle double
grammaire Françoise-Angloise et Angloise-Françoise par messieurs Claude
Mauger et Paul Festeau, Professeurs de Langues à Paris et à Londres_.
The two grammars are followed by Mauger's dialogues and a collection of
twenty-one "plaisantes et facetieuses Histoires pour rire," in French
and English, entitled _l'Ecole pour rire_. The growing popularity of
English from the beginning of the reign of William of Orange, the editor
tells us in 1693, induced him to add the English grammar to the French
grammar of Mauger, and he chose Festeau's because it was in as high
favour for learning English as Mauger's was for learning French.

[Header: PAUL FESTEAU]

Paul Festeau was the author of a French as well as an English
grammar,[821] and, like Mauger, he taught English to foreign visitors in
London, as well as French to English people. Indeed his career bears a
close resemblance to that of Mauger, of whom he seems to have been a
sort of protégé. Like Mauger he had taught at Blois, and the two
teachers probably came to England together; at any rate they arrived at
much the same time. He enjoyed a greater popularity than Mauger as a
teacher of English, and was also looked upon with respect as a teacher
of French.[822]

Festeau's French Grammar, first published in 1667, occupies an important
second place among the French text-books produced in the third quarter
of the seventeenth century. It was dedicated to Colonel Russel, of the
King's Guard, who had learnt French under Festeau's guidance. As a
grammar it is fuller and more clearly arranged than Mauger's, and, in
main outline, there is much similarity between the two. The rules, which
occupy the first two hundred pages, are written in English and provide
information on pronunciation and on each part of speech in turn. Each is
accompanied by a considerable number of illustrative examples, which,
Festeau thought, were of great help in impressing the rule on the
memory, and of more use than dialogues. He also included dialogues in
his work, and was attacked on account of their prolixity. He argued, in
reply, that "if the reader pleases to consider the store of phrases in
the body of the Work amongst the Rules which do contain near two hundred
pages, he will very well apprehend that, when a scholar hath learnt all
these Phrases without book in learning the rules, he needs not at all
burden his memory with many dialogues: for ... I have found by
experience that those who have learned them were able afterwards to
translate French into English, with the aid of a dictionary and I do
maintain that it is not necessary to learn such abondance of Dialogue by
heart, it is enough to read and English them, and next to that to
explain them from English into French, and so doing the words and
phrases do insensibly make an impression in the memory and the discreet
scholar goeth forward with a great deal of ease. As for young children I
yield that it is good they should continue the Dialogues: but after they
have learned short phrases, they must of necessity learn long ones,
otherwise they could never attain to the capacity of joyning words
together. Beside when a master doth teach his scholar, he must not ask
him a whole long phrase at once, he must divide it in parts according to
the distinction of points. As for instance, if I will ask this long
phrase of a child | Quand on a gaigné une fois | le jeu attire
insensiblement | en esperance de gaigner davantage |. I will ask it him
at three several times." Festeau gives the pupil the English in three
separate phrases, and requires him to give the French rendering. "Them
that will take the pains to peruse it," to use Festeau's own words in
describing his grammar, "will observe a very new method, clear and
intelligible Rules to the least capacities, fine remarks upon all the
parts of speech and particularly upon the gender of nouns, and the use
of moods and tenses. They will find the difficulties of the particles,
_en_, _on_, and _que_ explained, which give commonly so much trouble to
the learner, they will see the use and good order of impersonal verbs,
as well active as passive, likewise also of the reciprocal and reflected
verbs. Finally they will see familiar dialogues on divers sorts of
subjects, very useful and profitable for them that desire to speak
properly: no barbarous kind of words and phrases as are found in some
other grammars, by reason that the Author professes to speak and to
write his own language well." A vocabulary of thirty pages, in the style
of Mauger's, and rules for the accents and the length of the vowels fill
the rest of the volume. This was how the work stood in the third
edition, which, Festeau explains, "might rightly be said the fourth,
seeing that there was fifteen hundred copies drawn off the second
edition, and two thousand of this, whereas they use to draw but a
thousand at most: and considering the time it first came out, it seems
that it sells pretty well. If some other former grammars have had more
editions, it cannot be inferred thence that this comes short of them: we
can buy nothing at market but what is to be sold, and when this hath
been in the light as long, no doubt but (especially being better known)
it may have as many editions." [Header: PIERRE LAINÉ] Possibly he was
referring to Mauger's popularity, and the two friends may have become
rivals during the latter part of their stay in England. On similar
grounds he claimed that the sixth edition might be called the tenth, as
two thousand copies were drawn of the four last editions. Mauger,
however, states that "many thousand" copies of his grammar were drawn at
every edition.

By this time Festeau's grammar had acquired a considerable reputation.
"The approbation that it hath received," he writes, "of the most learned
of the nation, who have esteemed it the neatest, the easiest and most
correct, is not a small advantage to it: It is that which hath
encouraged me to bring it to a better perfection." There is, however,
very little difference between the half score or so editions which were
issued.

Like Mauger, Festeau soon began to modify his attitude towards the Blois
accent. In 1679, while still advertising himself proudly as a "native of
Blois, where the true tone of the French Tongue is found by the
unanimous consent of all Frenchmen," he claims to teach the "Elegancy
and Purity of the French Tongue as it is now spoken at the Court of
France." However, it is uncertain whether Festeau went to Paris or not.
At the time when he first wrote of Court French he was teaching in
London, and we are informed that "if any gentleman have occasion for the
author of this grammar, his Lodging is in the Strand near St. Clement's,
at Mr. John King's house, at the sign of the wounded heart." He was
still there in 1693. In 1675 we see him requesting any "gentleman or
others desiring to speak with him to inquire for him in Haughton Street,
next door to the Joyner's Arms, near Claire Market," or at Mr. Loundes,
his bookseller and publisher. At about this time he began to teach
mathematics as well as, and by means of French; he was prepared to
instruct gentlemen in all its branches. It was at the request of several
gentlemen, with whom he "did often discourse of the same in French,"
that he added to the fourth edition of his grammar a long dialogue
covering the whole field of mathematics, and giving "a clear and fair
idea thereof."

Another French tutor who flourished at the same time as Mauger, and who
wrote a French grammar which, like his, appeared during the
Commonwealth, was Peter Lainé. Lainé is not very communicative as
regards himself; he does not even tell us from what part of France he
came. All we know of him is that he was a protégé of Robert Paston, to
whom he dedicated his book, and who, no doubt, had been his pupil for
French. Of his grammar he writes, "I here expose to thy view a work
which might rather be counted an Errata than a book"--a state of things
for which both himself and the printer were to blame. For his part, he
says, he does not write for the sake of seeing his name in print, or
because he fancies he excels others. "I rather count myself inferior to
the least of them. But the urgent importunities of some persons whom I
have had, and still have the honour to inform in French, have made me
undertake it to satisfie their desires, and my gratitude."

His sympathy with the Protestants emerges clearly from the contents of
his grammar. Apparently he did not belong to the Blois group. He differs
from them in adopting the new orthography in which many of the unsounded
letters were omitted. It was a pity to spoil the purity and elegance of
the pronunciation by the old orthography, he thought; moreover the clear
resemblance between the orthography and the pronunciation renders the
language easier to foreigners; "seeing that we both write and speak any
vulgar Tongue to be understood and to entertain Society, it is in my
judgement, not only convenient but even necessary to bring as near a
conformity betwixt the Tongue and the Pen, as may without prejudice to
the material grounds of our language, afford all the facility that is
possible to those that are strangers to it." It is curious to recall
that Peletier, and other earlier writers, had, on the contrary, retained
the etymological consonants of the old orthography, with the idea that
the foreigner's Latin would thereby be of greater service to him.

Lainé's _Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue, teaching with
much ease, facility and delight, how to attain briefly and most exactly
to the true and modern pronunciation thereof_, is very similar to
Mauger's grammar in the distribution of the matter. Rules for the
pronunciation, which as usual are briefly explained by means of
comparison with English sounds, are followed by observations on each
part of speech in turn;[823] finally come familiar phrases "to be used
at the first learning of French," ten long dialogues, and a vocabulary,
all in French and English. [Header: LAINÉ'S DIALOGUES] The book closes
with what Lainé calls "an alphabetical rule for the true and modern
orthography of that French now spoken, being a catalogue of very
necessary words never before printed"--an alphabetical list of words.
The grammatical section of the work is written in English. In the
dialogues he purposely adapts the English to the French phrase. "I have
been more careful," he explains, "in the whole course of the treatise,
to observe the French, then the English phrase: to the end I might make
its signification more intelligible, to vary less from the sense, and to
afford most delight and more facility to the learner."

According to him, the first thing to be learned by the student of French
are the sounds of the language. He should commit to memory as many of
the familiar phrases as he can easily retain, and from them pass to the
"dialogical discourses." Their substance is much the same as in
Mauger--polite and gallant conversations mainly between students of
French, talk and guidance for travellers in France, etc. The following
specimen is from a dialogue between an English gentleman and his
language master:

    Quel beau livre est-ce là?             What fine book is that?
    Mons., c'est le romant comique.        Sir, it is the comic romance.
    Qui en est l'autheur?                  Who is the author of it?
    Mons. C'est Mons. Scarron.             Sir, it is Mr. Scarron.
    Est-il fort célèbre?                   Is he very famed?
    Est il fort estimé?                    Is he much esteemed?
    Mons., c'est un esprit sublime et      Sir, it is a sublime and
    transcendant.                          transcendant wit.
    De quoi traite cet ouvrage?            What doth this work deal on?
    Mons., il n'est plein que              Sir, it is full but
    de drolleries facesieuses. . . .       of pleasant drolleries....
    Lisons un peu: faites moi              Let us read a little: do me
    la faveur de m'antandre                the favour to understand me
    lire.                                  read.
    Prononcez hardiment;                   Pronounce boldly;
    Observez vos accents.                  Observe your accents.
    Ne prenez point de mauvaise habitude.  Take no ill habit.
    Lisés distinctement.                   Read distinctly.
    Vou lisez trop vîte.                   You read too fast.
    Notre langue est ennemi de la          Our tongue is enemy to
    précipitation.                         precipitation.

Lainé evidently intended that the dialogues, at least some of them,
should be committed to memory, as well as read and translated; "after
that," he continues, "as his sufficiency shall permit, he may proceed to
Reading any Histories, among which the Holy Writ ought to have the
pre-eminence, had not divine Providence, and the Eternal Spirit that
dictated it, purposely rejected the affected smoothness and polishedness
of the style." We recall, as we reflect on this strange reason for
rejecting the Holy Scriptures as reading material, the unenviable
reputation the refugees themselves had as regards literary style. As the
Bible is left us "for divine study only," Lainé advises his pupils to
make use of moral histories for purposes of reading. Many, he says, have
been produced of late years. Nor did he limit his pupils' choice to
these; he encouraged them to read the heroic romances so popular at the
time--_Artamène ou le grand Cyrus_ and _Clélie_ by Mlle. de Scudéry,
_Cassandre_ and _Cléopâtre_ by La Calprenède; also the _Poésies
spirituelles_ of Corneille, the commentaries of Caesar in French, and
Scarron's _Roman comique_. Lighter fare could be found in the _Gazette
françoise_.


FOOTNOTES:

[813] "Which city, lying in the very middle of France, is the most
famous for the true pronunciation of the language."

[814] "What are you doing? You must not render this in French, _qu'estes
vous en faisant?_ but thus, _Que faites-vous?_" ... and so on.

[815] The practice was a common one at the time. Thus Sir Charles
Cotterel wrote in Italian to Mrs. Katherine Philipps, who thanks him for
the care he takes to improve her in Italian by writing to her in that
language. Letter of April 12, 1662, in _Letters of Orinda to
Poliarchus_, 1705.

[816] One of his letters (No. 18) is addressed to Adrien Mauger (1675),
Bachelor of Divinity, Claude's nephew, whom he calls the head of the
family, and who apparently lived at Blois.

[817] His fee was 40s. a month, for three lessons a week.

[818] Cp. p. 383, _infra._

[819] The names Mauger and Maugier occur frequently in the Registers of
the Threadneedle Street Church, but none can be connected with Claude.

[820] "L'Angleterre que j'aime infiniment," he writes in his twelfth
edition.

[821] The first edition appeared in 1672. The second edition was
advertised in 1678 (Arber, _Term Catalogues_, i. 323).

[822]

    "De tous les professeurs de la langue françoyse,
    Festeau c'est de toi seul dont je fais plus de cas.
    Si tu es éloquent dans nostre langue angloise,
    Dans la tienne, pourquoy ne le serois-tu pas?"

Thus wrote one of his pupils, Mr. P. Hume, probably the famous statesman
and Covenanter.

[823] Pp. 48-130. Lainé retains the usual six Latin cases; the verbs are
divided into four conjugations; the indeclinables are given in lists. A
vocabulary of nouns which have two meanings according as they are
masculine or feminine is included.




CHAPTER IV

    THE FRENCH TEACHING PROFESSION AND METHODS OF STUDYING THE LANGUAGE


From their very first appearance the voluminous French romances of the
time enjoyed great popularity in England,[824] partly, perhaps, on
account of the lack of a supply of similar works in the vernacular.
Several English translations appeared, but many preferred to read them
in the original. Their importance in the eyes of the French teachers may
also have increased their vogue. They were especially affected by
Charles I.; and when on the eve of his death, he was distributing a few
of his favourite possessions among his friends, he left the volumes of
La Calprenède's _Cassandre_ to the Earl of Lindsey.[825] Later on, Pope
describing, in his _Rape of the Lock_, the adventurous baron in quest of
the much-coveted lock, pictures him imploring Love for help, and
declares he

                    to Love an altar built
    Of twelve vast French Romances neatly gilt.

Among the most eager readers of French romances was Dorothy Osborne. We
are enabled to trace part of her course in reading from the charming
letters she wrote to Sir William Temple, her future husband. They are
full of references to things French, and replete with French words; she
uses English words in a French sense: _injury_ with her means _insult_;
and she writes to explain that when she said _maliciously_ she really
meant "a French _malice_, which you know does not signify the same
thing as an English one." A little note sent to Temple when she was in
London, shortly before their marriage, evidently in answer to one from
him, may be quoted as a specimen of her French, and her total disregard
of spelling and grammar:

    Je n'ay guere plus dormie que vous et mes songes n'ont pas estres
    moins confuse, au rest une bande de violons que sont venue jouer
    sous ma fennestre m'ont tourmentés de tel façon que je doubt fort
    si je pourrois jamais les souffrire encore; je ne suis pourtant pas
    en fort mauvaise humeur et je m'en voy ausi tost que je serai
    habillée voire ce qu'il est posible de faire pour vostre
    satisfaction; apres je viendré vous rendre conte de nos affairs et
    quoy qu'il en sera vous ne sçaurois jamais doubté que je ne vous
    ayme plus que toutes les choses du monde.[826]

The French romances were Dorothy's constant companions, and her letters
are full of criticisms of and references to her favourite passages. She
sent the volumes to Temple by instalments,[827] as she finished them,
pressing him for his opinion. _Le Grand Cyrus_ seems to have been her
favourite. She had also a great admiration for _Ibraham ou l'Illustre
Bassa_, which, like _Polexandre et Cléopâtre_ and the four volumes of
_Prazimène_, was her "old acquaintance." _Parthenissa_, the English
romance in the French style by Lord Broghill, did not meet with her
approval. "But," she confides to Temple, "perhaps I like it worse for
having a piece of _Cyrus_ by me that I am highly pleased with, and that
I would fain have you read. I'll send it you." As for the English
translations of her favourites, she had no patience with them. They are
written in a language half French and half English, and so changed that
Dorothy, their old friend, hardly recognizes them in this strange garb.

French romances were not the only French interest Dorothy Osborne and
Temple had in common. They had first become acquainted while travelling
to France, the Osbornes on their way to join their father at St. Malo,
and Temple setting out on the usual "tour." Temple, apparently, lingered
with his new friends in France, until his father, hearing of this,
ordered him to Paris.[828] There he evidently acquired the knowledge of
French which Dorothy playfully declares a necessary qualification for
_her_ husband: for she could not marry one who "speaks the French he
has picked up out of the old Laws"; [Header: PEPYS'S FRENCH BOOKS] or,
the other extreme, the "travelled monsieur whose head is all feather
inside and out, that can talk of nothing but dances and duels, and has
courage enough to wear slashes when every one else dies with cold to see
him."[829]

Another instance of the popularity of these romances and other French
writings is found in Pepys's _Diary_.[830] Both Pepys and more
particularly his wife, who was the daughter of a French refugee, were
great readers of the romances. Pepys himself seems to have found them a
little tiresome, and relates how on a certain occasion Mrs. Pepys
wearied him by telling him long stories out of the _Grand Cyrus_, and
how he hurt her feelings by checking her outpourings. She would sit up
till past midnight reading _Cyrus_ or _Polexandre_. He would often stop
at his bookseller's to buy French books for his wife, including
_L'Illustre Bassa_ in four volumes, and _Cassandre_. One evening she
read to him the epistle of _Cassandre_, which he pronounced "very good
indeed." When they went to see Dryden's _Evening Love, or the Mock
Astrologer_, Mrs. Pepys recognized at once its debt to _L'Illustre
Bassa_, and on the following afternoon "she read in the _L'Illustre
Bassa_ the plot of yesterday's play, which is exactly the same."

His French books seem to have been a great source of interest to Pepys,
and to have served him on many occasions. Being ill, "taking physique
all day," he beguiled the time by reading "little French romances." He
appears to have been particularly attracted by Sorbière's _Voyage en
Angleterre_, which on its appearance caused some indignation at the
English Court. Pepys read the book in the year of its publication
(1664).[831] Unfortunately he has not left us a very full account of the
other French books he knew. However, on the 1st May 1666, he writes that
he went "by water to Redriffe, reading a new French book my Lord
Bruncker did give me to-day, _L'Histoire Amoureuse des Gaules_" [by the
Comte de Bussy], "being a pretty libel against the amours of the Court
of France." Another volume which pleased Pepys was a "pretty" work, _La
Nouvelle allégorique_, "upon the strife between rhetorique and its
enemies, very pleasant." His choice of French literature was wide,
ranging from Du Bartas, which he judged "very fine as anything he had
seen," to Helot's "idle roguish book," _L'Eschole des Filles_, which he
burnt, "that it might not stand in the list of books, nor among them to
disgrace them if it be found."[832]

At both Allestry's and Martin's, Pepys's booksellers, there was a great
variety of French and foreign books, which often tempted him. "To my new
bookseller's, Martin's," he writes on the 10th January 1667-8, "and
there did meet with Fournier the Frenchman, that hath wrote of the sea
and navigation,[833] and I could not but buy him." He was much
interested in French treatises on music,[834] and sent to France for
Mersenne's _L'Harmonie Universelle_, which he could not get at his
bookseller's. Pepys's friend, William Batelier, brought him "one or two
printed musick books of songs"[835] from France, among other French
books. "Home," he again notes, on the 26th January 1668, "and there I
find Will Batelier hath also sent the books which I made him bring me
out of France, among others _L'Estat de France_, _Marnix_, _etc._,[836]
to my great content, and so I was well pleased with them and shall take
a time to look them over ... but my eyes are now too much out of tune to
look upon them with any pleasure." And when his failing eyesight
prevented him from reading with ease, his wife, Batelier, and his
brother-in-law, Balty St. Michel, would read to him in French as well as
in English. He got Balty to read to him out of Sorbière's _Voyage en
Angleterre_, and under the date the 30th of January 1668-9 we find this
entry: "I spent all the afternoon with my wife and Will Batelier
talking, and then making them read, and particularly made an end of Mr.
Boyle's _Book of Formes_, which I am glad to have over, and then fell to
read a French discourse which he hath brought over with him for me."

[Header: POLITE CONVERSATION FASHIONABLE]

No doubt the polite French literature which the French teachers
recommended so strongly to their pupils had some influence on the
character of the dialogues which form part of their manuals. Mauger,
Festeau, and Lainé all include polite conversations in their dialogues,
and leave the old familiar subjects of buying and selling, wayside and
tavern talk. Polite conversation was the fashion, and coteries for
fostering it grew up in England on the model of those in France. Mrs.
Katherine Philipps, generally known as "the matchless Orinda," is
perhaps the most prominent of the ladies who tried, without any
permanent success it is true, to introduce the refinements of the French
_salons_ into England.[837] Each member of the "Society of Friendship"
she gathered round her assumed fanciful names in the style of those
affected by the adherents of the Parisian salons. "Orinda" was of course
a great reader of French literature, and knew French perfectly. She is
chiefly remembered for her translations of some of Corneille's plays
into English.[838] French books of conversation, such as Mlle. de
Scudéry's _Conversations sur divers sujets_[839] or the similar volume
by Clerombault, which was rendered into English by a "person of honour"
[1672], also give some clue to the tastes and tendencies of the time,
though they had no direct influence on the dialogues specially written
for students of French. But, like them, they turn on such subjects as
the pleasures, the passions, the soul, love, beauty, merit, and so
forth. Thus the French teachers of the time, in introducing a new style
into their dialogues, undoubtedly yielded, to some extent at all events,
to the tastes of their numerous lady pupils. A large proportion of
Mauger's pupils were ladies. He praised their accent, and considered it
clearer and more correct than that of their brothers. And in the later
editions of his treatise the grammar rules are given in the form of a
conversation between a lady and her French master. Another French
teacher of the time, the author of a collection of dialogues in which
the new style is the dominating feature, also shows a decided preference
for his lady pupils. This writer was William or Guillaume Herbert, the
author of the _French and English dialogues in a more exact and
delightful method then any yet extant_.

The thirty-four dialogues contained in this collection are all, with the
exception of the first which is autobiographical, written in the
_précieux_ style, full of points and conceits,[840] and all, with the
same exception, are very alike and a little wearisome. Herbert says he
does not write for every one, but for "les plus subtils." And in his
first dialogue, which gives a free account of his condition and
opinions, he proceeds to ridicule the traditional style of the French
and English dialogues. A stranger addresses a friend of the author:

    Pourquoi ne parle-t-il point de vendre et d'acheter?

    Parce qu'il n'a rien à vendre et que fort peu d'argent pour
    acheter; et que les autres faiseurs de livres François en ce pais
    ont tout vendu et tout acheté avant qu'il allât au marché.

    Pourquoi ne dit-il rien du Manger et du Boire?

    Pour tant qu'il y prend fort peu de plaisir, faute d'appétit, et
    que quelques-uns de ceux qui l'ont precédé l'ont fait pour lui,
    nommant fidèlement toutes les viandes qu'ils ont portées à la table
    de leurs maîtres. Qui lèche les plats, en peut bien parler.

    Pourquoi ne parle-t-il point des Habits, et de La Mode, du Lever et
    du Coucher, de la Chambre et du Lit?

    Parce que nos maîtres, qui ont été valets de chambre ou laquais,
    lui ont épargné ce travail, comme leur étant plus propre qu'à lui.

    Pourquoi se tait-il des Merciers, des Tailleurs et des Cordonniers?

    Parce qu'ils aiment mieux argent contant que des paroles et que
    n'étant point dans leurs livres il ne se souvient guère d'eux et
    s'en soucie encore moins.

    Pourquoi laisse-t-il les Ministres, les Médecins et les
    Jurisconsultes, sans faire attention d'eux?

    Parce qu'ils ont assez d'esprit pour ne s'oublier pas: et assez de
    langue pour parler pour eux-mêmes. Et toutefois il en parle à la
    dérobée, sans leur donner un discours à part, quoiqu'il honore ces
    professions-là, et aime fort passionément plusieurs personnes de
    ces trois états, pour leurs rares mérites.

    N'a-t-il rien des Apoticaires, des Chirurgiens et des Barbiers?

    Pas un seul mot, monsieur, parce qu'il se sert rarement des
    premiers, et que, par la grâce de Dieu, il n'a ni playes ni ulcères
    ni vérole pour les seconds, et que, les derniers le tenant à la
    gorge, il n'oseroit parler.

    Il pourroit dire quelque chose des Parens et des Alliéz.

    Qu'en diroit-il, les siens lui étant si peu courtois? S'il parloit
    d'eux, ce seroit moyen de renouveler ses douleurs.

[Header: STATE OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION]

Herbert, it will be seen, had not a very high opinion of the social
origin or ability of the majority of his fellow-teachers. He was a very
unwilling member of the profession. He does not style himself "Professor
of the French Language" on the title-page of his dialogues, although he
taught both in his house and away from home, because few people care to
boast of their cross, and his cross was--to be reduced to belong to a
profession "que tant de valets, de mécaniques, et d'ignorants rendent
tous les jours méprisable." He draws a far from flattering picture of
the common sort of French teacher. He is a "brouillon," a shuffling
fellow, who boasts, dresses well, and intrudes everywhere, cringing and
offering his services at a cheaper price than the genuine teachers. He
can hardly write seven or eight lines of French correctly. Yet men such
as this, says Herbert, pass for first-class teachers, and some take upon
themselves to correct and write books. What is more, they count many
pupils, even among the nobility.

Yet another cause of annoyance to Herbert was what seemed to him the
presumption of the Blois fraternity. It is the fashion, he remarks
scornfully, to say you come from Blois. And you do so if you happen to
come from Normandy. He is not ashamed of his province, though he takes
good care not to advertise it needlessly; Brittany (of which he was
evidently a native) is better than Blois, according to him. Thus we may
conclude that Herbert was one of the 'enemies' to whom members of the
Blois group frequently allude. Festeau refers to them as being ignorant
and envious persons, while Mauger describes them foaming with envy and
jealousy, and trying to harm him in the eyes of his pupils, as well as
casting aspersions on his grammar;[841] but he did not regard what they
said, England having raised his grammar so high that "their envy cannot
reach to it." And Mauger goes on to censure a certain section of the
French teaching profession, "broken Frenchmen," who make their pupils
speak rapidly, but not distinctly. "Have a speciall care," he exclaims,
"that you have not to do with those that are not true Frenchmen as your
Normans or Gascons. I confesse that a Norman that is a man of some
quality or one that hath seen the world or that is a good scholar may
possibly have the right accent, but any other that hath not such parts
can never give the true accent." Herbert retorted that the Blois clique
tried to persuade every one that Bretons and Normans cannot speak
correct French. He naturally resented such assertions, and was not
himself nearly so exclusive in the list of those who were not "good
Frenchmen." He merely states that the English are greatly mistaken in
their estimation of the French living here, "considering as such all
those that speak their tongue, so that the high Germans, Switzers of the
French tongue, Danes, Swedes, Dutch, Walloons, and those of Geneva pass
for good French in the opinion of many, although in truth there are not
here two naturall French 'mongst ten, which are taken for such, and who
for their profit would gladly go for such."

There was every need, thought Herbert, of protecting the profession from
these incompetent teachers. Before a tutor is engaged he should be made
to translate a passage from a good author from English into French, and
then from French into English, and both the pieces should be examined by
competent judges of both languages; for, according to him, a teacher
must know English, or some other language with which the scholar is
acquainted, such as Latin, so that there may be some foundation on which
to build the new edifice.

Beyond the importance he attached to translation, we know little of
Herbert's ideas on the teaching of French. He devotes more space to
criticizing the teachers. He does tell us, however, that French
orthography is best learnt by transcribing French passages, by which
operation it impresses itself on the mind without effort. He was also an
advocate of much and careful reading. Grammatical rules he considered
necessary, and he had intended to publish a grammar together with his
dialogues, but he was prevented from doing so by illness. He hoped,
however, to issue it a few months later, but apparently he was again
prevented from carrying out his design. [Header: GUILLAUME HERBERT] Yet
two years after the appearance of his dialogues he published another
work but of quite a different character--_Considerations on the behalf
of Foreiners which reside in England, and of the English who are out of
their own country, to allay the tempest which is too often raised in the
minds of the vulgar sort, and to sweeten the bitterness of a bilious or
cholerick humour against strangers_, in which he showed "that of all the
Nations of Europe, the English and French should love one another best,
as well for their vicinity as for the great commerce that is 'mongst
them in time of peace, and for their consanguinitie, there being in this
country thousands of families which are descended from the French, and
as many or more in France whose progenitours are English." These
'considerations,' twenty in number, are mainly a plea in favour of the
foreign churches in England and of the liberty of aliens to trade and
work in this country, with an allusion to the "good usage of
neighbouring Nations" towards the English fugitives of Mary's reign.
They are dated from the Charterhouse, June 1662, and appear to have been
the only work Herbert published after his _Dialogues_. He had, however,
previously shown his interest in the teaching of French by editing in
1658 the fourth edition of Cogneau's _Sure Guide to the French
Tongue_,[842] which consisted largely of the style of dialogue which he
ridiculed at a later date.

Herbert had had a long career in England before we first hear of him as
a teacher of French. He had composed treatises in French and in English,
both of which he wrote with equal facility. His language gives no clue
to his nationality, but, as we saw, we may conclude from his
autobiographical dialogue that he was a native of Brittany. He was, no
doubt, the William Herbert, native of France, who received a grant of
letters of denization in 1636. At that date he was living at
Pointington, Somerset, and was married to an Englishwoman, Frances
Sedgwicke. In the previous year he had prepared for the press a work in
French called _La Mallette de David_.[843] How he spent his time in
Pointington is not clear, but in 1640 he was tutor to the sons of
Montague Bertie, second Earl of Lindsey. On the death of his wife in
1645 he moved to London, and published a number of devotional works in
English, which he had composed at Pointington, chiefly for the benefit
of his wife and children. He refers to the unfavourable reception of
these compositions in his French and English dialogues, which he hoped
would meet with a better fate.

Herbert also took a great interest in the foreign churches of London. He
dedicated his _Quadripartit Devotion_ of 1648 to the "learned, pious,
and reverend Pastors, Elders, and Deacons of all the French and Dutch
congregations in England." At a later date he published a biting
pamphlet against a French Pastor, Jean Despagne,--the _Réponse aux
Questions de Mr. Despagne adressées à l'Eglise Françoise de Londres_
(1657), accusing "le ridicule Despagne" of blasphemy and immorality, as
well as criticising his French. In this work Herbert agrees with Lainé
in omitting a number of superfluous letters, with the intention of
facilitating reading for foreigners, though he was opposed to too many
changes, for fear of offending the partisans of the old orthography. The
_Dialogues_ and the _Considerations in behalf of Strangers_ were the two
works issued subsequently to the attack on Despagne, and with them ends
all we know of the career of Herbert, critic of the French teaching
profession, and earliest advocate of the "registration" of teachers.

The Jean Despagne attacked so bitterly by Herbert was none the less a
welcome guest in this country, and was the only truly French minister in
London during the Commonwealth. English as well as French, attracted by
his excellent sermons, gathered round him. Thus he co-operated in a
sense, and no doubt unconsciously, with Mauger and the other French
teachers of the time, who were busy encouraging their pupils to attend
the French church. Despagne was minister, not of the old church of
Threadneedle Street, but of a new congregation in Westminster, which met
at first in Durham House in the Strand, and when that was pulled down,
at the chapel in Somerset House (1653).[844] He held aloof from the
older church, and went so far as to criticise Calvin. He was attacked
and accused of schism, but was protected by his powerful patrons, chief
among whom was the Earl of Pembroke. An important group of the royalist
English nobility and gentry found in Despagne a means of satisfying
their religious needs when the Anglican church was in abeyance. Among
them was the diarist John Evelyn, who heard Despagne preach in the
Savoy church. [Header: THE FRENCH CHURCHES] Another adherent, and a very
faithful one, was a certain Henry Brown, who, in his English translation
of one of Despagne's works,[845] speaks of the great resort of the
English nobility and gentry to the "excellent sermons and Doctrines" of
the French pastor. Many continued to attend after the Restoration,
Evelyn among others; as late as 1670 he remarks that "a 'stranger'
preached at the Savoy French church, the liturgie of the Church of
England being now used altogether, as translated into French by Dr.
Durell."

The Savoy church had been authorized by Charles II. at the Restoration
on condition that the English Liturgy in French should be used. The
Threadneedle Street church, on the contrary, continued to use the
Calvinistic 'discipline,' and regarded with jealousy and suspicion the
church rising in Westminster. It refused all co-operation, and
endeavoured to bring about the suppression of the new church. The Savoy
church benefited on account of its situation in the fashionable
residential quarter, while Threadneedle Street was away in the city.
Consequently many members of the English aristocracy and gentry
continued to frequent the Westminster church even after the Restoration.
The use of the Anglican Liturgy was no doubt an additional attraction.
When service was opened there in 1661, by J. Durel,[846] among the
English present were the Duke and Duchess of Ormond, the Countess of
Derby and her daughters, the Earl of Stafford, and the Dukes of
Newcastle and Devonshire. Indeed the English gentry seem to have
occupied the attention of the French churches just as much as the
refugees themselves. The Threadneedle Street church felt the advantages
of its Westminster rival in this respect, and at the Restoration,
offered to establish a French Sabbath Lecture at Westminster for those
of the English gentry and French Protestants who found Threadneedle
Street too remote, hoping by this means to prevent division by having a
separate church there.[847] The Threadneedle Street church, however, was
not without its English adherents. Pepys went from time to time to both
French churches, but more frequently to Threadneedle Street, as far as
can be gathered from his diary, where he does not always specify which
of the churches is meant. "At last I rose," he writes on the 28th
September 1662, "and with Tom to the French church at the Savoy, where I
never was before; a pretty place it is; and there they have the Common
Prayer Book read in French, and which I never saw before, the minister
do preach with his hat off, I suppose in further conformity with our
Church." Pepys as a rule went to the Anglican church in the morning, and
to the French in the afternoon. He usually has a very good word for the
sermon, though on one occasion it was so "tedious and long that they
were fain to light candles to baptize the children by." There were also
services held at the French ambassador's, which many of the nobility
attended, as well as French sermons at Court from time to time. Evelyn
was present on one of these occasions: "At St. James's chapel preached,
or rather harangued, the famous orator, Monsieur Morus, in French. There
were present the King, the Duke, the French ambassador Lord Aubigny, the
Earl of Bristol, and a world of Roman Catholics, drawn thither to hear
this eloquent Protestant." This was on the 12th of January 1662. At a
much later date, September 1685, he heard another Frenchman, "who
preached before the King and Queene in that splendid chapell next St.
George's Hall."

It appears therefore that the practice, common among French teachers, of
urging their pupils to go to the French church, met with some response,
as did their advice as regards the reading of French literature. On both
these points the teachers of the middle of the seventeenth century are
at one with those of the sixteenth, and, as a general rule, there is
very little difference between the methods used in the two centuries.
Reading remained the basis of the teaching; dialogues were committed to
memory and translated into English, less importance being attached to
retranslation into French in later times. As for pronunciation, the
teachers of the seventeenth century realised the inadequacy of teaching
it by comparison with English sounds; they laid all the more emphasis on
the services of a good tutor, continuing, none the less, to supply
certain rules, though not without a warning. As time went on, more
importance was attached to the grammar, which, though still limited in
theory to essential general rules, was often studied in the first place,
and not left till need for it arose in practice. The general opinion is
thus expressed by James Howell: "What foundations are to material
fabriques the same is grammar to a language. [Header: FRENCH BY "GRAMMAR
AND ROTE"] If the foundation be not well laid, 'twill be but a poor
tottring superstructure; if grammatical rules go not before, there is no
language can be had in perfection. Yet there are no precepts so
punctuall, but much must be left to observation, which is the grand
Mistresse that guides and improves the understanding in the research and
poursute of all humane knowledge, _Quod deficit in praecepto, suppleat
observatio._" Students who learnt on this method, called a combination
of "grammar and rote," would read aloud with their tutor, chiefly for
practice in pronunciation; study the principal grammar rules and commit
to memory the vocabulary of familiar phrases, and a few short dialogues;
read and translate[848] French dialogues, and then pass to the favourite
French authors; sometimes they would translate from English into French,
or write French letters; finally they would converse as much as possible
with their tutor, repeat stories they had read in French, and seize
every opportunity of speaking the language and hearing it spoken.

Such was the method employed by the more serious French teachers of the
time. There were, however, others, and apparently very many, who taught
"by rote" alone without any grammar rules--a common method of learning
modern languages. "In England, the French, Spanish, and Italian
Languages are not the languages of our country, and spoke only by few
Persons, yet 'tis evident they are taught in London, and several other
places in the Kingdom, purely by conversation." "For it is well known,"
argues a writer on education,[849] "that there are Grammars writ for the
French, Italian, and Spanish languages, and yet notwithstanding, these
Languages are learned by Conversation ... little children, who know not
what Grammar means, are bred up to speak foreign languages fluently and
correctly.... There are some indeed, in England that teach Modern
Languages by Grammar. But this is not at all necessary, as is
unanswerably evident from those Persons who perfectly learn them without
it. However, those who reach the Modern Languages by Grammar only teach
their scholars so much of it as to know how to decline Nouns and Verbs
and understand some few rules. For as for the Languages themselves, they
are generally taught not by Books but Conversation, which is found by
experience to be much the readiest, easiest, and best Method of teaching
them.... Some by great application have learn'd French or Italian in
half a year's time by conversation, and indeed any foreign Tongue is
ordinarily taught in a year or a year and a half. And such as are two
years in learning any of them are accounted either very negligent or
else very incapable of retaining them.... Men who know little or nothing
of French, Italian, or Spanish, quickly learn any one of these languages
only by going twice or thrice a week to a club where they are obliged to
speak it."

How common such practical methods of learning French were may be
gathered from the fact that the few memoirs and similar writings which
give any detail on the subject invariably mention them. For instance,
the mother of Mrs. Hutchinson, the wife of the regicide and Governor of
Nottingham, was sent to board in the house of a refugee minister in
order to learn French.[850] As to Mrs. Hutchinson herself, she had a
French nurse, and was taught to speak English and French together.[851]
Others had tutors. Thus the mother of Lady Anne Halkett, the royalist
and writer on religious subjects, paid masters to teach Lady Anne and
her sister "to write, speak French, play on the lute and virginals and
dance";[852] and Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle, held up by
Mrs. Makin as an example to "all ingenious and Vertuous Ladies," also
had tutors for the polite accomplishments, and refers to her language
lessons as "prating."[853] She acquired a good knowledge of French,
became attendant to Queen Henrietta Maria, and accompanied her in her
exile in France.

[Header: FRENCH BY CONVERSATION]

An example of the opportunities of acquiring a knowledge of French, "in
any leisure hour," as Milton said of Italian, is found in the Letters of
Robert Loveday, the translator of part of La Calprenède's _Cléopâtre_.
Loveday lived during the Commonwealth as a dependent in the house of
Lady Clinton at Nottingham, where, he says, French "was familiarly
spoken by the best sort of the family."[854] He therefore had every
opportunity of learning the language, and was much helped by an old
Italian gentleman, skilled in French, who was living in the house on the
same footing as himself. As a result of his application he was able to
translate several French works into English "in those empty spaces of
time which were left by those that command me at my disposall." He
procured a copy of Cotgrave's dictionary and asked a friend in London to
make enquiries at the booksellers if there was "any new French book of
indifferent volume that was worth the translating and not enterprised by
any other."[855] Loveday hoped by this means to give "larger scope to
(his) narrow condition" at Nottingham. One of his first enterprises was
the translation of a "mad fantastick Dream" he met with in Sorel's
_Francion_, which he sent to his brother; but his chief work was a
rendering of the first three parts of _Cléopâtre_, which was hardly of
the "indifferent size" he writes of. The several parts appeared in 1652,
1654, and 1655 respectively, under the title of _Hymen's Praeludia, or
Love's Masterpiece_, and were dedicated to his "ever-honoured lady" Lady
Clinton. In the complete version, the fourth, fifth, and sixth parts are
also ascribed to Loveday.

Thus practical methods gained a firm hold in the teaching of French;
when grammar was studied, it was within limited boundaries, and only so
far as desirable for practical purposes. In the teaching of Latin, on
the other hand, more and more importance was attached to the study of
grammar, which took the foremost place, literature being regarded as
little more than a collection of illustrative examples of the
rules.[856] Grammar had become "a full swolen and overflowing stream,
which, by a strong hand, arrogates to itself (and hath well-nigh gotten)
the whole traffic in learning, especially of languages."[857] The use
of the Grammar and reading books in Latin alone was another practice
which engaged the attention of the reformers.[858] "A book altogether in
Latin is a mere Barbarian to our children," wrote Charles Hoole,[859]
who published many of the popular Latin school-books with English
translations, in the style of those which are always present in the
French text-books. His opinion was that "no language is more readily got
than by familiar discourse in it, and ability therein is in no way
sooner gained then by comparing the tongue we learn with that we know,
and asking how they call this or how they say that in another language,
which we are able to express in our own." A writer of the time[860] thus
describes "that wild goose chase usually led": "ordinarily boys learn a
leaf or two of the Pueriles, twenty pages of Corderius, a part of Esop's
Fables, a piece of Tullie, a little of Ovid, a remnant of Virgil,
Terence, etc. ... to read the accidence, to get it without book, is
ordinarily the work of one whole year. To construe the Grammar and to
get it without book is at least the task of two years more, and then, it
may be, it is little understood until a year or two more is spent in
making plain Latin ... when it is all done, besides declining nouns and
forming verbs and getting a few words, there is very little advantage to
the child." And a French teacher,[861] writing at about the same time,
has left a very similar picture. [Header: GRAMMATICAL STUDY OF
LANGUAGES] He describes how the child slaves till the age of fifteen or
sixteen, forced to learn against his will a little Latin and Greek, with
little result after seven or eight years of hardship. "Not 10 per cent
really know either; they are buried under a _fatras_ of words and rules,
which stun the memory and overturn the judgment, and all under the rule
of the rod." Such is the learning of a foreign language "by grammar."

The feeling of dissatisfaction with the usual method of teaching Latin
in grammar schools, however, seems to have been general in the
seventeenth century, and many were the protests and appeals for reform.
"No man can run speedily to the mark of languages that is shackled and
ingiv'd with grammar precepts," wrote Joseph Webbe,[862] who draws a
careful distinction between the grammar-Latin thus acquired and what he
calls Latin-Latin,[863] that is, "Such as the best approved authors
wrote and left us in their books and monuments of use and custom," as
distinct from "that Latin which we now make by grammar rules, and their
collection out of that custom and those authors was to make us write and
speak such Latin as that custom and those authors did, which was
Latin-Latin, but it succeeded not."

Consequently there arose a belief that "practice"--in speaking, reading,
and writing the language--should take its place by the side of grammar.
Writers pleaded, in the style of Elyot and Ascham, for the teaching of
Latin on more practical lines, quoting Montaigne's experience.[864]
Thomas Grantham[865] opened a private school, in which he sought to
deliver youth from their "great captivity" and the hardship and
uselessness of learning grammar word for word without book and in Latin,
which the boy does not understand, "just as if a man should teach one an
art in French when he understands not French." Grantham, on the
contrary, taught his scholars to understand the rules first, and by
repeatedly applying them they came to know them without book, whether
they would or no. Similar was the method of the French teachers, who
often carried the idea further, and taught their pupils the rules as
need for them arose in practice.

John Webster thus puts the case for and against learning by "rule." "As
for grammar," he says,[866] "which hath been invented for the more
certain and facile teaching and obtaining of languages, it is very
controvertible whether it perform the same in the surest, easiest and
shortest way or not, since hundreds speak their mother tongue and other
languages very perfectly, use them readily, and understand them
excellent well, and yet never knew or were taught any grammar rules, nor
followed the wayes of Conjugations and Declensions, Noun or Verb. And it
is sufficiently known that many men, by their own industry, without the
method or rules of grammar, have gotten a competent understanding in
divers languages: and many unletter'd persons will, by use and exercise,
without Grammar rules, learn to speak and understand some languages in
far shorter time than any do learn them by method and rule, as is
clearly manifest by those that travel.... And again, if we conceive that
languages learnt by use and exercise render men ready and expert in the
understanding and speaking of them, without any aggravating or pushing
the intellect and memory, when that which is gotten by rule and method,
when we come to use and speak it, doth exceedingly rack and excruciate
the intellect and memory: which are forced at the same time, not only to
find fit words agreeable to the present matter discoursed of, and to put
them into a good Rhetorical order, but must at the same instant of
speaking, collect all the numerous rules of number, case ... as into one
centre, where so many rayes are united and yet not confounded, which
must needs be very perplexive and gravaminous to memorative faculty: and
therefore none that attains languages by grammar do ever come to speak
and understand them perfectly and readily, until they come to a perfect
habit in the exercitation of them, and so thereby come to lose and leave
the use of those many and intricate rules, which have cost us so many
pains to attain to them, and so to justifie the saying that we do but
_discere dediscenda_." Those who learn by "use and exercitation," on the
other hand, acquire languages more quickly and with better results. If
the study of grammar is insisted on, it should be made very brief. The
indeclinables require no rules, but are learnt by use. [Header: LOCKE
ON THE TEACHING OF FRENCH] Of the declinables the only ones that present
any difficulties are the noun and the verb, regular and irregular. As to
the irregulars, they are best learnt by "use," as rules only "render the
way more perplexed and tedious. And the way of the regulars is facile
and brief, being but one rule for all."

Many others wrote in a similar strain,[867] advocating the teaching of
Latin on lines widely used in the teaching of French. Several actually
specified the modern language, which was first mentioned in books on
education in this connexion. Thomas Grantham, in his _Brain Breaker's
Breaker_ (1644), points out that many young gentlemen and ladies learn
to speak French in half a year without grammar, and argues that the same
purpose could be achieved with Latin and Greek in a twelvemonth.
Similarly George Snell argued that Latin might be learnt "in as short a
time as a Monsieur can teach French,"[868] for the pronunciation, so
great a task in learning the living tongue, is of no importance in the
dead language. At a somewhat later date, when French had made more
headway in the scholastic world, Locke plainly states that people are
accustomed to the right way of teaching French, "which is by talking it
into children by constant conversation, and not by Grammatical
Rules,"[869] and proposes that the same method should be applied to
Latin. "When we so often see a Frenchwoman teach an English girl to
speak and read French perfectly in a year or two, without any rule of
grammar, or anything else but prattling to her, I cannot but wonder how
gentlemen have overseen this way for their sons, and thought them more
dull and incapable than their daughters."[870] Elsewhere Locke again
draws comparisons between the teaching of Latin and that of French,[871]
and a French teacher of the early part of the eighteenth century
recognized the importance of this tribute when he published a grammar
intended to confirm the knowledge acquired by "practice."[872]

Yet all these proposals and protests do not seem to have had much effect
on the teaching of Latin. In a few cases, however, experiments were
attempted, usually in connexion with French. Several were made with the
_Janua_ of Comenius, which had early been adapted to the teaching of
French as well as Latin. The theories of Comenius himself had no doubt
inspired the English reformers. He had written that rules are thorns to
the understanding, that no one ever mastered a language by precept
alone, though it is often done by practice; rules, however, should not
be entirely discarded.[873]

J. T. Philipps, who was later tutor to the Duke of Cumberland, son of
George II., relates[874] how he taught both Latin and French on
practical lines with the help of Comenius. His pupil first got a good
notion of the Latin tongue by studying the verbs and nouns, and then
learning the Latin column of the _Janua Linguarum_. "I likewise at som
leisure Hours," continues Philipps, "taught him to read French and when
he had good the pronunciation, he labour'd for some time, as he did
before in the Latin, to make himself Master of the French Verbs and
Nouns, and then began to learn the sentences in another column of the
_Janua Linguarum_, which, by the assistance of the Latin, he mastered in
a very short time. So that before the end of the first year, he could
read Fontaine's _Fables_ from French into English, and give me an
account of the French Minister's text which he heard, and part of the
sermon; [Header: LANGUAGES LEARNT WITHOUT GRAMMAR] for I charg'd him
never to miss the French Church, that he might the better accustom
himself to the true Accent of that Tongue.... I spent an hour every
Sunday Morning all the time the Boy was with me, to read over several
short Catechisms or systems in Divinity both in French and Latin."[875]

The learned Mrs. Bathsua Makin, who had been governess to the daughters
of Charles I., and later kept a school at Tottenham High Cross, also
advocated the use of the _Janua Linguarum_ for learning Latin and
French. The young ladies of her school learnt ten Latin sentences of the
_Janua_ a day thoroughly, spending "but six hours a day in their books."
By the end of six months they had a fair knowledge of the language, and
turned to French: "If the Latin tongue may be learnt in 6 months, where
most of the words are new, then the French may be learnt in three, by
one that understands Latin and English, because there is not above one
word of ten of the French Tongue, that may not fairly, without force, be
reduced to the Latin or English."[876]

We are also told[877] of a boy of seven who spoke Latin, French, and
English with equal facility, "by reason that his father talked to him in
nothing but Latin, and his mother, who was a Frenchwoman, in nothing but
French, and the rest of the family in nothing but English." And the Rev.
Henry Wotton of Corpus Christi, Cambridge, has left an account of how,
when he undertook the education of his son, "leaving off the Accidence
in that Method that ordinarily children are trained up in, (he)
immediately thought with (him)self to make an experiment whether
children of his years might not be taught the Latin Tongue as ordinarily
children are taught the French and Italian, and without the torture of
grammar, to make them, by reading a Latin book, to understand Nouns and
Verbs, Declensions and Moods, and that without the vast circuit, that
ordinarily takes up 3 or 4 years, as preparatory to read any Latin
author."[878] Evelyn bears witness to the success of Wotton's
experiment. He saw the young William Wotton in London at the age of
eleven, and pronounced him "a miracle."[879] To Evelyn also we are
indebted for an account of another case of similar precocity due to the
same method. He relates how he and Pepys saw a child of twelve, the son
of one Dr. Clench, "who was perfect in the Latine authors, spake French
naturally, and possessed amazing knowledge. His tutor was a Frenchman,
who had not troubled him to learn even the rules of grammar by heart,
but merely read to him, first in French, and then in Latin."[880]

In no case, however, was the contrast between the prevalent methods of
teaching Latin and French so marked as in the learning of Latin in
Grammar Schools, and of French in France by "rote" or with the help of a
few general grammar rules; the older the student, the more necessary
were grammar rules considered. Richard Carew, for instance, was struck
by the fact that he learnt more French without rules in three-quarters
of a year in France than he had learnt Latin in more than thirteen
years' strenuous study of grammar. He had gone to France on leaving the
university. On his arrival he was at a loss for words, knowing nothing
of the language; but after a short stay, spent in the midst of French
people, talking and reading nothing but French, he surmounted the
difficulties of the language with surprising ease, and wished students
of Latin to benefit by his experience.[881] The two languages, indeed,
were not infrequently studied together by the considerable number of
English children who were sent to France for purposes of education.


FOOTNOTES:

[824] "It is most astonishing that there ever could have been people
idle enough to write and read such endless heaps of the same stuff. It
was, however, the occupation of thousands in the last century, and is
still the private though disavowed amusement of young girls and
sentimental ladies," wrote Chesterfield in the eighteenth century
(_Letters to his Son_, 1774, p. 242). Even Johnson read and enjoyed
these lengthy romances.

[825] Jusserand, _The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare_, p. 381.

[826] _Letters from Dorothy Osborne to Sir Wm. Temple, 1652-54_, London,
1888, p. 318.

[827] He in turn passed them on to Lady Diana Rich.

[828] T. P. Courtney, _Memoirs of the Life, Works and Correspondence of
Sir Wm. Temple_, London, 1836, i. p. 5.

[829] _Letters_, p. 172; ep. Goldsmith, _Essay on the Use of Language_:
"If again you are obliged to wear a flimsy stuff in the midst of winter,
be the first to remark that stuffs are very much worn at Paris."

[830] Pepys used Cotgrave's Dictionary; _Diary_, February 26, 1660-1.

[831] This book was very widely read in England. But there does not seem
to have been an English translation of it before 1709 (Pepys's _Diary_,
Oct. 13, 1664, ed. Wheatley, 1904).

[832] _Diary_, Jan. 13, Feb. 8 and 9, 1667-8.

[833] _L'Hydrographie contenant la théorie et la pratique de toutes les
parties de la navigation_, 1643.

[834] He read Descartes's _Musicae Compendium_, but did not think much
of it.

[835] Pepys relates how one evening Penn and he fell to discoursing
about some words in a French song Mrs. Pepys was singing--_D'un air tout
interdict_: "wherein I laid twenty to one against him, which he would
not agree to with me, though I know myself in the right as to the sense
of the word, and almost angry we were, and were an houre and more upon
the dispute, till at last broke up not satisfied, and so home."

[836] _Les Résolutions Politiques ou Maximes d'État_, par Jean de
Marnix, Baron de Potes, Bruxelles, 1612.

[837] Cp. E. Gosse, _Seventeenth Century Studies_, 1897; J. J.
Jusserand, _The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare_, p. 373.

[838] D. Canfield, _Corneille and Racine in England_, 1904. How common
was the presence of Frenchmen in English families of high standing may
be gathered from Orinda's statement that "one, Legrand, a Frenchman
belonging to the Duchess of Ormond, has by her order set the fourth
[song in _Pompey_ to music], and a Frenchman of my Lord Orrery's the
second" (_Letters of Orinda to Poliarchus_, London, 1705, Letter dated
Jan. 31, 1663).

[839] Fifth ed., Amsterdam, 1686. Translated into English by F. Spence,
London, 1683. Queen Henrietta Maria had done much to foster the spirit
of the _Astrée_ and the Hôtel de Rambouillet in England: cp. J. B.
Fletcher, "Précieuses at the Court of Charles I.," in the _Journal of
Comparative Philology_, vol. i. 1903.

[840] Between ladies and "cavaliers." Herbert explains that by
"cavalier" he means _galant homme_. Here is a specimen of their style:
"_Cavalier_: La voilà, je la vois.--_Dame_: Que voyez-vous, mons.?--Je
vois la Gloire du beau sexe, l'Ornement de ce siècle, et l'Objet de mes
affections.--Vous voyez ici bien des choses.--Toutes ces choses sont en
une.--C'est donc une merveille.--Dites, ma chère Dame, la merveille des
merveilles.--Je le pourrois dire après vous, car votre bel esprit ne se
sauroit tromper.--Il se peut bien tromper, mais non pas en ceci.--Je
veux qu'il soit infaillible en ceci: il faut pourtant que je voye cette
Gloire, cet Ornement et cet Objet, pour en pouvoir juger.--Vous ne les
sauriez voir que par réflexion.--Je ne vous entens pas.--Approchez-vous
de ce miroir, et vous verrez ce que je dis. Qu'y voyez-vous, ma
Belle?--Je vous y vois, monsieur.--Voilà une belle réponse.--Belle ou
laide, elle est vraye.--Elle l'est effectivement: mais n'y voyez-vous
rien que moi?--Je m'y vois aussi bien que vous.--Vous voyez donc cette
illustre merveille, etc."

[841] "Il y a des particuliers qui ne sont pas dans mes intérêts, qui
les (_i.e._ his works) décrient hautement, non pas tant par malice que
par jalousie, quelques-uns étant des personnes intéressées qui sont de
ma profession, ou des critiques ignorans qui trouvent à redire à tout ce
que les autres font, pour faire paroître ce qu'ils n'ont point,
s'imaginant qu'on les prend pour des hommes d'esprit, quand on les
entend reprendre les choses les mieux faites."

[842] See p. 290, _supra_.

[843] Arber, _Stationers' Register_, iv. 333.

[844] Schickler, _Églises du Refuge_, ii. pp. 148-9, and 153. Despagne
became a denizen in 1655 (Hug. Soc. Pub. xviii.). Cp. also Haag, _La
France protestante_, ad nom., and the _Bulletin de la société de
l'Histoire du Protestantisme français_, viii. pp. 369 _et seq._ He died
in 1658.

[845] _Harmony of the Old and New Testament_, 1682, Brown's preface.

[846] Schickler, _op. cit._ ii. p. 224.

[847] _Cal. of State Papers, Dom., 1660-61_, p. 277.

[848] That translation was not always the means of interpretation is
shown by the following passage from Mauger; a stranger questions one of
his pupils:

    Entendez-vous tout ce que vous lisés?
    J'en entends une partie.
    Entendez-vous bien le sens?
    Fort bien, monsieur.

Probably French was not 'construed' word for word, as Latin was, the
clause, on the contrary, being made the starting-point. "Construing word
for word is impossible in any language," wrote Joseph Webbe in his
_Petition to the High Court of Parliament_, quoting as an example the
"barbarous English of the Frenchman, '_I you pray, sir_,' for _Je vous
prie, monsieur_."

[849] _An Essay on Education_, London, 1711.

[850] _Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson_, ed. C. H. Firth,
London. 1885, i. p. 16.

[851] _Ibid._ p. 23.

[852] _Autobiography of Lady Anne Halkett, 1622-1699, 1701_, Camden
Society, 1875, p. 2.

[853] _The Lives of Wm., Duke of Newcastle and of his wife Margaret ...
written by the thrice noble and illustrious princess Margaret, Duchess
of Newcastle_, ed. M. A. Lower, 1872, p. 271.

[854] _Loveday's Letters, Domestick and forrain to several persons ..._,
London, 1659, p. 31.

[855] _Letters_, p. 105. Cp. also pp. 26, 47, 79, 135, etc. It is
evident from the letter of Dorothy Osborne quoted above, p. 320, that
she had learnt French chiefly by ear. Several of the inaccuracies, such
as the use of the past participle for the infinitive, would not be
noticeable in pronunciation.

[856] F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, pp. 276 _sqq._

[857] J. Webbe, _An Appeale to Truth in the Controversie between Art and
Verse about the best and most expedient course in languages_, 1622.

[858] There was a strong feeling at this period in favour of a freer use
of English in the teaching of Latin, chiefly on account of the time such
a course would save. Thus Milton recognized the mistake of spending a
great number of years in learning one language "making two labours of
one by learning first the accidence, then the grammar in Latin, ere the
language of those rules be understood." The remedy, he thought, was the
use of a grammar in English (A. F. Leach, "Milton as Schoolboy and
Schoolmaster," _Proceedings of the British Academy_, iii. 1908). Snell
(_Right Teaching of Useful Knowledge_, 1649), Mrs. Makin or M. Lewis (?)
(_Essay to Revive the Antient Education of Gentlewomen_, 1671), and
others also argued that English should be the groundwork of the teaching
of Latin. Most of the English grammars produced in the seventeenth
century claim to be useful to scholars as an introduction to the
rudiments of Latin; and it was on this footing, no doubt, that English
grammar first made its way into the schools. Chief among these, perhaps,
was J. Poole's _English Accidence for attaining more speedily the Latin
Tongue, so that every young child, as soon as he can read English, may
by it turn any sentence into Latin. Published by Authority, and
commended as generally necessary to be made use of in all schooles of
this commonwealth_, London, 1655. For a list of English grammars cp. F.
Watson, _Modern Subjects_, chap. i. Lily's Grammar came to be almost
always used with the English rendering by Wm. Hume. Cp. Watson, _Grammar
Schools_, p. 296.

[859] _An advertisement ... touching school books_, 1659.

[860] _An Essay to Revive the Antient Education of Gentlewomen_, London,
1673 (by Mrs. Makin or Mark Lewis).

[861] G. Miège, _A New French Grammar_, 1678, p. 377.

[862] _Appeale to Truth_, 1622, p. 41.

[863] _Petition to the High Court of Parliament, in behalf of auncient
and authentique Authours, for the universall and perpetuall good of
every man_, 1623.

[864] _Essais_, liv. i., ch. xxv.

[865] Cp. _The Brain Breaker's Breaker, or the Apologie of Th. Grantham
for his Method of Teaching_, 1644.

[866] _The Examination of Academies, wherein is discussed ... the
Matter, Method and Customes of Academick and Scholastick Learning, and
the insufficiency thereof discovered and laid open_, 1653, p. 21.

[867] Thus Sir Wm. Petty, in his _Advice to S. Hartlib for the
advancement of some particular parts of learning_ (1648), argues that
languages should be taught by "incomparably more easy wayes then are now
usuall." An anonymous "Lover of his Nation" proposed that children
should learn Latin as they do English, by having no other language
within their hearing for two years; and similarly with other languages
(Watson, _Modern Subjects_, p. 482). Ch. Hoole, teacher at a private
grammar school in London, also proposes that Latin should be learnt by
speaking and hearing it spoken, and attributes the unsatisfactory
knowledge of the language to the too frequent use of English in schools
(_New Discoverie of the old art of Teaching Schooll_, 1660). The French
teacher Miège suggests that Latin should be taught in special schools,
on the same lines as French was taught in the French ones (_French
Grammar_, 1678). In 1685 was published _The Way of Teaching the Latin
Tongue by use to those that have already learn'd their Mother Tongue_;
and in 1669 had appeared a work translated from the French, called _An
Examen of the Way of Teaching the Latine Tongue to little children by
use alone_. Among other publications of similar import are: _An Essay on
Education, showing how Latin, Greek, and other Languages may be learn'd
more easily, quickly and perfectly than they commonly are_, 1711; and
_An Essay upon the education of youth in Grammar Schools in which the
Vulgar Method of Teaching is examined, and a new one proposed for the
more easy and speedy training up of Youth, to the knowledge of the
Learned Languages ..._, by J. Clarke, Master of the Public Grammar
School in Hull (London, 1720).

[868] _Right Teaching of Useful Knowledge to fit scholars for some
honest Profession_, London, 1649, p. 186.

[869] Locke, _Some thoughts concerning Education_ (1693), ed. J. W.
Adamson, in _Educational Writings of Locke_, London, 1912, p. 125.

[870] _Op. cit._ p. 127.

[871] "Why does the Learning of Latin and Greek need the rod, when
French and Italian need it not?" (_op. cit._ p. 69). And again, "Those
who teach any of the modern languages with success never amuse their
scholars to make speeches or verses either in French or Italian, their
business being language barely and not invention" (_op. cit._ p. 71).

[872] J. Palairet, _New Royal French Grammar_, The Hague, 1738.

[873] Languages, he held, were best learnt by rules of a simple nature,
comparison of the points of difference and resemblance between the known
and unknown language, and exercises on familiar subjects.

[874] _A compendious way of teaching Ancient and Modern Languages ..._,
2nd edition, London, 1723, pp. 45 _et seq._

[875] He would then learn Italian and Spanish on the same plan.

[876] _An Essay to Revive the Antient Education of Gentlewomen ..._,
1673.

[877] _Essay on Education_, 1711. The case of Queen Elizabeth, who is
said to have learnt only one or two Latin rules, is also quoted.

[878] _An Essay on the education of children in the first rudiments of
learning, together with a narrative of what knowledge Wm. Wotton, a
child of 6 years of age, had attained unto upon the Improvement of those
Rudiments in the Latin, Greek and Hebrew Tongues._ Reprinted, London,
1753, p. 38.

[879] _Diary_, July 6, 1679.

[880] _Ibid._, Jan. 27, 1688.

[881] For this purpose he wrote _The True and readie way to learne the
Latin Tongue, expressed in an answer to the Question whether the
ordinary way of teaching Latin by Rules of Grammar be best_, 1654.




CHAPTER V

    THE TOUR IN FRANCE

    And now methinks I see a youth advance
    Ready prepared to make the tour of France.

               _Satire against the French_, 1691.


When, in the middle of the seventeenth century, England was torn in
twain by civil war and party quarrels, even the Puritans willingly sent
their children to be brought up in France. It was at this period that
Thomas Grantham, a severe critic of the usual method of teaching Latin
in Grammar Schools,[882] wrote this significant passage: "Let a boy of
seven or eight years of age be sent out of England into France: he shall
learn in a twelvemonth or less to write and speak the French tongue
readily, although he keep much company with English, read many English
books, and write many English letters home, and all this with pleasure
and delight." The number of English children in France at this period
was considerable.[883] At St. Malo, for instance, when proceedings were
taken against the English in the town, the chief victims were the
"English boys sent to learn French."[884]

The memoirs of the Verney family afford a detailed picture of one of the
numerous families of royalist sympathies, cut off from English public
school and university life, and brought up in France. Sir Ralph Verney
had taken the side of Parliament in the long struggle, but in 1643 went
into voluntary exile in France rather than sign the Covenant. He
settled at Blois with his family, and procured French tutors for his
boys. Apparently he had some trouble at first, one of the tutors being
dismissed "for drinking, lying and seeking to proselytise." Finally the
education of the boys was entrusted to the Protestant pastor, M.
Testard, who received foreign pupils. The young students worked hard at
Latin and French under the minister's supervision. Testard reported of
Edmund, the elder, "Il fait merveille. . . . Je luy raconte une histoire
en français, il me la rend extempore en Latin."[885] And one day Mme.
Testard found the young John hard at work in bed in the early morning
with two books in French and Latin. The children wrote in French to
their mother when she was absent in England making valiant and finally
successful attempts to get the sequestration taken off Sir Ralph's
estate. And when, after her death, Sir Ralph sought to divert his mind
by travelling in Italy, Edmund,[886] then aged thirteen, wrote this
letter--which shows clearly the dangers of a purely oral method:

    Plust à Dieu qu'il vous donnast la pensée de retourner à Blois. Les
    jours me semblent des années tant il m'ennuye d'ettre icy comme
    dans un desert de solitude; car quoy est cequi me peut desormais
    plaire dans cette ville, comment est ceque cette lumiere de la vie,
    et cette respiration de l'air me peuvent-elle estre agreeables,
    puisqu'y ayant perdu cequi m'estoit le plus au Monde et qu'il
    m'interesse plus q'une seule personne dont je suis privé de
    l'honneur de sa presence, au reste, graces a Dieu, nous nous porte
    fort bien et pourcequi et de moy je vous asseure que je ne
    manqueray jamais à mon devoir, c'espourquoy finissant je demeure et
    demeureray aternellement,

        Votre tres humble et fidel fils,

               EDMOND VERNEY.

Sir Ralph had also in his charge two girls, his young cousins, whom
their mother had entrusted to him: "Sweet nephew, I have after A long
debate with my selfe sent my tow gurles where I shall desier youre care
of them, that they may be tought what is fite for them as the reding of
the french tong, and to singe, and to dance and to right and to playe of
the gittar."[887]

Sir Ralph regarded France as "the fittest place to breed up youth."
[Header: SIR RALPH VERNEY'S VIEWS] "I wish peace in France for my
children's sake," he wrote to M. Du Val, a French tutor. After bringing
up his own family there, he would have liked to send his grandchildren
to France with a sober and discreet governor, rather than to any school
in England; but his son Edmund thought the advantage of learning to
speak French fluently did not compensate for the loss of English public
school life, which he himself had never enjoyed. Sir Ralph soon became a
versatile source of information to parents desiring details of the cost
of living and education in France. He considered £200 a year a proper
allowance for an English youth to be boarded in a good French family,
and that homes in which there were children were best, on account of the
continual prattle of the young inmates. The families of French pastors
were naturally preferred; and as the pastors were in the habit of taking
French pupils also,[888] no doubt the young English boys found suitable
companions.

The Protestant schools,[889] established wherever possible by the French
reformers in the vicinity of their churches, were also in favour with
English parents. These schools, in which the subjects usually taught
were reading, writing, arithmetic, and the catechism, were for obvious
reasons looked on with suspicion by the Government; one by one they were
dispersed, especially when the feeling against the Protestants became
more acute towards the middle of the seventeenth century. Thus the
schools of Rouen were closed in 1640; and shortly afterwards Sir Ralph
Verney wrote, in reply to an inquiry about a school, that Rouen is a
very unfit place, as no Protestant masters are allowed to keep school
there; moreover, living is dear in the town, and the accent of the
inhabitants bad. In some cases, when the schools had been closed or
converted into Jesuit establishments, the ejected schoolmasters gave
private lessons, or received a few _pensionnaires_ in their homes. Even
this was forbidden in 1683. And two years later the Revocation of the
Edict of Nantes dealt the severest blow of all.

Regarding the Protestant Academies,[890] Sir Ralph sent the following
report to his friends in England: "There are divers Universities at
Sedan, Saumur, Geneva and other fine places, as I am told at noe
unreasonable rate, and not only Protestant schoolmasters, but whole
colleges of Protestants."[891] Many young Englishmen were sent to one or
other of these towns, either to attend lectures at the Academies, or,
more often, to study French and the "exercises" privately, in a
Protestant atmosphere. Sir Orlando Bridgman, a friend of Sir Ralph
Verney, after letting his son study with two other English boys under a
M. Cordell at Blois, intended to send him either to Saumur or Poitiers,
then to Paris, and so to the Inns of Court,[892] and Sir Thomas Cotton
sent his sons to Saumur to perfect themselves in French.[893] In the
middle of the seventeenth century, Sir Joseph Williamson, the future
statesman and diplomat of the reign of Charles II., was living at Saumur
with several young Englishmen in his care.[894] After graduating at
Oxford, he had left England in the capacity of tutor to a young man of
quality, possibly one of the sons of the Marquis of Ormonde. At Saumur,
Williamson kept a book of notes relating to the studies of his pupils
and containing the letters which he wrote to their parents in answer to
inquiries concerning their progress. He and his pupils lived _en
pension_ in a private house in the town, "with very civil company,"--"the
best way to get the language which is much desired." On the whole
Williamson's pupils do not seem to have made as rapid progress as either
he himself or their parents desired. One anxious father writes to ask
Williamson to let his son practise writing French daily; another exhorts
his son to devote himself seriously to learning French by reading good
authors and conversing. The Academies of Montauban and Sedan, though
they never attained a popularity equal to that of Saumur, were not
neglected, and attracted many foreign students. The Academy at Montauban
was moved to Puy Laurens in 1659, where it remained until its
suppression at the time of the Revocation. In 1678 Henry Savile, English
ambassador at Paris, informed his brother, Lord Halifax, that there are
only two Protestant Universities in France, at Saumur and Puy Laurens,
and that of these Saumur is beyond dispute the better.[895] [Header:
TRAVELLERS AT FRENCH UNIVERSITIES] From this we see that these two
Academies were then the best known;[896] no doubt the rest, which had
never been quite so popular, were much enfeebled by the hostile edicts
which preceded the Revocation. Lord Halifax at first intended to send
his sons to the College at Chastillon. Savile, however, stopped them
when they arrived at Paris, as he had heard that the only teaching given
at the College was reading, writing, and the catechism--the curriculum
of the Protestant schools. In the end the boys were sent with their
governor to the Academy at Geneva. On their return to England in 1681,
one of them went to complete his education at the University and the
other to the academy which was opened that year by the Frenchman M.
Foubert, who had set up as a teacher of the "exercises" in London.

Other travellers spent some time at one of the French Universities. The
University of Paris usually counted a considerable number of English
among its students, and Clarendon tells us that those who have been
there "mingle gracefully in all companies." The Universities of
Bordeaux, Poitiers, and Montpellier were also favourite resorts.
Montpellier particularly, with its "gentle salutiferous air," attracted
those suffering from the "national complaint."[897] When Will Allestry
was there in 1668, he spent the greater part of his time learning
French, and what leisure he had he employed in studying the
Institutions.[898] Orleans, famous for the study of law, was also much
patronised. The custom of studying in French Universities, however, did
not meet with general approval in England. Sir Balthazar Gerbier
pronounced it "no less than abusing the Universities of Oxford and
Cambridge and the famous free schools of this realme to withdraw from
them the sons of Noble families and those that are lovers of vertue."
The same opinion is voiced by Samuel Penton, Master of Exeter Hall,
Oxford, who did not omit even the Protestant Academies from his
condemnation. "The strangeness of New Faces, Language, Manners and
Studies may prove perhaps uneasie, and then their great want of
discipline to confine him to Prayers, Exercises and Meals is dangerous:
all he will have to do is to keep in touch with a Lecturer, and what is
learned from him, most young Gentlemen are so civil as to leave behind
them when they return."[899]

The governors who usually accompanied young travellers, especially those
of high birth, were not infrequently Frenchmen. We are told that it was
a rare sight to see a young English nobleman at a foreign court with a
governor of his own nation,[900] though some preferred an English
governor, and cautioned travellers against foreign tutors. Samuel Penton
warns us that if the young traveller is committed, for cheapness or
curiosity, to a foreigner instead of an English governor, "there are
some in the world who without a fee will tell you what that is like to
come to."[901] One of the English governors, J. Gailhard, who was tutor
abroad to several of the nobility and gentry, including the Earl of
Huntingdon, Lord Hastings, and Sir Thomas Grosvenor, lays down "a method
of travel" which is of special interest, as it is the one which he
followed with his own pupils.[902] His view was that, if possible, the
traveller should have some knowledge of French before setting out on his
travels. The first thing he should do on arriving at Paris is to go to
the famous Protestant temple at Charenton, and there give thanks for his
safe journey so far--whether he understand French or not. He will do
well to make but a short stay at Paris, where his progress will be
hindered by the great number of his countrymen there. The best places to
reside in are the towns along the valley of the Loire, where there are
plenty of good masters to be had. Perhaps Angers is the best. The
student is further urged to keep a diary, and talk as much as
possible--"with speaking we learn to speak." The masters for the riding
and fencing exercises, dancing and music, are to be looked upon as so
many additional language teachers. Although "of ten words he could not
speak two right, yet let him not be ashamed and discouraged at it: for
it is not to be expected he should be a Master before he hath been a
scholar." The language master should teach his pupil to read, write and
spell correctly, and to speak properly. [Header: GUIDE-BOOKS FOR
TRAVELLERS] The material for reading must be carefully chosen; romances,
such as those of Scudéry, are often dangerous; it is better to use books
which give instruction in such subjects as history, morality, and
politics. Every evening there should be a repetition of what has been
learnt during the day. Gailhard also draws attention to the necessity of
respecting and observing the customs of the places visited: "Here in
England, the manner is for the master of the House to go in before a
stranger, this would pass for a great incivility in France; so here the
Lady or Mistress of the House uses to sit at the upper end of the Table,
which in France is given to Strangers. So if we be many in a company we
make no scruple to drink all out of a glass, or a Tankard, which they
are not used to do, and if a servant would offer to give them a glass
before it was washed every time they drink, they would be angry at it.
Here when a man is sneezing we say nothing to him, but there they would
look upon't as a want of civility. Again, we in England upon a journey,
use to ask one another how we do, but in France they do no such
thing--amongst them that question would answer to this, 'what aileth you
that you look so ill?'"

The attitude of the French teachers in England towards the foreign tour
gradually changed. They no longer saw in it a rival institution,
depriving them of many of their pupils, but, on the contrary, a means of
giving the finishing touch to the results of their own efforts in
England. All strongly advise their pupils to go to France, and most of
them add directions for travel in their text-books.[903] Mauger's
dialogues include "most exact instructions for travel, very useful and
necessary for all gentlemen that intend to travel into France," and
Lainé's grammar is "enriched with choice dialogues useful for persons of
quality that intend to travel into France, leading them as by the hand
to the most noted and principal places of the kingdom."

As the tour in France increased in popularity, the directions furnished
by French teachers were supplemented by guide-books properly so called;
towards the end of the seventeenth century books such as _The Present
State of France_ and _The Description of Paris_ were to be had at every
bookseller's in London.[904] As early as 1604 Sir Robert Dallington had
written his _View of France_, in which he refers to a book called the
_French Guide_, which "undertaketh to resemble eche countrie to some
other thing, as Bretaigne to a horse-shoe, Picardy to a Neat's toung
etc., which are but idle and disproportioned comparisons." Peter Heylyn,
chaplain at the Courts of Charles I. and Charles II., was the author of
two popular books of this type: _France painted to the Life by a learned
and impartial Hand_,[905] and _A Full relation of two Journeys, the one
in the mainland of France, the other in some of the adjacent
Islands_.[906] Some of these guides are descriptions of the country,
others are relations of journeys made there; to the first category
belongs _A Description of France in its several governments by J. S.
Gent_ (1692), and to the second, _A Journey to Paris in the year 1698 by
Dr. Martin Lister_. Some include advice as to the course of study to be
followed. And as Italy was still frequently included in the tour,
travellers were sometimes supplied with information regarding that
country.[907]

So popular did the tour in France become in the seventeenth century that
guide-books for travellers were produced on the spot. The earliest
French books of this kind had not been specially designed for the use of
foreign visitors; they were as a rule descriptions of the towns and
their geographical positions, or notices on their history and
antiquities.[908] In time, however, they assumed a character more
particularly adapted to strangers.[909] [Header: ROUTES USUALLY
FOLLOWED] One of the best known and most popular was _Le Voyage de
France, dressé pour l'instruction et commodité tant des Français que des
étrangers_, first published in 1639. The author, C. de Varennes, gives
directions for the study of French. He thinks Oudin's Grammar the most
profitable, on account of the manner in which it deals with the chief
difficulties of foreigners, and Paris and Orleans the best towns for
study. For the rest, the help of a tutor should be enlisted, and the
student should converse as much as possible with children, and with
persons of learning and ability; he should also read widely, preferably
dialogues in familiar style and the latest novels; and write French, for
which exercise he will find much help in the _Secrétaire de la Cour_ and
the _Secrétaire à la mode_,[910] collections of letters and
"compliments," which, we may say incidentally, enjoyed a popularity
greatly exceeding their merit.

The short tour in France grew in popularity as the seventeenth century
advanced, and many were content to spend the whole of their sojourn
abroad there, without undertaking the longer continental tour. Others
went to France to prepare themselves for the longer tour. Naturally the
tour in France alone engaged the attention of French teachers. We are
told that the cost of a tour of three months need not be more than £50.
"If you take a friend with you 'twill make you miss a thousand
opportunities of following your end: you go to get French, and it would
be best if you could avoid making an acquaintance with any Englishman
there. To converse with their learned men will be beside your purpose
too, if you go for so short a time: they talk the worst for conversation
and you had rather be with the ladies."[911]

The chief routes which French masters in England advised their pupils to
take were those from Dover to Boulogne and from Rye to Dieppe, whence it
was usual to proceed through Rouen to Paris.[912] Locke, for instance,
landed at Boulogne when on his way to the South of France; thence he
made his way to Paris, chiefly on foot.[913] "If Paris be heaven (for
the French with their usual justice, extol it above all things on
earth)," he writes after a night spent at Poy, "Poy certainly is
purgatory on the way to it." His impressions of Tilliard were more
favourable: "Good mutton, and a good supper, clean linen of the country,
and a pretty girl to lay it (who was an angel compared with the fiends
of Poy) made us some amends for the past night's suffering." It was on
the same route to Paris that the Norman Claude du Val, afterwards
notorious on the English highways, first came into contact with the
English as he was journeying to Paris to try his fortune there. At Rouen
he met a band of young Englishmen on their way to Paris with their
governors, to learn the exercises and to "fit themselves to go a-wooing
at their return home; who were infinitely ambitious of his company, not
doubting but in those two days' travel (from Rouen to Paris) they should
pump many considerable things out of him, both as to the language and
customs of France: and upon that account they did willingly defray his
charges." When the young Englishmen arrived at Paris and settled in the
usual quarter, the Faubourg St. Germain, Du Val attached himself to
their service, and betook himself to England on the Restoration, which
drained Paris of many of its English inhabitants.[914]

Many travellers, however, agreed with the French teachers that Paris was
not a suitable place for serious study of French, both on account of the
many distractions it offered and of the great number of English people
resident there. It therefore became customary with the more
serious-minded to retire for a time to some quiet provincial town where
the accent was good. The French teacher Wodroeph tells us as much:
"Mais, Monsieur, je vois bien que vous estes estranger et vous allez à
la cour à Paris pour y apprendre nostre langue françoise. Mais mieux il
vous vaut d'aller à Orleans plustost que d'y aller pour hanter la cour
et baiser les Dames et Damoiselles. . . . Parquoy je vous conseille
mieux vous en esloigner et d'aller à Orleans là où vous apprendrez la
vraye methode de la langue vulgaire."[915] The towns in the valley of
the Loire were favourite resorts for purposes of study.[916] Orleans,
Blois, and Saumur seem to have been the most popular. [Header: LOIRE
TOWNS FAVOURED] For instance, James Howell, after spending some time in
Paris, where he lodged near the Bastille--"the part furthest off from
the quarters where the English resort," for he wished "to go on to get a
little language"[917] as soon as he could--went to Orleans to study
French; he describes it as "the most charming town on the Loire, and the
best to learn the language in the purity." The town was never without a
great abundance of strangers.[918] The fame of Blois and its teachers
was widespread; and Bourges, Tours, Angers, and Caen were noted for the
purity of their French. Saumur and other towns in which the Protestants
were powerful were also much frequented. John Malpet, afterwards
Principal of Gloucester Hall, Oxford, spent two years in France with his
pupil, Lord Falkland, visiting Orleans, Blois, and Saumur.[919] John
Evelyn visited Paris, Blois, Orleans, and Lyons, and finally settled at
Tours, where he engaged a French master and studied the language
diligently for nineteen weeks.

While studying in one or other of these towns, English travellers
usually lodged in hotels, _auberges_, or _pensions_,[920] and sometimes
with French families. One of their chief difficulties appears to have
been to avoid their fellow-countrymen in such places. Gabriel Du Grès
suggests that when English students are thus thrown together they should
come to an agreement that any one who spoke his native tongue should pay
a fine. A further though less serious impediment was the speaking of
Latin, still considered necessary to the traveller by scholars such as
John Brinsley.[921] For this reason travellers "for language" are
advised to frequent the company of women and children, and "polite"
society, rather than that of scholars. It is a great inconvenience,
observes Du Grès, if your landlord can speak Latin. The majority of
travellers, however, do not appear to have experienced any embarrassment
in this respect; on the contrary, those with little previous knowledge
of French found their Latin of use in their first French lessons if they
studied the language "grammatically" with a master. French teachers in
England usually recommended suitable _pensions_ to their students.
Gabriel Du Grès, for instance, gives a list of such lodgings at Saumur,
his native town; Mauger, of those of Blois, Orleans, and other towns in
the Loire valley.[922] In like manner they addressed their pupils to
recommendable academies for instruction in the polite accomplishments
and military exercises. However, for the most part they advised their
pupils to go to private masters, who would attend to their French as
well as the "exercises." The house of M. Doux, who had a riding school
at Blois, was considered a particularly appropriate residence for those
desiring to learn French, on account of his daughters, who spoke
"wondrously well," as was also that of a certain M. Dechaussé, who kept
an academy for teaching young gentlemen to ride.

What is more, French teachers in England, no longer regarding their
fellow-workers in France as rivals but rather as collaborators, as we
have seen, not infrequently entertained friendly relations with them,
and even went so far as to direct pupils to them. Claude Mauger, for
instance, sent as many of his pupils as possible to M. Gaudrey at Paris,
the author of verses in praise of Mauger's _Tableau du Jugement
Universel_. This change of attitude is probably explained by the fact
that in the seventeenth century French was studied more seriously in
England than in the sixteenth century; and students on their arrival in
France had often had preliminary instruction under the care of a French
tutor in England; Clarendon significantly states that in France "we
quickly _renew_ the acquaintance we have had with the language by the
practice and custom of speaking it." Students going abroad for purposes
of study are therefore addressed to M. Nicolas, an excellent master at
Paris, M. le Fèvre, an _avocat en parlement_ at Orleans, and others. We
are also informed that _abbés_ were fond of teaching their language to
strangers, especially the English.[923] Moreover, several French
teachers in England had previously exercised their profession in France.
The most popular of all, Claude Mauger, had spent seven years teaching
French at Blois. [Header: FRENCH GRAMMARS FOR TRAVELLERS] Many years
later, when he had made his reputation as a successful teacher of
French in London, he went for a time to Paris, where he settled in the
Faubourg St. Germain, and was busily occupied in teaching French to
travellers, among others to the Earl of Salisbury. He also tells us that
his books were very popular in France, and used by the great majority of
English students there.

Several of the French teachers in France wrote books for the use of
their pupils. Mauger himself quotes the authority of "all French
Grammarians that are Professors in France for the teaching of travellers
the language." Yet in the seventeenth century, when the French language
became one of the chief preoccupations of polite society as well as of
scholars, many grammars paid no attention to teaching the language to
foreigners. There were, however, several well-known teachers of
languages at Paris who wrote grammars specially for their use. Alcide de
St. Maurice, the author of the _Guide fidelle des estrangers dans le
voyage de France_ (1672), composed a grammar called _Remarques sur les
principales difficultez de la langue françoise_ (1674), which has little
value, and is compiled chiefly from Vaugelas and Ménage. His chief aim
was to overcome the usual difficulties--pronunciation and orthography.
Several years previously he had written a collection of short stories
inspired by the _Decameron_. The _Fleurs, Fleurettes et passetemps ou
les divers caractères de l'amour honneste_, as he called them, were
published at Paris in 1666, and were no doubt intended as reading matter
for his pupils.

A work called the _Nova Grammatica Gallica_, written in Latin and French
for the use of foreigners, appeared at Paris in 1678. It is mainly
compiled from Chiflet and other French grammarians. A certain M.
Mauconduy was responsible for the grammar, which was on much the same
lines as that of Maupas. The French theologian M. de Saint-Amour, of the
Sorbonne, addressed several foreigners to Mauconduy, who issued for
their use daily _feuillets volants_, containing remarks on the language.
His pupils made rapid progress, and usually knew French fairly well in
three months, we are told.

Another of these teachers, Denys Vairasse d'Allais,[924] lived, like
Mauger, in the Faubourg St. Germain, and like him taught English as well
as French. He had spent some time in England in his youth, and perhaps
taught French there. He also corresponded with Pepys, the famous
diarist. Vairasse had a particular affection for his English pupils,
and they appear to have been in the majority. He was a strong advocate
of the study of grammar, and condemned attempts to learn French "by
imitation" alone. His _Grammaire Méthodique contenant en abrégé les
principes de cet art et les regles les plus necessaires de la langue
françoise dans un ordre claire et naturelle_ appeared at Paris in
1682.[925] In it he criticizes severely all the French grammars for the
use of strangers produced either in France or in foreign countries.
Shortly afterwards the grammar was abridged and translated into English
as _A Short and Methodical Introduction to the French Tongue composed
for the particular benefit of the English_, printed at Paris in 1683.
This French grammar published in English at Paris is a striking
testimony to the importance of the English as students of French.

René Milleran, like Vairasse d'Allais, taught English as well as French.
He was a native of Saumur, but spent most of his life at Paris teaching
languages, and for a time acted as interpreter to the king. He composed
for the use of his pupils a French grammar entitled _La Nouvelle
Grammaire Françoise, avec le Latin à coté des exemples devisée en deux
parties_ (Marseilles, 1692), which is no doubt a first edition of his
_Les deux Gramaires Fransaizes_ (Marseilles, 1694), in which he expounds
his new system of orthography. His collection of letters, _Lettres
Familieres Galantes et autres sur toutes sortes de sujets, avec leurs
responses_, of which the third edition appeared in 1700, enjoyed a great
popularity, like most similar collections at this time: successive
editions appeared right into the eighteenth century. This, he says, was
the first work which won for him the favour of so many foreign noblemen.
His method was to give the students copies of the letters in either
Latin or their own language, and to let them translate them into French.
He announced an edition of the letters with English, German, and Latin
translations for the use of his pupils, but it does not appear to have
been published. Like most writers connected with the Court, Milleran
calls attention to the purity of his style, and announces that no other
books give such exact rules for the language of the Court. A special
feature of his work was the selection of letters by members of the
French Academy. [Header: HOWELL'S ADVICE TO TRAVELLERS] Nor was the
more familiar side neglected: there are numerous letters to and from
students of French, reporting on their progress in the language, with
mutual congratulations on improvement in style, etc. It is said of
Milleran's compositions that their chief merit is their scarcity, and
few will agree with De Linière, the satirist and enemy of Boileau, who
wrote in praise of Milleran:

    Cet homme en sa Grammaire étale
    Autant de sçavoir que Varron,
    Et dans ses Lettres il égale
    Balzac, Voiture et Cicéron.

Not a few English travellers dispensed with the services of a tutor in
France. Among these was James Howell, who studied French at Paris,
Orleans, and Poissy, where he endangered his health by too close
application; he acted for a time as travelling tutor to the son of Baron
Altham. He put his knowledge of French to the test by translating his
own first literary production, _Dodona's Grove_. This, he says, he
submitted to the new _Académie des beaux esprits_, founded by Richelieu,
which gave it a public expression of approbation.[926] The translation
was printed at Paris in 1641 under the title of _Dendrologie ou la Forêt
de Dodone_. Howell left instructions for travellers, based on his own
experience of study abroad, and typical of the theories current at the
time. He advises[927] the student who has settled in some quiet town to
choose a room looking on to the street, "to take in the common cry and
language"; to keep a diary during the day, and in the evening to write
an essay from this material, "for the penne maketh the deepest furrowes,
and doth fertilize and enrich the memory more than anything else." He
should avoid the company of his countrymen, "the greatest bane of
English Gentlemen abroad," and frequent cafés and ordinaries,[928] and
engage a French page-boy "to parley and chide withal, whereof he shall
have occasion enough."[929] Howell strongly felt the necessity of
travelling in France at an early age in order to gain a good
pronunciation, "hardly overcome by one who has past the minority ...
the French tongue by reason of the huge difference betwixt their writing
and speaking will put one often into fits of despair and passion." He
draws a grotesque picture of "some of the riper plants" who "overact
themselves, for while they labour to _trencher le mot_, to cut the word
as they say, and speake like naturall Frenchmen, and to get the true
genuine tone ... they fall a lisping and mincing, and so distort and
strain their mouths and voyce so that they render themselves fantastique
and ridiculous: let it be sufficient for one of riper years to speak
French intelligibly, roundly, and congruously, without such forced
affectation." It is equally important to avoid bashfulness in speaking:
"whatsoever it is, let it come forth confidently whether true or false
sintaxis; for a bold vivacious spirit hath a very great advantage in
attaining the French, or indeed any other language."

The student will also do well to repair sometimes "to the Courts of
pleading and to the Publique Schools. For in France they presently fall
from the Latine to dispute in the vulgar tongue." He should also combine
the study of grammar--that of Maupas is the best--with his practical
exercises, and begin a course of reading, making notes as he goes on.
The most suitable books are those dealing with the history of France,
such as Serres and D'Aubigné. Much judgment is needed in the choice of
books on other subjects, "especially when there is such a confusion of
them as in France, which, as Africk, produceth always something new, for
I never knew week pass in Paris, but it brought forth some new kinds of
authors: but let him take heed of tumultuary and disjointed Authors, as
well as of the frivolous and pedantique." However, "there be some French
poets will affoord excellent entertainment specially Du Bartas, and
'twere not amisse to give a slight salute to Ronsard and Desportes, and
the late Théophile.[930] And touching poets, they must be used like
flowers, some must only be smelt into, but some are good to be thrown
into a limbique to be Distilled."

The student is likewise admonished to make a collection of French
proverbs, and translate from English into French--the most difficult
task in learning the language, "for to translate another tongue into
English is not hard or profitable." [Header: USUAL COURSE] Finally, "for
Sundayes and Holydayes, there bee many Treasuries of Devotion in the
French Tongue, full of patheticall ejaculations, and Heavenly raptures,
and his closet must not be without some of these.... Peter du Moulin
hath many fine pieces to this purpose, du Plessis, Allencour and others.
And let him be conversant with such bookes only on Sundayes and not
mingle humane studies with them. His closet must be his Rendez-vous
whensoever hee is surprized with any fit of perverseness, as thoughts of
Country or Kindred will often affect one."

Having acquired some knowledge of French in this retirement, "hee may
then adventure upon Paris, and the Court, and visit Ambassadours," and
go in the train of some young nobleman. In addition he should enter into
the life of the town, read the weekly gazettes and newspapers, "and it
were not amisse for him to spend some time in the New Academy, erected
lately by the French Cardinall Richelieu, where all the sciences are
read in the French tongue which is done of purpose to refine and enrich
the Language." He may also frequent one of the divers Academies in
Paris, for private gentlemen and cadets.

It was also customary to make either the _Grand_ or the _Petit Tour_ of
France, after the period of studious retirement. The _Grand Tour_
included Lyons, Marseilles, Toulouse, Bordeaux, and Paris; the _Petit
Tour_, Paris, Tours, and Poitiers.[931] Paris, we can guess, was the
chief attraction to most young Englishmen of family and fortune. Dryden
thus describes the education of a young gentleman of fashion:[932] "Your
father sent you into France at twelve years old, bred you up at Paris,
first at a college and then at an Academy." Much importance was attached
to a course of study at the University there, and many recognized the
advantages gained therefrom. But on the other hand there were not a few
complaints of the dangers of lack of discipline and the company of
dissolute scholars, and still more, of the neglect of all serious study.
Clarendon[933] assures us that many English travellers never saw the
University nor knew in what part of Paris it stood; but "dedicate all
that precious season only to Dancing and other exercises, which is
horribly to misspend it"; with the result that when such a traveller
returns to England, all his learning consists in wearing his clothes
well, and he has at least one French fellow to wait upon him and comb
his periwig. He is a "most accomplish'd Harlequin:"[934]

    Drest in a tawdrey suit, at Paris made,
    For which he more than twice the value paid.
    French his attendants, French alone his mouth
    Can speak, his native language is uncouth.
    If to the ladies he doth make advance,
    His very looks must have the air of France.

Such being the case, Admiral Penn thought well to send his son William
to France[935] in the hope that the brilliant life there would make him
forget the Quaker sympathies formed at Oxford.[936] The plan succeeded
for the time being; Penn returned "a most modish person, a fine
Gentleman, with all the latest French fashions," and Pepys[937] reports
that he perceived "something of learning he hath got, but a great deale,
if not too much of the vanity of the French garbe and affected manner of
speech and gait. I fear all real profit he hath made of his travel will
signify little."

No doubt many "raw young travellers" did "waste their time abroad in
gallantry, ignorant for the most part of foreign languages, and no
recommendation to their own country."[938] Costeker in _The Compleat
Education of a Young Nobleman_ pictures what the young traveller abroad
often is, and what he might be. To begin with, "the utmost of his
thoughts and ideas are confined to the more fashionable part of dress."
Then, "according to custom, our Beau is designed to Travel; the Tour
proposed is to France, Italy and Spain. Were I to act the part of an
impartial Inquisitor I would ask for what? Why, most undoubtedly, I
might expect to be answered, to see the World again and perfect his
Studies, and by that means compleat the fine Gentleman. Thus equiped
with a fine Estate, little Learning, and less Sense, and intirely
ignorant of all Languages but his own, he launches into a foreign
Nation, without the least knowledge of his own, where the sharpers will
find him out, discover his Intellects, and make the most of him; they
besiege him with fulsome Adulation, against which his feminine refined
Understanding is too weak to resist. [Header: SIR JOHN RERESBY IN
FRANCE] I will not dwell long upon the subject of his stay there,
supposing he has made his Tour, and seen all the most remarkable and
wondrous curiosities of those Nations, he returns a little better than
he went, except for smattering a little of the tongues, and can give us
but as bad and imperfect an Account of their nation as he was capable of
giving them of ours; all the Advantage he brings from thence is their
Modes and Vices ... the incommoding a French Peruke unmans the Bow at
once."[939] And next to himself he "loves best anyone who will call him
a _Bel Esprit_." How different a picture from that of the traveller
which is painted as a model to young Englishmen: at the age of twenty he
goes abroad for two years, after having acquired a true knowledge of his
own nation and made himself master of French and Latin. He is capable of
learning more in a month than another ignorant of languages can in
twelve. "I am confident were all our young Noblemen educated in this
manner the French Court would no longer bee esteem'd the Residence of
Politeness and Belles Lettres but must then yield to the British one in
many degrees, by reason our young Gentlemen would not only be perfect
Masters in their exterior but intellectual Perfections, and England will
then be fam'd for the Excellency of Manners and Politeness as it is now
for the incomparable Beauty of the Ladies."[940]

Sir John Reresby's account of how he spent his time abroad may be given
as a fairly typical example.[941] He went to France, in company with Mr.
Leech, his governor, in 1654. They travelled from Rye to Dieppe, and
thence to Paris, passing through Rouen. Their stay at Paris was very
short, as Reresby found the great resort of his countrymen there a great
"prevention" to learning the language. "I stayed no longer in Paris," he
tells us, "than to get my clothes, and to receive my bills of exchange,
and so went to live in a pension or boarding house at Blois.... I
employed my time here in learning the language, the guitar and dancing,
till July, and then, there having been some likelihood of a quarrel
between me and a Dutch gentleman in the same house, my governour
prevailed with me to go and live at Saumur[942].... At Saumur in
addition to the exercises I learnt at Blois, I learned to fence, and to
play of the lute. Besides that I studied philosophy and the
mathematicks, with my governor, who read lectures of each to me every
other day. After eight months' stay I had got so much of the language to
be able to converse with some ladies of the town, especially the
daughters of one M. du Plessis.... In the month of April I began to make
the little tour or circuit of France, and returned to Saumur after some
six weeks' absence. In July, I went (desirous to avoid much English
company resident at Saumur) to Le Mans, the capital town of Mayence,
with the two Mr. Leeches and one Mr. Butler. We lodged, and were in
pension at the parson's or minister's house; there were there no
strangers. There were several French persons of quality that lived there
at that time, as the Marquis de Cogne's widow, the Marquis de Verdun,
and several others, who made us partakers of the pastimes and diversions
of the place. All that winter few weeks did pass, that there were not
balls three times at the least, and we had the freer access by reason
that the women were more numerous than the men. I stayed there till
April 1656, and then returned to Saumur with my Governor alone." After
staying there for some time, Reresby dismissed his governor and made a
tour in Italy.


FOOTNOTES:

[882] _Discourse in derision of the Teaching in Free Schools_, 1644.

[883] One John Gifford, for instance, obtained permission to spend seven
years in France in order to educate his family there (_Cal. State
Papers, Dom., 1623-25_, p. 282). Mr. Storey sent his grandson Starky to
France to learn the language (_ibid., 1649-50_, p. 535).

[884] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1654_, p. 427. Care was taken to prevent
English students abroad from going to Roman Catholics; in 1661 Francis
Cottington made a successful application for the remission of a
forfeiture he incurred by going to Paris without a licence and living
three months in the house of a Papist (_Cal. State Papers, Dom.,
1661-62_, p. 566).

[885] _Memoirs of the Verney Family_, i. pp. 477, 497.

[886] Among the books he read were Monluc's _Commentaires_, the
_Secrétaire à la mode_, and the _Secrétaire de la cour_ (_Memoirs of the
Verney Family_, iii. p. 80).

[887] _Memoirs_, iii. p. 66.

[888] An Edict of 1683 restricted the number of such pupils allowed to
French pastors to two.

[889] An account of the schools of the French Protestants is given by M.
Nicolas in the _Bulletin de l'Histoire du Protestantisme français_, vol.
iv. pp. 497 _et seq._

[890] Cp. pp. 233 _sqq._, _supra_. The names of many famous families are
found in the registers of Geneva University--the Pembrokes, Montagus,
Cavendishes, Cecils, etc. Borgeaud, _L'Académie de Genève_, p. 442.

[891] _Memoirs_, i. p. 358.

[892] _Verney Memoirs_, vol. i. p. 358.

[893] _Cal. of State Papers, Dom., 1661-62_, p. 283.

[894] _Ibid., 1656-56_, pp. 182, 188, 281, 288, 316.

[895] _Savile Correspondence_, Camden Society, 1858, pp. 80, 71 _sqq._,
228.

[896] When the Academy of Saumur was suppressed in 1684, the town lost
about two-thirds of its inhabitants.

[897] Locke was one of those who went to the South of France "carrying a
cough with him"; cp. his Journal in King, _Life of Locke ... with
Extracts from his ... Journal_, 1830, i. pp. 86 _sqq._, Nov. 1675-March
1679.

[898] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1667-68_, p. 69.

[899] _New Instructions to the Guardian_, 1694, p. 101.

[900] Cooper, _Annals of Cambridge_, iv. 184.

[901] _New Instructions to the Guardian_, 1694, p. 101.

[902] _The Compleat Gentleman or Directions for the Education of Youth
as to their breeding at home and Travelling Abroad_, 1687, pp. 33 _sqq._

[903] Eliote seems to have been the first to have described the Grand
Tour--in his grammar, _Ortho-Epia Gallica_ (1593). Sherwood followed his
example in 1625. After the middle of the century such dialogues assume a
more educational and guide-like and less descriptive form.

[904] Lister, _A Journey to Paris in the year 1698_, p. 2. Lister had
previously visited France in about 1668. In 1698 he visited the aged
Mlle. de Scudéry and the Daciers, and frequented the French theatres.

[905] Second edition, 1657.

[906] London, 1656. Another edition appeared in 1673, entitled _The
Voyage of France, or a compleat Journey through France_.

[907] As in _A Tour in France and Italy made by an English Gentleman_
(J. Clenchy), 1675 and 1676, reprinted in _A Collection of Voyages_,
1745, vol. i.; and _Remarks on the Grand Tour of France and Italy lately
performed by a person of quality_ (W. Bromley), 1692 and 1693 (when it
was entitled _Remarks made in Travels through France and Italy with many
public inscriptions. Lately undertaken by a Person of Quality_). Cp. pp.
220 _sqq._, supra.

[908] For instance: _Le Guide des chemins pour aller et venir par tous
les pays et contrées du Royaume de France . . . par C. Estienne_, Paris,
1552, 1553; Lyons, 1556. _Les Antiquitez et Recherches des Villes,
chasteaux, et places plus remarquables de toute la France_, 6e éd.,
1631. L. Coulon, _Le fidèle conducteur pour le voyage de France montrant
exactement les Routes et choses remarquables qui se trouvent en chaque
ville, et les distances d'icelles avec un dénombrement des Batailles qui
s'y sont données_, Paris, 1654.

[909] As _Le Guide Fidelle des étrangers dans le voyage de France_,
Paris, 1672 (by Aloide de St. Maurice); _Les Délices de la France ou
description des provinces et villes capitales d'icelles_, Leyde, 1685;
_Le Gentilhomme étranger voyageant en France, par le baron G.D.N._,
1699--borrowed, without acknowledgement, from _Le Guide Fidelle_ of
1672. Cp. A. Babeau, _Les Voyageurs en France depuis la Renaissance
jusqu'à la Révolution_, Paris, 1885, chapter v.

[910] By La Serre. The former, which first appeared in 1625, went
through fifty editions.

[911] Lockier, in Spense's _Anecdotes_, 1820, p. 75.

[912] _Journal_, p. 89.

[913] Riding on horseback was the more usual mode of travelling, the
horses being hired from town to town; cp. Locke's _Journal_, p. 149.
Wherever possible, travellers went from one town to another by water--as
from one of the Loire towns to another.

[914] _The Memoirs of M. du Val ... intended as a severe reflexion on
the too great fondness of English ladies towards French valets which at
that time was a common complaint_, London, 1670, Harleian Miscellany,
iii. p. 308.

[915] _Spared Houres of a Souldier_, 1623.

[916] Moryson mentions Orleans as a good town; Edward Leigh, Blois and
Orleans (_Foelix Consortium_, 1663); Evelyn, Blois and Bourges; Lookier,
Orleans and Caen.

[917] _Epistolae Ho-Elianae_, 9th ed., 1726, p. 38.

[918] Heylyn, _Voyage of France_, 1673, p. 294.

[919] He kept a diary in Latin (1648-50); cf. Wood, _Athenae Oxon._
(Bliss), iii. 901.

[920] Gailhard, _The Compleat Gentleman_, 1678.

[921] Who, in his _Ludus Literarius_, urges boys to practise speaking
Latin "to fit them if they shall go beyond the seas, as Gentlemen who go
to travel, Factors for merchants, and the like."

[922] He tells us that at Rouen the English usually went to an inn kept
by a certain Mr. Madde; at Dieppe, Madame Godard's house was very
popular; at Paris, the best hotel was the "Ville de Venize." At Orleans,
good lodging was found at the "Croix Blanche," kept by one M. Richard,
and at the house of M. Marishall Laisné.

[923] J. Rutledge, _Mémoire sur le caractère, et les moeurs des Français
comparés à ceux des Anglais_, 1776, p. 55.

[924] Vairasse was born _c._ 1630, probably at Allais.

[925] Another grammar of similar intent was that of Ruau, _La vraie
methode d'enseigner la langue françoise aux estrangers expliquée en
Latin_, Paris, 1687.

[926] _Epistolae Ho-Elianae_, 9th ed., 1726, p. 283.

[927] _Instructions for forreine travel_, 1642, ed. Arber, 1869, pp. 19
_sqq._

[928] Bacon had many years before advised the traveller to keep a diary:
and further "let him sequester himself from the company of his
countrymen, and diet in such places where there is a good company of the
nation where he travaileth" (_Essay on Travel_).

[929] A Huguenot boy of about sixteen was considered a suitable valet
(Lainé, _French Grammar_, 1650).

[930] _I.e._ Théophile de Viau.

[931] St. Maurice, _Guide Fidelle_, 1672.

[932] _Limberman or the Kind Keeper_, Act I. Sc. 1.

[933] _On Education._ Miscellaneous Works, 1751, pp. 322-3.

[934] _Satire against the French_, 1691.

[935] Webb, _The Penns and Penningtons of the Seventeenth Century in
their Domestic and Religious Life_, 1867, p. 154.

[936] Gibbon, on the contrary, was sent to the house of a pastor of
Lausanne, in the hope that he would abjure the doctrines of Roman
Catholicism, which he had affected at the same University.

[937] _Diary_, August 26 and 27, 1664; August 30, 1664.

[938] D. Fordyce, _Dialogues on Education_, 1745, i. p. 417.

[939] _The Compleat Education of a Young Nobleman_, 1723, pp. 13 and 14.

[940] Costeker, _op. cit._ pp. 50-51.

[941] _Memoirs of Sir John Reresby, 1634-1689_, London, 1875, pp. 26
_sqq._, and _Memoirs and Travels of Sir John Reresby_, London, 1904, p.
21.

[942] Travelling by boat on the Loire, as was usual, and passing by
Tours. They were accompanied by a band of French men and women who, says
Reresby, tried to make the journey more pleasant by singing, and made it
less so.




CHAPTER VI

    GALLOMANIA AFTER THE RESTORATION


The French teachers of London at the time of the Restoration, chief
amongst whom were Claude Mauger, Paul Festeau, Pierre Lainé, and
Guillaume Herbert, all urged students to travel in France as a means of
completing the knowledge of French acquired in England; yet at the same
time they naturally and in their own interests lay emphasis on the
facilities for learning the language in England, especially after the
Restoration, when, to use Mauger's words, there was a little France in
London, as well as a little England in Paris; "there being so great a
correspondence between the two Courts of England and France that we see
here continually the Lords of the latter, as they see at Paris persons
of quality of the former, besides an infinity of others going and coming
from thence." This indeed was the period in which Francomania reached
its height in England. During the Commonwealth the English Court and
many of the nobility and gentry had sojourned in France, and returned
thence imbued with admiration for everything French. This admiration was
intensified by the universal popularity of the French language and
French fashions. Gentlemen from all parts of Europe repaired to France
to learn the language and "frenchify" their manners. France was the
country to which English gentlemen resorted "to get their breeding"; and
the Chancellor Clarendon held that their manners were much improved by
the contact. On the other hand, French men and women of the same class
came to the English Court in larger numbers than ever before. Some
returned with their English friends at the Restoration. Others followed
later, for the English Court offered more attractions to
pleasure-seekers than did the French Court, now under the influence of
Madame de Maintenon.

The indignation and dismay aroused in France by the execution of
Charles I.[943] made the welcome offered to the royalist emigrants all
the warmer in the first instance. We are told that Paris, and indeed all
France, was full of loyal fugitives.[944] The exiled English Court was
sheltered at the Louvre and the Palais Royal in turn.[945] The queen
arrived in her native land in 1644, and shortly afterwards came Prince
Charles, then about sixteen years old, and James, the young Duke of
York. Mlle. de Montpensier, the grand-daughter of Henry IV., remarks on
the French of the two young princes. James, she thought, spoke the
language with ease, and very well indeed, and Mademoiselle was no
lenient critic.[946] But Charles had not drawn as much profit from the
lessons received in England.[947] He found the pronunciation an almost
insuperable difficulty, stammered and hesitated, and during the early
part of his stay remained almost mute for want of words. Mademoiselle
says he could not utter one intelligible sentence in French, though he
understood all she said to him. Charles, however, soon felt the benefit
of his sojourn abroad. When he returned to France from Holland in 1648,
he had already made much progress and answered the French king readily
in French, when that monarch inquired about the horses and dogs of the
Prince of Orange. He was ready enough to talk of hunting in French, but
when the queen wished to know about the progress of his affairs, and to
talk of serious matters, he excused himself, declaring he could not
speak French.[948] He would also sit silent for long periods in Mlle. de
Montpensier's presence, and only ventured to convey his compliments to
her through Lord Jermyn, one of the chief counsellors of Charles I., who
remained in the service of the queen during her exile in France.
[Header: THE ENGLISH COURT IN FRANCE] But the princess was delighted to
see a great improvement in his speaking of the language at the time of
his return from the expedition into Scotland, and the fatal battle of
Worcester. He forgot his shyness and spoke French well, relating to her
the thrilling story of his escape, and how he was "furieusement ennuyé"
in Scotland, where they think it a sin to listen to a violin. He was
also able to make the princess very pretty compliments in French, and on
these occasions, she remarks, he spoke the language particularly
well.[949]

Charles is even said to have gone incognito to several French reformed
churches during his stay in France. The presence of Cromwell's
ambassador prevented his going to the famous church of Charenton, but he
went to others. On one occasion he listened to the sermon in the
Protestant church of La Rochelle, in company with the Duke of Ormond,
and expressed his satisfaction to one or two of the congregation to whom
he revealed his identity.[950]

Many other Englishmen improved their French during their enforced stay
on the Continent. Most of the high officials of the Court of Charles I.,
the courtiers, nobles, and gentlemen round the king, spent the greater
part of the interregnum in Paris, although some of them were disturbed
by the French understanding with Cromwell in 1656. John Evelyn[951]
enumerates most of the distinguished Englishmen he met in France,[952]
and remarks on the number of French courtiers who paid their respects to
the king (Charles II.); he himself kissed His Majesty's hand at St.
Germain's. French courtiers had free intercourse with the English at
concerts, festivals, and other entertainments.[953] They also met at the
Academies so fashionable at the time. On the 13th March 1650, for
instance, Evelyn witnessed a "triumph" in Mr. Del Campo's Academy, where
"divers of the French and English noblesse, especially my Lord of
Ossory, and Richard, sons to the Marquis of Ormond (afterwards Duke),
did their exercises on horseback in noble equipage before a world of
spectators and great persons, men and ladies." And again, on the 24th of
May, he writes, "we were invited by the Noble Academies to a running,
where were many brave horses, gallants and ladies, my Lord Stanhope
entertaining us with a collation." The king's brother, the young Duke of
Gloucester, set the example by daily attending one of these academies.
Sir John Reresby, that time-serving politician, has also left an account
of his journey in France during the Commonwealth. On his arrival at
Paris in 1654 he saw the king, the Duke of York, and Prince Rupert
playing at billiards in the Palais Royal; "but was incognito, it being
crime sufficient the waiting upon His Majesty to have caused the
sequestration of his estates."[954] Reresby was again in France in 1659,
and was well received by Henrietta Maria. Almost alone of the English
exiles, Sir Edward Hyde, the Chancellor, who found the discomforts of
the exiled Court very great, failed to become a fluent speaker of
French, chiefly because he was unable to overcome the difficulties of
the pronunciation. After the Restoration he was the one high official of
the English Court who did not speak the language with fluency. It was
not till the time of his exile in France, after his disgrace in 1668,
that he mastered the language sufficiently to read its literature; but
he still found "many inconveniences" in speaking it.[955]

Men of letters formed a considerable section of the English colony in
France. Waller, Denham, Cowley, Davenant, Hobbes, Killigrew, Shirley,
Fanshawe, Crashaw, etc., and later Roscommon, Rochester, Buckingham,
Wycherley, Vanbrugh, and others lived in France, and some mixed freely
in French literary circles, then centring round the Hôtel de
Rambouillet, and such names as those of Malherbe, Vaugelas, Corneille,
Bossuet, Scudéry, La Calprenède. English literature of the Restoration
gives ample proof of their familiarity with both the language and
literature of their hosts.[956] Waller, for instance, after spending
some time at Rouen, moved to Paris, where he lived "in great splendour
and hospitality."[957] [Header: ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS IN FRANCE]
Cowley, who had followed the queen to Paris, became secretary to Lord
Jermyn, afterwards Earl of St. Albans, and deciphered the letters which
passed between the king and queen of England. The dramatist Davenant was
twice in France, where he remained several years on his second visit.
Hobbes, who for many years acted as a travelling tutor, made his mark in
the philosophic circles of Paris, and knew Mersenne, Sorbière, and
Gassendi. He fled to Paris during the civil wars, and for a time was
engaged in teaching arithmetic to the Prince of Wales.[958]

Among the many children sent to France for education during the Civil
War and Commonwealth were several future literary men. Both Vanbrugh and
Wycherley were brought up in this way. At the age of fifteen Wycherley
was "sent for education to the Western parts of France, either to
Saintonges or the Angoumois. His abode there was either upon the Banks
of the Charente, or very little remov'd from it. And he had there the
Happiness to be in the neighbourhood of one of the most accomplish'd
Ladies of the Court of France, Mme. de Montausier, whom Voiture has made
famous by several very ingenious letters, the most of which were writ to
her when she was a Maid, and call'd Mlle. de Rambouillet. I have heard
Mr. Wycherley say he was often admitted to the Conversation of that
lady, who us'd to call him the Little Hugenot: and that young as he was,
he was equally pleased with the Beauty of her Mind, and with the Graces
of her person."[959]

One of the young royalists who received his education in France during
the Commonwealth so completely mastered the French language that he
gained an important place among French men of letters: the famous
Anthony Hamilton, the author of short stories in French[960]--masterpieces
in the light vein[961]--and of the well-known life of his
gallant brother-in-law, the Comte de Grammont, which gives a
vivid picture of the life at the Court of Charles II. Hamilton has
been placed second only to Voltaire as a representative of the _esprit
français_.[962]

At the Restoration, Hamilton returned to England with the rest of the
English emigrants, together with a considerable number of Frenchmen who
had attached themselves to the English Court. He was followed two years
later by the hero of his _Mémoires_,[963] the Comte de Grammont, who
pronounced the English Court so like that of France in manners and
conversation that he could hardly realize he was in another
country.[964] French was the language freely used by the English
emigrants on their return to London, and by others in imitation of them.
"French is the most in use," wrote William Higford in the year of the
Restoration, "a most sweet tongue called the Woman's tongue, and as I
think for the address from the servant to the mistress, and from the
servant to the soveraigne, there is no sweeter nor more civil."[965] The
use of the French language was spreading all over Europe, but nowhere
was it so popular as in England: "indeed it is most alamode and best
pleases the ladies and we cannot deny but Messieurs of France are
excellent wits."[966]

The presence of so many of these _messieurs_ in London intensified the
already strong French atmosphere. Several famous names occur in the list
of French ladies and gentlemen who took up their abode in England at
this time. Shortly before De Grammont, St. Evremond had arrived in
England, where he spent over thirty years, and died in 1703. Both played
important parts in the social life of the time. De Grammont especially
was very popular. [Header: FRENCH COURTIERS IN LONDON] He received a
warm welcome at Court, where he met many old friends and was overwhelmed
with hospitality; to make an engagement with him it was necessary to see
him a fortnight beforehand. He himself added to the Court festivities by
giving French entertainments in the Parisian style.

At the numerous festivities held in honour of De Grammont, St.
Evremond[967] was almost invariably one of the guests. He soon became
the centre of a _coterie_, half English and half French, including his
literary companion the Dutchman Vossius, Canon of Windsor, the French
doctor Le Fèvre, professor of chemistry to Charles II.,[968] and the
learned Huguenot Henri Justel, who had charge of the royal library at
St. James's. What contributed most to reconcile St. Evremond to his life
in England, however, was the arrival of Hortense Mancini, Duchesse de
Mazarin, niece of the cardinal. The French ambassador Courtin said
England was the refuge of French wives who had quarrelled with their
husbands, and the Duchesse was one of these.[969] In her _salon_ St.
Evremond met the most distinguished Englishmen and foreign ministers of
the day. He saw her daily, and she inspired much of his best work.
There, too, met French Catholics, Huguenots, and Englishmen, free from
all religious prejudice, and talked of the subjects which interested
them most. Another of Mazarin's nieces, the Duchesse de Bouillon,[970]
was also in London for a time, and received in her _salon_ Waller, St.
Evremond, and others; at one time there was a possibility of La Fontaine
joining her circle. La Fontaine seems to have felt some interest in
England and the English, who, he says,

                            pensent profondément;
    Leur esprit, en cela, suit leur tempérament,
    Creusant dans les sujets, et forts d'expériences,
    Ils étendent partout l'empire des sciences.

To Mrs. Harvey, sister of Lord Montagu and friend of the Duchess of
Mazarin, he dedicated his fable _Le Renard Anglais_.

Both St. Evremond and the Duchess of Mazarin ended their days in
England.[971] St. Evremond enjoyed the favour of three English kings.
Charles II. gave him a pension, and when William III. dined with one of
his courtiers, he is said to have always stipulated that the French
writer should be of the party, as he took great delight in his
conversation. Though St. Evremond received permission in 1689 to return
to his native land, he did not avail himself of the offer, preferring to
remain in the midst of his English friends, who were accustomed to his
ways and manners and his peculiarities.[972] But during the whole of his
thirty years' stay in England he made no attempt to speak English.
French was the language in which he and the rest of his countrymen
carried on their daily intercourse with their hosts.

Pepys also refers frequently to the Frenchmen he met in London.[973] On
one occasion at the Cockpit his attention was diverted from the stage by
a group of loquacious Frenchmen in a box, who, not understanding
English, were amusing themselves by asking a pretty lady, who knew both
languages, what the actors said. "Lord! what sport they made!" says
Pepys. On another occasion at Whitehall he met a very communicative
Frenchman with one eye, who shared a coach with him, and told him the
history of his own life "without asking."

Covent Garden, we are told, was the favourite resort of the French
residents, "nearer the Court, than the Exchange."[974] Their presence,
however, was not confined to Court circles; for the French were
beginning to take an interest in England and to visit the country,[975]
although, as yet, their curiosity had not extended to the language. In a
few cases English was studied. Mauger even tells us that several of his
contemporaries learnt it in France. It is certain that some employed the
services of the French teachers of London, who were willing to teach
their newly acquired language to their countrymen; for this purpose the
practice of attaching English grammars to French ones--a combination
first instituted by Mauger, who urged the French and English to avail
themselves of this opportunity of exchanging lessons--became more and
more common as the seventeenth century drew to its close. [Header:
FRENCH VALETS AND "FEMMES DE CHAMBRE"] In the meanwhile guide-books[976]
and relations of travel in England appeared. The writer of one of these,
M. Payen,[977] remarks on the great number of strangers, especially
Frenchmen, in London.[978] At the time of the Restoration, however, the
chief significance of their presence lies in the need they created for
the English to speak French.

The great demand for everything French, including the language, offered
an opening for many Frenchmen in London; for all the men and women of
fashion were not in the position of De Grammont, who sent his valet,
Thermes, to France every week to bring back the latest fashions from
Paris. "Nothing will go down with the town now," writes a contemporary
author, "but French fashions, French dancing, French songs, French
servants, French wines, French kickshaws, and now and then French sawce
come in among them, and so no doubt but French doctors may be in esteem
too."[979] In almost every book written at the time there is some
reference to the mania for French fashions. And some time later the Abbé
Le Blanc relates how, on one occasion in England, a self-satisfied
Englishman taunted him thus: "Il faut que votre pays soit bien pauvre,
puisque tant de gens sont obligés de le quitter pour chercher à vivre en
celui-ci. C'est vous qui nous fournissez de Maîtres à danser, de
Perruquiers, de Tailleurs, et de Valets de chambre: et nous vous devons
cette justice, pour la Frisure ou pour le Menuet, les François
l'emportent sur toutes les autres Nations. Je ne comprens pas comment on
aime si fort la Danse dans un Pays où l'on a si peu sujet de rire.
N'est-il pas triste, par exemple, de ne cultiver vos Vignes que pour
nous?"[980]

Regarding the French _valets_ and _femmes de chambre_ in London, the
Abbé writes: "Il n'est pas étonnant que l'on trouve en Angleterre tant
de Domestiques François. A Londres on se plaît à parler notre Langue, on
copie nos usages, on imite nos moeurs: ils entretiennent du moins dans
nos manières ceux qui les aiment: et les Anglois les payent à
proportion de l'utilité qu'ils en retirent."[981] We are told that the
French lackey was "as mischievous all the year as a London apprentice on
Shrove Tuesday";[982] yet he was indispensable:

    His Lordship's Valet must be bred in France,
    Or else he is a clown without Pretence:
    The English Blockheads are in dress so coarse,
    They're fit for nothing but to rub a horse.
    Her Ladyship's ill manner'd or ill bred,
    Whose Woman Confident or Chamber Maid,
    Did not in France suck in her first breath'd Air,
    Or did not gain her education there.[983]

French cooks were also in great demand, and it was a point of gentility
to dine at one of the French ordinaries. Thus Briske, in Shadwell's
_Humourists_, is condemned as "a fellow that never wore a noble or
polite garniture, or a white periwig, one that has not a bit of interest
at Chatelin's, or ever ate a good fricacy, sup, or ragoust in his life";
for now, "like the French we dress, like Frenchmen eat." "Substantial
beef" is "boil'd in vain," and "our boards are profaned with
fricassee":[984]

    Our cooks in dressing have no skill at all,
    French cooks are only of the modish stamp.

Pepys did not care for the new French restaurants. At the most popular,
Chatelin's,[985] he says, they serve a "damned base dinner at the charge
of 8s. 6d." He preferred the old English ordinaries where English food
was given a French name. Yet he admits that at the French houses the
table is covered and the glasses clean, all in the French manner; and
when he dined with his patrons of the Admiralty, he usually was given a
"fine French dinner."[986]

[Header: THE FRENCH TAILOR]

As to the French dancing-master, he is a "very Paladin of France when
he comes into England once, where he has the Regimen of the Ladies leges
and is the sole Pedagoge of their feet, teaching them the French
Language, as well as the French Pace."[987] French music was also the
vogue. We are told that during the reign of Charles II. "all musick
affected by the beau mond ran in the ffrench way."[988] John Bannester,
the first violin to the king, is said to have lost his post[989] for
having upheld, within the hearing of His Majesty, that the English
musicians were superior to the French. Soon after the Restoration,
Charles on one occasion gave great umbrage to the English musicians by
making them stop their performance and bidding the French music play
instead.

In the same way the French tailor is "the King of Fashions and Emperor
of the Mode, not onely in France, but most of its Neighboring Nations,
and his Laws are received where the King of France's will not
pass";[990] and thus the French

    Now give us laws for pantalons,
    The length of breeches and the gathers,
    Port-cannons, periwigs and feathers.[991]

There was a French peddling woman at Court, Mlle. Le Boord, who "us'd to
bring peticoates, and fanns and baubles out of France to the
Ladys,"[992] and whose opinion had great weight. De Grammont won the
favour of the English ladies by having French trinkets sent them from
France. "Let the fashion be French, 'tis no matter what the cloth
be."[993] Travellers from France were beset with questions as to the
latest mode. Some devotees were said to receive weekly letters from
France providing information on this subject.[994] At one moment
Charles protested against the rage for French fashions by adopting a
simple garment after the Persian style, which was first worn at Court on
the 18th October 1666. Divers gentlemen went so far as to wager that His
Majesty would not persist in this change; and when Louis XIV. retorted
by ordering his pages to be attired in the same Persian garb, Charles
withdrew. "It was a comely and manly attire," writes Evelyn, "too good
to hold, it being impossible for us in good earnest to leave the
Monsieurs' vanities long."[995]

Francomania indeed was carried to extremes:

    And as some pupils have been known
    In time to put their tutors down,
    So ours are often found t'ave got
    More tricks than ever they were taught.[996]

We are told of an "English captain that threw up his commission because
his company would not exercise after the French Discipline."[997] Dryden
even accuses the French of influencing the course of English
politics:[998]

                              The Holy League
    Begot our Cov'nant; Guisards got Whig,
    Whate'er our hot-brain'd sheriffs did advance,
    Was like our fashions, first produced in France,
    And when worn out, well scourg'd and bannish'd there.
    Sent over, like their godly Beggars, here.

A French patent was said to authorize any crime.[999] "Now what a Devil
'tis should make us so dote on these French," says Flecknoe,[1000] and
another writer adds:[1001]

    Our native speech we must forget e'er long
    To learn the French that much more modish Tongue.
    Their language smoother is, hath pretty Aires,
    But ours is Gothick if compar'd with theirs.
    The French by arts of smooth insinuation
    Are now become the Darlings of the Nation.

[Header: FRENCH SPOKEN AT COURT]

The example was set at Court, where French was commonly in use, and
where to be able to speak it well was a necessity and proof of good
breeding. "Mark then, I makes 'em both speak French to show their
breeding," says the author Boyes of his two kings in Buckingham's
_Rehearsal_.[1002] Sir John Reresby first attracted notice at Court by
his fluent French. "It was this summer," he writes in 1661, "that the
Duke of York first took any particular notice of me. I happened to be in
discourse with the French Ambassador and some other gentlemen of his
nation, in the presence at Whitehall, and the Duke joined us, he being a
great lover of the French tongue and kind to those who spoke it. The
next night he talked with me a long while as he was at supper with the
king."[1003] And Reresby, with a keen eye for his own advancement, took
advantage of this to secure the patronage of the Duke. He also tells us
that the King, Duke, and French ambassador were very often merry and
intimate together at Louise de Kerouaille's (now Duchess of Portsmouth)
lodgings,[1004] where French alone would be used, for it was an unknown
thing for a French ambassador to speak English. There was not a
courtier[1005] who did not speak French with ease, Clarendon alone
excepted.

The ladies of the Court were equally well versed in the language. When
De Grammont, who had made the acquaintance of most of the courtiers in
France, came to make that of the ladies, he needed no interpreter, for
all knew French--"assez pour s'expliquer et toutes entendaient le
françois assez bien pour ce qu'on avait à leur dire."[1006] Amongst them
was Miss Hamilton, Anthony's sister, who became De Grammont's
wife,[1007] and was much admired at the Court of Louis XIV. The
accomplishments of Miss Stuart may be quoted as typical of the rest:
"elle avoit de la grâce, dansoit bien, parloit françois mieux que sa
langue naturelle: elle étoit polie, possédoit cet air de parure après
lequel on court et qu'on n'attrappe guères à moins de l'avoir pris en
France dès sa jeunesse."[1008] The least gifted lady of the Court was
Miss Blake, who "n'entendoit presque point le françois." When the
Countess of Berkshire recommended one of her near relatives as one of
the queen's dressers, the fact that she had been twelve years in France,
and could speak French exceedingly well, was mentioned as her chief
qualification.[1009] The Portuguese queen[1010] was indeed out of place
in her Frenchified Court. She could not speak French, and Spanish was
her means of intercourse with Charles II. and the Duke of York, who both
spoke this language fairly well, and were able to act as interpreters
between their French mother and the young queen. Catherine's Portuguese
attire was the subject of much amusement, and her efforts to induce the
ladies of the Court to adopt it were of no avail. James II., when he was
an exile in France for the second time, told the nuns of Chaillot that
she had endeavoured to prevail on King Charles to use his influence with
them: "but the ladies dressed in the French fashions and would not hear
of any other, constantly sending artificers and dressmakers to Paris to
import the newest modes, as they do to this very day."[1011] The country
ladies caught the fashion as it was going out in London.[1012]

In many cases the passion for all things French became a mania with the
ladies, as is frequently pictured in the drama of the time.[1013] A
Frenchified lady would have a French maid, "born and bred in France, who
could speak English but brokenly," with whom she would talk a mixture of
broken French and English; while many a one like Melantha of Dryden's
_Marriage à-la-mode_,[1014] doted on any new French word: "as fast as
any bullion comes out of France, she coins it into English, and runs
mad in new French words."[1015] [Header: THE FRENCHIFIED LADY] She
importunes those returned from the tour in France, or who have
correspondence with Parisians, to know the latest words used in Paris.
Her maid supplies her daily with a store of French words:

    _Melantha._ ... You _sot_ you, come produce your Morning's work....
    O, my Venus! 14 or 15 words to serve me a whole day! Let me die, at
    this rate I cannot last till night! Come read your words....

    _Philotis._ _Sottises._

    _Melantha._ _Sottises, bon._ That's an excellent word to begin withal:
    as for example, he or she said a thousand _sottises_ to me. Proceed.

    _Philotis._ _Figure_: as what a _Figure_ of a man is there! _Naïve_
    and _Naïveté_.

    _Melantha._ _Naïve!_ as how?

    _Philotis._ Speaking of a thing that was naturally said: it was so
    _naïve_. Or such an innocent piece of simplicity: 'twas such a
    _Naïveté_.

And as Melantha becomes excited with her new acquisitions, she bestows
gifts on her maid at each new word.

A new catechism[1016] for the ladies was invented on these lines:

    --Of what Nation are you?
    --English by birth: my education _à la mode de France_.
    --Who confirms you?
    --Mademoiselle the French Mantua maker.

We are told that the Frenchified lady was educated in a French
boarding-school, by a French dancing master, a French singing master,
and a French waiting woman. "Before I could speak English plain," she
tells us, "I was taught to jabber French: and learnt to dance before I
could go: in short I danced French dances at 8, sang French at 10, spoke
it at 13, and before 15 could talk nothing else."

Among the gentlemen _à la mode_, "to speak French like a magpie" was
also the fashion:

    We shortly must our native speech forget
    And every man appear a French coquett.
    Upon the Tongue our English sounds not well,
    But--oh, monsieur, la langue françoise est belle;[1017]

wrote a satirist of the time. And so the Francomaniacs, designated as
_beaux_ or English _monsieurs_, became the subject for satire and
ridicule. Their French was often not of a very high standard. Pepys met
one of the _monsieurs_, "full of his French," and pronounced it "not
very good." Many, no doubt, had to be content "t' adorn their English
with French scraps."

    And while they idly think t' enrich,
    Adulterate their native speech:
    For, though to smatter ends of Greek
    Or Latin be the rhetorique
    Of pedants counted and vainglorious,
    To smatter French is meritorious,
    And to forget their mother tongue
    Or purposely to speak it wrong.[1018]

Butler says that "'tis as ill breeding now to speak good Englis, as to
wrote good Englis,[1019] good sense or a good hand," and "not to be able
to swear a French oath, nor use the polite French word in conversation,"
debarred one from polite society. The town spark or _beau garzion_ is
frequently introduced in the comedies of the time. Not being master of
his own language, he intermingles it with scraps of French that the
ladies may take him for a man of parts and a true linguist.[1020] Such
is Sir Foppington, who walks with one eye hidden under his hat, with a
toothpick in prominence, and a cane dangling at his button;[1021] and
Sir Novelty Fashion, who prefers the title of _Beau_ to that of Right
Honourable;[1022] and the _Monsieur_ of Paris of Wycherley's _Gentleman
Dancing Master_, "mightily affected with French Language and Fashions,"
preferring the company of a French valet to that of an English squire,
and talking "agreeable ill Englis." Etherege's Sir Fopling Flutter[1023]
presents us with a telling picture of what was considered good breeding
and wit at the Court of Charles II. [Header: THE ENGLISH "MONSIEUR"] Sir
Fopling is "a fine undertaking French fop, arrived piping hot from
Paris," bent on imitating the people of quality in France and on
speaking a mixture of French and English. "His head stands for the most
part on one side, and his looks are more languishing than a lady's when
she lolls at stretch in her coach, or leans her head carelessly against
the side of a box in the playhouse." He judges everything according to
what is done at Paris, and English music and dancing make him shudder.
And as it was _à la mode_ to be

    Attended by a young petit garçon
    Who from his cradle was an arch Fripon,[1024]

he walks about with a train of French valets. Mr. Frenchlove of James
Howard's "English Monsieur" (1674) is likewise "a Frenchman in his
second nature, that is in his fashion, discourse and clothes"; he cannot
discover a _divertissement_ in the whole of London, but finds "some
comfort that in this vast beef-eating city, a French house may be found
to eat at."

The French ordinaries held an important place in the daily round of the
_beau_. His toilet occupied the whole of the early part of the day. He
would then go to the French ordinary,[1025] where he boasts of his
travels to the untravelled company, and if they receive this well, plies
them with "more such stuff, as how he, simple fellow as he seems to be,
had interpreted between the French King and the Emperor." Or, if his
accomplishments will not stand this strain, "flings some fragments of
French or small parcels of Italian about the table."[1026] He may then
take the promenade or _Tour à la Mode_, where he salutes with _bon
meen_, and has a hundred _jolly rancounters_ on the way.[1027] He
usually ended his day at the play.

And here again he would find the desired French atmosphere. Many
translations or adaptations of French plays were acted,[1028] and the
English drama of the period is so full of French words and phrases that
it is hardly intelligible to any one without a good knowledge of
French.[1029] The Frenchified Gallants and Ladies, the French Valets,
and other French characters introduced so freely into the plays, offered
ample opportunity for the use of French words.[1030] Dryden, alone, is
responsible for the introduction of more than a hundred such
words.[1031] As literature was fashionable at the time, most of the
dramatic authors were themselves gentlemen _à la mode_ with strong
French tastes. Sedley, for instance, had a great reputation in the world
of fashion. Wycherley and Vanbrugh had both been educated in France.
Etherege had probably resided many years in Paris. Cibber, who always
played the part of the fop in his own plays, went twice to France
specially to study the airs and graces of the French _petit-maître_,--at
no better place, however, than a _table d'Auberge_, the Abbé Le Blanc
tells us:[1032] "Il faut lui pardonner ses erreurs sur ses modèles, il
n'étoit à portée d'en voir d'autres: si même il n'a pas aussi bien imité
ceux-ci que les Anglois se le sont persuadé, je n'en suis pas surpris:
il m'a avoué de bonne foi qu'il n'entend pas assez notre langue pour
suivre la conversation." It is unlikely, however, that Cibber's French
was as scanty as the _abbé_ reports. At any rate his daughter Charlotte,
afterwards Mrs. Clarke, tells us that she understood the alphabet in
French before she was able to speak English.[1033]

The prologues and epilogues of the Restoration plays are frequently
addressed to the gallants, and often in a language which would appeal to
them; for instance, a French Marquis speaks the epilogue in Farquhar's
_Constant Couple_:

    ... Vat have you English, dat you call your own,
    Vat have you of grand plaisir in dis towne,
    Vidout it come from France, dat will go down?
    Picquet, basset: your vin, your dress, your dance,
    'Tis all, you zee, tout à-la-mode de France.

[Header: FRENCH PLAYS IN LONDON]

The Francomaniacs of the time would find still more to their taste at
the French play. During nearly twenty years after the Restoration,
London was hardly ever without a company of French players. The beaux
and gallants flocked to see "a troop of frisking monsieurs," and cry
"Ben" and "keep time to the cadence of the French verses":[1034]

    Old English authors vanish and give place
    To these new conquerors of the Norman race,

wrote Dryden, protesting against the caprice of the town for the French
comedians; and he adds elsewhere:[1035]

    A brisk French troop is grown your dear delight,
    Who with broad bloody bills, call you each day,
    To laugh and break your buttons at their play.

There was a great rush to the French plays, both tragedies and comedies.
Valets went hours in advance to reserve a place for their masters. There
is no need, says Dryden, to seek far for the reason of their
popularity,--they are French, and that is enough. People go to show
their breeding and try to laugh at the right moment. The English
dramatist insinuates that the comedians let in their own countrymen free
of charge that they might lead the applause, and give the cue to the
ladies.

The English Court and its followers had evidently acquired a taste for
French plays during their sojourn abroad. Immediately after the
Restoration a French company settled in London, and the king became
their special patron and protector. In 1661 he made a grant of £300 to
Jean Channoveau to be distributed among the French comedians,[1036] and
in 1663 they obtained permission to bring from France their stage
decorations and scenery. It seems to have always been the king's
"pleasure" that "the clothes, vestments, scenes, and other ornaments
proper for and directly designed for their own use about the stage
should be imported customs free."[1037] The earliest troupe of French
actors, under Jean Channoveau, acted at the Cockpit in Drury Lane; and
there, on the 30th August 1661, Pepys took his wife to see a French
comedy. He carried away a very bad impression of the play, describing
it as "ill done, the scenes and company and everything else so nasty and
out of order and poor, that (he) was sick all the while in (his) mind to
be there." He vented his ill humour on a friend of Mrs. Pepys whom she
had met in France; and "that done, there being nothing pleasant but the
foolery of the farce, we went home."

French comedies were also acted at Court. Evelyn, who went very little
to the theatre, witnessed one of these on the 16th December 1662, but
makes no observation on it. In the _Playhouse to be let_ of Davenant,
who directed the Duke's company playing at Dorset Gardens,[1038] figures
a Frenchman who has brought over a troupe of his countrymen to act a
farce. The French actor Bellerose is said to have made a fortune by
playing in London.[1039] Another of these actors who ventured to London
was Henri Pitel, sieur de Longchamp, who came in 1676 with his wife and
two daughters.[1040] He stayed nearly two years in England, and shone at
the Court of Charles II. Charles himself is said not to have missed one
of the French plays,[1041] at which his mistress, Louise de Kerouaille,
Duchess of Portsmouth, Mme. Mazarin, the French ambassador, and many
courtiers were always present. In 1684 the "Prince's French players"
were again expected in England,[1042] no doubt the same troupe, directed
by Pitel and known as _Les comédiens de son Altesse sérénissime M. le
Prince_.


FOOTNOTES:

[943] Expressed in the _Lettres_ of Guy Patin, and numerous pamphlets
published at the time.

[944] Evelyn, _Diary_, Sept. 1, 1650.

[945] In the _Journal de voyage de deux jeunes Hollandais à Paris,
1656-58_ (ed. A. P. Faugère, 2nd ed., Paris, 1899), there is some
information concerning the exiled Court. The teacher Lainé mentions a
lady in the suite of the exiled queen in his _Dialogues_.

[946] _Mémoires_, 4 vols., Paris, 1859, i. pp. 102, 137, 225, etc.

[947] _Supra_, pp. 262 _sqq._

[948] After the Restoration he would also try to get out of a difficult
situation on the same plea. He talked French freely to Mlle. de
Kerouaille. However, when the French Ambassador, Courtin, wished to
discuss with him the negotiations with the Dutch, he excused himself on
the ground that he had forgotten nearly all his French since his return
to England, and asked for delay to reflect on anything proposed in that
language. He offered the same excuse for his Council, but Courtin
retorted that many of them spoke French as well as English. Cp. J. J.
Jusserand, _A French Ambassador at the Court of Charles II._, London,
1892, p. 143.

[949] "Il me disoit des douceurs, à ce que m'ont dit les gens qui nous
écoutoient et parloit si bien françois, en tenant ces propos-là, qu'il
n'y a personne qui ne doive convenir que l'Amour étoit plutôt françois
que de toute autre nation. Car, quand le roi parloit sa langue (la
langue de l'amour) il oublioit la sienne et n'en perdoit l'accent
qu'avec moi: car les autres ne l'entendirent pas si bien" (_Mémoires_,
_ed. cit._ i. p. 322).

[950] _Lettre de M. de L'Angle à un de ses amis touchant la religion du
sérénissime roy d'Angleterre_, Geneva?, 1660, p. 18.

[951] Evelyn was in France in 1643, on his way to study anatomy at
Padua, and again in 1646-7 on his return, and yet again in 1649.

[952] Lord High Treasurer Cottington, Sir Ed. Hyde, etc.; cp. _Diary_,
Aug. 1 and 18, Sept. 7, 12, 13, Oct. 2, 7, 1649, etc.

[953] Thus the King invited the Prince of Condé to supper at St. Cloud
... "where I saw a famous (tennis) match betwixt Mons. Saumaurs and
Colonel Cooke, and so returned to Paris." Evelyn, _Diary_, Sept. 13,
1649.

[954] _Memoirs of Sir John Reresby of Thribergh, Bart., M.P. for York,
etc., 1634-1689_, ed. J. J. Cartwright, London, 1875, pp. 26, 42 (cp.
pp. 359 _sqq._, supra).

[955] Sir Henry Craike, _Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon_, 1911, ii.
pp. 321 _sqq._

[956] W. Harvey-Jellie, _Les Sources du Théâtre anglais à l'époque de la
Restauration_, Paris, 1906, pp. 37 _sqq._

[957] Evelyn visited Waller several times.

[958] Evelyn met Hobbes at Paris in September 1650.

[959] Dennis, _Original Letters, familiar, moral and critical_, London,
1723, i. p. 215. At a later date he was again in France for reasons of
health. The king gave him £500 to pay the expenses of a journey to the
South of France. He was at Montpellier from the winter of 1678 to the
spring of 1679.

[960] ". . . cette langue dont il savait toutes les plus délicates
ressources en grâce, en malice plaisante et en ironie." Cf. Sayous,
_Histoire de la littérature française à l'étranger_.

[961] "Hamilton dans le conte (says Sayous, _op. cit._) l'emporte sur
Voltaire qui eut été le premier, si au lieu de se jeter dans les
allégories philosophiques il s'était abandonné, comme notre Écossais, au
plaisir plus innocent de laisser courir son imagination et sa plume."

[962] The Scotch Chevalier de Ramsay (1686-1743), the friend of Fénelon,
also wrote French with remarkable purity. His best known work is _Les
Voyages de Cyrus avec un discours sur la mythologie_ (Paris, 1727;
London, 1730). At a later date Thomas Hales (1740?-1780), known as
d'Hèle, d'Hell, or Dell, a French dramatist of English birth, also made
himself a name in French literature (Sylvain van de Weyer, _Les Anglais
qui ont écrit en français_, Miscellanies, Philobiblon Soc., 1854, vol.
i.).

[963] Hamilton, _Mémoires du Comte de Grammont. Histoire amoureuse de
la Cour de Charles II_, ed. B. Pifteau, Paris, 1876, Preface. Voltaire
often quoted the beginning of _Le Bélier_ as a model of style.

[964] "Il trouvoit si peu de différence aux manières et à la
conversation de ceux qu'il voyoit le plus souvent, qu'il ne lui
paroissoit pas qu'il eut changé de pais. Tout ce qui peut occuper un
homme de son humeur s'offroit partout aux divers penchans qui
l'entrainoient, come si les plaisirs de la cour de France l'eussent
quitté pour l'accompagner dans son exil" (_Mémoires_, _ed. cit._ p. 83).
Grammont had been banished from the French Court on account of a
presumptuous love affair.

[965] _Institution of a Gentleman_, London, 1660, p. 88. The book first
appeared as _Institutions, or Advice to his Grandson_, in 1658.

[966] J. Smith, _Grammatica Quadralinguis_, 1674.

[967] Sayous, _op. cit._ ii. ch. iv.

[968] Evelyn once accompanied His Majesty "to M. Favre to see his
preparation for the composition of Sir Walter Raleigh's rare cordial,"
when the chemist made a learned discourse in French on the nature of
each ingredient.

[969] _Revue Historique_, xxix., Sept.-Oct. 1885, p. 25.

[970] J. J. Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, London, 1899, pp. 132,
135, 136. Mme. d'Aulnoy, the fairy-tale writer and authoress of the
_Mémoires de la cour d'Angleterre_, was also among the French ladies in
London at this time.

[971] St. Evremond was buried at Westminster at the age of ninety-one.
The Duchess died at Chelsea in 1699.

[972] In a letter to Justel he spoke of the Thames as "nostre Thamise."

[973] Evelyn's Diary, likewise, is full of mentions of meetings with
Frenchmen.

[974] Sorbière, _Relation d'un voyage en Angleterre . . ._, Paris, 1664,
p. 32.

[975] Cp. Ch. Bastide, _Anglais et Français du 17e siècle_, Paris, 1912.

[976] Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, p. 136, note 2.

[977] _Les Voyages de M. Payen_, Paris, 1667.

[978] Mauger calls London "une des merveilles du monde. On y vient de
tous côtez, pour admirer sa magnificence."

[979] _The Ladies' Catechism_, 1703.

[980] J. B. Le Blanc, _Lettres d'un Français_, à La Haye, 1745, iii. p.
67.

[981] _Ibid._ i. p. 145. Mrs. Pepys assisted Lady Sandwich to find a
French maid (_Diary_, Nov. 15, 1660), and was herself very desirous of
one.

The prejudiced Rutledge writes nearly a century later: "As the lower
classes of the French are so completely qualified for Domestics, it is
not surprising that such numerous colonies of French _valets de
chambre_, cooks and footmen are planted all over Europe: and that the
nobility and fashionable people of so many countries shew an avowed
Propensity to Prefer them even to their fellow natives" (_Account of the
Character and Manners of the French_, 1770, pt. ii. p. 172).

[982] Flecknoe, _Characters ..._ (1665), London, 1673, p. 8. "They (the
French) have gained so much influence over the English Fops that they
furnish them with their French Puppydogs for _Valets de Chambre_"
(_French Conjuror_, 1678). Addison (_Spectator_, No. 45) says he
remembers the time when some well-bred Englishwomen kept a _valet de
chambre_ "because, forsooth, they were more handy than one of their own
sex."

[983] _Satire on the French_, 1691. Reprinted as the _Baboon à la Mode_,
1701.

[984] _Satirical Reflections_, 1707, 3rd pt.

[985] Cp. Wycherley, _Country Wife_, Act I. Sc. 1.

[986] _Diary_, Oct 19, 1663; May 30, 1665; May 12, 1667; Feb. 18, March
13 and 26, 1668.

[987] Flecknoe, _Characters_, p. 12. Pepys describes a French dance at
Court (_Diary_, Nov. 15, 1666), which was "not extraordinarily
pleasing." He much admired the dancing of the young Princess Mary,
taught by a Frenchman (_Diary_, March 2, 1669). The _maîtres d'armes_
were often Italians and Spaniards. There were protests against the
French and Italian singing and dancing "taught by the dregs of Italy and
France" (_Satirical Reflections_, 1707).

[988] Pepys's _Diary_, ed. H. B. Wheatley, v. p. 332, note, and vi. p.
187.

[989] A Frenchman was appointed in his place; cp. _Cal. of State Papers,
1660-61_, p. 7; _1663-64_, pp. 214, 607. Children were sent to France to
learn music. Pepys did not like the "French airs" (_Diary_, July 27,
1661; June 18, 1666).

[990] Flecknoe, _Characters_, p. 48. French gardeners (_Cal. State
Papers, 1661-62_, pp. 175, 294) and French barbers were also in favour.
Pepys went to the French pewterer's (March 13, 1667-8).

[991] S. Butler, _Hudibras_.

[992] Evelyn, _Diary_, March 1671.

[993] Vincent, _Young Gallants' Academy_, 1674.

[994] Cp. Sedley, _Mulberry Garden_ (Sir J. Everyoung: "Which is the
most à la mode right revered spark? points or laces? girdle or shoulder
belts? What say your letters out of France?"). There is hardly a comedy
of the time without some such references to French fashions; cp.
Etherege, _Sir Fopling Flutter_; Shadwell, _Humours of the Army_, etc.

[995] Evelyn, _Diary_, Oct. 18, 1666. Evelyn had himself written a
pamphlet called _Tyrannus or the Mode_, an invective against "our
overmuch affecting of French fashion," in which he praised the
comeliness and usefulness of the Persian style of clothing. This he had
presented to the king: "I do not impute to this discourse the change
whiche soone happen'd, but it was an identity that I could not but take
notice of" (_Diary_, Oct. 18 and 30, 1666).

[996] Butler, _Satire on our ridiculous imitation of the French_; "A
l'étranger on prend plaisir à enchérir sur toutes les Nouveautez qui
leur viennent de France. . . ." Muralt (_Lettres_, 1725).

[997] _French Conjuror_, 1678.

[998] _Duc de Guise_, Prologue; cp. Prologue to _Albion and Albanius_:

    "Then 'tis the mode of France without whose Rules
    None must presume to set up here as fools."

[999] French money was said to be most successful in bribes. Farquhar,
_Constant Couple_, iv. 2.

[1000] Flecknoe, _Characters_, p. 12.

[1001] _Satire against the French_, 1691.

[1002] Acted 1671; Act II. Sc. 2.

[1003] _Mémoires_, _ed. cit._ pp. 51-52.

[1004] _Ibid._ p. 143.

[1005] Lord Rutherford, for instance, begs pardon for his English, being
more accustomed to the French tongue (_Cal. of State Papers, 1661-62_,
p. 4).

[1006] Hamilton, _op. cit._ p. 82.

[1007] The story goes that Grammont was leaving England without marrying
Miss Hamilton, when her brother overtook him and told him he had
forgotten something, whereat he realized his oversight and returned to
repair it. It is said that this incident supplied Molière with the
subject of his _Mariage forcé_.

[1008] Hamilton, _op. cit._ p. 82.

[1009] _Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1661-62_, p. 28.

[1010] Two grammars for teaching Portuguese greeted the new queen. One
was a _Portuguese Grammar_ in French and English by Mr. La Mollière, a
French gentleman, 1662 (_Register of the Company of Stationers_, ii.
307); and the other, J. Howell's _Grammar for the Spanish or Castilian
tongue with some special remarks on the Portuguese Dialect_, with a
description of Spain and Portugal by way of guide. It was dedicated to
the queen.

[1011] Fragment of the Journal of the Convent of Chaillot, in the secret
archives of France, Hôtel de Soubise. Quoted by Strickland in _Lives of
the Queens_, 1888, iv. p. 383.

[1012] Cp. Sedley, _Mulberry Garden_.

[1013] Such as Lady Lurewell of Farquhar's _Constant Couple_; Lady
Fanciful in Vanbrugh's _Provoked Wife_; Brome's _Damoiselle_ (1653); or
Mrs. Rich in _The Beau Defeated_ (1700?).

[1014] _The Frenchified Lady never in Paris_ was the name given her by
Henry Dell in his play, based on Dryden's and printed 1757 and 1761.

[1015] There is a book called _The Art of Affectation_ teaching ladies
to speak "in a silly soft tone of voice and use all the foolish French
words which will infallibly make your person and conversation charming"
(Etherege, _Sir Fopling Flutter_).

[1016] _The Ladies' Catechism_, 1703?

[1017] _Satire against the French_, 1691, p. 14.

[1018] _Satire on our ridiculous imitation of the French_; Chalmers,
_English Poets_, viii. p. 206.

[1019] Cp. Swift, _Poem written in a Lady's Ivory Table Book_ (1698):

    "Here you may read,
    Here in beau-spelling--tru tel deth."

[1020] _Character of the Beau_, 1696.

[1021] Cibber, _Careless Husband_, Act I. Sc. 1.

[1022] Cibber, _Love's last shift or the Fool in fashion_. Sedley's Sir
Charles Everyoung, Ned Estridge, and Harry Modish are all "most
accomplished monsieurs," as are Clodis in Cibber's _Love Makes a Man or
the Fop's Fortune_; Sir Harry Wildair in Farquhar's play of that name;
Lord Foppington of Vanbrugh's _Relapse or Virtue in Danger_; Bull Junior
in Dennis's _A Plot and no Plot_; Clencher, senior, the Prentice turned
Beau in Farquhar's _Constant Couple_; Mrs. Behn's _Sir Timothy Tawdry_;
Crowne's _Sir Courtly Nice_, etc. In 1697 appeared a work called _The
Compleat Beau_.

[1023] _Sir Fopling Flutter or the Man of Mode_, 1676. Supposed to be a
portrait of the then notorious Beau Hewitt.

[1024] _Satire against the French_, 1691.

[1025] _Character of the Beau_, 1691. Most of the accomplished
"monsieurs" frequented the French houses (Sedley, _Mulberry Garden_).
Act II. Sc. 2 of Wycherley's _Love in a Wood_, and Act II. Sc. 2 of his
_Gentleman Dancing Master_, both take place in a French house. Cp.
_Character of the Town Gallant_, 1675.

[1026] Vincent, _Young Gallants' Academy_, 1674, p. 44.

[1027] Flecknoe, _Characters_, 1673. The 1665 edition of his
_Aenigmatical Characters ..._, 1665, contains a description in French of
the _Tour à la Mode_: ". . . C'est une bataille bien rangée où l'on ne
tire que des coups d'Oeillades, et où les premiers ayant fait leur
descharge, ilz s'en vont pour donner place aux autres" . . ., etc. (p.
21).

[1028] Charles II. openly avowed his preference for the French drama.
Dryden wrote his _Essay of Dramatic Poesy_, "to vindicate the Honour of
our English writers from the censure of those who unjustly prefer the
French before them." Pepys saw many of the French plays acted in
English. Cp. H. McAfee, _Pepys on the Restoration Stage ..._, Yale Univ.
Press, 1916.

[1029] A. Beljame, _Le Public et les hommes de lettres au 18e siècle_,
Paris, 1897, p. 139.

[1030] As in Etherege's _Comical Revenge or Love in a Tub_, _Sir Fopling
Flutter_, and the plays of Cibber, Vanbrugh, Mrs. Behn, Shadwell,
Farquhar, Wycherley, etc.; _The French Conjuror_, 1678; _The Beau
Defeated_, 1700?, etc.

[1031] A. Beljame, _Quae e Gallicis verbis in Anglicam linguam Johannes
Dryden introduxerit_, Paris, 1881. On French influence in Restoration
Drama, see Charlanne, _L'Influence française en Angleterre_, pp. 64
_sqq._

[1032] _Lettre à M. de la Chaussée_: _Lettres_, 1745, ii. p. 240.

[1033] _Narrative of her Life, written by Herself_, pub. in series of
Autobiographies, London, 1826, vol. vii. p. 12. Most of the writers of
the time were able to write some French. Flecknoe, for instance, wrote
some of his _Characters_ in the language, and wrote a French dedication
of his Poems (1652), "à la plus excellente de son sexe."

[1034] Dryden, "Prologue spoken at the opening of the new house, 26
March, 1674," _Works_, ed. Scott and Saintsbury, x. p. 320.

[1035] "Prologue to Arviragus and Phihera by L. Carlell, revival,"
_Works_, x. 405.

[1036] Shaw, _Calendar of Treasury Books, 1660-67_, p. 311.

[1037] _Ibid., 1672-75_, pp. 14, 24, 29, etc.; _1677-78_ (vol. v.), pp.
692, 803; _1684_ (vol. vii.), p. 1444.

[1038] Charles had granted two privileges: one to Henry Killigrew, who
directed the King's company acting at Drury Lane, and the other to Sir
William Davenant, who directed the Duke's company. The rival companies
united in 1682.

[1039] Chardon, _La troupe du roman comique dévoilée et les comédiens de
la campagne au 17e siècle_, Le Mans, 1876, p. 47.

[1040] Chardon, _op. cit._ p. 98.

[1041] _Revue Historique_, xxix., Sept.-Oct. 1858, p. 23.

[1042] _Historical MSS. Commission Reports_, v. p. 186. French dancers
and singers also attracted the English from the performances of their
own actors; cp. Cibber, Epilogue to _The Careless Husband_, and
Farquhar, Preface to _The Inconstant_.




CHAPTER VII

    THE TEACHING OF FRENCH AND ITS POPULARITY AFTER THE RESTORATION


In the meantime French grammars were being published in England in
considerable numbers.[1043] So plentiful were they that there was
"scarce anything to be seen anywhere but French grammars." The manuals
of Mauger and Festeau were still in vogue, and that of Mauger was
frequently reedited. Among new grammarians figures the tutor to the
children of the Duke of York (James II.), Pierre de Lainé, who may
possibly have been identical with the Pierre Lainé who published a
grammar in 1655.[1044] His French grammar, written in the first place
for the Lady Mary (afterwards Mary II.), was published in 1667,[1045]
when the princess was about five years old. It was subsequently placed
at the service of the Lady Anne, afterwards queen, and a second edition
appeared in 1677, with the title: _The Princely Way to the French Tongue
as it was first compiled for the use of her Highness the Lady Mary and
since taught her royal sister the Lady Anne etc. by P. D. L. Tutor for
the French to both their Highnesses_.[1046]

"Before you begin anything of Letters or rules," says Lainé, "you may
Learn how to call in French these few things following.

  Ma Tête, say          maw tate       my Head
  Mes Cheveuz, say      maysheveu      my Hair,"

and so on for the parts of the body, the numbers, days, and months, with
similar guides to pronunciation. He then proceeds to treat of the
sounds of letters and syllables, based on comparison with English. These
rules occupy less than a fifth of the book; the remainder contains
practical exercises. First come familiar phrases and dialogues, strongly
religious in tone, including prayers, the catechism, commandments, etc.,
and conversation specially suited to royal princesses. A chronological
abridgement of the sacred scriptures by way of dialogue is followed by
rules of grammar, likewise in dialogue form. Lastly come the _Fables_ of
Aesop put into "burlesque French" for the use of her Highness the Lady
Mary when a child, and models of letters suitable for children, and
accompanied by answers.

In later years Lainé spent some time at Paris as secretary[1047] to Sir
Henry Savile, the English envoy at the French Court, who did so much to
prepare a favourable reception in England for the refugees at the time
of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.[1048] Lainé was the first
teacher to receive a grant of letters of denization under the Order in
Council of the 28th July 1681.[1049] Shortly afterwards the same
privilege was bestowed on Francis Cheneau, whose _French Grammar,
enrich'd with a compendious and easie way to learne the French tongue in
a short time_, was licensed for printing in 1684.[1050] For many years
Cheneau continued to teach French, and in time added Latin, English, and
Italian to his repertory. He describes himself as a native of Paris,
"formerly slave and Governor of the Isles of Nacsia and Paros in the
Archipelago." At the time of the appearance of his second work on the
French language, in 1716, he was "living in his House in Old Fish St.
next door to the Faulcon in London," where could be seen his short
grammars for Latin, Italian, and English.

The most versatile compiler of French manuals at this period was Guy
Miège, a native of Lausanne, who came to England at the time of the
Restoration. For two years he was employed in the household of Lord
Elgin, and was then appointed under-secretary to the Earl of Carlisle,
ambassador extraordinary to Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. After spending
three years abroad with the embassy, he travelled in France on his own
account from 1665 till 1668, preparing a _Relation of the Three
Embassies_ in which he had taken part. [Header: THE DICTIONARIES OF GUY
MIÈGE] His book was published in 1669, on his return to London. He then
settled in England as a teacher of French and geography, and wrote many
works for teaching the language. The first was _A New Dictionary French
and English and English and French_ (1677), dedicated to Charles Lennox,
Duke of Richmond. As usual, this French-English Dictionary is based on a
French-Latin one--in this case that of Pomey. Miège was also closely
acquainted with Howell's edition of Cotgrave's dictionary, last
published in 1670; but he held it very defective in retaining so many
obsolete words, and in not being adapted to the "present use and modern
orthography--which indeed is highly pretended to in the last edition
thereof, but so performed that the title runs away with all the credit
of it." He looked upon Cotgrave "as a good help indeed for reading of
old French books (a thing which few people mind)." For his own part, his
design was to teach the latest Court French, and he made a point of
omitting all the provincial and obsolete words Cotgrave had searched out
so carefully, words "that offend the eyes and grate the ears, but the
Rubbish of the French Tongue." To "season the naturall dulness of the
work" he included many proverbs, descriptions, and observations in both
the English and French parts.

Considering that "the way to understand the bottom of a language is to
learn how the derivatives are formed from their primitives and the
compounds from their simples,"[1051] he arranged all the derivatives
after their respective primitives; that nothing might be wanting,
however, he placed them in their alphabetic order also, with a reference
to the necessary primitive.

Miège's innovation in excluding all obsolete terms from his dictionary
raised such a storm at its first appearance[1052] that he felt himself
bound to yield to public opinion by making a separate collection of such
words, which he called _A Dictionary of barbarous French or A
Collection, by way of Alphabet, of Obsolete, Provincial, misspelt, and
Made Words in French, taken out of Cotgrave's dictionary with some
additions_. It was, he said, "performed for the satisfaction of such as
read old French." By the time of its publication in 1679, however, the
storm raised by his first work had died away.

Miège continued his lexicographical labours. In 1684 appeared _A Short
French Dictionary English and French, with another in French and
English_, a work of no ambitious aims, containing a list of words pure
and simple, with no descriptions or observations, intended for
beginners, travellers, and those who could not afford the price of the
larger one, and, above all, for foreigners reading English. The English
were too eager and advanced in the study of French to find much help in
so slight a work, but foreigners evidently adopted the dictionary;
editions appeared at the Hague in 1691, 1701 (the fifth), and
1703;[1053] another was issued at Rotterdam as late as 1728.

For the use of English students and those desiring to study either
language more thoroughly, Miège prepared, during many years of hard
work, an enlarged edition of his first French dictionary of 1677, which,
he tells us, was compiled under great disadvantages; "the Publick was in
haste for a French Dictionary, and they had it accordingly, hurried from
the design to the composition, and from under my pen to the press." The
new work, on a much larger scale, was known as _The Great French
Dictionary, in two parts_, and published in 1688, eleven years after the
appearance of its nucleus, the _New French Dictionary_ (1677). It gives
words according to both their old and modern orthography, "by which
means the reader is fitted for any sort of French book," and, writes
Miège, "although I am not fond of obsolete and barbarous words, yet I
thought fit to intersperse the most remarkable of them, lest they should
be missed by such as read old Books." Each word is accompanied by
explanations, proverbs, phrases, "and as the first part does, here and
there, give a prospect into the constitution of the kingdom of France,
so the second does afford to foreiners what they have hitherto very much
wanted, to wit, an Insight into the Constitution of England...." In the
_Great Dictionary_ Miège abandoned his plan of arranging the derivatives
under their primitives, because it had made his former work "swarm with
uneasy references"; he followed the alphabetical order strictly, "but in
such a manner that, where a derivative is remote from its primitive, I
show its extraction within a Parenthesis." [Header: MIÈGE'S FRENCH
GRAMMARS] Each of the two sections of the _Great Dictionary_ is preceded
by a grammar of the language concerned. First comes the _Grounds of the
French Tongue_, before the French-English Dictionary, and then a
_Méthode abrégée pour apprendre l'Anglois_. This French grammar was a
reprint of one of those which Miège had compiled while working at his
dictionaries.

In 1684 Miège tells us that he had "put forth two French grammars, both
of them well approved by all unprejudiced persons. The one is short and
concise, fitted for all sorts of learners, but especially new beginners;
the other is a large and complete piece, giving a curious and full
account of the French Tongue. To this is annexed a copious vocabulary
and a long Train of useful Dialogues." The more advanced of these
grammars was the first to appear, being published in 1678 under the
title of _A New French Grammar, or a New Method for learning the French
Tongue_. After dealing with pronunciation, he passes to the accidence
and syntax, with special attention to his favourite theory of the
importance of a knowledge of primitives and derivatives. He is much
indebted to the grammars of Vaugelas and Chiflet, especially in his
observations on letter-writing, on repetition of words, and on style.
The second half of the book contains a vocabulary, arranged under the
usual headings, and familiar dialogues, without which he dare not offer
the work to a public "so well convinced of their Usefulness, as to the
speaking part of a Language"; therefore, "though it were something
against the grain," he included such exercises, "exceeding even Mr.
Mauger's in number." The one hundred and fifteen familiar dialogues are
followed by four more advanced ones in French alone, "for proficient
learners to turn into English." The first deals with the education of
children, and the others with geography, a subject Miège taught in
either French or English "as might be most convenient."

The elementary grammar had been issued about 1682[1054] as _A short and
easie French Grammar fitted for all sorts of learners; according to the
present use and modern orthography of the French with some Reflections
on the ancient use thereof_. In 1682 the vocabulary and dialogues of the
earlier grammar were, each of them, issued separately, probably to
facilitate their use with this second grammar.

In 1687 appeared the _Grounds of the French Tongue or a new French
Grammar_,[1055] which Miège incorporated in his _Great French
Dictionary_ in the following year. In general outline its contents
resemble those of the grammar which had appeared ten years before. It
is, however, an entirely new work. Most of the rules differ,[1056] and
the vocabulary and dialogues are new. He breaks away from the old
tradition of introducing the Latin declension of nouns into French
grammars.[1057] The _Grounds of the French Tongue_ is about a hundred
pages shorter than the grammar of 1678, and on the whole it is less
interesting from the point of view of the student of French. The second
part, called the _Nouvelle Nomenclature Françoise et Angloise_, which
might be obtained apart from the grammar, had originally appeared in
1685 as part of Miège's _Nouvelle méthode pour apprendre
l'Anglois_.[1058] Consequently the dialogues are more suited to the
student of English than to the student of French, as they deal chiefly
with life in England and the impressions of a Frenchman in London,
including an account of the coffee-houses, the penny post, the churches,
English food and drink, and so forth.

Lastly, in about 1698,[1059] appeared _Miège's last and best French
Grammar, or a new Method to learn French, containing the Quintessence of
all other Grammars, with such plain and easie rules as will make one
speedily perfect in that famous language_. A second edition was issued
in 1705. The work was based on his first grammar (1678), which thus
benefited by his long experience as a writer on the French language and
teacher of that tongue.

Miège held that French was best learnt by a combination of the methods
of rote and grammar, either being insufficient without the other; as for
attempting to learn foreign languages at home by rote, "'tis properly
building in the air. [Header: BEST METHOD OF STUDY] For whatever
progress one makes that way, unless he sticks constantly to it, the
Language steals away from him, and, like a Building without a
foundation, it falls insensibly." Englishmen who learn French by ear in
France soon find the fluency of which they are so proud slipping away
from them after their return to England;[1060] and even Frenchmen who
have never studied their language grammatically begin to lose the purity
of phrase after they have been some time in England.

Accordingly "a great care ought to be taken to pitch upon the best sort
of Grammar and to make choice of a skilful Master. Now a skilful master
must be first such a one as can speak the true modern French: A Thing
few people can boast of, besides courtiers and scholars, so nice a
language it is." Therefore the student should not waste his time, as
many do, with the common sort of teachers, who speak, for the most part,
but a corrupt and provincial French, and yet are patronized by many. In
the second place, the teacher should be a man of some learning; and in
the third, he should have "some skill in the English tongue, not that he
should use much English with his scholars,[1061] but because, without
it, 'tis impossible he can teach by the grammar, or explain the true
meaning of words." Lastly, he should himself be thoroughly acquainted
with the grammar, and be able to find out what should be learnt "by
rote, what by heart, and what passages need not at all be learnt." But,
when all is done, "there is an art in teaching not to be found amongst
all men of knowledge."

Thus the right use of a grammar depends much on the skill and judgement
of the teacher. Miège declares against overburdening the memory with
abstruse and difficult rules. In most cases it is enough if the learner
understands the rule; there is no need to confine him to the author's
words or to make him learn long lists of exceptions. "The best thing to
exercise his memory in, besides the general and most necessary rules, is
to learn a good store of words with their signification. And then,
whether he comes to read French, or to hear it spoke, one word doth so
help another, that by degrees, he will find out the meaning." As for the
dialogues, only a few, and those of a familiar type, should be learnt
"without book." "An analysis is the best use they can be put to, but
some teachers will find it too hard a task."

The best way, therefore, is "to lay a good foundation with grammar
rules, and to raise the Superstructure by Practice"; the more
adventurous the learner is in speaking French the better. If, however,
"one be so very averse from Grammar rules as to look upon them as so
many Bug bears, my opinion is that he may begin by Rote, provided he
make good at last his Proficiency that Way, with the help of a choice
Grammar. And then the Rules will appear to him very plain, easy and
delectable."

In 1678 Miège was receiving pupils for French and geography at his
lodging in Penton Street, Leicester Square, and we are told that in 1693
he was taking in _pensionnaires_ in Dean's Yard, near Westminster Abbey.
Towards the end of his teaching career in England he appears to have
been on very friendly terms with another teacher of French, Francesco
Casparo Colsoni, an Italian minister, who also taught Italian and
English. Colsoni wrote a book for teaching the three languages,[1062]
called _The New Trismagister_ (1688), in which he drew freely from the
works of Mauger, Festeau, and his friend Miège. In the meantime other
manuals appeared, including a translation of a grammar which was first
published at Paris in 1672[1063]--_A French Grammar, teaching the
knowledge of that language.... Published by the Academy for the
reformation of the French Tongue_ (1674), printed in parallel columns of
English and the original French. _A Very easie Introduction to the
French Tongue_ was published in about 1673, which claimed to be "proper
for all persons who have bad memories." A certain John Smith, M.A., J.
G. D'Abadie, formerly of the Royal Musketeers and for a time teacher of
French at Oxford, Jacob Villiers, who had a French school at Nottingham,
and Jean de Kerhuel, a French minister,[1064] all published grammars at
about the same time.[1065]

[Header: PIERRE BERAULT]

Among the more interesting French teachers of the period is Pierre
Berault, a French monk who was converted to Protestantism when he was
on the point of setting out for England to work among the refugees as a
Jesuit emissary.[1066] On the 2nd of April 1671 he "abjured all the
errors of the Church of Rome" in the French Church of the Savoy, London,
and subsequently devoted himself to teaching French. Until nearly the
end of the century he lived in various parts of London, "waiting upon
any Gentlemen or Gentlewomen who have a mind to learn French," and
using, according to his own account, a very sound method. At the same
time he was busy with his pen. He began with a compilation setting forth
his religious principles,[1067] and with books on moral and religious
subjects, in French and English for the benefit of learners.[1068] Later
he wrote _A New, plain, short and compleat French and English grammar_
(1688), which had an "extraordinary sale and reception," and passed
through numerous editions. Berault's motto as regards the teaching of
French was _omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci_,--a fit
combination of grammar rules and practical exercises. The grammar, which
occupies less than half the book, begins with an explanation of
grammatical terms for the benefit of those ignorant of Latin; it then
deals shortly with the pronunciation and the declinable parts of
speech;[1069] lastly come a few rules of syntax and short vocabularies
of the indeclinables. The reading exercises open with the catechism,
creeds, commandments, and prayers. The dialogues, accompanied, contrary
to custom, by an interlinear translation, are at first very simple, and
arranged in syllables for the benefit of beginners, but they become more
difficult. The following is a dialogue between a French tutor and his
scholar:

    Good morrow, Sir, how do you do?
    Bonjour, Monsieur, comment vous portez vous?

    Very well to serve you.
    Fort bien pour vous servir.

    Do you teach the French tongue?
    Enseignez-vous la langue Françoise?

    Yes sir, and the Latin also.
    Ouy, monsieur, et aussi la Latine.

    Will you teach me these two tongues?
    Voulez vous m'enseigner ces deux langues?

    I will do it willingly.
    Je le feray volontiers.

       *       *       *       *       *

    What method do you hold?
    Quel méthode voulez-vous tenir?

    Because you understand Latin
    Parce que vous entendez la langue Latine

    I will begin by the pronunciation
    Je commenceray par la prononciation

    Which you can learn in two lessons.
    Que vous pouvez apprendre en deux leçons.

    Then I will teach you the nouns,
    Puis je vous enseigneray les noms,

    Pronouns, verbs and other parts of speech.
    Pronoms, verbes et autres parties d'oraison.

    And afterwards the rules of syntax.
    Et ensuite les règles de Composition.

    How long will I be in learning all that?
    Combien seray-je à apprendre tout cela?

    But little time if you will follow me.
    Peu de temps si vous voulez me suivre.

Berault added a selection of Cordier's Colloquies in French and English
to his work, as well as the usual proverbs, idioms and polite letters,
and a vocabulary. The letters have no English translation, Berault
believing that "whoso will peruse this grammar, he will not only be able
to explain them but any other French book whatsoever." Accordingly he
supplied a list of what he considered suitable modern French books, all
of which could be obtained from one or other of the French booksellers
in London.

In the second half of the seventeenth century the position of the French
language in England was further strengthened by its growing popularity
all over Europe. "I have visited," wrote the dramatist Chappuzeau in
1674,[1070] "every part of Christendom with care. [Header: FRENCH AND
LATIN] It has been easy for me to observe that to-day a prince with only
the French language which has spread everywhere, has the same advantages
that Mithridates had with twenty-two." The French language was regarded
as "one of the chiefest qualifications of accomplished persons," and
"the common language of all well-bred people, and the most generally
used in the commerce of civil life." Bayle states that in many parts of
Europe there were people who spoke and wrote French as purely as the
French themselves, and that in many foreign towns all the men and women
of quality and many of the common people spoke French with ease. Writers
of the time are unanimous in describing French as the universal
language; and most French teachers write in the style of Guy Miège to
the effect that "the French tongue is in a manner grown universal in
Europe ... and of all the parts of Europe next to France none is more
fond of it than England."

Thus, in the second half of the seventeenth century, French was in a
position to dispute its ground with Latin. France herself set the
example. French was the language used at Court, while Latin was used
only by scholars. Significant it is that in 1676 Louis XIV., in
consequence of Charpentier's _Défense de la langue françoise pour
l'inscription de l'arc de Triomphe_, replaced the Latin inscriptions on
his triumphal arches by others in French. Replying to Charpentier's
essay, a Jesuit, P. Lucus, wrote a treatise in defence of Latin.[1071]
Charpentier retorted by two laboured volumes, _De l'excellence de la
langue françoise_ (1683), and finally won the day. In this he refers to
the universality of French, and draws attention to the advantages which
would result to science if it were studied in that language. The long
Quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns, which first reached England from
France, also shows the spirit of the times. And Bayle asserts as
evidence of the supremacy of French that: "Veut-on qu'un libelle courre
bien le monde, aussitôt on le traduit en françois, lors même que
l'original est en Latin: tant il est vrai que le latin n'est pas si
commun en Europe aujourd'hui que la Langue françoise."[1072]

In England French had long been a rival to Latin as the most commonly
used foreign tongue, and after the Restoration it was generally
recognized, among courtiers, men of fashion, ministers of state, and
diplomats, as the more convenient means of intercourse. Only scholars
and the universities continued to uphold the traditional supremacy of
the Latin tongue, and even at the universities Latin had passed out of
colloquial use before the Restoration, though still used in disputations
and other prescribed exercises.[1073] The victory of French in the world
of fashion was an easy one. It had "long since chased Latin from the
gallant's head," declares Sedley,[1074] and Ravenscroft in his prologue
to the _English Lawyer_,[1075] in which a jargon made up of Latin and
English predominates, thus addresses the gallants:

    Gallants, pray what do you doe here to-day?
    Which of you understands a Latine play?...
    This age defies th' accomplishments of Schools,
    The Town breeds Wits, the Colleges make Fools.

Samuel Vincent,[1076] instructing the gallant how to behave at an
ordinary, warns him to "beware how (he) speaks any Latin there: your
ordinaries most commonly have no more to do with Latin, than a desparate
town or Garrison hath."[1077]

Latin also lost what ground it held as the official language. Milton had
been Latin secretary during the Commonwealth, but after the Restoration
French was the language used. "Since Latin hath ceased to be a Language,
if ever it was any, which I am not sure of, at least in this present
age," wrote Lord Chancellor Clarendon,[1078] "the French is almost
naturalised through Europe, and understood and spoken in all the
Northern Courts and hath nearly driven the Dutch out of its own country,
and almost sides the Italian in the Eastern Parts, where it was scarce
known in the last Age." French, therefore, had little to fear from Latin
as the language of intercourse with ambassadors and other foreigners in
England; and still less from English, which was not to receive any
recognition at the hands of foreigners for years to come. [Header:
FRENCH IN THE SCHOLASTIC WORLD] Considering the almost universal
popularity of French, and the general neglect of English, most
Englishmen were obliged to agree with Clarendon that it was "too late
sullenly to affect an ignorance" of that language because the French
"will not take the Pains to understand ours," and we may gain much by
being conversant in theirs. He adds "it would be a great Dishonour to
the court if, when Ambassadors come thither from Neighbour Princes, no
body were able to treat with them, or converse with those who accompany
them in no other language but English, of which not one of them
understand one word; not to mention how the king shall be supplied with
Ministers, or Secretaries of State, or with Persons fit to be sent
Ambassadors abroad," if those who aspire to such rank are not acquainted
with the necessary foreign language.

Before the Restoration, French, in spite of the important place it held
in the world of polite education, had received very little recognition
at the hands of educational writers. Cleland alone, in his _Institution
of a Nobleman_ (1607), had treated it seriously. After 1660, however,
its widespread use and popularity rendered this omission no longer
possible, and at this time occurs a break in the tradition of classical
scholarship.[1079] The case for French was put most forcibly and with
greatest effect by Locke in his _Thoughts on Education_. Referring to
the young scholar, he writes: "As soon as he can speak English, 'tis
time for him to learn some other Language. This no body doubts of, when
French is proposed ... because French is a living language, and to be
used more in speaking, that should be first learned, that the yet pliant
Organs of Speech might be accustomed to a due formation of those sounds
and he get the habit of pronouncing French well, which is the harder to
be done the longer it is delay'd. When he can speak French well, (which
on conversational methods is usually in a year or two), he should
proceed to Latin."[1080] For the same reasons Clarendon would have
French learnt first, by "rote," "without the Formality or Method of
grammar."[1081]

Even in the world of scholarship the traditional deference shown to
ancient learning received some check, and the educational value of the
ancient languages was called in question. Some believed that "a
gentleman might become learned by the only assistance of modern
languages." Evelyn wrote a discourse on the subject at the request of
Sir Samuel Tuke for the Duke of Norfolk; unfortunately it was lost, "to
his griefe"[1082] and ours. It contained, he told Pepys, "a list of
Authors and a method of reading them to advantage ... nor was [he]
without some purpose of one day publishing it, because 'twas written
with a vertuous designe of provoking our court fopps and for
encouragement of illustrious persons who have leisure and inclinations
to cultivate their minds beyond a farce, a horse, a whore and a dog,
which, with very little more are the confines of the knowledge and
discourse of most of our fine gentlemen and beaux." Learning, he felt,
would assume a more attractive form in the eyes of the majority, if it
were attained through modern languages. Defoe likewise thought Latin and
Greek were not indispensable to scholarship, and considered it a pity to
lock up all learning in the dead languages.[1083] Hobbes even went so
far as to suggest in his _Behemoth_ (_c._ 1668) that it would be well to
substitute French, Dutch, and Italian for Latin, Greek, and Hebrew at
the universities. Others recommended that the classics should be read in
French translations, and it is probable that men of fashion at the time
read them in this form, if at all. Sedley implies that to read Terence
in Latin was a mark of ill-breeding.[1084] The fashionable Etherege, who
knew neither Latin nor Greek, had a large number of French translations
of classical plays amongst his books.[1085] And at a somewhat later date
the Abbé Le Blanc remarks[1086] that the English have become so fond of
French that they prefer to read even Cicero in that language. He writes
to tell Olivet how eagerly his translations are received in England.
"Celle des Tusculanes que vous venez de publier de concert avec M. Le
Père Bouhour a été goûtée en Angleterre de tous ceux qui sont en état de
juger des Beautés de l'Original et de la fidélité avec laquelle chacun
de vous les a rendues."

The readiness with which the English read French books also attracted
the Abbé's attention.[1087] [Header: PROPOSALS FOR REFORMED SCHOOLS] It
was no new thing for French literature to be widely appreciated in
England. But before the Restoration it had received but little
recognition as a profitable subject of study, except for students of
statecraft and military tactics. In 1673, however, one writer[1088]
takes a new step in stating that "all learning is now in French," and
goes on to say that if it were in English "those dead languages would be
of little use, only in reference to the scriptures." Similarly Mary
Astell, the author of _A Serious Proposal to the Ladies_ (1694), urges
the ladies, who most of them know French, to study French Philosophy,
Descartes and Malebranche, rather than restrict themselves to idle
novels and romances. And when Locke was in Paris in 1677 he bought the
best class-books and manuals in French and Latin for the use of Lord
Shaftesbury's grandson. The many English gentlemen who had French tutors
were frequently taught not only the French language, but other subjects
from French text-books.

There were, moreover, several proposals for reformed schools,[1089] in
which French was given a place by the side of Latin. In the ideal school
as pictured by Clarendon, the master is well acquainted with the French
language; and "those that teach the exercises" are Frenchmen, both that
the scholars "may be accustomed to that language, and retain what they
are supposed to have learnt before, and because they do teach all
Exercises best."[1090] Thomas Tryon, the "Pythagorean," proposed a
school in which there was to be a tutor for French and Latin, or one for
each language, and a music master.[1091] The scholars should begin at an
early age, and nothing but French and Latin be spoken in their hearing.
The school should stand apart, so that the pupils have no intercourse
with "wild" children. In about a year they learn French and Latin by
conversation, and then other subjects with the help of these languages.
Newcomers soon pick up a colloquial knowledge of the language by mixing
with their schoolfellows. When they speak the languages perfectly, then
is the time, says Tryon, to study the grammar; "for to speak is one
thing, and the Art or Reason of speaking is another. The first must be
done by Imitation and Practice, the other is the Work of time, and must
be improved by degrees. They that learn the Art of speaking before they
can speak invert the true Method ... for the Reason and Philosophy of
speaking is a great Art and the work of Time, and not at all to be
taught to children." Before studying rules the learners should not only
speak, but read perfectly. After learning the letters they should read
daily for two or three hours, "in any book that treats of Temperance and
Vertue."

Notwithstanding the increased importance attached to French in all
spheres, the modern language received no status in the grammar schools,
where the sole aim pursued was "to make good Latin and Greek scholars
and minute philosophers."[1092] On the other hand, the private
institutions in which the language was taught naturally increased very
greatly in number. Many Huguenot refugees opened schools in and about
London, and one French observer was struck by their number.[1093] Some
arose in provincial towns. At Nottingham, for instance, an Englishman,
Jacob Villiers, had a school of some importance. Villiers himself was a
well-known citizen. His name appears in the Charter of 1682 as one of
the chief councillors of the town; and he was one of "the council of
eighteen" who were displaced by an order of the Privy Council of 10th
February 1688.[1094] He was described on his gravestone in St. Mary's
Churchyard as a descendant of a collateral branch of the family of the
great favourite of James I. and Charles I. The family "continued still
in Nottingham" in the middle of the eighteenth century.[1095]

Villiers's French school was flourishing some years before the first
mention of him as a public character. [Header: FRENCH SCHOOL AT
NOTTINGHAM] He had acquired his knowledge of French abroad, having
travelled for many years in France[1096] and Germany, where he gave
English lessons and received favours from the Prince Elector Palatine,
elder brother of Prince Rupert. It was no doubt after his return that he
opened his school for gentlemen and ladies. He also completed a book on
the French and English languages, which was published in London in 1680,
"to gratify the ladies and gentlemen his scholars, and all such who have
a mind so to be." His chief aim was to encourage the French and English
to learn each other's language by pointing out the close affinity
between them. The _Vocabularium Analogicum, or the Englishman speaking
French, and the Frenchman speaking English, Plainly shewing the nearness
or affinity betwixt the English, French and Latin_,[1097] contains a
vocabulary of similar words in the three languages--"a verbal eccho
repeating words thrice and that without any considerable
variation"--which occupies the main part of the work.[1098] It is
preceded by rules for pronouncing French, taken, without acknowledgement,
chiefly from Wodroeph, and followed by selections from Pierre de Lainé's
_Royal French Grammar_ of 1667. Learners of French are advised to master
the pronunciation first, and to engage a French master. A collection
of familiar phrases and commendatory and other French verses, some
of them also taken from Wodroeph, close the volume.

Several schools or academies in which young ladies studied French, as
well as philosophy and other serious subjects, were started at this
time, such as that kept by Mrs. Bathsua Makin, a learned Englishwoman of
the day, who for some time was governess to the daughters of Charles I.
Subsequently she opened a school for gentlewomen, first at Putney (1649)
and afterwards at Tottenham High Cross, "where, by the blessing of God,
Gentlewomen may be instructed in the Principles of Religion, and in all
manner of sober and vertuous education. More particularly in all things
ordinarily taught in other schools as works of all sorts, dancing,
musick, singing etc." Half their time was employed in acquiring these
arts and the other half in learning the Latin and French tongues.
"Gentlewomen of eight or nine years old, that can read well, may be
instructed in a year or two, according to their parts, in the Latin and
French tongues, by such plain and short rules, accommodated to the
grammar of the English Tongue, that they may easily keep what they have
learned, and recover what they shall lose." Those wishing to pursue
their studies further could learn other languages, Greek, Hebrew,
Italian, or Spanish, or could study astronomy, geography, and other
subjects. The usual fee was £20 a year, but more was charged if the
pupil made good progress. Parents were advised to apply for details at
Mr. Mason's Coffee House in Cornhill, near the Royal Exchange, on
Tuesday, or on Thursdays at the Bolt and Tun in Fleet Street, from three
to six in the afternoon.[1099]

Mary Astell, another learned Englishwoman, to whom we have already
alluded, came forward with a proposal advocating a scheme of study for
women, in the retirement of an establishment "more academic than
monastic." She urges her sex to study rhetoric, logic, and philosophy,
and, as most of them know French, to read Descartes and Malebranche, and
not idle novels and romances. The project ultimately fell to the ground,
however, chiefly on account of the opposition of Bishop Burnet, who
condemned it as a popish design. Shortly afterwards Defoe, who "would
deny women no sort of learning," proposed an academy for women,[1100] in
which they should be taught "all sorts of breeding suitable to both
their genius and their quality, and in particular music and dancing,
which it would be cruelty to bar the sex of, because they are their
darlings: but besides this they should be taught languages, as
particularly French and Italian; and I would venture the injury of
giving a woman more tongues than one." As to reading, history is the
best subject.

There are traces of other academies in which modern languages and the
"exercises" were the chief studies.[1101] At the end of _Musick or a
Parley of Instruments_, a musical entertainment performed by the
students of one of these academies, is an advertisement of the
curriculum; instruction in French and Italian was given by foreigners,
and mathematics, music, and the "exercises" received attention. [Header:
FRENCH IN PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS] Mark Lewis, the friend of Mrs.
Makin,[1102] taught like her in a school or "gymnasium" at Tottenham
High Cross, where "any person, whether young or old, as their Quality
is, may be perfected in the Tongues by constant conversation." The
school flourished about 1670, and there was then "an apartment for
French," while Italian and Spanish were "to receive attention
hereafter."[1103] Lewis's method of teaching so pleased the Earl of
Anglesey, then Lord Privy Seal, that he sent his grandsons to the
school, and enabled Lewis to secure letters patent for his method. A
similar academy was kept by a certain Mr. Banister in Chancery Lane near
the Pump. There was a wide choice of studies, including Latin, Greek,
and French, for the languages, and the usual "exercises." Any person
that desired could be accommodated in Mr. Banister's house "with diet
and lodging at reasonable Rates, ... or they may come thither at set
times and be Instructed in the things before mentioned." The academy
kept by Thomas Watts in Little Tower Street differed from the majority
in aiming at qualifying young gentlemen for business. Writing,
arithmetic, and merchants' accounts were taught, as well as mathematics
and experimental philosophy: a master resident in the house gave lessons
in French, a language absolutely necessary to business men, and "so far
universal that the place is not known where 'tis not spoken."
Accordingly it received special attention; and "as a just notion of
grammar, so the opportunity of frequent conversation, is absolutely
necessary, if one would ever arrive at any Perfection in this Language,"
Watts, therefore, not only "fix'd on a Master capable of doing the
first, but entertained him constantly in his house, where all those
young gentlemen that learn French are obliged always to speak it, and
have their master daily to converse with."[1104] Some academies confined
themselves chiefly to the exercises. But even then the atmosphere was
French. Such was the academy opened in London in 1682 by M. Foubert, a
Frenchman lately come from Paris. He was helped by a royal grant, and
seems to have been fairly successful. On his arrival his goods were
delivered at the house of M. Lainé,[1105] probably the French teacher of
that name.

As time went on such schools became more and more numerous and the
demand for instruction in French increased. The language was no longer
limited chiefly to certain classes: the gentry, merchants, soldiers, and
others requiring it for practical purposes. It came to be regarded as a
necessary part of a liberal education. The ever-growing call for
teachers of French was met by the great invasion of Protestant refugees
caused by the renewal of the fierce persecutions which culminated in the
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. The reception of the
fugitives was doubtful under James II., who looked upon them with
disfavour, but could not, for political reasons, refuse them
hospitality. With the advent of William of Orange in 1689, however,
their position was assured, and they became ardent supporters of the new
monarch. They arrived in such multitudes, says a contemporary, that it
was impossible to calculate their number; there was hardly an English
family of standing in which one or more refugees did not find a
home--often a permanent one.

From this time dates a new period in the teaching of French in England,
dominated by the influence of these refugees, from whose ranks the chief
tutors and schoolmasters were recruited, and whose French grammars and
manuals continued, in some cases, to be used till the end of the
eighteenth century, and even later.


FOOTNOTES:

[1043] A play called _The French Schoolmaster_ appeared in 1662 (Fleay,
_Chronicle of English Drama_, 1891, ii. p. 338).

[1044] There are, however, no points of resemblance between that work
and the grammar which appeared about twelve years later.

[1045] Catalogue of the Library of Dean Smallwood, 1684.

[1046] Cp. Arber, _Term Catalogues_, i. 269. Anne was three years
younger than Mary.

[1047] Schickler, _Les Églises du Refuge_, ii. p. 311.

[1048] _Savile Correspondence_, Camden Society, 1856, _passim_.

[1049] Huguenot Society Publications, xviii. p. 138.

[1050] _Stationers' Register_, iii. p. 277.

[1051] Such was also the opinion of J. Minsheu, author of the _Ductor in
Linguas_ (1617): "I have always found that the true knowledge and sure
holding of them in our memories, consisted in the knowing of them by
their causes, originalls and etymologies, that is by their reasons and
derivations."

[1052] His work suffered in having to strive against Cotgrave's long
settled reputation.

[1053] The third edition appeared, like the first, at London, 1690.

[1054] Arber, _Term Catalogues_, i. 477.

[1055] 8vo: pp. 168, 142. Printed for Th. Bassett....

[1056] For instance, that for the gender of nouns, in 1678, states that
those ending in "e" or "x" are masculine, and the rest feminine; in
1687, those ending in "e" and "ion" are feminine and the rest masculine;
in both cases long lists of exceptions are given.

[1057] "To follow the old road I should now decline a noun or two with
these articles, and six cases to be sure, to wit, the nominative,
accusative, dative, vocative, and ablative, whether our language can
afford them or not. But why should I perplex the learned with so
improper and needless a thing? For the distinction of cases is come from
the variable termination of one and the same noun. A thing incident (I
confess) to the Latine tongue, but not to our vulgar speech."

[1058] A second edition of Miège's English Grammar appeared in 1691.

[1059] Arber, _Term Catalogues_, iii. 67, 487.

[1060] But if they have been grounded in the principles before
travelling, they make quicker progress, and do not lose their knowledge.

[1061] "Car il n'y a rien de tel pour apprendre une langue que de
l'entendre parler."

[1062] Later he added rules for Spanish to his work. Colsoni also wrote
_Le Guide de Londres pour les Estrangers_ (1st edition, 1693), and
several works chiefly on topical subjects, of little interest. In 1694
his _Guide_ was followed by Richard Baldwin's _Booke for Strangers_.

[1063] And again in 1679.

[1064] Who translated one of Tillotson's sermons into French (1673).

[1065] See Bibliography.

[1066] Schickler, _op. cit._ ii. p. 282.

[1067] _The Church of Rome evidently proved Heretick_ (1680); _The
Church of England evidently proved the holy catholick Church_ (1682).
Towards the end of his career he wrote a _Discourse of the Trinitie ...
etc._ (1700). Berault calls himself a French minister, and he served as
chaplain on several of His Majesty's ships during the war with France at
the end of the century.

[1068] _Le Véritable et assuré Chemin du Ciel en François et en Anglois_
(1681), and the _Bouquet ou un Amas de plusieurs veritez Théologiques_
(1685), dedicated to Anne Stuart, afterwards queen.

[1069] Berault is behind the times in retaining most of the Latin cases
and tenses. His grammar, on the whole, is fuller and more detailed than
most of its kind.

[1070] _Le Théâtre françois_ (1674). ed. Monval, 1876, p. 62. Jean
Blaeu, in translating from English into French Ed. Chamberlain's
_Present State of England_ (1669), states: "Je ne l'ay pas sitost veu en
Anglois que j'ay jugé qu'il méritoit de paroistre dans la langue
françoise, comme estant plus universelle dans la chrestienté qu'aucune
autre" (1671). Jusserand, _Shakespeare in France_, p. 20, note.

[1071] _De monumentis publicis latine inscribendis._ Goujet,
_Bibliothèque françoise_ (1740-56), i. p. 13.

[1072] Bayle, _Oeuvres_, iv. p. 190, quoted by Charlanne, _L'Influence
française en Angleterre_, pt. ii. p. 202.

[1073] F. Watson, _Grammar Schools_, p. 312.

[1074] Epilogue to _Bellamira_.

[1075] London, 1678.

[1076] _Young Gallants' Academy_, 1674, p. 44.

[1077] A little later Swift wrote that "the current opinion prevails
that the study of Latin and Greek is loss of time...." (_Works_, 1841,
ii. p. 291).

[1078] _A Dialogue ... concerning Education_, Miscellaneous Works,
London, 1751, p. 338.

[1079] Even the universities had to give some recognition to the modern
language. A Professorship of Modern History and Modern Languages was
founded at both universities in 1724. Cp. Cooper, _Annals of Cambridge_,
iv. 128.

[1080] "Some Thoughts," _Educational Writings of Locke_, 1912, p. 125.

[1081] The same opinions are voiced by later writers, such as Costeker,
_Education of a Young Nobleman_, 1723, p. 18; and the author of a
pamphlet _On Education_, 1734.

[1082] Evelyn, _Diary_, Dec. 6, 1681.

[1083] _The Compleat Gentleman_ (1728), ed. K. D. Bülbring, 1890.

[1084] Epilogue to _Bellamira_.

[1085] _Works_, ed. A. Wilson, Verity, London, 1888, Preface.

[1086] Le Blanc, _Lettres d'un Français_, à la Haye, 1745, ii. p. 1.

[1087] He tells Maupertuis of the great success of his _De la Figure de
la Terre_ (1738) in England, where it was awaited with impatience and
received with acclamation (_Lettres_, ii. 244).

[1088] _An Essay to revive the antient Education of Gentlewomen_ (Mrs.
Makin or Mark Lewis).

[1089] French no doubt often reached grammar school boys indirectly.
Thus Charles Hoole in 1660 (_A New Discoverie of the old Art of Teaching
School_) recommends the Dialogues of Du Grès for their private reading;
perhaps, however, he was thinking more of the Latin than of the French
part.

[1090] _Miscellaneous Works_, 1751, pp. 320-1.

[1091] _A New Method of Educating Children ..._, 1695.

[1092] Th. Sheridan, _Plan of Education_, 1769, p. 42.

[1093] M. Misson, _Mémoires et Observations d'un voyageur en
Angleterre_, à la Haye, 1698, p. 99.

[1094] Information supplied by J. Potter Briscoe, Esq., of Nottingham.

[1095] C. Deering, _An Historical Account of the ancient and present
State of the Town of Nottingham_, Nottingham, 1751, p. 32.

[1096] He remarks on the desire to learn English expressed by several
French persons he met, chiefly Huguenots.

[1097] Printed by J. D. for Jonathan Robinson at the Golden Lion, and
George Wells, at the Sun in Paul's Churchyard. 8vo, pp. 224.

[1098] Pp. 17-132.

[1099] _An Essay to revive the Antient Education of Gentlewomen ..._,
London, 1673.

[1100] _Essay on Projects_ (1697), London, 1887, pp. 164 _sqq._

[1101] Cp. Loveday, _Letters_, 1639, p. 178.

[1102] Lewis also interviewed parents any Thursday in the afternoon
between three and six o'clock, at the Bolt and Tun in Fleet Street.

[1103] _Model for a school for the better education of Youth_, and
Advertisement at the end of his _Plan and Short Rules for pointing
periods ..._ (_c._ 1670).

[1104] Advertisement in _An Essay on the Proper Method for forming the
Man of Business_, 4th ed., 1722, pp. 44-45.

[1105] _Calendar of State Papers, Treasury Books, 1679-80_, pp. 132,
140.




APPENDICES




APPENDIX I

    CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF MANUALS AND GRAMMARS FOR TEACHING FRENCH TO THE
    ENGLISH


I

The Middle Ages

_A. Manuscripts_

* Indicates that there are also other manuscripts of later date.

             Henry III. (1216-1272):

  _c._ 1250     Short Treatise on French Verbs (Trinity College,
             Cambridge, R. 3, 56).

               Edward I. (1272-1307):

                * Le treytyz ke moun sire Gautier de Bibelesworthe
             fist a ma dame Dionisie de Mounchensy pur aprise de
             langwage (ed. T. Wright, "Volume of Vocabularies,"
             1857).

                * Tractatus Orthographiae of T. H. Parisii Studentis
             (ed. M. K. Pope, "Modern Language Review," April 1910).

  _c._ 1300     * Orthographia Gallica (ed. J. Stürzinger,
             "Altfranzösische Bibliothek," viii., Heilbronn, 1884).

               Edward II. and Edward III. (1307-1377):

                Commentaries in French on the Orthographia Gallica
             (ed. Stürzinger, _ut supra_).

                Epistolaries, or Collections of model letters (MSS.
             Harl. 4971, Harl. 3988, Addit. 17716 Brit. Mus.; Ee 4,
             20, Camb. Univ. Libr.; B 14. 39, 40, Trinity Col. Camb.;
             182, All Souls, Oxon.; 188, Magdalen Col.).

                Cartularies, or Collections of Bills, Indentures, etc.
             (Harl. 4971; Ee 4, 20, Camb. Univ. Libr.; Addit.
             17716).

                Undated Vocabularies and Verb Tables and Fragments
             on Grammar (Ee 4, 20, Camb. Univ. Libr.; Harl. 4971,
             Addit. 17716, Brit. Mus.; 188, Magdalen Col., Oxon.).

  _c._ 1340     Nominale sive Verbale in Gallicis cum expositione
             eiusdem in Anglicis (ed. Skeat, "Transactions of the
             Philological Soc.," 1903-1906).

               Richard II. (1377-1399):

                Tractatus Orthographiae of Coyfurelly, Doctor in Law
             of Orleans (ed. Stengel, "Zeitschrift für
             neufranzösische Sprache und Literatur," vol. i., 1878).

  1396          * Maniere de Language (ed. P. Meyer, "Revue critique,"
             1873).

  1399          Petit Livre pour enseigner les enfanz de leur entreparler
             comun francois (ed. Stengel, _op. cit._).

  _c._ 1409     Donait francois pur briefment entroduyr les Anglois
             et la droit language de Paris et de pais la d'entour
             fait aus despenses de Johan Barton par pluseurs bons
             clercs du language avandite (ed. Stengel, _op. cit._).

                Conjugation of Verbs, by R. Dove. Le Donait soloum
             douce franceis de Paris (Sloane MSS. 513).

  _c._ 1415     Liber Donati (MSS. Dd 12, 23, Gg 6, 44, Camb. Univ.
             Libr.; Addit. 17716 Brit. Mus.).

                Femina. Liber iste vocatur Femina, quia sicut Femina
             docet infantemloqui maternam, sic docet iste liber
             iuvenes rethorice loqui Gallicum prout infra patebit
             (ed. W. A. Wright, Roxburghe Club, 1907).

  1415          Maniere de Language (ed. P. Meyer, "Romania," xxxii.,
             1903).

                John Lydgate, Praeceptiones linguae gallicae, li. 1.
             (Bale, "Scriptores Britanniae," fol. 203.)

  _c._ 1500?    Dialogues in French and English (MS. Ii. 6, 17, Camb.
             Univ. Libr.).


_B. Printed Books_

  _c._ 1483     Tres bonne doctrine pour aprendre briefment francoys
             et engloys. Printed by William Caxton. B.L. 4to. (Ed.
             H. Bradley, "Early English Text Society," extra series,
             lxxix., 1900.)

                Another edition. Fragment of one leaf in the Bodleian.

  _c._ 1492?    Here is a good boke to lerne to speke French. B.L.
             4to. Colophon: Per me Richardum Pynson.

  _c._ 1498?    Here beginneth a Lytell treatyse for to lerne
             Englisshe and Frensshe. B.L. 4to. Colophon: Here endeth
             a lytyll treatyse for to lerne Englysshe and Frensshe.
             Emprinted at Westmynster by my Wynken de Worde.

                Another edition. Fragment of one leaf in the British
             Museum. B.L. 4to.


II

TUDOR AND STUART TIMES

  1521  BARCLAY. The introductorie to wryte and to pronounce frenche.

   ?    VALENCE. Introductions in frensche....

  1528  Fragment of grammar in Lambeth Library.

  1530  PALSGRAVE. Lesclarcissement de la langue francoyse.

  _c._ 1534  DUWES. An introductorie for to lerne ... french trewly.

  _c._ 1535  DUWES. An introductorie for to lerne ... french trewly.

  _c._ 1547  DUWES. An introductorie for to lerne ... french trewly.

  1552  VERON. Dictionariolum puerorum....

  1553?  DU PLOICH. A Treatise in English and Frenche....

  1553?  Traicté pour apprendre a parler françoys et angloys.

  1557  G. MEURIER. La Grammaire Françoise. . . .

  1557  (BARLEMENT.) A Boke intituled Italion, Frynsshe, Englysshe Latin.

  1559  Ane A.B.C. for Scottes men to read the frenche toung....

  1563  MEURIER. Communications familieres.

  1565  HOLYBAND. The French Schoolemaister.

  1566  HOLYBAND. The French Littleton.

  1568  (BARLEMENT.) A Boke intituled Ffrynshe, Englysshe and Duche.

  1571  A Dictionarie french and english.

  1572  HIGGINS. Huloets dictionarie ... the French thereunto annexed.

  1573  HOLYBAND. The French Schoolemaister.

  1574  BARET. An Alvearie ... in Englishe, Latin and French.

  1575  * A plaine pathway to the French Tongue.

  1576  LEDOYEN DE LA PICHONNAYE. A Plaine Treatise to larne ... French.

  1578  BELLOT. The French Grammer.

  1578  DU PLOICH. A Treatise in English and Frenche, new ed.

  1578  HOLYBAND. French Littleton.

  1578  (BARLEMENT.) Dictionaire . . . en quattre Langues.

   ?    HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1580  HOLYBAND. A Treatise for Declining of Verbs.

  1580  HOLYBAND. De Pronuntiatione Linguae Gallicae.

  1580  HOLYBAND. The Treasurie of the French Tong.

  1581  BARET. Alvearie ... New ed.

  1581  HOLYBAND. French Littleton.

  1581  BELLOT. Le Jardin de Vertu.

  1582  HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1583  HOLYBAND. Campo di Fior.

  1585  HIGGINS. The Nomenclator or Remembrancer of Adrianus Junius.

  1588  BELLOT. The French Methode.

   ?    HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1590  DE CORRO. The Spanish Grammer with certeine Rules teaching ...
        French.

  1591  HOLYBAND. French Littleton.

  1591  CORDERIUS. Dialogues in French and English.

  1592  DE LA MOTHE. The French Alphabet.

  1593  HOLYBAND. French Littleton.

  1593  HOLYBAND. A Dictionarie French and English.

  1593  ELIOTE. Ortho-Epia Gallica.

  1595  E. A. Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.

  1595  DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet.

  1596  MORLET. Janitrix ... ad perfectam Linguae Gallicae cognitionem.

  1597  HOLYBAND. French Littleton.

  1598  The Necessary ... Education of a Young Gentlewoman, Italian,
        French and English.

  1599  HOLYBAND. A Treatise for Declining of Verbs.

  1602  A Short Syntaxis of the French Tongue.

  1602  HOLYBAND. French Littleton.

  1604  SANFORD. Le Guichet François.

  1605  SANFORD. A Briefe Extract of the former grammar ... in English.

  1605  ERONDELL. The French Garden.

  1606  HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1607  HOLYBAND. French Littleton.

  1611  COTGRAVE. A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues.

  1612  HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1615  The Declining of Frenche Verbes (HOLYBAND?).

  1615  The French A.B.C.

  1615  HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1617  JEAN BARBIER. Janua Linguarum Quadralinguis.

  1618  FARREAR. A Brief Direction to the French Tongue.

  1619  LAUR DU TERME. The Flower de Luce.

  1619  HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1620  COLSON. The First Part of the French Grammar.

  1623  WODROEPH. The spared Houres of a souldier in his Travels.

  1623  J. S. A Shorte Method for the Declyning of Ffrench Verbes.

  1625  SHERWOOD. The French Tutour.

  1625  HOLYBAND. French Littleton.

  1625  DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet.

  1625  WODROEPH. The True Marrow of the French Tongue.

  1625  L'ISLE. Part of Du Bartas, French and English.

  1625  Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.

  1630  HOLYBAND. French Littleton.

  1631  ANCHORAN. Comenius's Janua Linguarum.

  1631  HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1631  DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet.

  1632  COTGRAVE. French-English Dictionary, with SHERWOOD'S
        English-French Dictionary.

  1633  HOLYBAND. French Littleton.

  1633  DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet.

  1633  ANCHORAN. Comenius's Janua Linguarum.

  1633  SALTONSTALL. Clavis ad Portam.

  1633  DE GRAVE. The Pathway to the Gate of Tongues.

  1634  SHERWOOD. The French Tutour, 2nd ed.

  1634  AUFEILD. A French Grammar and Syntaxe.

  1635  COGNEAU. A Sure Guide to the French Tongue.

  1636  HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1636  DU GRÈS. Breve et accuratum grammaticae gallicae Compendium.

  1637  (BARLEMENT.) The English, Latine, French, Dutch Scholemaster.

  1637  BENSE. Analogo Diaphora ... trium Linguarum, Gallicae, Hispanicae
        et Italicae.

  1637  ANCHORAN. Comenius's Janua.

  1639  DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet.

  1639  HOLYBAND. French Littleton.

  1639  Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.

  1639  DU GRÈS. Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini.

  1639  ANCHORAN. Comenius's Janua.

  1639  (BARLEMENT.) New Dialogues or Colloquies ...

  1641  MEURIER. A treatise for to learne to speake Frenshe and Englishe.

  1641  HOLYBAND. Treatise for Declining of French Verbs.

  1641  HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1643  GOSTLIN. Aurisodinae Linguae Gallicae.

  1645  COGNEAU. Sure Guide ...

  1647  DE LA MOTHE. French Alphabet.

  1648  GERBIER. An Introduction of the French Tongue.

  1649  HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1650  COTGRAVE. French Dictionary.

  1651  COGNEAU. Sure Guide.

  1652  DU GRÈS. Dialogi ...

  1653  MAUGER. True Advancement of the French Tongue.

  1655  HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1655  LAINÉ. A Compendious Introduction to the French Tongue.

  1656  MAUGER. French Grammar, 2nd ed.

  1658  COGNEAU. Sure Guide.

  1658  MAUGER. French Grammar, 3rd ed.

  1659  LEIGHTON. Linguae Gallicae addiscendae Regulae.

  1660  DU GRÈS. Dialogi ...

  1660  COTGRAVE. Dictionary.

  1660  HERBERT. French and English Dialogues.

  1660  HOWELL. Lexicon Tetraglotton.

  1662  MAUGER. French Grammar, 4th ed.

  1662  LEIGHTON. ... Regulæ.

  1666  Æsop's Fables in English, French and Latine.

    ?   Castellion's Sacred Dialogues ... French and English.

  1667  MAUGER. French Grammar, 5th ed.

  1667  FESTEAU. French Grammar.

  1667  DE LAINÉ. Princely Way to the French Tongue.

  1668  HOLYBAND. French Schoolemaister.

  1668  Grammaire Françoise et Angloise.

  1668  Grammaire Françoise et Angloise.

  1670  MAUGER. Grammar, 6th ed.

  1671  MAUGER. Lettres françoises et angloises.

  1671  FESTEAU. Grammar, 2nd ed.

  1673  MAUGER. Grammar, 7th ed.

  1673  COTGRAVE. Dictionary.

  1674  A French Grammar ... Published by the Academy.

  1674  SMITH. Grammatica Quadralinguis.

  1674  A very easie Introduction to the French Tongue.

  1675  FESTEAU. Grammar, 3rd ed.

  1676  D'ABADIE. A New French Grammar.

  1676  MAUGER. Grammar (the English edition).

  1676  MAUGER. Lettres, 2nd ed.

  1677  DE LAINÉ. Princely Way, 2nd ed.

  1677  Grammaire françoise et angloise.

  1677  MIÈGE. A New Dictionary, French and English.

  1678  MIÈGE. A New French Grammar.

  1679  MAUGER. Grammar, 8th ed.

  1679  FESTEAU. Grammar, 4th ed.

  1679  Grammaire Françoise et Angloise.

  1679  MIÈGE. Dictionary of Barbarous French.

  1680  VILLIERS. Vocabularium Analogicum.

  1681  BERAULT. Chemin du Ciel.

  1682  MAUGER. Grammar, 10th ed.

  1682  MIÈGE. Short and Easie French Grammar.

  1683  VAIRESSE D'ALLAIS. Short and Methodical Introduction.

  1684  MIÈGE. A Short French Dictionary.

  1684  KERHUEL. Grammaire Françoise.

  1684  MAUGER. Grammar, 11th ed.

  1684  CHENEAU. French Grammar.

  1685  FESTEAU. Grammar, 5th ed.

  1685  BERAULT. Bouquet . . . de Plusieurs Veritez Theologiques.

  1686  MAUGER. Grammar, 12th ed.

  1687  Æsop's Fables in English, French and Latine.

  1687  MIÈGE. Grounds of the French Tongue.

  1688  MIÈGE. Great French Dictionary.

  1688  BERAULT. New ... French and English Grammar.

  1688  COLSONI. The New Trismagister.

  1689  MAUGER. Grammar, 13th ed.

  1690  MIÈGE. Short French Dictionary, 3rd ed.

  1690  MAUGER. Grammar, 14th ed.

  1690  COLSONI. A new Grammar of three languages.

  1691  MIÈGE. Short French Dictionary.

  1691  BERAULT. Grammar, 2nd ed.

  _c._ 1691  LANE. French Grammar.

    ?   GROLLEAU. Compleat French Tutor.

  1693  FESTEAU. Grammar, 6th ed.

  1693  BERAULT. Grammar, 3rd ed.

  1693  Eloquent Master of Languages.

  1694  BOYER. Compleat French Master.

  1694  MAUGER. Grammar, 16th ed.

  1695  COLSONI. New and Accurate Grammar [new edition].

  1698  MIÈGE. Last and Best French Grammar.

  1698  BERAULT. French and English Grammar.

  1698  MAUGER. French Grammar.

  1699  MAUGER. French Grammar [new edition].

  1699  BOYER. French Master, 2nd ed.

    ?   VASLET. Nomenclator Trilinguis.

  1699  BOYER. Royal French Dictionary.




APPENDIX II

    BIBLIOGRAPHY, ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY, OF MANUALS FOR TEACHING THE
    FRENCH LANGUAGE TO THE ENGLISH, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH
    CENTURY TO THE END OF THE STUART PERIOD


A., E.:

    Grammaire Angloise et Françoise pour facilement et promptement
    aprendre la langue Angloise et Françoise. Revûë et corrigée tout de
    nouveau d'une quantité de fautes qui étoient aux précédentes
    impressions par E. A. Augmentée en cette dernière édition d'un
    vocabulaire Anglois et François. Rouen, 1595. Cp. sub "Anonymous
    Works," Grammaire Angloise et Françoise.

ÆSOP: Cp. CODRINGTON.

ANCHORAN, J. A.:

    Porta Linguarum Trilinguis reserata et aperta, sive seminarium
    linguarum et scientiarum omnium, hoc est compendiaria Latinam,
    Anglicam, Gallicam (et quamvis aliam) Linguam una cum artium et
    scientiarum fundamentis sesquianni spatio ad summum docendi et
    perdiscendi methodus sub titulis centum periodis mille comprehensa.
    The Gate of Tongues unlocked and opened.... London, George Millar
    for Michael Sparke, 1631.

    Another issue, George Millar for the Author, 1631.

    Another ed.: Porta linguarum ... J. A. Anchorani ... Th. Cotes
    sumptibus M. Sparke, 1633.

    3rd ed. Anna Griffin sumptibus M. Sparke. London, 1637.

    4th ed. E. Griffin for M. Sparke, 1639.

ANONYMOUS WORKS (Arranged chronologically):

    De la Prosodie, etc. (Fragment in the Lambeth Library dated 1528.)

    (BARLEMENT.) A boke intituled Italion, Frynsshe, Englysshe and
    Laten. London, Ed. Sutton, 1557.

    Another ed.: A Boke intituled Ffrynsshe, Englysshe and Duche.
    London, John Alde, 1569.

    Another ed.: Dictionaire, Colloques ou Dialogues en Quattre
    langues, Flamen, Ffrançoys, Espaignel et Italien, with the Englishe
    to be added thereto. George Bishop, 1578.

    Another ed.:
    The English}{French
        Latine }{Dutch Scholemaster, or an Introduction to teach young
    Gentlemen and Merchants to travell or trade. Being the only helpe
    to attaine to those Languages. London, for Michael Sparke, 1637.

    Another ed.: New Dialogues or Colloquies and a little Dictionary of
    eight Languages. A Booke very necessary for all those that study
    these tongues either at home or abroad, now perfected and made fit
    for travellers, young merchants and seamen, especially those that
    desire to attain to the use of the tongues. London, Printed for
    Michael Sparke, 1639.

    Ane A, B, C for Scottes men to read the frenche toung with ane
    exhortatioun to the noblis of Scotland to favour thair ald
    friendis. Licensed to Wm. Nudrye, 1559.

    A Dictionarie french and english. 1571. Col.: Imprinted at London
    by Henry Bynneman for Lucus Harrison. An. 1570.[1106]

    A plaine pathway to the French Tongue, very profitable for
    Marchants and also all other which desire the same, aptly devided
    into nineteen chapters. The contents whereof appear in the next
    Page. Printed in London by Thomas East, 1575.

    Another ed. Newly corrected. London, by Th. East (date unknown).

    Corderius. Dialogues in French and English. John Wyndet, 1591.

    Grammaire Angloise et Françoise . . . Revûë et corrigée . . . par
    E. A. (_q.v. sub_ A., E.)

    Another ed.: Grammaire Angloise pour facilement et promptement
    apprendre la langue angloise. Qui peut aussi aider aux Anglois pour
    apprendre la langue Françoise. Alphabet anglois contenant la
    prononciation des Lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons.
    Paris, 1625.

    Another ed. Rouen, 1639.

    Another ed. Rouen, 1662.

    Another ed. Rouen, 1670.

    Another edition. London, 1677.

    The Necessary, fit and convenient Education of a young Gentlewoman,
    Italian, French and English. Adam Islip, 1598.

    A Short Syntaxis in the French Tongue. 12º. London, 1602.

    The French A. B. C. Licensed to Rd. Field, 1615.

    The Declining of Frenche Verbes. Rd. Field, 1615 (another edition
    of Holyband's Treatise for declining of Verbs?).

    (Sébastien Châteillon.) Sacred Dialogues translated out of Latin
    into French and English for the benefit of youth. Sold by R. Hom
    and J. Sims. (Date unknown, between 1666 and 1668?)

    A French Grammar Teaching the knowledge of that language, how to
    read and write it perfectly without any other precedent Study than
    to have learnt to Read only. Published by the Academy for
    Reformation of the French Tongue. London. Printed by W. G. for Wm.
    Copper at the sign of the Pelican in Little Britain, 1674.

    A very easie Introduction to the French Tongue, or A very brief
    Grammar, proper for all persons who have bad memories. Containing
    all the principal grounds for the more speedy practice of
    discourse. Also many peculiar phrases; with a very useful Dialogue
    for young factors. 8vo. Sold by J. Sims at the King's Head in
    Cornhill, _c._ 1673.

AUFEILD, WILLIAM:

    A French Grammar and Syntaxe contayning most exact and certaine
    rules for the pronunciation, orthography, construction and use of
    the French Language. Written in French by Charles Maupas, of Bloys.
    Translated into English with additions and explications peculiarly
    useful to us English; together with a preface and an Introduction
    wherein are contained divers necessary instructions for the better
    understanding of it, by W. A. London, printed for Rich. Mynne,
    dwelling in little Britaine at the signe of St. Paul, 1634.

BARBIER, JEAN:

    Janua Linguarum Quadralinguis, or The Gate to the Latine, English,
    Frenche and Spanish Tongues. London, 1617.[1107]

BARCLAY, ALEXANDER:

    Here begynneth the introductory to wryte and to pronounce frenche,
    compyled by Alexander Barclay, compendiously at the commandement of
    the right hye excellent and myghty prynce Thomas, duke of
    Northfolke. [Col.] Imprynted at London in the Flete strete at the
    sygne of the rose Garlande by Robert Coplande, 1521, the yere of
    our lord MCCCCCXXI ye XXII day of Marche.

BARET, JOHN:

    An Alvearie or triple Dictionarie in Englishe, Latin, and French.
    Very profitable for all such as be desirous of any of those three
    languages. Also by the two tables at the ende of this booke they
    may contrariwise finde the most necessarie Latin or French words,
    placed after the order of an Alphabet, whatsoever are to be found
    in any other Dictionarie. And so to turne them backwardes againe
    into Englishe when they reade any Latin or French authors and doubt
    of any harde worde therein. London, Henry Denham, 1574.

    A new edition: An Alvearie or quadruple dictionarie containing four
    sundrie tongues, namelie, Englishe, Latine, Greeke and Frenche.
    Newlie enriched with a varietie of wordes, phrases, proverbs and
    divers lightsome observations of Grammar. By the Tables you may
    contrariwise finde out the most necessarie wordes placed after the
    Alphabet, whatsoever are to be found in any other dictionarie.
    Which Tables also serving for lexicons, to lead the learner unto
    the English of such hard wordes as are often read in Authors, being
    faithfullie examined, are truelie numbered. Verie profitable for
    such as be desirous of anie of those languages. London, Henry
    Denham, 1581.

BARLEMENT. Cp. Entry under "Anonymous Works."

BELLOT, JACQUES:

    The French Grammer, or an Introduction orderly and Methodically, by
    ready rules, playne preceptes and evident examples, teachinge the
    Frenche Tongue: Made and very commodiously set forth for their
    sakes that desire to attayne the Perfecte knowledge of the same
    Language, by James Bellot, Gentleman of Caen in Normandy. Imprinted
    at London in Fleet Street by Th. Marshe, 1578.

    Le jardin de vertu et bonnes moeurs, plain de plusieurs belles
    fleurs et riches sentences avec le sens d'icelles recueillies de
    plusieurs autheurs, et mises en lumiere par J. B. gent. Cadomois.
    Imprimé à Londres par Th. Vautrollier, 1581.

    The French Methode. London, 1588.

BENSE, PIERRE:

    Analogo Diaphora seu Concordantia Discrepans et Discrepantia
    Concordans trium linguarum Gallicae, Hispanicae et Italicae. Unde
    innotescat, quantum quaque a Romanae linguae, unde ortum duxere,
    idiomate deflexerit; earum quoque ratio et natura dilucide et
    succinte delineantur. Operâ et studio Petri Bense, Parisini, apud
    Oxon. has linguas profitentis. Oxoniae. Excudebat Guilielmus Turner
    impensis authoris, 1637.

BERAULT, PIERRE:

    A new, plain, short and compleat French and English Grammar. Wherby
    the learner may attain in few months to speak and write French
    correctly as they do now in the Court of France, and wherein all
    that is dark, superfluous and deficient in other grammars is plain,
    short and methodically supplied. Also very useful to strangers that
    are desirous to learn the English tongue: for whose sake is added a
    short but very exact English Grammar. Omne tulit punctum qui
    miscuit utile dulce. London, 1688.

    Second edition, _c._ 1691.

    Third edition, with additions, 1693.

    Fourth edition, 1700.

    Another edition: A New and Compleat French and English Grammar,
    plainly showing the shortest and easiest way to understand, speak,
    and write spedily those Languages, but especially the French.
    Containing above twenty pleasant and useful Dialogues translated
    into English by Sir R. L'Estrange, and here rendered into French
    with several others, almost word for word. To which is added a
    short but exact English Grammar. Also a French and English
    Dictionary, where the parts of speech are ranged separately.
    Comprehending all that's necessary for any Persons that have a
    desire to learn either Language, by Peter Berault, French
    Minister, lately chaplain of Her Majesty's ships Kent, Victory,
    Scarborough, and Dunkirk. London, 1707.

    Le Véritable et assuré chemin du ciel en François et en Anglois.
    London, 1680.

    Bouquet ou un amas de plusieurs veritez théologiques propres pour
    instruire toutes sortes de personnes, particulierement pour
    consoler une ame dans ses Troubles. London, 1685.

BEYER, GUILLAUME:

    La vraye instruction des trois langues la Françoise, l'Angloise et
    la Flamende. Proposée en des règles fondamentales et succinctes. Un
    assemblage des mots les plus usités, et des colloques utiles et
    récréatifs; où hormis d'autres discours curieus, le gouvernement de
    la France se réduit. Historiquement et Politiquement mise en trois
    langues. Seconde ed. augmentée. Dordrecht, 1681. (Date of first
    edition unknown.)

CHÂTEILLON (or CASTELLION), S. Cp. entry under "Anonymous Works."

CHENEAU, FRANÇOIS:

    Francis Cheneau's French Grammar, enrich'd with a compendious and
    easie way to learne the French Tongue in a very short time.
    Licensed to Ch. Mearne, _c._ 1684.

    The Perfect French Master teaching in less than a month to turn any
    English into French by Rule and Figure, Alphabetically, in a Method
    hitherto altogether unknown in Europe. With the regular and
    irregular Verbs. By Mr. Cheneau of Paris, Professor of the Latin,
    English, French, Italian Tongues, formerly slave and Governor of
    the Isles of Nacsia and Paros in the Archipelago, now living in his
    house in Old Fish St. next door to the Faulcon in London. Where may
    be seen his short grammars for all these tongues, after the same
    way. W. Botham for the author. London, 1716.

CODRINGTON, ROBERT:

    Æsop's Fables, With his life in English, French and Latine. The
    English by Tho. Philipott, Esq., the French and Latine by Rob.
    Codrington, M.A. Illustrated with one hundred and ten sculptures.
    By Francis Barlow, and are to be sold at his House, The Golden
    Eagle in New Street near Shoe Lane, 1665-6.

    Another ed. London, 1687.

    Another ed. [London], 1703.

COGNEAU, PAUL:

    A Sure Guide to the French Tongue, teaching by a most easy way to
    pronounce it naturally, to reade it perfectly, write it truly and
    speke it readily. Together with the Verbes personal and impersonal
    and useful sentences added to some of them, most profitable for all
    sorts of people to learn. Painfully gathered and set in order after
    the alphabetical way, for the better benefit of those that are
    desirous to learn the French, by me Paul Cogneau. London, 1635.

    Another ed. [London] 1645.

    Another ed. [London] 1651.

    Fourth ed., exactly corrected, much amplified, and better ordered.
    (By Wm. Herbert, _q.v._) London, 1658.

COLSON, WILLIAM:

    The First Part of the French Grammar, Artificially reduced into
    Tables by Arte locall, called the Arte of Memorie. Contayning
    (after an extraordinary and most easy method) the Pronunciation and
    Orthographie of the French Tongue according to the new manner of
    writing, without changing the originall or old, for the
    understanding of both by a reformed alphabet of twenty-six letters
    and by a triple distinction of characters (Roman, Italian and
    English) representing unto the eye three sorts of pronunciation
    distinguished by them. Proper, signified by a Roman character:
    Improper, noted by an Italian: and superfluous, marked by an
    English.... And as most amply is declared in the explication of the
    foresaid reformed alphabet, and letters in it otherwise ordered,
    and named then heretofore, and two otherwise shaped ... for _j_ and
    _v_ consonants. In which is taught, the universall knowledge of the
    four materiall parts of Grammar ... for the better understanding of
    the rules of the triple pronunciation aforesaid. Also the
    Artificiall and generall declination terminative of Nounes and
    Verbes. Lately compiled by William Colson of London, Professor of
    Litterall and Liberall Sciences. London, Printed by W. Stansby,
    1620.

COLSONI, FRANCISCO CASPARO:

    The New Trismagister. Or the New Teacher of three Languages by whom
    an Italian, an English and a French Gentleman may learn to
    discourse together, each in their several languages: in four parts.
    (I.) The Italian learns to speak English. (II.) The English and
    Italian Gentlemen learn to speak French. (III.) The French and the
    English Gentlemen learn to speak Italian. (IV.) The Frenchman
    learns to speak English. 1688.

    Another edition: A New and Accurate Grammar whereby French and
    Italian, the Spaniard and the Portuguese may learn to speak English
    well, with rules for the learning of French, Italian, and Spanish.
    Nouvelle et curieuse Grammaire par laquelle. . . . Par F. Colsoni,
    M.(A). et Maitre des dites Langues demeurant dans Falcon Court en
    Lothbury. 8vo. Printed for S. Manship at the Ship in Cornhill, _c._
    1695.

COMENIUS. Cf. entry under "Anonymous Works."

CORDERIUS. Cf. entry under "Anonymous Works."

CORRO, ANTONIO DE:

    The Spanish Grammer, with certeine Rules teaching both the Spanish
    and French tongues. By which they that have some knowledge in the
    French tongue may the easier attaine to the Spanish, and likewise
    they that have the Spanish with more facilitie learne the French:
    and they that are acquainted with neither of them, learne either or
    both. Made in Spanish by M. Anthonie de Corro, translated by John
    Thorius, Graduate in Oxeford. London, 1590.

COTGRAVE, RANDLE:

    A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, compiled by Randle
    Cotgrave. London, 1611.

    Another ed. ... Whereunto is also annexed a most copious dictionary
    of the English set before the French, by R. S. L. (Robert Sherwood,
    Londoner, _q.v._) London, 1632.

    Another ed. ... Whereunto are newly added the animadversions and
    Supplements of James Howell, Esquire. Inter Eruditos Cathedram
    habeat Polyglottes. London, 1650.

    Another ed. ... Whereunto are added sundry Animadversions, with
    supplements of many hundreds of words never before printed: with
    accurate castigations throughout the whole work, and distinctions
    of the obsolete words from those that are now in use. Together with
    a large Grammar, a dialogue consisting of all Gallicisms, with
    additions of the most significant proverbs, with other refinements
    according to Cardinal Richelieu's late Academy. For the furtherance
    of young learners, and the advantage of all others that endeavour
    to arrive to the most exact knowledge of the French Language, this
    work is exposed to publick, by James Howell, Esqr. London, 1660.

    Another ed. London, 1673.

D'ABADIE, J.G.:

    A new French Grammar, containing at large the principles of that
    tongue, or the most exact rules, criticall observations, and fit
    examples for teaching with a good method and attaining the French
    Tongue as the Witts or the Gentlemen of the French Academy speak
    and pronounce it at this present time. Composed for the use of the
    English gentry by J.G. d'Abadie, Esq. Oxford, Printed by H. Hall,
    Printer to the University, for J. Crosby, 1676.

DE GRAVE, JEAN:

    The Pathway to the Gate of Tongues, being the first instruction for
    little children, with A short manner to conjugate French Verbes.
    Ordered and made Latine, French and English by Jean de Grave,
    Professor of the French Tongue in the City of London. Oxford, 1633.
    (Bound with second ed. of Comenius's Porta Linguarum. London,
    1633.)

DE LA MOTHE, N., G.:

    The French Alphabet, teaching in a very short time, and by a most
    easie way, to pronounce French naturally, to read it perfectly, to
    write it truly and to speak it accordingly. Together with the
    treasure of the French tongue, containing the rarest sentences,
    proverbs, parobles, similies, apothegmes, and Golden sayings of the
    most excellent French Authors, as well Poets as Oratours. The one
    diligently compiled and the other painfully gathered and set in
    order, after the alphabetical maner, for the benefit of those that
    are desirous of the French tong. Printed by E. Alde, and are to be
    solde by H. Jackson, dwelling in Fleet Street, beneath the Conduit
    at the sign of St. John Evangelist, 1595.

    First edition. London, Richard Field, 1592 (no copy known).

    Another edition. London, Geo. Miller, 1625.

    Another edition. London, Geo. Miller, 1631.

    Another edition. London, Geo. Miller, 1633.

    Another edition. London, Geo. Miller, 1639.

    Another edition. London, A. Miller, 1647.

DE LA PICHONNAYE, LEDOYEN:

    A Plaine Treatise to larne in a shorte space of the French Tongue.
    London, H. Denham, 1576.

DE SAINLIENS, CLAUDE. Cf. HOLYBAND.

DU GRÈS, GABRIEL:

    Breve et Accuratum grammaticae Gallicae Compendium in quo superflua
    rescinduntur et necessaria non omittuntur, per Gabrielem du Grès,
    Gallum, eandem linguam in celeberrima Cantabrigiensi Academia
    edocentem. Cantabrigiae. Impensis Authoris amicorum gratiâ. 1636.

    Dialogi Gallico-Anglico-Latini, per Gabrielem Dugrès Linguam
    Gallicam in illustrissima et famosissima Oxoniensi Academia (haud
    ita pridem privatim) edocentem. Oxoniae, L. Lichfield, 1639.

    Editio secunda, priori emendatior. Oxoniae, 1652.

    Editio tertia. Oxoniae, 1660.

DU PLOICH, PIERRE:

    A Treatise in English and Frenche right necessary and proffitable
    for al young children (the contentes whereof apere in a table at
    the ende of this boke), made by Peter du Ploiche, teacher of the
    same dwelling in Trinitie lane at the signe of the Rose. Richard
    Grafton, [1553?]

    Another ed. Imprimé à Londre par Jean Kingston, La xiiii. Auvril,
    1578.

DU TERME, LAUR:

    The Flower de Luce, planted in England, or a short Treatise and
    brieffe compendium wherein is contained the true and lively
    pronunciation and understanding of the French tongue. Compiled by
    Laur du Terme, Teacher of the same. London, Printed by Nicholas
    Okes, 1619.

DUWES, GILES:

    An Introductorie for to lerne to rede, to pronounce, and to speke
    Frenche trewly, compyled for the right high excellent and most
    vertuous lady, the lady Mary of Englande, daughter to our most
    gracious soverayn Lorde Kyng Henry the Eight. Printed at London by
    Thomas Godfray, cum privilegio a rege indulto, [1533?]

    Another ed. Printed at London by Nicolas Bourman for John Reyns in
    Paules churchyarde at the signe of the George. [1534?]

    Another ed., newly corrected and amended. Printed by John Waley,
    [1546?]

ELIOTE, JOHN:

    Ortho-Epia Gallica. Eliot's Fruits for the French. Enterlaced with
    a double new invention, which teacheth to speke truely, speedily
    and volubly the French Tongue. Pend for the practice, pleasure and
    profit of all English Gentlemen who will endevour by their owne
    paine, studie and dilligence to attaine the naturall accent, the
    true pronunciation, and swift and glib Grace of that noble, famous
    and courtly Language. Natura et Arte. London, Printed by John
    Wolfe, 1593.

ERONDELL, PIERRE:

    The French Garden for English Ladyes and Gentlewomen to walke in or
    a sommer dayes labour. Being an instruction for the attayning unto
    of the French tongue: wherein for the practise thereof are framed
    thirteene dialogues in French and English, concerning divers
    matters, from the rising in the morning till Bedtime. Also the
    Historie of the Centurion mencioned in the Gospell: in French
    Verses. Which is an easier and shorter Methode then hath beene yet
    set forth to bring the lovers of the French tongue to the
    perfection of the same. By Peter Erondell, Professor of the same
    language. London, Printed for Ed. White, 1605.

    Cf. HOLYBAND, French Schoolemaister.

FARREAR, ROBERT:

    A brief Direction to the French Tongue. Oxford, 1618.

FESTEAU, PAUL:

    A new and Easie French Grammar, or a Compendious way how to Read,
    Speak and Write French exactly, very necessary for all Persons
    whatsoever. With variety of Dialogues. Whereunto is added a
    Nomenclature English and French. London. Printed for Th.
    Thornycroft and are to be sold at the Eagle and Child near
    Worcester House in the Strand, 1667.

    Second ed., c. 1671.

    [Another ed.]: Paul Festeau's French Grammar, being the newest and
    exactest Method now extant for the attaining to the purity of the
    French Tongue. Augmented and enriched with several choice and new
    dialogues.... The third ed., Diligently corrected, amended and much
    enlarged with the Rules of the Accent, by the Author, Native of
    Blois, and now Professor of the French Tongue in London. London,
    1675.

    [Another ed.]: Paul Festeau's French Grammar being the newest and
    exactest method ... for the attaining of the Elegancy and Purity of
    the French Tongue as it is now spoken at the Court of France.
    Augmented and enriched with several choice and new Dialogues,
    furnished with rich phrases, proverbs and sentences, profitable and
    necessary for all persons. Together with a Nomenclature English and
    French, and the Rules of Quantity. The fourth ed., Diligently
    corrected, amended and very much enlarged by the author, native of
    Blois, a city in France where the true tone of the French tongue is
    found by the Unanimous consent of all Frenchmen. London, 1679.

    Fifth ed. 1685.

    Another ed., _c._ 1688.

    Another ed. 1693.

    Another ed., _c._ 1699.

    Another ed., corrected and enlarged by the author, _c._ 1701.

GERBIER, SIR BALTHAZAR:

    An Introduction of the French tongue, (in) "The Interpreter of the
    Academie for forrain languages and all noble sciences and
    exercises." The first part. London, 1648.

GIFFARD, JAMES. Cf. HOLYBAND, French Schoolemaister.

GOSTLIN:

    Aurisodinae linguae Gallicae. 8vo. London, 1643.

GRAVE. Cf. DE GRAVE.

GROLLEAU:

    Grolleau's Compleat French Tutor. (Date unknown, some time after
    1685.)

HERBERT, WILLIAM:

    French and English Dialogues. In a more exact and delightful method
    then any yet extant. London, 1660. Cf. COGNEAU.

HIGGINS, JOHN:

    Huloet's Dictionarie, corrected and amended and set in order and
    enlarged with many names of men, townes, beastes, foules, fishes,
    trees, shrubbes, herbes, fruites, places, instrumentes, etc. In
    eche place fit phrases gathered out of the best Latin authors. Also
    the French thereunto annexed, by which you may finde the Latin or
    Frenche of anye Englishe woorde you will. By John Higgins, late
    student in Oxeforde. Londoni, in aedibus Thomae Marshij, anno 1572.

    The Nomenclator or Remembrancer of Adrianus Junius, Physician,
    divided into two Tomes, conteining proper names, and apt termes for
    all thinges under their convenient Titles, which within a few
    leaves doe follow. Written by the said Adrianus Junius in Latine,
    Greek, French, and other forrein tongues, and now in English by
    John Higgins. With a full supplie of all such words as the last
    inlarged edition affoorded; and a dictional index, conteining above
    1400 principall words with their numbers directly leading to their
    interpretations. Of special use for all scholars and learners of
    the same languages. London, 1585.

HOLYBAND, CLAUDE, or DE SAINLIENS:

    The French Schoolemaistr, wherein is most plainlie shewed the true
    and most perfect way of pronouncinge of the French tongue, without
    any helpe of Maister or Teacher: set foorthe for the furtherance of
    all those whiche doo studie privately in their owne study or
    houses: Unto the which is annexed a Vocabularie for al such woordes
    as bee used in common talkes: by M. Claudius Hollybande, professor
    of the Latin, French and Englishe tongues. Imprinted at London, by
    William How for Abraham Veale, 1573.

    First ed. 1565 (no copy known).

    Another ed. (Date unknown; after 1580.)

    Another ed.: The French Schoolemaister of Claudius Hollybande.
    Newly corrected.... London, 1582.

    Another ed. Newly corrected by C. Hollyband. London. (Date
    unknown.)

    Another ed.: The French Schoolemaister, wherein is most plainely
    shewed the true and perfect way of pronouncing the French tongue,
    to the furtherance of all those which would gladly learne it. First
    collected by Mr. C. H., and now newly corrected and amended by P.
    Erondelle, Professor of the said tongue. London, 1606.

    Another ed. London, 1612.

    Another ed. London, 1615.

    Another ed. London, 1619.

    Another ed.: The French Schoolemaister.... First collected by Mr.
    C. H. ... and now ... corrected ... by James Giffard. London, 1631.

    Another ed. ... newly corrected and amended by James Giffard,
    Professor of the said tongue. London, 1636.

    Another ed. ... new corrected, amended and much enlarged, with
    severall quaint Proverbes and other necessary rules, by James
    Giffard, Professor of the said Tongue. London, 1641.

    Another ed. London, 1649.

    Another ed. London, 1655.

    Another ed.: The French Schoolmaster teaching easily that language.
    London, 1668.

    The French Littelton, A most easie, perfect and absolute way to
    learne the Frenche tongue. Newly set forth by Claude Holliband,
    teaching in Paules Churchyarde by the signe of the Lucrece. Let the
    reader peruse the epistle to his owne instruction. Imprinted by T.
    Vautrollier: London, 1566.

    Another ed. London, 1578.

    Another ed. London, 1579.

    Another ed.: Set forth by Claudius Holliband, teaching in Pauls
    Churchyard at the sign of the Golden Ball. London, 1581.

    Another ed. ... London, 1591.

    Another ed. ... by Claudius Holliband, Gentilhomme Bourbonnois.
    London, 1593.

    Another ed. London, 1597.

    Another ed. London, 1602.

    Another ed. London, 1607.

    Another ed. London, 1609.

    Another ed. London, 1625.

    Another ed. London, 1630.

    Another ed. London, 1633.

    Another ed. London, 1639.

    A Treatise for Declining of Verbs which may be called the second
    chiefest worke of the frenche tongue: Set forthe by Claudius
    Hollyband, teaching at the signe of the Golden Ball in Paules
    Church Yarde. London, 1580.

    Another ed. London, 1599.

    Another ed. London, 1641.

    De Pronuntiatione. Claudii a Sancto Vinculo de pronuntiatione
    linguæ Gallicæ libri duo. Ad illustrissimam simulq doctissimam
    Elizabetham Anglorum Reginam. T. Vautrollerius; Londoni. 1580.

    The Treasurie of the French Tong: teaching the waye to varie all
    sortes of verbes. Enriched so plentifully with wordes and phrases
    (for the benefit of the studious in that language) as the like hath
    not before bin published. Gathered and set forth by C. Hollyband.
    For the better understanding of the order of the dictionarie peruse
    the Preface to the reader. London, 1580.

    Campo di Fior, or the Flowery Field of four languages, Italian,
    Latin, French and English. London, 1583.

    A Dictionarie French and English. Published for the benefite of the
    studious in that language. Gathered and set forth by Claudius
    Hollyband. London, 1593.

HOWELL, JAMES:

    Lexicon Tetraglotton, and English, French, Italian, Spanish
    Dictionary. Whereunto is adjoined a large nomenclature of the
    proper terms (in all four) belonging to several arts and sciences,
    to recreations, to professions both liberal and mechanick etc.
    Divided into fifty-two sections. With another Vocabulary of the
    choicest Proverbs.... London. Printed by J. G. for Cornelius Bee at
    the King's Arms in Little Brittaine, 1660.

    Cf. COTGRAVE.

HULOET. Cf. HIGGINS.

KERHUEL, JEAN DE:

    Grammaire Françoise, composée par Jean de Kerhuel, Professeur de la
    ditte Langue. A French Grammar.... 8vo. Printed for J. Wickins at
    the Miter in Fleet Street, 1684.

LAINÉ, PIERRE:

    A compendious Introduction to the French Tongue. Teaching with much
    ease, facility and delight, how to attain and most exactly to the
    true and modern pronunciation thereof. Illustrated with several
    elegant expressions and choice Dialogues, useful for persons of
    Quality that intend to travel into France, leading them, as by the
    hand, to the most noted and principal places of that Kingdom.
    Whereunto is annexed an alphabetical Rule for the true and modern
    orthography of that French now spoken, being a catalogue of very
    necessary words never before printed. By Peter Lainé, a teacher of
    the said tongue now in London. London. Printed by T. N. for Anthony
    Williamson at the Queen's Arms in St. Paul's Churchyard, near the
    West End. 1655.

LAINÉ, PIERRE DE:

    The Princely way to the French Tongue, as it was first compiled
    for the use of her Highness the Lady Mary and since taught her
    royal sister the Lady Anne. To which is added a Chronological
    abridgement of the sacred scriptures by way of dialogue. Together
    with a longer explication of the French Grammar, Choice fables of
    Æsop in Burlesque French, and lastly some models of letters French
    and English, by P.D.L. 2nd ed. London. Printed by J. Macock for H.
    Herrington etc., 1677.

    First ed. 1667. (No copy known.)

LEIGHTON, HENRY:

    Linguæ Gallicæ addiscendæ regulæ. Collectæ opera et industria H.
    Leighton, A.M. Hanc linguam in celeberrima Academia Oxoniensi
    edocentis. Oxoniae, 1659.

    Another ed. 1662.

LISLE OF WILBRAHAM, WM.:

    Part of Du Bartas, English and French, and in his owne kinde of
    verse, so near the French Englished, as may teach an Englishman
    French, or a Frenchman English. Sequitur Victoria Junctos. By Wm.
    L'isle of Wilburgham, Esquier for the King's Body. London. Printed
    by John Hoviland, 1625.

MAUGER, CLAUDE:

    The true advancement of the French Tongue, or A new Method, and
    more easie directions for the attaining of it, then ever yet have
    been published. Whereunto are added many choice and select
    dialogues, containing not onely familiar discourses, but most exact
    Instructions for Travell, in a most elegant style and phrase, very
    useful and necessary for all gentlemen that intend to travel into
    France. Also a chapter of Anglicismes, wherein those errors which
    the English usually commit in speaking French are demonstrated and
    corrected. By Claudius Mauger, late professor of the French Tongue
    at Blois, and now teacher of the said Tongue here in London.
    London. Printed by Tho. Roycroft for J. Martin and J. Allestry at
    the Bell in St. Paul's Churchyard, 1653.

    Another ed.: Mr. Mauger's French Grammar. Enriched with severall
    choise Dialogues containing an exact account of the State of
    France, Ecclesiastical, civil, and Military, as it flourisheth at
    present under King Louis the xivth. Also a chapter of Anglicisims,
    with instructions for travellers into France. The second edition,
    enlarged and most exactly corrected by the Authour, late professor
    at Blois. London. Printed by R. D. for John Martin and J. Allestree
    at the Bell in St. Paul's Churchyard, 1656.

    Third ed. London, 1658.

    Another ed. ... enriched with 50 new short dialogues. Containing
    for the most part an exact account of England's Triumphs, with the
    state of France ... as it flourisheth now since Cardinal Mazarin's
    death. With a most curious and most ingenious addition of 700
    French verses upon the rules. Also a Chapter of Anglicisms, with
    instructions for Travellers into France. Fourth ed. Exactly
    corrected, enlarged and perused by the great care and diligence of
    the author, late publick Professor of Blois, in France, for all
    Travellers. London. Printed for John Martin ... 1662.

    Fifth ed. London, 1667.

    Another ed. ... Enlarged and Enriched with 80 new dialogues, both
    familiar and high with compliments, and the exact pronunciation.
    All digested in a most admirable order, with the State of
    France.... Also a chapter of Anglicisms and Francisms. With 700
    French verses containing all the rules of the French Tongue. As
    likewise the Generall Rules of the English Pronunciation. Sixth ed.
    Exactly corrected by the author.... London. Printed for J. Martin
    at the sign of the bell, and James Allestry at the Rose and Crown
    in Paul's Churchyard, 1670.

    Another ed.: La Grammaire françoise de Claude Mauger expliquée en
    Anglois, Latin et en François, enrichie de regles plus courtes et
    plus substantielles qu'auparavant, comme du regime des verbes, de
    la conjugaison de tous les irreguliers par toutes leurs personnes,
    d'un Traité de l'accent etc. Et à la fin, d'un abrégé des regles
    generales de la Langue Angloise, en dialogues françois, outre ce
    qui étoit dans la sixième édition. La 7e. éd. Reveue et corrigée
    par l'autheur . . . à Londres. Londres. Imprimée par T. Roycroft
    pour Jean Martin et se vendent à l'enseigne de la cloche au
    cymitière de Sainct Paul. 1673. Claudius Mauger's French Grammar,
    etc.

    Another ed., with additions: The "English Edition." London, Printed
    by John Martyn, c. 1676.

    Eighth ed. Londres, J. Martyn, 1679.

    Tenth ed. Corrected by the author, now professor of the Languages
    at Paris. London, 1682.

    Eleventh ed. London, T. Harrison, c. 1683.

    Twelfth ed. . . . avec des augmentations de Mots à la Mode d'une
    nouvelle Methode et de tout ce qu'on peut souhaiter pour s'acquirir
    ce beau Language comme on le parle à present à la cour de France.
    Où on voit un ordre extraordinaire et methodique pour l'acquisition
    de cette langue, sçavoir, une très parfaite pronuntiation, la
    conjugaison de tous les Verbes irreguliers, des Regles courtes et
    substantielles, ausquelles sont ajoutez un Vocabulaire et une
    nouvelle Grammaire Angloise pour l'utilité de tant d'estrangers qui
    ont envie de l'apprendre. La douzième édition exactement corrigée
    par l'autheur à present Professeur des Langues à Paris. Londres. R.
    E. pour R. Bently et S. Magnes demeurant dans Russel St. au Covent
    Gardin. 1686.

    Thirteenth ed. ... Corrected by the author, late at Paris and now
    at London. London, 1688.

    Fourteenth ed. ... Corrected and Enlarged by the author. London.
    Sold by T. Guy at the Oxford Arms in Lombard Street. 1690.

    Sixteenth ed. ... exactly corrected and Enlarged by the Authour.
    Late Professor of the Languages at Paris. London. R. E. for R.
    Bently in Russel St. in Covent Gardin, 1694.

    Eighteenth ed. ... corrected and enlarged by the author. London,
    for T. Guy, 1698.

    Nineteenth ed. ... corrected and enlarged by the Author, late
    professor of the Languages at Paris. London, R. Wellington, 1702.

    Twentieth ed. ... Faithfully corrected from all the errors in the
    former by a French Minister. London, R. Wellington, 1705.

    Twenty-first ed. ... with additions. London, R. Wellington, 1709.

    Mauger's Letters. Written upon several subjects, faithfully
    translated into English, for the greater facility of those who have
    a desire to learn the French Tongue. Corrected and Revised by the
    author, formerly professor of French at Bloys, now at London.
    London, 1671.

    Another ed.: Lettres Françoises et Angloises de Claud Mauger sur
    Toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres avec augmentation de 50
    lettres nouvelles, dont il y en a plusieurs sur les dernières et
    grandes Revolutions de l'Europe. Très exactement corrigée, polies
    et écrites, dans le plus nouveau stile de la cour, dans lesquelles
    la pureté et l'élégance des deux langues s'accordent mieux
    qu'auparavant. Très utiles à ceux qui aspirent au beau language, et
    sont curieux de sçavoir de quelle manière ils doivent parler aux
    personnes de quelque qualité qu'elles soient. Outre Quantité de
    Billets à la fin du Livre, qui sont très necessaires pour le
    commerce. La seconde édition. Londres, imprimée par Tho. Roycroft
    et se vendent chez Samuel Lowndes vis à vis de l'Hostel d'Exeter
    dans la Strand. 1676.

MEURIER, GABRIEL:

    La Grammaire Françoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres
    et necessaires pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte langue
    par Gabriel Meurier. . . . Anvers, 1557.

    Traicté pour apprendre a parler Françoys et Angloys. Rouen, Etienne
    Colas, 1553.

    Communications familieres non moins propres que tresutiles a la
    nation Angloise desireuse et diseteuse du langage François, par G.
    Meurier. Familiare Communications no leasse proppre then verrie
    proffytable to the Inglis nation desirous and nedinge the ffrenche
    language, by Gabriel Meurier. En Anvers. . . . Chez Pierre de
    Keerberghe sus le Cemitiere nostre Dame a la Croix d'or. 1563.

    Another ed.: Traité pour apprendre a parler François et Anglois:
    ensemble un Formulaire de faire missives, obligations, Quittances,
    Lettres de Change, necessaire a tous marchands qui veulent
    trafiquer. A Treatise for to learne to speake Frenshe and
    Englische, together with a form of making letters, indentures, and
    obligations, quittances, letters of exchange, verie necessarie for
    all Marchants that do occupy trade of Marchandise. A Rouen, chez
    Jacques Cailloué, tenant sa boutique dans la Court du Palais. 1641.

MIÈGE, GUY:

    A New Dictionary French and English with another English and French
    according to the present use and modern orthography of the French,
    inrich'd with new words, choice phrases and apposite proverbs.
    Digested into a most accurate method and contrived for the use of
    both English and Foreiners, by Guy Miège, Gent. London. Printed by
    T. Dawks for T. Basset at the George near Clifford's Inn in Fleet
    Street, 1677.

    A New French Grammar or a New Method for learning of the French
    Tongue. To which are added for a help to young beginners a large
    vocabulary, and a store of familiar Dialogues, besides Four curious
    discourses of Cosmography in French for proficient learners to turn
    into English. By Guy Miège, Gent., author of the New French
    Dictionary, professor of the French Tongue and of Geography.
    London. Th. Basset.... 1678.

    A Dictionary of Barbarous French or a Collection by Way of Alphabet
    of Obsolete, Provincial, Misspelt and Made Words in French. Taken
    out of Cotgrave's Dictionary with some additions. A work much
    desired and now performed for the satisfaction of such as read old
    French. By Guy Miège, Gent., author of the New French Dictionary.
    London, for Th. Basset, 1679.[1108]

    A Short and Easie French Grammar, fitted for all sorts of learners:
    according to the present use and modern orthography of the French,
    with some Reflections on the ancient use thereof. London, Th.
    Basset, 1682.

    A Large Vocabulary English and French for the use of such as learn
    French or English. London, Th. Basset, 1682.

    One Hundred and Fifteen Dialogues French and English fitted for the
    use of learners. London, Th. Basset, 1682.

    A Short French Dictionary, English and French with another in
    French and English, according to the present use and modern
    orthography, by Guy Miège, Gent. London, for Th. Basset, 1684.

    Another ed. London, 1690.

    Another ed. The Hague, 1691.

    Fifth ed. The Hague, 1701.

    Another ed. 1703.

    Another ed. Rotterdam, 1728.

    The Grounds of the French Tongue, or a new French Grammar according
    to the present use and modern orthography. Digested into an easy,
    short and accurate Method with a Vocabulary and Dialogues. London,
    for Th. Basset, 1687.

    The Great French Dictionary in two parts. The first part French and
    English. The second English and French. According to the ancient
    and modern orthography: wherein each language is set forth in its
    greatest latitude. The various senses of words both proper and
    figurative are orderly digested, and illustrated with apposite
    phrases and proverbs. The hard words explained: and the proprieties
    adjusted. To which are prefixed the Grounds of both Languages in
    two Discourses, the one English, the other French, by Guy Miège,
    Gent. London, for Th. Basset, 1688.

    Miège's last and best French Grammar, or a new Method to learn
    French, containing the Quintessence of all other Grammars, with
    such plain and easie rules as will make one speedily perfect in
    that famous language.... London, W. Freeman and A. Roper, 1698.

    Another ed., the second. London, J. Freeman, 1705.

MORLET, PIERRE:

    Janitrix sive Institutio ad perfectam linguae Gallicae cognitionem
    acquirendam. Authore Petro Morleto Gallo. Oxoniae, excudebat
    Josephus Barnesius, 1596.

PALSGRAVE, JOHN:

    Lesclarcissement de la langue francoyse compose par maistre Jehan
    Palsgrave Angloys natyf de Londres et gradue de Paris. 1530. [Col.]
    The printing fynysshed by Johan Hawkyns, the xviii daye of July.
    The yere of our lorde God M.C.C.C.C.C. and XXX.

S., J.:

    A short method for the Declyning of Ffrench Verbes etc., by J. S.,
    _c._ 1623.

SALTONSTALL, WYE:

    Clavis ad Portam, or a key fitted to the gates of tongues. Wherein
    you may readily find the Latine and French for any English word,
    necessary for all young schollers. [Oxford?] Printed by Wm. Turner,
    1634. (Bound with the 1633 edition--London--of Anchoran's
    Comenius.)

SANFORD, JOHN:

    Le Guichet François. Sive janicula et brevis introductio ad linguam
    Gallicam. Oxoniae. Excudebat Josephus Barnesius, 1604.

    A briefe extract of the former Latin Grammar, done into English for
    the easier instruction of the Learner. At Oxford. Printed by Joseph
    Barnes, and are to be sold in Paules Churchyard at the signe of the
    Crowne by Simon Waterson. 1605.

SHERWOOD, ROBERT:

    The Frenche Tutour, London, Humphrey Lownes, 1625 (no copy known).

    The French Tutour by way of grammar exactly and fully Teaching all
    the most necessary Rules for the attaining of the French tongue,
    whereunto are also annexed three Dialogues; and a touch of French
    compliments all for the furtherance of Gentlemen, Schollers and
    others desirous of the said language. Second ed. carefully
    corrected and enlarged by Robert Sherwood, Londoner. London,
    Printed by Robert Young, 1634.

    Dictionnaire Anglois-François. 1632. Cf. COTGRAVE.

SMITH, J.:

    Grammatica Quadrilinguis, or brief Instructions for the French,
    Italian, Spanish and English Tongues, with the Proverbs of each
    Language fitted for those who desire to perfect themselves therein.
    By J. Smith, M.A. Printed for J. Clarke at the Star, in Little
    Britain, and J. Lutton at the Anchor in Poutry. London, 1674.

THORIUS, J. Cf. CORRO.

VAIRASSE D'ALLAIS, DENYS:

    A short and methodical introduction to the French tongue, composed
    for the particular benefit and use of the English. Paris, 1683.

VALENCE, PIERRE:

    Introductions in Frensche for Henry the Yonge Erle of Lyncoln
    (childe of greate esperaunce), sonne of the most noble and
    excellente pryncesse Mary (by the grace of God queene of France
    etc.). [No date or place.]

VERON, JOHN:

    Dictionariolum puerorum, tribus linguis, Latina, Anglica et Gallica
    conscriptum. Latino gallicum nuper ediderat Rob. Stephanus
    Parisiis, cui Anglicam interpretationem adiecit Joannes Veron.
    London, John Wolfe, 1552.

VILLIERS, JACOB:

    Vocabularium Analogicum, or the Englishman speaking French, and the
    Frenchman speaking English. Plainly showing the nearness or
    affinity betwixt the English, French and Latin. Alphabetically
    digested. With new and easy directions for the attaining of the
    French tongue, comprehended in rules of pronouncing, rules of
    accenting and the like. To which is added the explanation of
    Mounsieur de Lainé's French Grammar by way of dialogue set forth
    for the special use and encouragement of such as desire to be
    proficients in the same language. The like not extant. By Jacob
    Villiers, Master of a French School in Nottingham. London, printed
    by J. D. for Jonathan Robinson, at the Golden Lion, and George
    Wells, at the Sun in St. Paul's Church yard, 1680.

WODROEPH, JOHN:

    The spared houres of a souldier in his travels, or The true marrowe
    of the French Tongue, wherein is truly treated (by ordre) the nine
    parts of speech, together with two rare and excellent bookes of
    Dialogues, the one presented to that illustrious prince Count Henry
    of Nassau, in his younger yeares for his Furtherance in this
    tongue, newly reviewed and put in pure French Phrase (easie and
    delightfull) from point to point; and the other formed and made
    (since) by the Authour himselfe. Added yet an excellent worke, very
    profitable for all the ages of man, called the Springwell of Honour
    and Vertue, gathered together very carefully, both by ancient and
    Moderne Philosophers of our Tyme. With many Godly songs, sonets,
    Theames, Letters missives, and sentences proverbiales: so orderly,
    plain and pertinent, as hath not (formerly) beene seene in the
    most famous Ile of great Britaine. By John Wodroephe, Gent. Les
    Heures de relasche. . . . Imprimé à Dort, Par Nicolas Vincentz,
    Pour George Waters, Marchant Libraire, demeurant près le Marché au
    Poisson, à l'Enseigne des Manchettes dorées. 1623.

    Second edition: The Marrow of the French Tongue, containing:

    1. Rules for the true pronunciation of every letter as it is
    written or spoken.

    2. An exact Grammar containing the nine parts of speech of the
    French Tongue.

    3. Dialogues on French and English, fitted for all kind of
    discourse for courtiers, citizens, and countrymen, in their affairs
    at home or travelling abroad.

With variety of other helps to the learner as Phrases, Letters missive,
sentences, proverbes, Theames, and in both languages. So exactly
collected and compiled by the great paines and industry of M. John
Wodroephe, that the meanest capacity either French or Englishman, that
can but reade, may in a short time by his owne industry without the
helpe of any Teacher attaine to the perfection of both languages. Ce
livre est aussi utile pour le François d'apprendre l'Anglois que pour
l'Anglois d'apprendre le François. The second edition. Reviewed and
purged of much gross English, and divers errors committed in the former
edition printed at Dort. London. Printed for Rd. Meighen at the signe of
the Leg in the Strand, and in St. Dunstan's Churchyard in Fleet Street,
1625.


FOOTNOTES:

[1106] Licensed to Harrison (Arber, _Stationers' Register_, i. 364);
assigned over to Th. Woodcock by Harrison's widow, 1578 (_ibid._ ii.
331).

[1107] Based on Bathe's _Janua Linguarum_ in Latin and Spanish, 1611.

[1108] Sometimes bound with the Dictionary of 1677.




INDEX


_The names of those who taught French or wrote French grammars are
marked with an asterisk._

  *A., E., 277, 280

  *Abadie, J. G. d', 388

  A B C of Geneva, 132

  _A B C for Scottes men_, 154

  Académie française, 110 _n._, 192, 193, 305, 354, 355, 357, 388

  Academies, 120 _sq._, 231, 296 _sq._, 345, 397 _sq._;
    academies in France, 352, 357, 363 _sq._;
    Protestant academies in France, 232 _sq._, 343 _sq._

  Addison, Joseph, 218, 220, 370 _n._

  Aesop, in French, 294, 382

  Aimar de Ranconnet, 190, 230 _n._

  Alexander, Sir Wm., 250, 255

  Alexandre, Pierre, 118

  Alexis, Guillaume, 101

  Allen, Cardinal, 217

  _Amadis de Gaule_, 85, 194 _n._, 196, 223

  Amyot, Jacques, 196, 199

  *Anchoran, J. A., 295

  Ancients and Moderns, quarrel of, 391

  *André, Bernard, 68, 75, 76

  Angers, 205, 346, 351

  Anglo-French, 18 _sq._, 26

  Anne, Queen of England, 381, 389 _n._

  Anne of Cleves, 72

  Anvers, 241 _sq._, 244, 245, 279

  Arithmetic, 139, 154, 399

  Ascham, Roger, 64, 73, 120, 146, 182, 183, 184, 216, 275 _n._, 286, 335

  Ashley, Robert, 151, 129

  Astell, Mary, 395, 398

  Aubigné, Agrippa d', 65 _n._, 197, 356

  *Aufeild, Wm., 260 _n._, 284 _sq._, 292

  Aulnoy, Mme. d', 367 _n._

  Auteuil, 201


  Bacon, Anthony, 234

  Bacon, Francis, 66, 118 _n._, 194 _n._, 212, 219, 221 _n._, 224, 273,
  275, 288, 355 _n._

  Bacon, Nicholas, 118 _n._, 120

  Balzac, Guez de, 309, 355

  Banister's Academy, 399

  *Barbier, Jean, 294

  *Barclay, Alexander, 4, 34, 62, 65, 69 _n._, 77 _sq._, 123, 144, 237,
  240

  *Baret, James, 187 _sq._, 189, 192

  Barkley, Lady Elizabeth, 268

  *Barlement, Noel de, 241 _sq._, 246, 279

  Baro, Pierre, 119

  *Barton, Jehan, 27 _n._, 32 _sq._, 38, 78

  Basset, James, 213, 214

  *Baudouin, Jean, 275

  Bayle, Pierre, 391

  Baynton, Andrew, 87 _n._, 91, 96, 100, 105, 106

  Beal, Sir Robert, 201

  _Beau, Character of the_, 376 _n._, 377 _n._

  _Beau, The Compleat_, 376

  _Beau, The Defeated_, 374 _n._, 378 _n._

  Beaux, 235 _sq._, 247, 321, 357 _sq._, 370 _n._, 375 _sq._, 378, 394

  Belleau, Remi, 174

  Belleforest, François de, 196

  *Bellemain, Jean, 107 _sq._, 112, 113

  Bellerose, 380

  *Bellot, Jacques, 156 _sq._, 168, 172, 185, 186 _n._, 196, 202, 265,
  266, 277, 280

  *Bense, Pierre, 204

  *Berail, Gilles, 156

  *Berault, Pierre, 300, 388 _sq._

  Bèze, Théodore de, 196, 197, 202, 234

  *Bibbesworth, Walter de, 11 _sq._, 16, 28, 38, 40, 264

  Bignon, Jérôme, 66 _n._, 273

  Blois, 218, 227 _sq._, 235, 241, 282, 284, 301 _sq._, 325, 342, 344,
  350, 351, 352, 359

  Blount, Th., 263

  *Bod, Charles, 155 _n._

  Bodin, Jean, 197, 199. 273 _n._

  Bodley, Sir Th., 234

  Boiasteau, Pierre, 195, 196

  Boileau, 218, 220 _n._, 355

  Boisrobert, 259 _n._, 273 _n._

  Boleyn, Anne, 71, 72, 83, 95

  Booksellers and French teachers, 129, 138, 163

  Bossuet, 364

  Bouhours, le Père, 220 _n._, 394

  Bouillon, Duchesse de, 367

  *Bourbon, Nicolas, 83, 89

  Bourges, 241, 351

  *Boy, Francis, 149

  Boyle, Richard, 200

  Bozon, Nicolas, 8 _n._

  Brantôme, 273 _n._

  Bretons: teach French, 325, 326

  Brinsley, John, 179 _n._, 351

  Brome, Rd., 298, 374 _n._

  Buck _Third Universitie_, 169 _n._

  Buckingham, George Villiers, first Duke, 227, 262, 285, 298, 396;
    second Duke, 364, 373

  Bullar, Colonel, 304

  Burghley, Wm. Cecil, Lord, 119, 121, 123, 187, 191, 211, 215, 217

  Burgundians, 115, 119, 145, 168 _sq._, 241

  Busby, John, 306

  *Bushell, Abraham, 155

  Bussy, le Comte de, 321

  Butler, Mr., 360

  Butler, Samuel, 371 _n._, 372 _n._, 376 _n._


  Caen, 156, 159, 239, 351

  Calvin, Jean, 66, 84, 107, 108, 112, 195, 328

  Camden, Wm., 66, 71, 194 _n._, 212, 274, 276

  Cameron, John, 249

  _Campo di Fior_, 143 _n._, 145, 159, 185

  Canterbury, French school at, 120 _sq._

  Capell, Sir Arthur, 216

  Carew, Richard, 212, 340

  Carleton, Dudley, 217, 247

  Cartularies, 42

  Casaubon, Isaac, 118, 150, 234 _sq._, 259, 273 _n._

  Castellion, dialogues of, 182, 294

  Castiglione, Baptista, 73 _n._

  Catechism, in French, 130, 147, 153, 295, 339, 382, 389

  _Catechism, The Ladies'_, 369 _n._, 375

  Caxton, Wm., 42 _sq._, 47, 48, 54, 55, 56, 201, 246, 279

  Chamberlain, John, 247

  _Champ fleury_, 100

  Chappuzeau, 390

  Charenton, 259, 346, 363

  Charles I., 170, 185, 194 _n._, 203, 207, 248, 255, 261 _sq._, 271,
  272, 276, 280, 296, 298, 319, 323 _n._, 339, 348, 362, 363, 396, 397

  Charles II., 70 _n._, 205, 207, 262, 263, 272, 295, 298, 308, 329, 330,
  344, 348, 362 _sq._, 366, 367, 368, 371, 372, 373, 374, 376, 377 _n._,
  380

  Charpentier, 391

  Chartier, Alain, 101

  Chaucer, Geoffrey, 18, 19

  Cheking, John, 105

  *Chemin, Nicholas, 149

  *Cheneau, Francis, 382

  Chesterfield, Lord, 319 _n._

  *Chevallier, A. R., 112, 119, 150 _n._

  *Chiflet, Laurent, 230 _sq._, 353, 385

  Children and study of French, 12, 32, 38 _sq._, 52, 55, 212 _sq._, 239,
  242, 295 _sq._, 331, 338 _sq._, 340, 341 _sq._, 357, 365, 371 _n._,
  382, 395

  Church, use of French in the, 24

  Churches: foreign, in England: Dutch, 116 _sq._;
    French, 116 _sq._, 145 _sq._, 151, 155 _sq._, 159, 167, 169, 295,
    299, 309, 310, 328 _sq._, 339, 389;
    Italian, 146;
    Walloon, 117;
    Protestant, in France, 363. _See_ Charenton

  Cibber, Colley, 376 _n._, 378, 380 _n._

  Clarendon, Ed. Hyde, Earl of, 209, 210 _n._, 218, 345, 352, 357, 361,
  364, 373, 392, 393, 395

  Cleland, James, 182, 197, 293, 393

  Clinton, Lady, 333

  *Codrington, Rt., 294, 295

  *Cogneau, Paul, 289 _sq._, 327

  *Cokele, John, 149

  Colet, John, 62, 182, 183, 215

  Collège de Navarre, 213, 276

  Colleges: in France, 357;
    English Roman Catholic, in France, 232;
    Protestant, in France, 232, 345

  Collet, Claude, 196

  *Colson, Wm., 282 _sq._

  *Colsoni, F. C., 388

  Comedians. _See_ Theatre

  Comenius, 293, 294 _sq._, 338, 339

  Commercial French, 42, 53, 65, 169 _n._, 243, 245, 307, 399. _See_
  Merchants

  Commines, Philippe de, 196, 197, 199

  Commonwealth, 262, 296, 298, 315, 333, 341, 361, 366

  Coningsby, Sir Th., 247

  Cooks, French, 370

  Cordano, Girolamo, 62, 72 _n._

  *Cordell, M., 220

  Cordier, Mathurin, 181, 255, 294, 334, 390

  Corneille, Pierre, 220 _n._, 271, 273, 293, 309, 323, 364

  Corneille, Th., 318

  Cornwallis, Sir Wm., 127, 284

  Correspondence: use of French in, 17, 23, 66, 69, 71 _sq._, 108, 259,
  260, 262, 299 _n._, 319 _sq._, 342, 353

  *Corro, Antonio de, 202

  Coryat, Tom, 63, 221, 235

  Cosmo III. of Tuscany, 63

  Costeker, J. L., 358, 393

  *Cotgrave, Randle, 190 _sq._, 240, 245, 275, 281, 285, 288, 321 _n._,
  333, 383

  Cotterel, Sir Ch., 307 _n._

  Courtesy book, 47, 52

  Courtin, French ambassador, 308, 362 _n._, 367

  Cowley, 364, 365

  Coxe, Leonard, 100

  *Coyfurelly, Canon, 10, 35, 38

  Cranmer, 83, 112, 118, 120

  Cromwell, Secretary, 81, 83, 98, 105, 119, 120

  Cromwell, Gregory, 80, 105, 119

  *Curlew, Nicholas, 149


  Daines, Simon, 275 _n._, 278

  Dallington, Sir Rt., 65 _n._, 221 _n._, 222 _sq._, 225, 226, 231, 261
  _n._, 348

  Dancing, 94, 137, 209, 231, 232, 261, 267, 282, 298, 299, 303, 332,
  342, 346, 357, 359, 369, 371, 397, 398

  Dancing-master: French, 369, 370, 375, 376

  Danneau, Lambert, 77

  *Darvil d'Arras, Ch., 155 _n._

  Davenant, Sir Wm., 263 _n._, 364, 365, 380

  Defoe, Daniel, 225 _n._, 394, 398

  *Deger, Anness, 170

  *De la Barre, 246 _n._

  *De la Mare, 299

  *De la Mothe, G., 119, 161 _sq._, 183, 184, 186, 200, 225, 265, 279,
  290, 291, 292

  De la Porte: epithets, 117

  *Denisot, Nicolas, 83 _sq._, 89, 293

  Descartes, 395, 398

  Despagne, Jean, 328, 329

  Desportes, 174, 250, 356

  Dialects, French, 27, 28, 54, 144, 145, 169, 241, 326

  Dialogues: French, 36 _sq._, 43 _sq._, 48 _sq._, 93, 102, 124, 130
  _sq._, 135, 137 _sq._, 164 _sq._, 176, 193, 206, 241 _sq._, 254, 267,
  282, 291, 294, 299 _n._, 302 _sq._, 305, 309, 313 _sq._, 317, 324, 347,
  349, 385, 386, 389;
    Latin, 145, 181, 185, 294

  Dictionaries: French and English, 95, 122, 141, 168, 187 _sq._, 192,
  199, 253, 281, 383 _sq._;
    Latin, influence on French, 122, 187, 189, 190, 293, 383

  Digby, Sir John, 203

  Diplomacy: use of French in, 7, 22, 23, 65, 67, 70 _n._, 169 _n._,
  260, 392, 393

  Doctors, French, 259 _n._, 369

  _Donait_, 30 _sq._, 33

  Douay, 129, 217 _n._, 232

  Doujat, Jean, 273

  *Dove, R., 31

  Drama: French influence, 364, 378

  Drummond of Hawthornden, 195, 220 _n._

  Dryden, 321, 357, 372, 374, 378, 379

  Du Bartas, 65 _n._, 151, 174, 175, 177, 185, 186, 196, 250, 276, 322,
  356

  Du Bellay, 84, 196

  *Du Buisson, 148

  *Du Grès, Gabriel, 205 _sq._, 351, 352, 395 _n._

  Du Moulin, Pierre, senior, 207, 259

  Du Moulin, Pierre, junior, 200, 357

  Du Perron, Cardinal, 259

  *Du Plantin, 149, 150

  Du Plessis, 360

  Duplessis-Mornay, 66 _n._, 233, 357

  *Du Ploich, 129 _sq._, 143, 145, 200, 225, 240, 243

  Dutch, 115 _sq._, 119, 169 _n._, 209, 227, 240 _sq._, 280, 326, 394.
  _Cp._ Netherlands

  _Dutch Tutor_, 169 _n._

  *Du Terme, Laur, 288 _sq._, 290, 291

  Du Val, Claude, 350

  *Du Val, J. B., 230

  *Du Val, M., 343

  Du Val, Pierre, 213

  *Duwes, Giles, 4, 77, 86 _sq._, 113, 123, 132 _n._, 133, 144, 171, 264


  Edward VI., King, 66, 72, 83, 107 _sq._, 111, 112, 113, 114, 116, 118,
  123, 130, 134, 180, 212 _n._

  Effiat, Marquis d', 66

  _Elementarie_, 62 _n._, 184, 278

  Eliot, Sir John, 217

  *Eliote, John, 65, 127 _sq._, 179, 180, 232, 288 _n._, 347 _n._

  Elizabeth, Queen, 64 _n._, 66, 67, 73, 74, 95, 108 _sq._, 110 _sq._,
  113, 115, 117, 123, 140, 141, 146, 147, 151, 156, 160, 196, 215, 240,
  247, 277, 287, 339 _n._

  Elizabeth Stuart, Princess, 151, 175, 249, 260

  Ellwood, Th., 298

  Elyot, Sir Th., 92, 182, 183, 184, 187 _n._, 335

  English language, 4, 7, 18, 21, 23, 48, 62, 66, 89, 129, 141, 145, 171,
  192, 241 _sq._, 262, 264, 269, 270, 272 _sq._, 281, 288, 308, 310, 334
  _n._, 368, 384, 390 _n._, 392, 397;
    taught in France, 353, 354, 397;
    broken English, 171, 236 _sq._, 374, 376, 378;
    grammars of the, 159, 276 _sq._, 281, 306, 312, 334 _n._, 385, 386,
    389

  English literature, 190 _n._, 274 _sq._

  Englishmen: judged by foreigners, 20, 117 _sq._, 367;
    write in French, 365, 366 _n._, 378 _n._

  English teachers of French, 99, 123, 144, 152, 159, 168, 171 _sq._,
  180, 283

  Epistolaries, 17 _sq._, 35, 42

  *Erail, Evrard, 155 _n._

  Erasmus, 62, 64 _n._, 65 _n._, 104, 112

  *Erondell, Pierre, 196, 264 _sq._, 269 _n._, 277 _n._, 292

  _Esclarcissement, l'_, 3, 61, 78 _n._, 86 _sq._, 190, 264.
  _See_ Palsgrave

  Essex, Rt. Devereux, Earl of, 234

  Estienne, H., 66 _n._, 273 _n._

  Estienne, Rt., 122, 189

  Etherege, Sir George, 371 _n._, 374 _n._, 376, 378, 394

  Eton, 120

  _Euphues_, 216 _n._, 263

  Evelyn, John, 218, 221, 264, 293, 294, 328, 329, 330, 340, 350 _n._,
  351, 362 _n._, 363, 365 _n._, 367 _n._, 368 _n._, 371 _n._, 372, 380,
  394

  "Exercises," 231, 352, 395, 398

  Expenses of travellers, 232, 343, 349


  *Fabre, John, 268

  *Fabri, Philémon, 207

  Farquhar, George, 208, 372 _n._, 374 _n._, 376 _n._, 378, 380 _n._

  *Farrear, Rt., 204

  Fashions, French, 68, 71, 236 _sq._, 303, 321 _n._, 358. 361, 369, 371,
  372, 373, 376, 377

  Fees of French teachers, 139, 179, 206 _n._, 308 _n._

  _Femina_, 28 _sq._, 39 _n._, 40, 52

  Fencing, 231, 232, 282, 346, 360, 371 _n._

  *Festeau, Paul, 299, 301, 304, 312 _sq._, 323, 325, 361, 381, 388

  Field, Rd., 162, 163

  Finett, Sir John, 260

  Flecknoe, Rd., 370 _n._, 371 _n._, 372, 377 _n._, 378 _n._

  Flemings, 115, 127, 152 _n._, 169, 241, 255. _Cp._ Netherlands

  Flemish, 45, 62, 241 _sq._, 246, 260, 280

  *Florio, John, 65, 127, 201, 239 _n._, 254, 261, 275, 276 _n._

  *Fontaine, Rt., 155 _n._, 156, 168

  Foreigners visit England, 6, 61, 63, 66, 74, 114 _sq._, 124 _sq._, 259,
  277 _sq._, 281, 304, 308, 313, 327, 368 _sq._

  Foubert's Academy, 345, 399

  _France, Survey of_, 177

  François I. of France, 68, 69, 71, 73, 93

  François de Valois, 159

  _Frans and Englis_, 201

  _French Alphabet_, 162 _sq._, 184, 225 _n._, 265, 279, 290, 292

  _French Conjuror_, 370 _n._, 372 _n._, 378 _n._

  _French Garden_, 264 _sq._

  _French Littleton_, 136 _sq._, 141, 142 _sq._, 160, 277, 290, 292

  _French Methode_, 161, 266 _n._

  _French Schoolemaister_, 135 _sq._, 140, 142 _sq._, 199, 246, 268, 269,
  277, 290, 292

  _French Schoolmaster_, 381 _n._

  _French Tutor_, 168

  _French Tutour_, 281 _sq._

  Froissart, 21, 23, 101, 196


  Gailhard, J., 219, 224 _n._, 346, 351 _n._

  _Galaunt, Treatyse of a_, 237

  Gallants. _See_ Beaux

  *Ganeur, Onias, 155 _n._

  Garlande, John de, 5, 7, 24

  Garnier, Jean, 201

  Garnier, Philippe, 230

  Garnier, Robert, 194 _n._

  Gascoigne, George, 142

  Gascons, 326

  Geneva, 233 _sq._, 249, 326, 343 _n._, 344, 345

  _Gentleman's Companion_, 219

  Geography, 383, 385, 388, 398

  *Gerbier, Sir Balthazar, 222 _n._, 260 _n._, 275 _n._, 297, 345

  German language, 62, 73 _n._, 121, 169 _n._, 230 _n._, 236, 242 _sq._,
  279, 295, 354

  Germans, 123 _n._, 326

  Germany, 211, 219, 220

  Gibbon, 358 _n._

  *Giffard, James, 292

  Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 121

  Glapthorne: _The Ladies' Privilege_, 237

  Goldsmith, 321 _n._

  Gomberville, de, 309

  _Good Boke to lerne Frenshe_, 47 _sq._, 54 _sq._

  Governors. _See_ Tutors

  _Governour, The_, 92, 182, 183 _n._

  Gower, 18, 19

  Grammar: rules of French, 9, 10, 13, 31 _sq._, 77 _sq._, 80, 82, 88
  _n._, 89 _sq._, 92, 132, 143 _sq._, 157 _sq._, 265 _sq._, 286, 288,
  290, 305, 386

  Grammont, le Comte de, 366, 369, 371, 373

  Grantham, Th., 335, 337, 341

  *Grave, Jean de, 295 _sq._

  Greek, 64 _n._, 73, 74, 84, 88, 92, 120, 121, 153, 188, 190, 210, 239,
  276, 293, 298, 305, 335 _n._, 337, 338 _n._, 394, 398, 399

  Greene, Rt., 178, 194 _n._, 215, 275

  Grelot, Jérôme, 260

  Grenville, Fulke, 128

  Grévin, Jacques, 65 _n._, 273 _n._

  Grey, Lady Jane, 64 _n._, 73 _n._

  Grey, Lord of Wilton, 202, 208

  Grocyn, 62

  Guide-books for travellers: in England, 273 _n._, 321, 369, 388, 396
  _n._;
    in France, 221 _sq._, 347 _sq._


  *H. T., Parisiis Studentis, 11, 35

  Hainault, 38, 145, 241

  Hakluyt, Rd., 269

  Halkett, Lady Anne, 332

  Hall (chronicler), 236

  Hall, Joseph, 216, 237 _n._, 238, 274

  Hamilton, Anthony, 365 _sq._, 373

  Hamilton, Miss, 373

  Harley, Lady Brilliana, 195, 210

  Harrison (chronicler), 64 _n._, 216

  Harrison, Lucus, 187, 188

  Harvey, Gabriel, 199

  Hawes, Stephen, 68

  *Hawmells, Gouvert, 169

  Hebrew, 153, 169 _n._, 398

  Henrietta Maria, 261 _sq._, 269 _sq._, 276, 280, 323 _n._, 332, 362,
  364

  Henry III. of France, 159

  Henry IV. of France, 66, 235, 247, 260, 261, 274, 362

  Henry VII. of England, 68, 75, 103

  Henry VIII. of England, 4, 22, 62, 66, 68 _sq._, 71, 72, 75, 76, 86,
  90, 96, 97, 101, 103, 112, 114, 130, 212, 213, 237 _n._

  Henry Stuart (Prince), 186, 191, 260 _sq._, 298

  *Henry, Jean, 140

  Hentzner (traveller), 74, 112 _n._

  Herberay des Essarts, 85, 194 _n._, 196, 223

  Herbert, George, 238

  *Herbert, Guillaume, 291, 324 _sq._, 361

  Herbert, Sir Henry, 271, 272

  Herbert, Wm. (poet), 268

  Herbert of Cherbury, Lord, 186, 187, 194, 199, 218, 220, 224, 235, 271

  Herbert of Swansea, Lord, 142

  Heylyn, Peter, 348, 351 _n._

  Higden: _Polychronicon_, 15, 24

  Higford, Wm., 209, 210 _n._, 216 _n._, 366

  *Higgins, John, 189 _sq._, 192

  Hobbes, 220, 264, 265, 394

  *Holyband, 56, 119, 134 _sq._, 156, 157, 159, 160, 162 _n._, 163, 164
  _n._, 166, 168, 169, 171, 176, 179 _n._, 183, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190,
  195, 196, 197, 199, 202, 204, 225, 240, 241, 246, 250, 253, 264, 265,
  268, 269, 277, 280, 281, 283, 285, 290, 292, 293, 301, 304

  Hoole, Charles, 182 _n._, 186, 189, 334, 337 _n._, 395 _n._

  Hotman, François, 66

  *Hotman, Jean, 200

  Howard, Katherine, 72

  Howell, James, 192 _sq._, 197, 212 _n._, 218 _n._, 221 _n._, 240, 285,
  330, 351, 355, 374 _n._, 383

  Huguenot. _See_ Refugees

  _Huloet's Dictionarie_, 189

  Hume, P., 313

  Humphrey: _The Nobles_, 115 _n._, 118, 238 _n._

  Hutchinson, Mrs., 332


  Inns of Court, 188, 203, 209, 210, 219, 344

  _Institution of a Gentleman_ (Higford), 209, 210 _n._, 216 _n._, 366

  _Institution of a Nobleman_ (Cleland), 182, 197, 293, 393

  Institutions, educational. _See_ Academies, Colleges, Schools,
  Universities

  Italian, 64, 65, 68, 73, 74, 84, 88, 112, 120, 121, 145, 165, 169 _n._,
  171, 185, 186, 192, 195, 199, 201, 203 _n._, 204, 209, 212, 217, 218,
  220, 230 _n._, 236 _sq._, 241 _sq._, 254, 261, 263 _sq._, 273, 276
  _n._, 279, 280, 286, 296, 307 _n._, 331, 333, 338 _n._, 339, 371 _n._,
  377, 382, 388, 392, 394, 398, 399

  Italy, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216 _sq._, 219, 220, 221, 236, 244, 348,
  358, 360


  James I., 151, 186, 190 _n._, 232 _n._, 249, 259 _sq._, 275 _n._, 298,
  396

  James II., 248 _n._, 262, 362, 373, 374, 381, 400

  _Jardin de Vertu_, 160, 185, 186 _n._

  Jermyn, Lord, Earl of St. Albans, 362, 365

  Jodelle, Étienne, 196

  Jonson, Ben, 220, 237, 278

  Justel, Henri, 367, 368 _n._


  Katherine of Aragon, 71, 73

  Katherine of Braganza, 374

  *Kerhuel, Jean de, 388

  Kerouaille, Mlle. de, Duchess of Portsmouth, 362 _n._, 373, 380

  Killigrew, Henry, 364, 380 _n._

  Kilvert, Mrs., 300, 302, 303

  Kynaston, Sir Francis, 296


  La Bruyère, 275

  La Calprenède, 309, 318, 320, 321, 333, 364

  La Fontaine, 338, 367

  *Lainé, Pierre, 315 _sq._, 323, 328, 347, 355 _n._, 361, 362 _n._

  *Lainé, Pierre de, 381 _sq._, 397, 399

  Lake, Sir Th., 151

  Lambeth fragment, 81 _sq._, 132 _n._

  La Mothe le Vayer, 273, 293 _n._

  Langland, Wm., 19

  *Langlois or Inglishe, 153 _sq._, 156 _n._

  Languet, Hubert, 63, 66 _n._, 217, 221

  La Serre, 342 _n._, 349

  Latimer, 62, 63

  Latin and French, 4, 5, 8, 9, 24, 33, 42, 87, 89, 104, 153, 180 _sq._,
  201, 212, 213, 221, 227, 228, 231, 236, 241 _sq._, 246, 248, 263, 276,
  284, 286, 287, 288, 292 _sq._, 296, 305, 316, 326, 331 _n._, 333 _sq._,
  335, 337 _sq._, 341, 342, 351, 353, 354, 376, 386, 390, 391 _sq._, 394,
  395, 397;
    use and study of, 62 _sq._, 65, 66, 68, 72, 73, 74, 88, 92, 106, 111,
    112, 119, 120, 121, 127, 130, 132, 139, 151, 171, 198, 208, 210, 234,
    239, 259 _sq._, 273, 298, 351, 356, 376, 382, 397, 399;
    text-books, 5 _n._, 106, 139, 145, 181, 185, 279, 293, 334

  Latini, Brunetto, 7, 26

  Law French, 22, 30, 61, 64, 165, 321

  Le Blanc, Abbé, 23 _n._, 369, 378, 394

  Le Fèvre (chemist), 367

  Le Fèvre, Raoul, 46

  Le Grand, Antoine, 309, 310

  *Le Grys, Sir Rt., 263

  Leicester, Rt. Dudley, Earl of, 83, 172, 200

  Leicester, Countess of, 262

  Leigh, Ed., 204, 350 _n._

  *Leighton, Hy., 203 _sq._, 208

  *Lemaire, Mary, 170

  Lemaire de Belges, 101

  Le Mans, 360

  *Le Moyne, Guy, 207, 262, 285 _n._

  *Le Pipre, Paul, 148 _sq._

  Le Roy, Louis, 151

  Letters: model French, 17, 35, 245, 255, 306 _sq._, 331, 349, 354, 390

  Lewis, Mark, 334 _n._, 395 _n._, 398 _n._, 399

  Lewisham, French school at, 140

  _Liber Donati_, 30 _sq._

  Lily's Grammar, 181, 334 _n._

  Linacre, 62, 215

  Lincoln, Earl of, 80

  Lindsey, Montagu Bertie, Earl of, 327

  Lisle, Lady, 213, 214, 237 _n._ _See_ Basset

  Lisle of Wilbraham, 185

  Lister, Martin, 348

  Literature, French, study of, 24, 57, 101, 174, 194 _sq._, 199, 220
  _n._, 221, 223, 229, 231, 248, 250, 261, 267, 289, 309, 317, 319 _sq._,
  330, 333, 342, 347, 349, 356, 390, 395, 398

  _Livre des Mestiers_, 45 _sq._

  Locke, 219, 337, 338, 345 _n._, 349, 393, 395

  L'Oiseau de Tourval, 190, 275

  Lorris, G. de, 101

  Louis XII. of France, 70, 104

  Louis XIII. of France, 274, 372

  Louis XIV. of France, 230 _n._, 305, 373

  *Louveau, Jean, Sieur de la Porte, 150

  *Love, John, 129, 170

  Loveday, Rt., 333, 398

  *Lydgate, John, 34

  Lyly, John, 216, 263


  Maids, French, 264, 303, 332, 369, 370, 374, 375

  Maintenon, Mme. de, 361

  Makin, Mrs. Bathsua, 332, 334 _n._, 339, 395 _n._, 397, 398

  Malebranche, 218, 395, 398

  Malherbe, 364

  Malpet, John, 351

  _Manière de Langage_, 26 _n._, 35 _sq._, 38, 39, 40, 42, 47, 52

  Margaret of Navarre, 71, 74, 84, 111

  Margaret of Savoy, 69

  Margaret of Scotland, 101

  Marie de Medicis, 230, 262

  Marillac (ambassador), 72, 73

  Marot, Clément, 83, 174, 196

  Marseilles, 357

  Marsilliers, Pierre de, 153

  *Martin, Martin, 149

  Mary I. of England, 72, 73, 86, 89, 90, 93 _sq._, 101 _sq._, 109, 112,
  113, 115, 116, 156, 233, 327

  Mary II. of England, 371 _n._, 381, 382

  Mary Tudor, Queen of France, 69, 70, 71, 80, 81, 86, 94, 101, 104, 105

  *Mason, Baudouin, 155 _n._, 156 _n._

  Mason, George, 279

  *Masset, Jean, 230

  *Massonnet, Peter, 262 _sq._

  Mathematics, 283, 315, 360, 398, 399

  *Mauconduy, 353

  *Mauger, Claude, 246, 300, 301 _sq._, 313, 314, 315, 317, 323, 325,
  326, 328, 331 _n._, 347, 352, 353, 361, 368, 370 _n._, 381, 385, 388

  *Maupas, Charles, 227 _sq._, 230, 282, 284 _sq._, 287, 301, 302, 353,
  356

  *Maupas, junior, 228 _sq._

  Maupertuis, 395 _n._

  Mayerne, Théodore, 259 _n._

  Mazarin, Duchesse de, 367, 380

  Mecklenburg, Duke of, 301, 305

  Meigret, Louis, 110 _n._, 226

  Melville, James, 153

  Melville, Sir James, 73, 212 _n._

  Ménage, Gilles, 353

  Merchants: study of French by, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41 _sq._, 49, 50, 53,
  55, 124, 137, 141, 169 _n._, 239 _sq._, 253, 299, 400

  Meschinot, Jean, 101

  Meteren, Immanuel von, 62

  Methods of studying French, 56, 82, 90 _sq._, 133, 139, 143 _sq._, 166
  _sq._, 177, 179 _sq._, 184 _sq._, 195, 206, 222 _sq._, 225 _sq._, 228,
  231, 250 _sq._, 267, 283, 286 _sq._, 289, 290 _sq._, 296, 308 _sq._,
  314, 317, 326, 330 _sq._, 346, 349, 354, 355 _sq._, 386 _sq._, 395
  _sq._

  *Meurier, Gabriel, 244 _sq._, 273 _n._, 279, 280

  Middleton, Th., 263 _n._

  *Miège, Guy, 309, 334 _n._, 337 _n._, 382 _sq._, 388, 391

  *Milleran, René, 354 _sq._

  Milton, 64, 194, 214, 264, 298, 333, 334 _n._, 392

  Minsheu, J., 169 _n._, 383 _n._

  Misson, M., 396 _n._

  Molière, 373

  Monluc, 197, 342 _n._

  Montaigne, 20, 127, 183, 261, 335

  Montauban, 232, 233, 249, 344

  Montausier, Mme. de., 365

  Montchrétien, 259, 268

  Montjoy, Christopher, 125, 162

  Montpellier, 232, 233, 234, 345, 365 _n._

  Montpensier, Mlle. de, 262, 263

  More, Sir Th., 62, 83, 104, 105, 120, 236, 274

  *Morlet, Pierre, 201, 202, 205

  Morrice, Th., 171, 212, 292

  Moryson, Fynes, _Itinerary_, 198, 214, 221, 223 _sq._, 225, 235, 237
  _n._, 239, 350 _n._

  Motteville, Mme. de, 262 _n._

  Mulcaster, Rd., 62 _n._, 64 _n._, 142, 184, 188, 216 _n._, 225, 275,
  278

  Muralt, 230, 372 _n._

  Music, 94, 120, 121, 147, 209, 214, 267, 299, 303, 322, 332, 342, 346,
  359, 371;
    French music, 395, 397, 398


  Nantes, Edict of, 170, 233, 343, 345, 382, 400

  Nash, 236, 237 _n._, 238

  Neckam, Alexander, 5, 7, 24

  Netherlands, 45, 75, 76 _n._, 115, 211, 239, 249, 283, 312;
    French taught in the Netherlands, 240 _sq._;
    teachers from the Netherlands, 152, 169

  Newcastle, Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of, 329, 332

  New Testament: in French, 130, 137, 153, 167, 186, 195, 196, 197, 222,
  268, 289, 298, 310, 317, 318, 382

  Newton, Th., 156

  Nicot, 189, 190, 230 _n._, 244 _n._

  Nîmes, 232, 233, 234

  _Nomenclator_, of Adrian Junius, 189

  _Nominale_, 16, 28

  Normans in England, 47, 81, 112, 145, 146, 156, 161, 265, 326

  Norton, Th., 268

  Nottingham: French school at, 396

  Nucius, Nicander, 62, 66, 117


  Ordinaries, 355, 370, 377, 392

  Orleans, 27, 35, 37, 38, 221, 226, 230, 232, 235, 241, 301, 310, 345,
  350, 351, 352, 355

  _Orthographia Gallica_, 8 _sq._, 38

  Orthography, French, 8 _sq._, 10 _sq._, 31, 35, 78, 87, 109 _sq._, 137,
  165, 283, 305, 316, 326, 328, 354, 383, 384

  Osborne, Dorothy, 318 _sq._, 333 _n._

  Osborne, Francis, 197, 218, 223 _n._, 245, 276

  Ossory, Lord, Duke of Ormond, 120, 364

  *Oudin, Antoine, 229 _sq._, 249

  Oudin, César, 229

  Overbury, Sir Th., 221, 237 _n._, 238 _n._


  *Palairet, J., 338

  Palmer, Herbert, 207

  Palmer, T., 221

  *Palsgrave, J., 3 _sq._, 57, 61, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 86 _sq._, 123,
  128, 153, 166, 171, 176 _n._, 177, 180, 190, 212, 232, 264, 293

  *Papillon, 300

  Parker, Matthew, 119

  Parr, Katherine, 64 _n._, 72, 108, 111, 112

  Pasqualigo, Piero, 68

  Pasquier, Étienne, 75, 154 _n._, 192

  Passports, 215, 216, 219 _n._

  Paston, Rt., 316

  Pastors: French, 116, 150, 328, 332, 342, 343, 360, 388, 389 _n._

  Patin, Guy, 362 _n._

  Peacham, Th., 213

  Peiresc, 66 _n._

  Peletier du Mans, 66, 110 _n._, 175, 227, 316

  Penn, Wm., 307, 322 _n._, 358

  *Penson, M., 301

  Penton, Samuel, 216 _n._, 224 _n._, 345, 346

  Pepys, Samuel, 23 _n._, 208, 321 _sq._, 330 _sq._, 340, 353, 358, 370,
  371 _n._, 375, 377 _n._, 379, 394

  Pepys, Mrs., 209, 321, 380

  Perlin, Étienne, 81, 116 _n._, 117, 118 _n._, 210 _n._

  Pettie, George, 237 _n._

  Petty, Sir. Wm., 239, 337 _n._

  *Philippe, J. T., 338

  Philipps, Katherine, 307 _n._, 323

  Pibrac, 66 _n._, 186, 196, 250, 261

  Picard, 103, 144, 169

  Pillot, 202, 227

  Pléiade, 84, 158

  Poitiers, 344, 345, 357

  Pope, Alex., 319

  Port Royal, 310

  Portuguese grammar, 374 _n._

  _Positions_, 64 _n._, 216 _n._, 225 _n._

  Poulet, Sir Amias, 65, 200, 212, 215

  *Poullain, Valerand, 150

  Prayers in French, 130, 135, 137, 153, 268, 295, 310, 382, 389

  Précieuses, 323, 324

  *Preste, John, 156 _n._

  *Primont, Vincent, 148, 149

  Pronunciation, of French, 8 _sq._, 28 _sq._, 33, 79, 82, 87, 89, 110,
  132, 137, 141, 143, 157, 164 _sq._, 175 _sq._, 206, 224, 227, 228, 231,
  236, 253, 265 _sq._, 283, 285, 288, 290, 302, 305, 316, 330 _sq._, 355,
  381, 390

  Protestants. _See_ Refugees

  Proverbs, 107, 124, 135, 137, 166, 180, 356, 384, 390

  _Purchas Pilgrimes_, 212, 221, 237 _n._

  Purfoote, Th., 138, 141

  Puttenham _Arte of Poesie_, 70 _n._

  Pynson, Rd., 47 _sq._, 53 _sq._, 56, 94 _sq._, 97 _sq._, 201, 279


  Rabelais, 83, 174, 176, 273

  Racine, 220

  Raleigh, Sir Walter, 217 _n._, 220, 367 _n._

  Rambouillet, Mlle. de, 365

  Rambouillet, Hôtel de, 364

  Ramus, Petrus, 175, 202

  Ramsay, Chevalier de, 366 _n._

  Ravenscroft, Ed., 392

  Readers: in French and English, 134, 160, 185, 186 _n._, 187, 276, 306,
  307, 311, 353, 389 _n._

  Reading. _See_ Methods

  Refugees, 61, 75, 114 _sq._, 122, 125, 129, 146 _sq._, 149, 153, 155
  _sq._, 161, 169 _sq._, 173, 200, 207, 240 _sq._, 301, 329, 396, 400

  Register of aliens, 159, 163, 170

  Régnier-Desmarais, 273

  Religious Houses: use of French in, 23, 61

  Religious instruction in French, 147, 181. _Cp._ New Testament, Prayers

  Reresby, Sir John, 220, 224, 298, 359, 364, 373

  Rheims, 232

  Rhétoriqueurs, 158

  Richelieu, Cardinal, 192, 206, 357

  Richmond, Hy. Fitzroy, Duke of, 105, 212

  Riding, 231, 261, 282, 346

  *Rieu, Pierre de, 149

  *Robone, Jean, 148, 149

  *Rolland, Alexander, 154

  Roman Catholics (teachers), 115, 129, 169, 170

  _Roman de Jehan et Blonde_, 21

  _Roman de la Rose_, 98, 101

  _Roman de Renart_, 20, 21

  Romances, French, 120, 193, 195, 264, 309, 318, 319 _sq._, 346, 349,
  395, 398

  Ronsard, 65 _n._, 84, 174, 196, 273 _n._, 356

  Rouen, 156 _n._, 244, 245, 247, 277, 280, 343, 349, 350, 359, 364

  Rowe, John, 152

  *Rowland, Francis, 149

  *Rowsignoll, Nicholas, 149

  Russel, Colonel, 313

  Rutland, Roger, 5th Earl of, 234

  Rutledge, J., 352 _n._, 370 _n._

  Rutter, Joseph, 293


  Sackville, Rt., 140, 200

  Saint Amant, 259 _n._, 273 _n._

  Saint Amour, M. de, 353

  Saint Gelais, Octovian de, 101

  Saint Évremond, 366, 367 _sq._

  Saint Malo, 341

  *Saint Maurice, Alcide de, 348 _n._, 353, 357 _n._

  St Paul's Churchyard, 129, 135, 138, 140, 156, 159, 161, 163, 168, 170,
  202, 225, 301

  Salons, 323, 367

  *Saltonstall, Wye, 203, 295

  *Sanford, J., 202 _sq._, 208

  *Saravia, Adrian, 150 _sq._, 239

  Saumur, 205, 232, 233, 249, 310, 344, 345, 350, 351, 352, 354, 359
  _sq._

  Savile, Sir Hy., 221, 344 _sq._, 382

  Scaliger, 63, 65 _n._

  Scarron: _Roman Comique_, 317, 318

  Schelandre, Jean de, 259 _n._, 273 _n._

  Scholars: attitude to French, 63, 128, 198 _sq._, 208, 271, 337, 392,
  393 _sq._

  _Scholemaster, The_, 146 _n._, 182, 183 _n._, 216 _n._, 275 _n._, 287
  _n._

  _Schoolmasters, Apologie for._ _See_ Morrice

  Schoolmistresses, 170

  Schools: Grammar Schools and French, 4, 5, 15, 24, 40, 127 _sq._, 149,
  152 _sq._, 171, 180, 182, 189, 209, 210, 292, 335, 341, 395 _n._, 396;
    private schools and French, 40, 219, 298, 335, 339, 395 _sq._, 397
    _sq._;
    French schools, 129 _sq._, 134 _sq._, 150 _sq._, 153 _sq._, 179 _n._,
    183, 192, 225, 243, 247, 255, 281, 299, 375, 396;
    French Church Schools, 145 _sq._, 150;
    Protestant Schools in France, 232, 343, 345;
    Scotch Schools and French, 152 _sq._

  Scotland: French in schools of Scotland, 152 _sq._;
    tutors, 212 _n._;
    French Grammars in Scotland, 154, 288

  Scudéry, Georges de, 193, 271, 299 _n._

  Scudéry, Mlle, de, 309, 318, 320, 321, 323, 347, 348 _n._, 364

  Sedley, Ch., 371 _n._, 374 _n._, 376 _n._, 377 _n._, 378, 392 _n._, 394

  Selden, John, 66 _n._, 274

  Seymour, Anne, Jane, and Margaret, 84

  Seymour, Jane (Queen), 72, 95, 214

  Shadwell, Th., 370, 371 _n._, 378 _n._

  Shakespeare, 64, 65, 69, 125 _sq._, 162, 194 _n._, 209 _n._, 236, 237,
  255, 272 _n._

  Sheridan, 396 _n._

  *Sherwood, Rt., 192, 278, 281 _sq._, 285, 298, 347 _n._

  Shrewsbury School, 128, 224

  Sidenham, Sir Humphrey, 248

  Sidney, Sir Philip, 63, 128, 129, 197, 213, 217, 220 _sq._, 224, 247,
  275

  Singing, 69, 267, 300, 342, 369, 371 _n._, 397

  Singing-master, French, 375

  Smith, Hy., 208

  *Smith, John, M.A., 388

  Smith, Sir Th., 124, 277 _n._

  Snell, George, 334 _n._, 337

  Soldiers and French, 197, 238, 246 _sq._, 260, 400

  Somerset, Protector, 66, 84, 105, 107, 112

  Sorbière: _Voyage en Angleterre_, 321, 322, 364, 368 _n._

  Sorel: _Francion_, 333

  Southampton: French School at, 150

  Spain, 215, 217, 358

  Spaniards, 371 _n._

  Spanish, 64, 65, 72 _sq._, 121, 164, 169 _n._, 171, 186, 192, 199 _n._,
  202, 203 _n._ 204, 209, 212, 218, 220, 230 _n._, 236 _sq._, 241 _sq._,
  263, 273, 279, 280, 294, 331, 374, 388 _n._, 399

  Stanhope, Sir Michael, 284

  Strafford, Lord, 264

  Suffolk, Brandon, Duke of, 69, 80, 81, 94, 105

  Swift, 22, 376 _n._, 392 _n._

  Swiss teachers, 326, 382

  Sylvester, Joshua, 151, 186, 194 _n._, 237 _n._, 239

  Sylvius, 4 _n._, 76, 110 _n._, 137 _n._, 226


  Tailors, French, 369, 371

  Teachers of French criticised, 173, 250, 266, 325 _sq._, 387

  Temple, Sir Wm., 318, 320

  Theatre: French comedians in England, 68, 270 _sq._, 379;
    Frenchmen at the Cockpit, 368;
    English players abroad, 274

  Thierry, J., 189

  *Thorius, 202

  Torriano, 64 _n._, 286

  Tory, Geoffrey, 100

  Toulouse, 357

  Tours, 310, 351, 357, 359 _n._

  Townsend, A., 220, 235

  _Tractatus Orthographiae_, 10, 11

  Translations: French, of English and Latin writings, 178, 194, 269,
  277 _n._, 319, 320, 323, 355, 390 _n._, 394

  Travel and Travellers, 35 _sq._, 43, 51, 137, 169 _n._, 210, 211 _sq._,
  242 _sq._, 247, 282, 284, 287, 317, 320, 336, 340, 341 _sq._, 359, 361,
  363 _sq._, 371, 384, 387 _n._, 397

  *Tresol, Adrian, 155 _n._, 156 _n._

  *Tressol, A., 156 _n._

  Trevisa, John of, 24

  Tryon, Th., 395 _sq._

  Turberville, S., 299

  Turler, Jerome: _Traveiles_, 221 _n._

  Turner, Dr. Wm., 64 _n._

  Tutors, travelling, 212, 215, 219, 220, 222, 224, 231, 248, 346, 355,
  359


  Udal, Nicholas, 64 _n._

  Universities, English: and the French language, 6, 7, 15, 24, 40 _n._,
  75, 118, 186, 195, 198 _sq._, 261, 262, 281, 295, 296, 345, 388, 392,
  393 _n._, 394

  Universities, French: English students at, 5, 6, 27, 77, 104, 172, 210,
  213, 226, 232, 345, 357

  Utenhove, John, 150


  *Vairasse d'Allais, Denys, 353 _sq._

  *Valence, Pierre, 77, 80 _sq._, 205 _n._

  Valets, French, 309, 350, 355, 358, 359, 369, 370, 376, 377, 378, 379

  Vanbrugh, Sir John, 364, 365, 374 _n._, 376 _n._, 378

  Vaquerie, Jean, 155 _n._

  *Varennes, C. de, 349

  Vaugelas, 353, 364, 385

  Vaughan, Stephen, 98

  Vautrollier, Th., 160, 162, 163, 245 _n._

  Verneuil, Jean, 200 _n._

  Verney, Sir Ralph, 220, 248, 264, 298, 341 _sq._

  Veron, John, 122, 150 _n._, 187, 189

  Verone, John, 122

  Versification, French, 158

  Viau, Théophile de, 259 _n._, 356

  Villars, Maréchal de, 273

  *Villiers, Jacob, 388, 396 _sq._

  Vincent, Samuel, 371 _n._, 377 _n._, 392

  Vives, 145, 175, 181, 185, 268 _n._

  Vocabularies, 5, 11 _sq._, 16, 28, 36, 38, 40, 52, 88, 91, 135, 137,
  177, 241 _sq._, 245 _n._, 279, 280, 302, 304, 314, 316, 385, 390, 397

  Voiture, 259 _n._, 273 _n._, 355, 365

  Voltaire, 117, 365 _n._, 366

  Vossius, 367


  Waddington, Ralph, 187

  Wadington, Wm. of, 19

  Waiting-women, French. _See_ Maids

  Walker, O.: _Of Education_, 220 _n._, 221 _n._

  Waller, Edmund, 364, 367

  Walloons, 115, 127, 144, 168, 254, 326

  Wallop, Sir Hy., 123, 162

  Walsingham, 119, 211, 213

  Watts, Th., 399

  Webbe, Joseph, 331, 334 _n._, 335

  Webster, John, 336

  Wenman, Sir Rd., 162, 200

  Wharton, Sir Philip, 123, 156

  William III., 312, 368, 400

  William of Wykeham, 23

  Williamson, Sir Joseph, 207, 208, 344

  Wilson: _Arte of Rhetorique_, 120, 238 _n._

  Withers, Hy., 234

  *Wodroeph, 225 _n._, 240, 246, 248 _sq._, 276, 298, 350, 397

  Wolley, Ed., D.D., 298

  Wolsey, Cardinal, 69, 70, 94, 104

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  Wood, Anthony A., 200, 204

  Wotton, Sir Henry, 120, 234

  *Wotton, Rev. Henry, 339

  Writing, 119, 130, 139, 147, 262, 298, 299, 332, 399

  Wroth, Sir Th., 157

  Würtemberg, Duke of, 66, 74

  Wycherley, 364, 365, 370 _n._, 376, 377 _n._, 378

  Wykeham, Wm. de, 23

  Wynkyn de Worde, 47 _sq._, 53 _sq._, 56, 201, 237, 279


  Yver, Jacques, 196


  Zouche, Lord, 142 _sq._, 234


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Transcriber's notes:

Corrections:

"Lord Burghly" which appears from p. 211 to p. 217 was normalised to
"Lord Burghley" as elsewhere in the book.

The first line indicates the page or the note number and original text,
the second the corrected text.

  p. x: Travelers at the French Universities
        Travellers at the French Universities.

  p. 37: il dira tout courtoisenent
         il dira tout courtoisement.

  p. 39: le roy d'Angliterre est osté
         le roy d'Angleterre est osté.

  p. 39: Maris, oy, il y avoit tant de presse
         Marie, oy, il y avoit tant de presse.

  p. 160: a wastefull, a riotious and
          and an outrageous spender

          a wastefull, a riotious and
          an outrageous spender.

  p. 166: deligently gathered and faithfully set
          diligently gathered and faithfully set.

  p. 176: Qe-heur et-til?
          Qel-heur et-til?

  p. 237: a thing easily gotton
          a thing easily gotten.

  p. 239: For instance Sir Willam Petty
          For instance Sir William Petty.

  p. 241: Lesquelles choses considererées
          Lesquelles choses considerées.

  p. 252: de leurs prouesses, entreprinses
          de leurs prouesses, entreprises.

  p. 398: accomodated to the grammar
          accommodated to the grammar.

  p. 411: Qui peut aissi
          Qui peut aussi.

  p. 414: of Nacsia and Paros in the Archipeligo
          of Nacsia and Paros in the Archipelago.

  p. 414: ou hormis d'autres discours curieus
          où hormis d'autres discours curieus.

  p. 423: se vendent a l'enseigne
          se vendent à l'enseigne.

  n. 126: E. J. Furnival
          E. J. Furnivall.

  n. 433: the Picard or Bourgonions
          the Picard or Bourgignions.

  n. 671: H. Glapthorne, "The Ladies Privilege"
          H. Glapthorne, "The Ladies' Privilege."


  Errata list:

  p. 41: "pernes" should be "prenez" ("Sir pernes le hanappe").

  p. 43: "comnencier" should be "commencier" ("Veul comnencier").

  p. 92, n. 230: "The Boke of the Governour" appears as "The Boke named
  the Governour" in n. 462.

  p. 104: "Sir Thomas More, writing to Erasmus in 1617" should be "Sir
  Thomas More, writing to Erasmus in 1517."

  p. 137-138: the small cross below the unsounded letters in the
  quotation does not always correspond to modern pronunciation. The
  original has been retained.

  p. 283, n. 361: Liége should be Liège.

  p. 293: "to read an script" should be "to read a script."

  n. 126, 313: Author "E. J. Furnivall" should be "F. J. Furnivall."

  n. 276: "congnoissance" should be "cognoissance" ("la congnoissance
  des histoires").





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