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Title: The Popular Religion and Folk-Lore of Northern India, Vol. I (of 2)

Author: W. Crooke

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                          THE POPULAR RELIGION
                            AND FOLK-LORE OF
                             NORTHERN INDIA

                                   BY

                            W. CROOKE, B.A.
                          BENGAL CIVIL SERVICE



                             IN TWO VOLUMES

                                VOL. I.

                 A NEW EDITION, REVISED AND ILLUSTRATED

                              WESTMINSTER
                       ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO.
                       2, Whitehall Gardens, S.W.

                                  1896







PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.


The success of this book has been much beyond my expectations. That
a considerable edition has been exhausted within a few months after
publication proves that it meets a want.

I have now practically re-written the book, and have taken
the opportunity of introducing a considerable amount of fresh
information collected in the course of the Ethnographical Survey of
the North-Western Provinces, the results of which will be separately
published.

For the illustrations, which now appear for the first time, I am
indebted to the photographic skill of Mr. J. O'Neal, of the Thomason
Engineering College, Rurki. I could have wished that they could have
been drawn from a wider area. But Hardwar and its shrines are very
fairly representative of popular Hinduism in Northern India.


W. Crooke.

Saharanpur,
February, 1895.



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

Many books have been written on Brahmanism, or the official religion
of the Hindu; but, as far as I am aware, this is the first attempt
to bring together some of the information available on the popular
beliefs of the races of Upper India.

My object in writing this book has been threefold. In the first place
I desired to collect, for the use of all officers whose work lies
among the rural classes, some information on the beliefs of the people
which will enable them, in some degree, to understand the mysterious
inner life of the races among whom their lot is cast; secondly, it
may be hoped that this introductory sketch will stimulate inquiry,
particularly among the educated races of the country, who have,
as yet, done little to enable Europeans to gain a fuller and more
sympathetic knowledge of their rural brethren; and lastly, while I
have endeavoured more to collect facts than to theorize upon them,
I hope that European scholars may find in these pages some fresh
examples of familiar principles. My difficulty has arisen not so much
from deficiency of material, as in the selection and arrangement of
the mass of information, which lies scattered through a considerable
literature, much of which is fugitive.

I believe that the more we explore these popular superstitions and
usages, the nearer are we likely to attain to the discovery of the
basis on which Hinduism has been founded. The official creed has
always been characterized by extreme catholicism and receptivity, and
many of its principles and legends have undoubtedly been derived from
that stratum of the people which it is convenient to call non-Aryan
or Dravidian. The necessity, then, of investigating these beliefs
before they become absorbed in Brahminism, one of the most active
missionary religions of the world, is obvious.

I may say that the materials of this book were practically complete
before I was able to use Mr. J. S. Campbell's valuable collection of
"Notes on the Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom;" but, in revising
the manuscript, I have availed myself to some extent of this useful
collection, and when I have done so, I have been careful to acknowledge
my obligations to it. Even at the risk of overloading the notes
with references, I have quoted the authorities which I have used,
and I have added a Bibliography which may be of use to students to
whom the subject is unfamiliar.

The only excuse I can plead for the obvious imperfections of this
hasty survey of a very wide subject is that it has been written in
the intervals of the scanty leisure of a District Officer's life in
India, and often at a distance from works of reference and libraries.


W. Crooke.

Mirzapur,
February, 1893.







CONTENTS.



    CHAPTER I.                                              PAGE

    The Godlings of Nature                                     1

    CHAPTER II.

    The Heroic and Village Godlings                           83

    CHAPTER III.

    The Godlings of Disease                                  123

    CHAPTER IV.

    The Worship of the Sainted Dead                          175

    CHAPTER V.

    Worship of the Malevolent Dead                           230







FOLK-LORE OF NORTHERN INDIA.


CHAPTER I.

THE GODLINGS OF NATURE.


                En men gaian eteux' en d' ouranon, en de thalassan
                eelion t' akamanta selenen te plethousan,
                en de ta teirea panta, ta t' ouranos estephanotai
                Pleiadas th' Hyadas te, to te sthenos Orionos
                Arkton th', hen kai amaxan epiklesin kaleousin,
                het autou strephatai kai t' Oriona dokeuei,
                oie d' ammoros esti loetron Okeanoio.

                                                   Iliad, xviii. 483-88.


Among all the great religions of the world there is none more catholic,
more assimilative than the mass of beliefs which go to make up what
is popularly known as Hinduism. To what was probably its original
form--a nature worship in a large degree introduced by the Aryan
missionaries--has been added an enormous amount of demonolatry,
fetishism and kindred forms of primitive religion, much of which
has been adopted from races which it is convenient to describe as
aboriginal or autochthonous.

The same was the case in Western lands. As the Romans extended their
Empire they brought with them and included in the national pantheon the
deities of the conquered peoples. Greece and Syria, Egypt, Gallia and
Germania were thus successively laid under contribution. This power
of assimilation in the domain of religion had its advantages as well
as its dangers. While on the one hand it tended to promote the unity
of the empire, it degraded, on the other hand, the national character
by the introduction of the impure cults which flourished along the
eastern shores of the Mediterranean. [1]

But, besides these forms of religion which were directly imported
from foreign lands, there remained a stratum of local beliefs
which even after twenty centuries of Christianity still flourish,
discredited though they may be by priests and placed under the ban
of the official creed. Thus in Greece, while the high gods of the
divine race of Achilles and Agamemnon are forgotten, the Nereids,
the Cyclopes and the Lamia still live in the faith of the peasants of
Thessaly. [2] So in modern Tuscany there is actually as much heathenism
as catholicism, and they still believe in La Vecchia Religione--"the
old religion;"--and while on great occasions they have recourse to the
priests, they use magic and witchcraft for all ordinary purposes. [3]

It is part of the object of the following pages to show that in
India the history of religious belief has been developed on similar
lines. Everywhere we find that the great primal gods of Hinduism have
suffered grievous degradation. Throughout the length and breadth
of the Indian peninsula Brahma, the Creator, has hardly more than
a couple of shrines specially dedicated to him. [4] Indra has, as
we shall see, become a vague weather deity, who rules the choirs of
fairies in his heaven Indra-loka: Varuna, as Barun, has also become a
degraded weather godling, and sailors worship their boat as his fetish
when they commence a voyage. The worship of Agni survives in the fire
sacrifice which has been specialized by the Agnihotri Brahmans. Of
Pushan and Ushas, Vayu and the Maruts, hardly even the names survive,
except among the small philosophical class of reformers who aim at
restoring Vedism, a faith which is as dead as Jupiter or Aphrodite.



The Deva.

The general term for these great gods of Hinduism is Deva, or "the
shining ones." Of these even the survivors have in the course of the
development of the religious belief of the people suffered serious
change. Modern Vaishnavism has little left of the original conception
of the solar deity who in the Rig Veda strides in three steps through
the seven regions of the universe, and envelops all things in the dust
of his beams. To his cult has, in modern times, been added the erotic
cycle of myths which centre round Krishna and Radha and Rukmini. The
successive Avataras or incarnations mark the progressive development of
the cultus which has absorbed in succession the totemistic or fetish
worship of the tortoise, the boar, the fish and the man-lion. In
the same way Rudra-Siva has annexed various faiths, many of which
are probably of local origin, such as the worship of the bull and
the linga. Durga-Devi, again, most likely is indebted to the same
sources for the blood sacrifices which she loves in her forms of Kali,
Bhawani, Chandika or Bhairavi. A still later development is that of
the foul mysteries of the Tantra and the Saktis.



The Deota.

But in the present survey of the popular, as contrasted with the
official faith, we have little concern with these supremely powerful
deities. They are the gods of the richer or higher classes, and to
the ordinary peasant of Northern India are now little more than
a name. He will, it is true, occasionally bow at their shrines;
he will pour some water or lay some flowers on the images or fetish
stones which are the special resting-places of these divinities or
represent the productive powers of nature. But from time immemorial,
when Brahmanism had as yet not succeeded in occupying the land, his
allegiance was bestowed on a class of deities of a much lower and
more primitive kind. Their inferiority to the greater gods is marked
in their title: they are Devata or Deota, "godlings," not "gods." [5]



Godlings Pure and Impure.

These godlings fall into two well marked classes--the "pure" and the
"impure." The former are, as a rule, served by priests of the Brahman
castes or one of the ascetic orders: their offerings are such things
as are pure food to the Hindu--cakes of wheaten flour, particularly
those which have been still further purified by intermixture with
clarified butter (ghi), the most valued product of the sacred
cow, washed rice (akshata) and sweetmeats. They are very generally
worshipped on a Sunday, and the officiating high-caste priest accepts
the offerings. The offerings to the "impure" godlings contain articles
such as pork and spirits, which are abomination to the orthodox
Hindu. In the Central Indian hills their priest is the Baiga, who
rules the ghosts and demons of the village and is always drawn from
one of the Dravidian tribes. In the plain country the priest is a
non-Aryan Chamar, Dusadh, or even a sweeper or a Muhammadan Dafali
or drummer. No respectable Hindu will, it is needless to say, partake
of a share of the food consecrated (prasad) to a hedge deity of this
class. Much of the worship consists in offering of blood. But the
jungle man or the village menial of the plains can seldom, except in
an hour of grievous need, afford an expensive animal victim, and it
is only when the village shrine has come under the patronage of the
official priests of the orthodox faith, that the altar of the goddess
reeks with gore, like those of the Devis of Bindhachal or Devi Patan.

But as regards the acceptance of a share of the offering the line is
often not very rigidly drawn. As Mr. Ibbetson writing of the Panjab
says: [6] "Of course, the line cannot always be drawn with precision,
and Brahmans will often consent to be fed in the name of a deity,
while they will not take offerings made at his shrine, or will allow
their girls, but not their boys, to accept the offering, as, if the
girls die in consequence, it does not much matter." In fact, as we
shall see later on, the Baiga or devil priest of the aboriginal tribes,
is gradually merging into the Ojha or meaner class of demon exorciser,
who calls himself a Brahman and performs the same functions for tribes
of a somewhat higher social rank.



Suraj Narayan, the Sun Godling.

The first and greatest of the "pure" godlings is Surya or Suraj
Narayan, the Sun godling. He is thus regarded as Narayana or
Vishnu occupying the sun. A curiously primitive legend represents
his father-in-law, Viswakarma, as placing the deity on his lathe
and trimming away one-eighth of his effulgence, leaving only his
feet. Out of the blazing fragments he welded the weapons of the
gods. Surya was one of the great deities of the Vedic pantheon:
he is called Prajapati or "lord of creatures:" he was the son of
Dyaus, or the bright sky. Ushas, the dawn, was his wife, and he moves
through the sky drawn by seven ruddy mares. His worship was perhaps
originally connected with that of fire, but it is easy to understand
how, under a tropical sky, the Indian peasant came to look on him as
the lord of life and death, the bringer of plenty or of famine. If
one interpretation of the rite be correct, the Holi festival is
intended as a means of propitiating sunshine. He is now, however,
like Helios in the Homeric mythology, looked on as only a godling,
not a god, and even as a hero who had once lived and reigned on earth.

As far as the village worship of Suraj Narayan goes, the assertion,
which has sometimes been made, that no shrine has been erected in
his honour is correct enough; and there is no doubt that images of
Surya and Aditya are comparatively rare in recent epochs. But there
are many noted temples dedicated to him, such as those at Taxila,
Gwalior, Gaya, Multan, Jaypur, and in the North-Western Provinces
at Indor, Hawalbagh, Surya Bhita and Lakhmipur. [7] His shrine at
Kanarak in Orissa near that of Jagannath, is described as one of the
most exquisite memorials of Sun-worship in existence. [8] Mr. Bendall
recently found in Nepal an image dedicated to him as late as the
eleventh century. [9] There is a small shrine in his honour close to
the Annapurna temple in Benares, where the god is represented seated
in a chariot drawn by seven horses, and is worshipped with the fire
sacrifice (homa) in a building detached from the temple. [10]

In the time of Sankara Acharya (A.D. 1000) there were six distinct
sects of Sun-worshippers--one worshipping the rising sun as identified
with Brahma; the second the meridian sun as Siva; the third the
setting sun as Vishnu; the fourth worshippers of the sun in all the
above phases as identified with the Trimurti; the fifth worshippers
of the sun regarded as a material being in the form of a man with a
golden beard and golden hair. Zealous members of this sect refused
to eat anything in the morning till they had seen the sun rise. The
last class worshipped an image of the sun formed in the mind. These
spent all their time meditating on the sun, and were in the habit
of branding circular representations of his disc on their foreheads,
arms and breasts. [11]

The Saura sect worship Suryapati as their special god. They wear a
crystal necklace in his honour, abstain from eating salt on Sundays
and on the days when the sun enters a sign of the zodiac. They make
a frontal mark with red sandars, and nowadays have their headquarters
in Oudh. [12]

Another sect of Vaishnavas, the Nimbarak, worship the sun in a
modified form. Their name means "the sun in a Nim tree" (Azidirachta
Indica). The story of the sect runs that their founder, an ascetic
named Bhaskaracharya, had invited a Bairagi to dine with him, and had
arranged everything for his reception, but unfortunately delayed to
call his guest till after sunset. The holy man was forbidden by the
rules of his order to eat except in the day-time, and was afraid that
he would be compelled to practise an unwilling abstinence; but at the
solicitation of his host, the Sun god, Suraj Narayan, descended on the
Nim tree under which the feast was spread and continued beaming on them
until dinner was over. [13] In this we observe an approximation to the
Jaina rule by which it is forbidden to eat after sunset, lest insects
may enter the mouth and be destroyed. This over-strained respect for
animal life is one of the main features of the creed. As a curious
parallel it may be noted that when an Australian black-fellow wishes
to stay the sun from going down till he gets home, he places a sod
in the fork of a tree exactly facing the setting sun; and an Indian
of Yucatan, journeying westward, places a stone in a tree, or pulls
out some of his eye-lashes and blows them towards the sun. [14]

The great Emperor Akbar endeavoured to introduce a special form of
Sun-worship. He ordered that it was to be adored four times a day: in
the morning, noon, evening, and midnight. "His majesty had also one
thousand and one Sanskrit names of the sun collected, and read them
daily, devoutly turning to the sun. He then used to get hold of both
ears, and turning himself quickly round, used to strike the lower ends
of his ears with his fists." He ordered his band to play at midnight,
and used to be weighed against gold at his solar anniversary. [15]



Village Worship of Suraj Narayan.

The village worship of Suraj Narayan is quite distinct from this. Many
peasants in Upper India do not eat salt on Sundays, and do not set
their milk for butter, but make rice-milk of it, and give a portion
to Brahmans. Brahmans are sometimes fed in his honour at harvests,
and the pious householder bows to him as he leaves his house in the
morning. His more learned brethren repeat the Gayatri, that most
ancient of Aryan prayers: "Tat savitur varenyam bhargo devasya
dhimahi, Dhiyo yo nah prachodayat" ("May we receive the glorious
brightness of this, the generator, the God who shall prosper our
works!"). In the chilly mornings of the cold weather you will hear
the sleepy coolies as they wake, yawning and muttering Suraj Narayan,
as the yellow gleam of dawn spreads over the Eastern sky. In fact,
even in Vedic times there seems to have been a local worship of Surya
connected with some primitive folk-lore. Haradatta mentions as one
of the customs not sanctioned in the Veda, that when the sun is in
Aries the young girls would paint the sun with his retinue on the
soil in coloured dust, and worship this in the morning and evening;
[16] and in Central India the sun was in the Middle Ages worshipped
under the local form of Bhailla, or "Lord of Life," a term which
appears to have been the origin of the name Bhilsa, known to more
recent ages as a famous seat of Buddhism. [17]

At Udaypur in Rajputana the sun has universal precedence. His portal
(Suryapul) is the chief entrance to the city; his name gives dignity
to the chief apartment or hall (Suryamahal) of the palace, and from the
balcony of the sun (Surya-gokhru), the descendant of Rama shows himself
in the dark monsoon as the sun's representative. A large painted sun
of gypsum in high relief with gilded rays adorns the hall of audience,
and in front of it is the throne. The sacred standard bears his image,
as does the disc (changi) of black felt or ostrich feathers with a
plate of gold in its centre to represent the sun, borne aloft on a
pole. The royal parasol is called Kiraniya, in allusion to its shape,
like a ray (kiran) of the orb. [18]

Another famous centre of Sun-worship was Multan, where, as we have
seen, a temple dedicated to him has been discovered, and where the
tribes of the Balas and Kathis were devoted to him. The worship
continued till the idol was destroyed by orders of Aurangzeb.



Sun-worship among the non-Aryan Races.

The Aheriyas, a tribe of jungle-livers and thieves in the Central
Duab of the Ganges and Jumna, have adopted as their mythical ancestor
Priyavrata, who being dissatisfied that only half the earth was at one
time illuminated by the rays of the sun, followed him seven times round
the earth in his flaming car, resolved to turn night into day. But
he was stopped by Brahma, and the wheels of his chariot formed the
seven oceans which divide the seven continents of the world.

In the lower ranges of the Himalaya Sun-worship is conducted in the
months of December and January and when eclipses occur. The principal
observances are the eating of a meal without salt at each passage
of the sun into a new sign of zodiac, and eating meals on other days
only when the sun has risen.

Among the Dravidian races, along the Central Indian hills, Sun-worship
is widely prevalent. When in great affliction the Kharwars appeal
to the sun. Any open space in which he shines may be his altar. The
Kisans offer a white cock to him when a sacrifice is needed. He
is worshipped by the Bhuiyas and Oraons as Boram or Dharm Devata,
"the godling of pity," and is propitiated at the sowing season by
the sacrifice of a white cock. The Korwas worship him as Bhagwan, or
"the only God," in an open space with an ant-hill as an altar. The
Khariyas adore him under the name of Bero. "Every head of a family
should during his lifetime make not less than five sacrifices to
this deity--the first of fowls, the second of a pig, the third of a
white goat, the fourth of a ram, and the fifth of a buffalo. He is
then considered sufficiently propitiated for that generation, and
regarded as an ungrateful god if he does not behave handsomely to
his votary." He is addressed as Parameswar, or "great god," and his
sacrifices are always made in front of an ant-hill which is regarded
as his altar. The Kols worship Sing Bonga, the creator and preserver,
as the sun. Prayer and sacrifice are made to him, as to a beneficent
deity, who has no pleasure in the destruction of any of his subjects,
though, as a father, he chastises his erring children, who owe him
gratitude for all the blessings they enjoy. He is said to have married
Chando Omal, the moon. She deceived him on one occasion, and he cut her
in two; but repenting of his anger, he restores her to her original
shape once a month, when she shines in her full beauty. The Oraons
address the sun as Dharmi, or "the holy one," and do not regard him as
the author of sickness or calamity; but he may be invoked to avert it,
and this appeal is often made when the sacrifices to minor deities have
been unproductive. He is the tribal god of the Korkus of Hoshangabad;
they do not, however, offer libations to him, as Hindus do; but once
in three years the head of each family, on some Sunday in April or
May, offers outside the village a white she-goat and a white fowl,
turning his face to the East during the sacrifice. Similarly the Kurs
of the Central Provinces carve rude representations of the sun and
moon on wooden pillars, which they worship, near their villages. [19]



Sun-worship in the Domestic Ritual.

It is needless to say that the custom of walking round any sacred
object in the course of the sun prevails widely. Thus in Ireland,
when in a graveyard, it is customary to walk as much as possible "with
the sun," with the right hand towards the centre of the circle. [20]
Even to this day in the Hebrides animals are led round a sick person,
following the sun; and in the Highlands it is the custom to make the
"deazil" or walk three times in the sun's course round those whom
they wish well. When a Highlander goes to bathe or to drink water
out of a consecrated spring, he must always approach by going round
the place from east to west on the south side, in imitation of the
daily motion of the sun. [21] We follow the same rule when we pass
the decanters round our dinner tables. In the same way in India
the bride and bridegroom are made to revolve round the sacred fire
or the central pole of the marriage-shed in the course of the sun;
the pilgrim makes his solemn perambulation (parikrama) round a temple
or shrine in the same way; in this direction the cattle move as they
tread out the grain.

One special part of the purificatory rite following childbirth is
to bring the mother out and expose her to the rays of the sun. All
through the range of popular belief and folk-lore appears the idea
that girls may be impregnated by the sun. [22] Hence they are not
allowed to expose themselves to his rays at the menstrual period. For
the same reason the bride is brought out to salute the rising sun
on the morning after she begins to live with her husband. A survival
of the same belief may be traced in the English belief that happy is
the bride on whom the sun shines. The same belief in the power of the
sun is shown in the principle so common in folk-lore that to show a
certain thing to it (in a Kashmir tale it is a tuft of the hair of
the kindly tigress) will be sufficient to summon an absent friend. [23]

The mystical emblem of the Swastika, which appears to represent the
sun in his journey through the heavens, is of constant occurrence. The
trader paints it on the fly-leaf of his ledger; the man who has young
children or animals liable to the Evil Eye makes a representation of
it on the wall beside his door-post; it holds the first place among
the lucky marks of the Jainas; it is drawn on the shaven heads of
children on the marriage-day in Gujarat; a red circle with a Swastika
in the centre is depicted on the place where the gods are kept. [24]
In those parts of the country where Bhumiya is worshipped as a village
guardian deity his votary constructs a rude model of it on the shrine
by fixing up two crossed straws with a daub of plaster. It often occurs
in folk-lore. In the drama of the "Toy Cart" the thief hesitates
whether he shall make the hole in the wall of Charudatta's house in
the likeness of a Swastika or of a water jar. A hymn of the Rigveda
[25] speaks of the all-seeing eye of the sun whose beams reveal his
presence, gleaming like brilliant flames to nation after nation. This
same conception of the sun as an eye is common in the folk-lore of
the West. [26]



Moon-worship.

The fate of Chandra or Soma, the Moon godling, is very similar. The
name Soma, originally applied to the plant the juice of which was used
as a religious intoxicant, came to be used in connection with the
moon in the post-Vedic mythology. There are many legends to account
for the waning of the moon and the spots on his surface, for the moon,
like the sun, is always treated as a male godling. One of the legends
current to explain the phases of the moon has been already referred
to. According to another story the moon married the twenty-seven
asterisms, the daughters of the Rishi Daksha, who is the hero of
the curious tale of the sacrifice now located at Kankhal, a suburb
of Hardwar. Uma or Parvati, the spouse of Siva, was also a daughter
of Daksha, and when he, offended with his son-in-law Siva, did not
invite him to the great sacrifice, Uma became Sati, and in his rage
Siva created Virabhadra, who killed the sage. Soma after marrying
the asterisms devoted himself to one of them, Rohini, which aroused
the jealousy of the others. They complained to their father Daksha,
who cursed the moon with childlessness and consumption. His wives,
in pity, interceded for him, but the curse of the angry sage could not
be wholly removed: all that was possible was to modify it so that it
should be periodical, not permanent. In an earlier legend, of which
there is a trace in the Rig Veda, [27] the gods, by drinking up the
nectar, caused the waning of the moon. Another curious explanation
is current in Bombay. One evening Ganesa fell off his steed, the rat,
and the moon could not help laughing at his misfortune. To punish him
the angry god vowed that no one should ever see the moon again. The
moon prayed for forgiveness, and Ganesa agreed that the moon should
be disgraced only on his birthday, the Ganesa Chaturthi. On this
night the wild hogs hide themselves that they may not see the moon,
and the Kunbis hunt them down and kill them. [28]

There are also many explanations to account for the spots in the
moon. In Western lands the moon is inhabited by a man with a bundle
of sticks on his back; but it is not clear of what offence this was
the punishment. Dante says he is Cain; Chaucer says he was a thief,
and gives him a thorn-bush to carry; Shakespeare gives him thorns to
carry, but provides him with a dog as a companion. In Ireland children
are taught that he picked faggots on a Sunday and is punished as a
Sabbath-breaker. In India the creature in the moon is usually a hare,
and hence the moon is called Sasadhara, "he that is marked like a
hare." According to one legend the moon became enamoured of Ahalya,
the wife of the Rishi Gautama, and visited her in the absence of her
husband. He returned, and finding the guilty pair together, cursed his
wife, who was turned into a stone; then he threw his shoe at the moon,
which left a black mark, and this remains to this day. The scene of
this event has been localized at Gondar in the Karnal District. By
another variant of the legend it was Vrihaspati, the Guru or religious
adviser of the gods, who found the moon with his wife. The holy man
was just returning from his bath in the Ganges, and he threw his
dripping loin-cloth at the moon, which produced the spots. In Upper
India, again, little children are taught to call the moon Mamu or
"maternal uncle," and the dark spots are said to represent an old
woman who sits there working her spinning-wheel.

The moon has one special function in connection with disease. One of
his titles is Oshadhipati or "lord of the medicinal plants." Hence
comes the idea that roots and simples, and in particular those that
are to be used for any magical or mystic purpose, should be collected
by moonlight. Thus in Shakespeare Jessica says,--


    "In such a night Medea gathered the enchanted herbs
    That did renew old Aeson."


And Laertes speaks of the poison "collected from all simples that
have virtue under the moon." [29] Hence the belief that the moon
has a sympathetic influence over vegetation. Tusser [30] advised
the peasant,--


    "Sow peason and beans, in the wane of the moon.
    Who soweth them sooner, he soweth too soon;
    That they with the planet may rest and arise,
    And flourish, with bearing most plentiful wise."


The same rule applies all over Northern India, and the phases of the
moon exercise an important influence on all agricultural operations.

Based on the same principle is the custom of drinking the moon. Among
Muhammadans in Oudh, "a silver basin being filled with water, is held
in such a situation that the full moon may be reflected in it. The
person to be benefited by the draught is required to look steadfastly
on the moon in the basin, then shut his eyes and quaff the liquid at
a draught. This remedy is advised by medical professors in nervous
cases, and also for palpitation of the heart." [31] Somewhat similar
customs prevail among Hindus in Northern India. At the full moon of the
month Kuar (September-October) people lay out food on the house-tops,
and when it has absorbed the rays of the moon they distribute it among
their relations; this is supposed to lengthen life. On the same night
girls pour out water in the moonlight, and say that they are pouring
out the cold weather, which was hidden in the water jar. The habit of
making patients look at the moon in ghi, oil, or milk is common, and
is said to be specially efficacious for leprosy and similar diseases.

There is now little special worship of Soma or Chandra, and when
an image is erected to him it is generally associated with that of
Surya. In the old ritual Anumati or the moon just short of full was
specially worshipped in connection with the Manes. The full-moon
day was provided with a special goddess, Raka. Nowadays the phases
largely influence the domestic ritual. All over the world we find the
idea that anything done or suffered by man on a waxing moon tends to
develop, whereas anything done or suffered on a waning moon tends to
diminish. Thus a popular trick charm for warts is to look at the new
moon, lift some dust from under the left foot, rub the wart with it,
and as the moon wanes the wart dies. [32] It is on the days of the new
and full moon that spirits are most numerous and active. The Code of
Manu directs that ceremonies are to be performed at the conjunction
and opposition of the moon. [33] Among the Jews it would seem that the
full moon was prescribed for national celebrations, while those of a
domestic character took place at the new moon; there is some evidence
to show that this may be connected with the habit of pastoral nations
performing journeys in the cool moonlight nights. [34]

Horace speaks of rustic Phidyle,--


    "Coelo supinas si tuleris manus,
    Nascente Luna rustica Phidyle," [35]


and Aubrey of the Yorkshire maids who "doe worship the new moon on
their bare knees, kneeling upon an earth-fast stone." Irish girls on
first seeing the moon when new fall on their knees and address her
with a loud voice in the prayer--"O Moon! Leave us as well as you
found us!" [36] It is a common practice in Europe to turn a piece of
silver, which being white is the lunar metal, when the new moon is
first seen. So Hindus at the first sight of the new moon hold one end
of their turbans in their hands, take from it seven threads, present
them to the moon with a prayer, and then exchange the compliments
of the season. In Bombay [37] on all new moon days Brahmans offer
oblations of water and sesamum seed to their ancestors, and those who
are Agnihotris and do the fire sacrifice kindle the sacred fire on all
new and full moon days. Musalmans on the new moon which comes after
the new year sprinkle the blood of a goat beside the house door. In
Bombay a young Musalman girl will not go out at the new moon or on a
Thursday, apparently because this is the time that evil spirits roam
abroad. In Upper India the houses of the pious are freely plastered
with a mixture of earth and cow-dung, and no animal is yoked.

A curious idea applies to the new moon of Bhadon (August). Whoever
looks at the moon on this day will be the victim of false accusations
during the following year. The only way to avoid this is to perform
a sort of penance by getting someone to shy brickbats at your house,
which at other times is regarded as an extreme form of insult and
degradation. There is a regular festival held for this purpose at
Benares on the fourth day of Bhadon (August), which is known as
the Dhela Chauth Mela, or "the clod festival of the fourth." [38]
We shall come across later on other examples of the principle that to
court abuse under certain circumstances is a means of propitiating the
spirits of evil and avoiding danger from them. This is probably the
origin of the practice in Orissa--"On the Khurda estate the peasants
give a curious reason for the absence of garden cultivation and fruit
trees, which form a salient feature in that part of the country. In
our own districts every homestead has its little ring of vegetable
ground. But in Khurda one seldom meets with these green spots except in
Brahman villages. The common cultivators say that from time immemorial
they considered it lucky at a certain festival for a man to be annoyed
and abused by his neighbours. With a view to giving ample cause of
offence they mutilate the fruit trees and trample the gardens of
their neighbours, and so court fortune by bringing down the wrath
of the injured owner." [39] We shall see that this is one probable
explanation of the indecency which prevails at the Holi festival.

Moon-worship appears to be more popular in Bihar and Bengal than in
the North-West Provinces or the Panjab. [40] The fourth day of the
waxing moon in the month of Bhadon is sacred to the moon and known
as Chauk Chanda. It is very unlucky to look at the moon on that day,
as whoever does so will make his name infamous. The story runs that
Takshaka, the king of the snakes, stole the ear-rings of King Aditi,
who, being unable to discover the thief, laid it to the charge of
Krishna, whose thefts of milk and cream from the Gopis had made him
sufficiently notorious. Krishna, mortified at this false accusation,
recovered and restored the ear-ring, and as this was the day on which
Krishna was wrongfully disgraced, the moon of that night is invested
with associations of special sinfulness. Some people fast and in
the evening eat only rice and curds. Brahmans worship the moon with
offerings of flowers and sweetmeats, and people get stones thrown
at their houses, as further west on the day of the Dhela Chauth. On
this day schoolboys visit their friends and make a peculiar noise by
knocking together two coloured sticks, like castanets.

One idea lying at the base of much of the respect paid to the moon
is that it is the abode of the Pitri or sainted dead. This is a
theory which is the common property of many primitive races. [41]
The explanation probably is that the soul of the dead man rises with
the smoke of the funeral pyre, and hence the realm of Yama would
naturally be fixed in the moon. This seems to be the reason why the
early Indian Buddhists worshipped the moon. At the new moon the monks
bathed and shaved each other; and at a special service the duties of
a monk were recited. On full moon days they dined at the houses of
laymen. On that night a platform was raised in the preaching hall. The
superior brethren chanted the law, and the people greeted the name
of Buddha with shouts of "Sadhu" or "the holy one." [42]



Eclipses and the Fire Sacrifice.

Hindus, like other primitive races, have their eclipse demons. "When
once the practice of bringing down the moon had become familiar to
the primitive Greek, who saw it done at sacred marriages and other
rites, he was provided with an explanation of lunar eclipses; some
other fellow was bringing down the moon for his private ends. And
at the present day in Greece the proper way to stop a lunar eclipse
is to call out 'I see you!' and thus make the worker of this deed of
darkness desist. So completely did this theory, which we must regard as
peculiarly Greek, establish itself in ancient Greece, that strange to
say, not a trace of the earlier primitive theory, according to which
some monster swallows the eclipsed moon, is to be found in classical
Greek literature, unless the beating of metal instruments to frighten
away the monster be a survival of the primitive practice." [43]

In India, however, this earlier explanation of the phenomena of
eclipses flourishes in full vigour. The eclipse demon, Rahu, whose
name means "the looser" or "the seizer," was one of the Asuras or
demons. When the gods produced the Amrita, or nectar, from the churned
ocean, he disguised himself like one of them and drank a portion
of it. The sun and moon detected his fraud and informed Vishnu,
who severed the head and two of the arms of Rahu from the trunk. The
portion of nectar which he had drunk secured his immortality; the head
and tail were transferred to the solar sphere, the head wreaking its
vengeance on the sun and moon by occasionally swallowing them, while
the tail, under the name of Ketu, gave birth to a numerous progeny
of comets and fiery meteors. By another legend Ketu was turned into
the demon Sainhikeya and the Arunah Ketavah or "Red apparitions,"
which often appear in the older folk-lore.

Ketu nowadays is only a vague demon of disease, and Rahu too has
suffered a grievous degradation. He is now the special godling of
the Dusadhs and Dhangars, two menial tribes found in the Eastern
districts of the North-Western Provinces. His worship is a kind of
fire sacrifice. A ditch seven cubits long and one and a quarter cubits
broad (both numbers of mystical significance) is dug and filled with
burning faggots, which are allowed to smoulder into cinders. One of
the tribal priests in a state of religious afflatus walks through
the fire, into which some oil or butter is poured to make a sudden
blaze. It is said that the sacred fire is harmless; but some admit
that a certain preservative ointment is used by the performers. The
worshippers insist on the priest coming in actual contact with the
flames, and a case occurred some years ago in Gorakhpur when one of
the priests was degraded on account of his perfunctory discharge of
this sacred duty. The same rule applies to the priest who performs
the rites at the lighting of the Holi fire. It is needless to say
that similar rites prevail elsewhere, chiefly in Southern India. [44]

In connection with this rite of fire-walking they have another function
in which a ladder is made of wooden sword-blades, up which the priest
is compelled to climb, resting the soles of his feet on the edges
of the weapons. When he reaches the top he decapitates a white cock
which is tied to the summit of the ladder. This kind of victim is,
as we have already seen, appropriate to propitiate the Sun godling,
and there can be little doubt that the main object of this form of
symbolical magic is to appease the deities which control the rain
and harvests.

Brahmans so far join in this low-caste worship as to perform the
fire sacrifice (homa) near the trench where the ceremony is being
performed. In Mirzapur one of the songs recited on this occasion runs:
"O devotee! How many cubits long is the trench which thou hast dug? How
many maunds of butter hast thou poured upon it that the fire billows
rise in the air? Seven cubits long is the trench; seven maunds of
firewood hast thou placed within it. One and a quarter maunds of
firewood hast thou placed within it. One and a quarter maunds of butter
hast thou poured into the trench that the fire billows rise to the
sky." All this is based on the idea that fire is a scarer of demons,
a theory which widely prevails. The Romans made their flocks and herds
pass through fire, over which they leaped themselves. In Ireland,
when the St. John's Eve fire has burnt low, "the young men strip to
the waist and leap over or through the flames, and he who braves the
greatest blaze is considered the victor over the powers of evil." [45]

By a curious process of anthropomorphism, another legend makes Rah or
Rahu, the Dusadh godling, to have been not an eclipse demon, but the
ghost of an ancient leader of the tribe who was killed in battle. [46]
A still grosser theory of eclipses is found in the belief held by the
Ghasiyas of Mirzapur that the sun and moon once borrowed money from
some of the Dom tribe and did not pay it back. Now in revenge a Dom
occasionally devours them and vomits them up again when the eclipse
is over.



Eclipse Observances.

Eclipses are of evil omen. Gloucester sums up the matter: [47]
"These late eclipses in the sun and moon portend no good to us;
though the wisdom of nature can reason it thus and thus, yet nature
finds itself scourged by the sequent effects; love cools, friendship
falls off, brothers divide; in cities mutinies; in countries discord;
in palaces treason; and the bond cracked 'twixt son and father." The
Hindu authority [48] writes much to the same effect. "Eclipses usually
portend or cause grief; but if rain without unusual symptoms fall
within a week of the eclipse, all baneful influences come to nought."

Among high-caste Hindus no food which has remained in the house during
an eclipse of the sun or moon can be eaten; it must be given away,
and all earthen vessels in use in the house at the time must be
broken. Mr. Conway [49] takes this to mean that "the eclipse was to
have his attention called by outcries and prayers to the fact that
if it was fire he needed there was plenty on earth; and if food, he
might have all in the house, provided he would consent to satisfy his
appetite with articles of food less important than the luminaries
of heaven." The observance is more probably based on the idea of
ceremonial pollution caused by the actual working of demoniacal agency.

Food is particularly liable to this form of pollution. The wise
housewife, when an eclipse is announced, takes a leaf of the Tulasi
or sacred basil, and sprinkling Ganges water on it, puts the leaf in
the jars containing the drinking water for the use of the family and
the cooked food, and thus keeps them pure while the eclipse is going
on. Confectioners, who are obliged to keep large quantities of cooked
food ready, relieve themselves and their customers from the taboo by
keeping some of the sacred Kusa or Dub grass in their vessels when
an eclipse is expected. A pregnant woman will do no work during an
eclipse, as otherwise she believes that her child would be deformed,
and the deformity is supposed to bear some relation to the work which
is being done by her at the time. Thus, if she were to sew anything,
the baby would have a hole in its flesh, generally near the ear;
if she cut anything, the child would have a hare-lip. On the same
principle the horns of pregnant cattle are smeared with red paint
during an eclipse, because red is a colour abhorred by demons. While
the eclipse is going on, drinking water, eating food, and all household
business, as well as the worship of the gods, are all prohibited. No
respectable Hindu will at such a time sleep on a bedstead or lie down
to rest, and he will give alms in barley or copper coins to relieve
the pain of the suffering luminaries.

So among Muhammadans, [50] a bride-elect sends offerings of
intercession (sadqa) to her intended husband, accompanied by a goat or
kid, which must be tied to his bedstead during the continuance of the
eclipse. These offerings are afterwards distributed in charity. Women
expecting to be mothers are carefully kept awake, as they believe
that the security of the coming infant depends on the mother being
kept from sleep. They are not allowed to use a needle, scissors,
knife, or any other instrument for fear of drawing blood, which at
that time would be injurious to both mother and child.

But among Hindus the most effectual means of scaring the demon and
releasing the afflicted planet is to bathe in some sacred stream. At
this time a Brahman should stand in the water beside the worshipper and
recite the Gayatri. At an eclipse of the moon it is advisable to bathe
at Benares, and when the sun is eclipsed at Kurukshetra. Bernier [51]
gives a very curious account of the bathing which he witnessed at Delhi
during the great eclipse of 1666. In the lower Himalayas the current
ritual prescribes an elaborate ceremony, when numerous articles are
placed in the sacred water jar; the image of the snake god, stamped
in silver, is worshipped, and the usual gifts are made. [52]

In Ladakh ram horns are fixed on the stems of fruit trees as a
propitiatory offering at the time of an eclipse, and trees thus
honoured are believed to bear an unfailing crop of the choicest
fruit. [53]

Another effectual means of scaring the demon is by music and noise, of
which we shall find instances later on. "The Irish and Welsh, during
eclipses, run about beating kettles and pans, thinking their clamour
and vexations available to the assistance of the higher orbs." [54]
So in India, women go about with brass pans and beat them to drive
Rahu from his prey.

Of course, the time of an eclipse is most inauspicious for the
commencement of any important business. Here again the learned
Aubrey confirms the current Hindu belief. "According to the rules
of astrology," he says, "it is not good to undertake any business of
importance in the new moon or at an eclipse."



Star-worship.

The worship of the other constellations is much less important than
those of the greater luminaries which we have been discussing. The
Hindu names nine constellations, known as Nava-graha, "the nine
seizers," specially in reference to Rahu, which grips the sun and
moon in eclipses, and more generally in the astrological sense of
influencing the destinies of men. These nine stars are the sun
(Surya), the moon (Soma, Chandra), the ascending and descending
nodes (Rahu, Ketu), and the five planets--Mercury (Budha), Venus
(Sukra), Mars (Mangala, Angaraka), Jupiter (Vrihaspati), and Saturn
(Sani). This group of nine stars is worshipped at marriages and other
important religious rites. Of the signs of the Zodiac (rasi-chakra)
the rural Hindu knows little more than the names--Mesha (Aries),
Vrisha (Taurus), Mithuna (Gemini), Karka (Cancer), Sinha (Leo), Kanya
(Virgo), Tula (Libra), Vrischika (Scorpio), Dhanu (Sagittarius), Makara
(Capricornus), Kumbha (Aquarius), and Mina (Pisces). Practically the
only direct influence they exercise over his life is that from the
opening Rasi or sign in which he is born the first letter of the
secret name which he bears is selected. Still less concern has he
with the asterisms or Nakshatra, a word which has been variously
interpreted to mean "coming or ascending," "night guardians," or
"undecaying." As already stated, they are said to have been the
twenty-seven daughters of the Rishi Daksha, and wives of Soma or
the moon. The usual enumeration gives twenty-eight, and they are
vaguely supposed to represent certain stars or constellations, but
the identification of these is very uncertain. One list, with some of
the corresponding stars, gives Sravishtha or Dhanishtha (Delphinus),
Sata-bhishaj (Aquarius), Purva Bhadrapada, Uttara Bhadrapada,
Revati, Asvini (Aries), Bharani (Musca), Krittika (the Pleiades),
Rohini (Aldebaran), Mriga-siras (Orion), Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya,
Aslesha, Magha (Leo), Purva-Phalguni, Uttara Phalguni, Hasta (Corvus),
Chitra (Spica Virginis), Svati (Arcturus), Visakha (Libra), Anuradha,
Jyeshtha, Mula, Purva Ashadha, Uttara Ashadha, Abhijit (Lyra), and
Sravana. These are used only in calculating the marriage horoscope,
and the only one of them with which the fairly well-to-do rustic has
much concern is with the unlucky Mula. Should by an evil chance his
son be born in this asterism, he has to undergo a most elaborate rite
of purification.

Others stars have their legends. The Riksha or constellation of the
Great Bear represents the seven deified Rishis--Gautama, Bharadwaja,
Viswamitra, Jamadagni, Vashishtha, Kasyapa and Atri. Dhruva, the Pole
Star, was the grandson of Manu Swayambhuva, and was driven from his
home by his step-mother. He, though a Kshatriya, joined the company
of the Rishis and was finally raised to the skies as Grahadhara, "the
pivot of the plants." So Canopus is the Rishi Agastya who was perhaps
one of the early Aryan missionaries to Southern India and won a place
in heaven by his piety. Orion is Mrigasiras, the head of Brahma in the
form of a stag which was struck off by Siva when the deity attempted
violence to his own daughter Sandhya, the twilight. Krittika or the
Pleiades represent the six nurses of Karttikeya, the god of war.

Part of the purificatory rite for a woman after her delivery is
to bring her out at night and let her look at the stars, while her
husband stands over her with a bludgeon to guard her from the assaults
of demons. One interesting survival of the old mythology is that in
Upper India women are fond of teaching their children that the stars
are kine and the moon their shepherd, an idea which has formed the
basis of much of the speculations of a school of comparative mythology
now almost completely discredited.



The Rainbow.

There is much curious folk-lore about the rainbow. By most Hindus it is
called the Dhanus or bow of Rama Chandra, and by Muhammadans the bow of
Baba Adam or father Adam. In the Panjab it is often known as the swing
of Bibi Bai, the wife of the Saint Sakhi Sarwar. The Persians call it
the bow of Rustam or of Shaitan or Satan, or Shamsher-i-'Ali--"the
sword of 'Ali." In Sanskrit it is Rohitam, the invisible bow of
Indra. In the hills it is called Paniharin or the female water-bearer.



The Milky Way.

So with the Milky Way, of which an early name is Nagavithi or the
path of the snake. The Persians call it Kahkashan, the dragging of
a bundle of straw through the sky. The Hindu calls it Akash Ganga
or the heavenly Ganges, Bhagwan ki kachahri or the Court of God,
Swarga-duari or the door of Paradise; while to the Panjabi it is
known as Bera da ghas or the path of Noah's Ark. In Celtic legend it
is the road along which Gwydion pursued his erring wife.



Earth-worship.

Next in order of reverence to the heavenly bodies comes the Earth
goddess, Dharitri or Dharti Mata or Dharti Mai, a name which means "the
upholder" or "supporter." She is distinguished from Bhumi, "the soil,"
which, as we shall see, has a god of its own, and from Prithivi, "the
wide extended world," which in the Vedas is personified as the mother
of all things, an idea common to all folk-lore. The myth of Dyaus,
the sky, and Prithivi, the earth, once joined and now separated, is the
basis of a great chapter in mythology, such as the mutilation of Uranus
by Cronus and other tales of a most distinctively savage type. [55]
We meet the same idea in the case of Demeter, "the fruitful soil,"
as contrasted with Gaea, the earlier, Titanic, formless earth; unless,
indeed, we are to accept Mr. Frazer's identification of Demeter with
the Corn Mother. [56]



Worship of Mother Earth.

The worship of Mother Earth assumes many varied forms. The pious
Hindu does reverence to her as he rises from his bed in the morning;
and even the indifferent follows his example when he begins to plough
and sow. In the Panjab, [57] "when a cow or buffalo is first bought,
or when she first gives milk after calving, the first five streams
of milk drawn from her are allowed to fall on the ground in honour
of the goddess, and every time of milking the first stream is so
treated. So, when medicine is taken, a little is sprinkled in her
honour." On the same principle the great Kublai Khan used to sprinkle
the milk of his mares on the ground. "This is done," says Marco Polo,
[58] "on the injunction of the idolaters and idol priests, who say
that it is an excellent thing to sprinkle milk on the ground every
28th of August, so that the earth and the air and the false gods
shall have their share of it, and the spirits likewise that inhabit
the air and the earth, and those beings will protect and bless the
Kaan and his children, and his wives, and his folk and his gear,
and his cattle and his horses, and all that is his."

The same feeling is also shown in the primitive taboo, which forbids
that any holy thing, such as the blood of a tribesman, should fall
upon the ground. Thus we are told that Kublai Khan ordered his captive
Nayan "to be wrapped in a carpet and tossed to and fro so mercilessly
that he died, and the Kaan caused him to be put to death in this way,
because he would not have the blood of his Line Imperial spilt upon
the ground, and exposed to the eye of heaven and before the sun." Even
some savages when they are obliged to shed the blood of a member of
the tribe, as at the rite of circumcision, receive it upon their own
bodies. The soul, in fact, is supposed to be in the blood, and any
ground on which the blood falls becomes taboo or accursed. [59]

Throughout Northern India the belief in the sanctity of the earth
is universal. The dying man is laid on the earth at the moment of
dissolution, and so is the mother at the time of parturition. In the
case of the dying there is perhaps another influence at work in this
precaution, the idea that the soul must not be barred by roof or wall,
and allowed to wing its course unimpeded to the place reserved for it.

In the eastern districts of the North-Western Provinces there is
a regular rite common to all the inferior castes that a few days
before a wedding the women go in procession to the village clay-pit
and fetch from there the sacred earth (matmangara), which is used in
making the marriage altar and the fireplace on which the wedding feast
is cooked. There are various elements in the ritual which point to a
very primitive origin. Thus, one part of the proceedings is that a
Chamar, one of the non-Aryan castes, leads the procession, beating
his drum the whole time to scare demons. When the earth has been
collected the drum is worshipped and smeared with red lead. There can
be little doubt that the drum was one of the very primitive fetishes
of the aboriginal races. One, and perhaps about the most primitive,
form of it is the Damaru or drum shaped like an hour-glass which
accompanies Siva, and next to this comes the Mandar, the sides of
which are formed out of earthenware, and which is the first stage in
the development of a musical instrument from a vessel covered with
some substance which resounds when beaten. This latter form of drum
is the national musical instrument of the Central Indian Gonds and
their brethren. The Chamar, again, digs the earth with an affectation
of secrecy, which, as we shall see, is indispensable in rites of this
class. The mother of the bride or bridegroom veils herself with her
sheet, and the digger passes the earth over his left shoulder to a
virgin who stands behind him and receives it in a corner of her robe.

Dust, again, which has been trodden on has mystic powers. In the
villages you may see little children after an elephant has passed
patting the marks of his feet in the dust and singing a song. Among
the Kunbis of Kolaba, when the women neighbours come to inspect a
newly-born child, they touch the soles of the mother's feet, as if
picking some dust off them, wave it over the child, and blow the dust
particularly into the air and partly over the baby. [60] In Thana,
when a mother goes out with a young child on her hip, if she cannot
get lamp-black to rub between its eyes, she takes dust off her left
foot and rubs it on the child's forehead. [61] So we read of the Isle
of Man--"If a person endowed with the Evil Eye has just passed by a
farmer's herd of cattle, and a calf has suddenly been seized with a
serious illness, the farmer hurries after the man with the Evil Eye
to get the dust from under his feet. If he objects, he may, as has
sometimes been very unceremoniously done, throw him down by force,
take off his shoes and scrape off the dust adhering to their soles,
and carry it back to throw over the calf. Even that is not always
necessary, as it appears to be quite enough if he takes up dust where
he of the Evil Eye has just trod." [62]

Earth, again, is regarded as a remedy for disease. I have seen people
in Ireland take a pinch of earth from the grave of a priest noted for
his piety, and drink it dissolved in water. People suffering from
a certain class of disease come to the tomb of the Saint Kadri at
Yemnur in Dharwar and smear their bodies with mud that they may be
cured of the disease. [63] There are numerous instances of the use
of earth as a poultice and an application for the cure of wounds and
sores among the savage tribes of Africa and elsewhere.

It is on much the same principle that among some tribes in India Mother
Earth is worshipped as a Kuladevata or household goddess and appealed
to in times of danger. The Hindu troopers at the battle of Kampti, at
the crisis of the engagement, took dust from their grooms and threw
it over their heads. At Surat in 1640, in fear of drought, Brahmans
went about carrying a board with earth on it on their heads. [64]
So wrestlers, when they are about to engage in a contest, rub earth
on their arms and legs and roll on the ground. As in the classical
legend of Antaeus, they believe that they derive strength from the
touch of Mother Earth.

The same principle, also, appears to be at the bottom of many similar
practices. Thus the Hindu always uses earth to purify his cooking
vessels, which he regards with peculiar respect. Mourners of the Jaina
creed on going home after a funeral rub their hands with earth and
water to remove the death impurity. In his daily bath the pious Hindu
rubs a little Ganges mud on his body. The Parsis cover the parings of
their hair and nails with a little earth so that demons may not enter
into them. The Muhammadan uses earth for the purpose of purification
when water is not procurable. For the same reason the ascetic rubs
his body with dust and ashes, which, as we shall see, is a potent
scarer of demons. Though here there is possibly another theory at
work at the same time. The practice was common to the Greek as well
as to the barbarian mysteries, and according to Mr. Lang, "the idea
clearly was that by cleaning away the filth plastered over the body
was symbolized the pure and free condition of the initiate." [65]

Lastly, it is perhaps on the same principle that many universal
burial customs have originated. The Muhammadan phrase for burial is
matti-dena, "to give earth." The unburied mariner asks Horace for
the gift of a little earth. We ourselves consider it a pious duty
to throw a little earth on the coffin of a departed friend. The
same custom prevails among many Hindu tribes. The Chambhars of Puna
throw handfuls of earth over the corpse; so do the Halal-khors; the
Lingayats of Dharwar follow the same practice. The Bani Israils at
a funeral stuff a handful of earth into a pillow which is put under
the head of the corpse. [66] The same conception was probably the
basis of the universal custom of funeral oblations. Even nowadays
in Scotland all the milk in the house is poured on the ground at
a death, and the same custom is familiar through many Hebrew and
Homeric instances. The same idea appears in the custom prevalent in
the Middle Ages in Germany, that when a nun renounced the world and
became civilly dead her relations threw dust on her arms. [67]



Earth-worship among the Dravidians.

Among the Dravidian races of Central India earth-worship prevails
widely. In Chota Nagpur the Oraons celebrate in spring the marriage
of the earth. The Dryad of the Sal tree (Shorea robusta), who controls
the rain, is propitiated with a sacrifice of fowls. Flowers of the Sal
tree are taken to the village and carried round from house to house
in a basket. The women wash the feet of the priest and do obeisance
to him. He dances with them and puts some flowers upon them and upon
the house. They first douse him with water as a means of bringing
the rain, and then refresh him with beer. [68]

In Hoshangabad, when the sowing is over, its completion is celebrated
by the Machandri Puja, or worship of Mother Earth, a ceremony intended
to invoke fertility. "Every cultivator does the worship himself,
with his family, servants, etc.; no Brahman need join in it. At the
edge of one of his fields intended for the spring harvest, he puts up
a little semicircle or three-sided wall of clods about a foot high,
meant to represent a hut. This is covered over with green Kans grass
(Imperata spontanea) to represent thatch. At the two ends of the hut
two posts of Palasa wood (Butea frondosa) are erected, with leaves
round the head like those which are put up at marriage. They are tied
to the thatch with red thread. In the centre of this little house,
which is the temple of Machandri, or Mother Earth, a little fire
is made, and milk placed on it to boil in a tiny earthen pot. It is
allowed to boil over as a sign of abundance. While this is going on,
the ploughmen, who are all collected in a field, drive their bullocks
at a trot, striking them wildly; it is the end of the year's labour for
the cattle. The cultivator meanwhile offers a little rice, molasses,
and saffron to Machandri, and then makes two tiny holes in the ground
to represent granaries; he drops a few grains in and covers them over;
this is a symbol of prayer, that his granary may be filled from the
produce of the land." Similar instances of symbolical magic will
constantly occur in connection with similar rites. Then he puts a
little saffron on the foreheads of the ploughman and the bullocks,
and ties a red thread round the horns of the cattle. The animals are
then let go, and the ploughmen run off at full speed across country,
scattering wheat boiled whole as a sign of abundance. This concludes
the rite, and every one returns home. [69]

Many similar usages prevail among the jungle tribes of South
Mirzapur. The Korwas consider Dharti Mata one of their chief
godlings. She lives in the village in the Deohar or general village
shrine under a Sal tree. In the month of Aghan (November-December)
she is worshipped with flowers and the offering of a goat. When she
is duly worshipped the crops prosper and there are no epidemics. The
Pataris and Majhwars also recognize her as a goddess, and worship her
in the month of Sawan (August). The local devil priest or Baiga offers
to her a goat, cock, and rich cakes (puri). She is also worshipped in
the cold weather before the grain and barley are sown, and again on the
threshing-floor before the winnowing begins. The flesh of the animals
is consumed by the males and unmarried girls; no grown-up girl or
married woman is allowed to touch the flesh. The Ghasiyas also believe
in Dharti Mata. She is their village goddess, and is presented with a
ram or a goat or cakes. The offering is made by the Baiga, for whom the
materials are provided by a general contribution in the village. The
Kharwars worship her at the village shrine before wood-cutting and
ploughing begin. In the month of Sawan (August) they do a special
service in her honour, known as the Hariyari Puja, or "worship of
greenery," at the time of transplanting the rice. In Aghan (November)
they do the Khar Puja, when they begin cutting thatching-grass
(khar). A cock, some Mahua (Bassia latifolia) and parched grain
are offered to her. All this is done by the Baiga, who receives
the offerings, and none but males are allowed to attend. Similarly
the Pankas worship her before sowing and harvesting the grain. They
and the Bhuiyars offer a pig and some liquor at the more important
agricultural seasons. The Kharwars sometimes call her Devi Dai, or
"Nurse Devi," and in times of trouble sprinkle rice and pulse in
her name on the ground. When the crops are being sown they release
a fowl as a scapegoat and pray--He Dharti Mahtari! Kusal mangala
rakhiyo! Harwah, bail, sab bachen rahen--"O Mother Earth! Keep in
prosperity and protect the ploughmen and the oxen." In much the same
spirit is the prayer of the peasant in Karnal to Mother Earth:--Sah
Badshah se surkhru rakhiye! Aur is men achchha naj de, to badshah ko
bhi paisa den, aur Sah ka bhi utar jawe--"Keep our rulers and bankers
contented! Grant us a plentiful yield! So shall we pay our revenue
and satisfy our banker!" [70]



Secrecy in Worship of Mother Earth.

We shall meet other instances in which secrecy is an essential
element in these rural rites. This condition prevails almost
universally. Notable, too, is the rule by which married women are
excluded from a share in offerings to the Earth goddess.



Thunder and Lightning.

As is natural, thunder and lightning are considered ill-omened. In the
old mythology lightning (vidyut) was one of the weapons of the Maruts,
and Parjanya was the deity who wielded the thunderbolt. Many legends
tell that the soul of the first man came to earth in the form of the
lightning. Thus Yama was the first man born of the thunderbolt, and he
first trod the path of death and became regent of the dead. Many are
the devices to scare the lightning demon. "During a thunderstorm it
was a Greek custom to put out the fire, and hiss and cheep with the
lips. The reason for the custom was explained by the Pythagoreans
to be that by acting thus you scared the spirits in Tartarus, who
were doubtless supposed to make the thunder and lightning. Similarly
some of the Australian blacks, who attribute thunder to the agency
of demons, and are much afraid of it, believe that they can dispel
it by chanting some particular words and breathing hard; and it is
a German superstition that the danger from a thunderstorm can be
averted by putting out the fire. During a thunderstorm the Sakai
of the Malay Peninsula run out of their houses and brandish their
weapons to drive away the demons; and the Esthonians in Russia fasten
scythes, edge upwards, over the door, that the demons, fleeing from the
thundering god, may cut their feet if they try to seek shelter in the
house. Sometimes the Esthonians, for a similar purpose, take all the
edged tools in the house and throw them out into the yard. It is said
that when the thunder is over, spots of blood are often found on the
scythes and knives, showing that the demons have been wounded by them.

"So when the Indians of Canada were asked by the Jesuit missionaries
why they planted their swords in the ground point upwards, they
replied that the spirit of the thunder was sensible, and that if he
saw the naked blades he would turn away and take good care not to
approach their huts. This is a fair example of the close similarity
of European superstitions to the superstitions of savages. In the
present case the difference happens to be slightly in favour of
the Indians, since they did not, like our European savages, delude
themselves into seeing the blood of demons on the swords. The reason
for the Greek and German custom of putting out the fire during a
thunderstorm is probably a wish to avoid attracting the attention of
the thunder demons. From a like motive some of the Australian blacks
hide themselves during a thunderstorm, and keep absolutely silent,
lest the thunder should find them out. Once during a storm a white
man called out in a loud voice to a black fellow, with whom he was
working, to put the saw under a log and seek shelter. He found that
the saw had been already put aside, and the black fellow was very
indignant at his master for speaking so loud. 'What for,' said he,
in great wrath--'what for speak so loud? Now um thunder hear and know
where um saw is.' And he went out and changed its hiding-place." [71]

All these precautions are well known to the people of Upper India. It
is a very common habit to throw out axes and knives to scare the
thunder demon, as we shall see is the case with the evil spirit of
hail. The rule of keeping quiet and muttering incantations under the
breath is also familiar to them. They are particularly careful lest a
first-born son may lean against anything and thus attract the demon
on himself. Thunder in a clear sky is much dreaded, an idea which
often appears in classical literature. [72]



Earthquakes.

Earthquakes are also naturally an object of terror. Pythagoras believed
that they were caused by dead men fighting beneath the earth. The
common explanation of these occurrences in India is that Varaha, or
the boar incarnation of Vishnu, who supports the earth, is changing the
burden of the world from one tusk to another. By another account it is
due to the great bull or elephant which supports the world. Derived
from a more advanced theological stage is the theory that the earth
shakes because it is over-burdened by the sins of mankind in this
evil age. Colonel Dalton describes how a rumbling (probably caused by
an earthquake) in the cave in which the bloodthirsty divinity of the
Korwas was supposed to dwell, caused extreme terror among them. [73]



River-worship.

High on the list of benevolent deities of Northern India are the
great rivers, especially the Ganges and the Jumna, which are known
respectively as Ganga Mai or "Mother Ganges" and Jumna ji or "Lady
Jumna."

Ganga, of course, in the mythologies has a divine origin. According
to one account she flows from the toe of Vishnu, and was brought down
from heaven by the incantations of the Saint Bhagiratha, to purify
the ashes of the sixty thousand sons of King Sagara, who had been
burnt up by the angry glance of Kapila, the sage. By another story
she descends in seven streams from Siva's brow. The descent of Ganga
disturbed the Saint Jahnu at his austerities, and in his anger he
drank up the stream; but he finally relented, and allowed the river to
flow from his ear. By a third account she is the daughter of Himavat,
the impersonation of the Himalayan range. Another curious tale, which
must have been based on some Indian tradition, is found in Plutarch
[74]--"The Ganges is a river of India, called so for the following
reason:--The nymph Kalauria bore to Indus a son of notable beauty, by
name Ganges, who in the ignorance of intoxication had connection with
his mother. But when later on he learned the truth from his nurse, in
the passion of his remorse he threw himself into the river Chliaros,
which was called Ganges after him." Another legend again is found in
the Mahabharata. [75] The wise Santanu goes to hunt on the banks of the
Ganges and finds a lovely nymph, of whom he becomes enamoured. She puts
him under the taboo that he is never to say anything to displease her,
an idea familiar in the well-known Swan Maiden cycle of folk-tales. She
bears him eight sons, of whom she throws seven into the river, and her
husband dares not remonstrate with her. When she is about to throw
away the last child he challenges her to tell him who she is and to
have pity upon him. She then tells him that she is Ganga personified,
and that the seven sons are the divine Vasavas, who by being thrown
into the river are liberated from the curse of human life. The eighth
remains among men as Dyaus, the sky, in the form of the eunuch Bhishma.

It is remarkable that, as in Plutarch's legend, the Jumna is connected
with a tale of incest. Yami or Yamuna was the daughter of the Sun
and sister of Yama, the god of death. They were the first human pair
and the progenitors of the race of men. It is needless to say that
similar traditions of brother and sister marriage are found in Egypt,
Peru and elsewhere. Yamuna, according to the modern story told on
her banks, was unmarried, and hence some people will not drink from
her because she was not purified by the marriage rite, and so the
water is heavy and indigestible. Another tale tells how Balarama,
in a state of inebriety, called upon her to come to him that he
might bathe in her waters; and as she did not heed, he, in his rage,
seized his ploughshare weapon, dragged her to him, and compelled her
to follow him whithersoever he wandered through the forest. The river
then assumed a human form and besought his forgiveness; but it was
some time before she could appease the angry hero. This has been taken
to represent the construction of some ancient canal from the river;
but Mr. Growse shows that this idea is incorrect. [76]

The worship of Mother Ganges is comparatively modern. She is
mentioned only twice in the Rig Veda, and then without any emphasis
or complementary epithet. Apparently at this time the so-called Aryan
invaders had not reached her banks. [77] There are numerous temples to
Ganga all along her banks, of which those at Hardwar, Garhmuktesar,
Soron, Mathura, Prayag, and Benares are perhaps the most important
in Upper India. She has her special festival on the seventh of the
month of Baisakh (May-June), which is celebrated by general bathing
all along the banks of the sacred stream. Ganges water is carried
long distances into the interior, and is highly valued for its use
in sacrifices, as a remedy, a form of stringent oath, and a viaticum
for the dying. The water of certain holy wells in Scotland [78]
and elsewhere enjoys a similar value.

But it is by bathing in the sacred stream at the full moon, during
eclipses, and on special festivals that the greatest efficacy is
assured. On these occasions an opportunity is taken for making
oblations to the sainted dead whose ashes have been consigned to
her waters. Bathing is throughout India regarded as one of the chief
means of religious advancement. The idea rests on a metaphor--as the
body is cleansed from physical pollution, so the soul is purified from
sin. The stock case of the merit of this religious bathing is that of
King Trisanku, "he who had committed the three deadly sins," who is
also known as Satyavrata. The legend appears in various forms. By one
story he tried to win his way to heaven by a great sacrifice which his
priest, Vasishtha, declined to perform. He then applied to Visvamitra,
the rival Levite, who agreed to assist him. He was opposed by the
sons of Vasishtha, whom he consumed to ashes. Finally, Trisanku was
admitted to heaven, but he was forced by the angry saint to hang for
ever with his head downwards. By another account he committed the
deadly sins of running away with the wife of a citizen, offending
his father, and killing in a time of famine Kamadhenu, the wondrous
cow of Vashishtha. By another story he killed a cow and a Brahman
and married his step-mother. At any rate he and the wicked Raja Vena
were the types of violent sinners in the early legends; possibly they
represent a revolt against the pretensions of the Brahmans. At length
the sage Visvamitra took pity upon him, and having collected water from
all the sacred places in the world, washed him clean of his offences.



Springs Connected with the Ganges.

Many famous springs are supposed to have underground connection with
the Ganges. Such is that of Changdeo in Khandesh, of which Abul Fazl
gives an account, and that at Jahanpur in Alwar. [79] It was at the
village of Bastali in the Karnal District that the sage Vyasa lived,
and there the Ganges flowed into his well to save him the trouble
of going to the river to bathe, bringing with her his loin cloth and
water-pot to convince him that she was really the Ganges herself. [80]



Sacred River Junctions.

When two sacred rivers combine their waters the junction (Sangama)
is regarded as of peculiar sanctity. Such is the famous junction
of the Ganges and Jumna at Prayag, the modern Allahabad, which is
presided over by the guardian deity Veni Madhava. The same virtue,
but in a lesser degree, attaches to the junction of the Ganges and the
Son or Gandak. In the Himalayas cairns are raised at the junction of
three streams, and every passer-by adds a stone. At the confluence of
the Gaula and Baliya rivers in the Hills there is said to be a house
of gold, but unfortunately it is at present invisible on account of
some potent enchantment. [81] Bathing in such rivers is not only
a propitiation for sin, but is also efficacious for the cure of
disease. Even the wicked Raja Vena, who was, as we have seen, a type
of old-world impiety, was cured, like Naaman the Syrian, of his leprosy
by bathing in the Saraswati, the lost river of the Indian desert.

Even minor streams have their sanctity and their legends. The
course of the Sarju was opened by a Rishi, from which time dates
the efficacy of a pilgrimage to Bagheswar. [82] Raja Rantideva was
such a pious king and offered up so many cattle in sacrifice, that
his blood formed the river Chambal. Anasuya, the wife of Atri, was a
daughter of the Rishi Daksha. She did penance for ten thousand years,
and so was enabled to create the river Mandakini, and thus saved the
land from famine. Her worship is localized at Ansuyaji in the Banda
District. The sacred portion of the Phalgu is said occasionally to
flow with milk, though Dr. Buchanan was not fortunate enough to
meet anyone who professed to have witnessed the occurrence. [83]
The Narmada was wooed by the river Son, who proved faithless to her,
and was beguiled by the Johila, a rival lady stream, who acted the
part of the barber's wife at the wedding. The Narmada, enraged at her
lover's perfidy, tore her way through the marble rocks at Jabalpur,
and has worn the willow ever since. [84] She is now the great rival
of Mother Ganges. While in the case of the latter only the Northern
(or as it is called the Kasi or Benares bank) is efficacious for
bathing or for the cremation of the dead, the Narmada is free from
any restriction of the kind. The same is the case with the Son, at
least during its course through the District of Mirzapur. By some
the sanctity of the Narmada is regarded as superior even to that of
the Ganges. While according to some authorities it is necessary to
bathe in the Ganges in order to obtain forgiveness of sins, the same
result is attained by mere contemplation of the Narmada. According
to the Bhavishya Purana the sanctity of the Ganges will cease on the
expiration of five thousand years of the Kali Yuga, or the fourth age
of the world, which occurred in 1895, and the Narmada will take its
place. The Ganges priests, however, repudiate this calumny, and it
may safely be assumed that Mother Ganges will not abandon her primacy
in the religious world of Hinduism without a determined struggle. [85]



Ill-omened Streams.

But all rivers are not beneficent. Worst of all is the dread Vaitarani,
the river of death, which is localized in Orissa and pours its stream
of ordure and blood on the confines of the realm of Yama. Woe to the
wretch who in that dread hour lacks the aid of the Brahman and the
holy cow to help him to the other shore. The name of one stream is
accursed in the ears of all Hindus, the hateful Karamnasa, which
flows for part of its course through the Mirzapur District. Even
to touch it destroys the merit of works of piety, for such is the
popular interpretation of its name. No plausible reason for the evil
reputation of this particular stream has been suggested except that it
may have been in early times the frontier between the invading Aryans
and the aborigines, and possibly the scene of a campaign in which
the latter were victorious. The Karama tree is, however, the totem
of the Dravidian Kharwars and Manjhis, who live along its banks, and
it is perhaps possible that this may be the real origin of the name,
and that its association with good works (karma) was an afterthought.

The legend of this ill-omened stream is associated with that of the
wicked king Trisanku, to whom reference has already been made. When
the sage Visvamitra collected water from all the sacred streams of the
world, it fell burdened with the monarch's sins into the Karamnasa,
which has remained defiled ever since. By another account, the sinner
was hung up between heaven and earth as a punishment for his offences,
and from his body drips a baneful moisture which still pollutes the
water. Similar legends of the origin of rivers are not wanting in
folk-lore. An Austrian story tells that all rivers take their origin
from the tears shed by a giant's wife as she laments his death. [86]
The same idea of a river springing from a corpse appears in one of the
tales of Somadeva and in the twelfth novel of the Gesta Romanorum. [87]
Nowadays no Hindu with any pretensions to personal purity will drink
from this accursed stream, and at its fords many low caste people make
their living by conveying on their shoulders their more scrupulous
brethren across its waters.



Origin of River-worship.

It is perhaps worth considering the possible origin of this
river-worship. Far from being peculiar to Hinduism, it is common
to the whole Aryan world. The prayer of the patient Odysseus [88]
to the river after his sufferings in the deep is heard in almost the
same language at every bathing Ghat in Upper India, from the source
of Mother Ganges to where she joins the ocean. The river is always
flowing, always being replenished by its tributary streams, and
hence comes to be regarded as a thing of life, an emblem of eternal
existence, a benevolent spirit which washes away the sins of humanity
and supplies in a tropical land the chief needs of men. In a thirsty
land the mighty stream of the Ganges would naturally arouse feelings
of respect and adoration, not so much perhaps to those living on its
banks and ever blessed by its kindly influence, as to the travel-worn
pilgrim from the sandy steppes of Rajasthan or the waterless valleys
of the Central Indian hills. We can hardly doubt that from this
point of view Mother Ganges has been a potent factor in the spread
of Hinduism. She became the handmaid of the only real civilization
of which Hindustan could boast, and from her shrines bands of eager
missionaries were ever starting to sow the seeds of the worship of
the gods in the lands of the unbeliever.

The two great rivers of Upper India were, again, associated with
that land of fable and mystery, the snowy range which was the home of
the gods and the refuge of countless saints and mystics, who in its
solitudes worked out the enigma of the world for the modern Hindu. They
ended in the great ocean, the final home of the ashes of the sainted
dead. Even the partially Hinduised Dravidian tribes of the Vindhyan
Plateau bring the bones of their dead relations to mingle with those
of the congregation of the faithful, who have found their final rest in
its waters since the world was young. The Ganges and the streams which
swell its flood thus come to be associated with the deepest beliefs of
the race, and it is hard to exaggerate its influence as a bond of union
between the nondescript entities which go to make up modern Hinduism.

Again, much of the worship of rivers is connected with the propitiation
of the water-snakes, demons and goblins, with which in popular belief
many of them are infested. Such were Kaliya, the great black serpent
of the Jumna, which attacked the infant Krishna; the serpent King
of Nepal, Karkotaka, who dwelt in the lake Nagarasa when the divine
lotus of Adi Buddha floated on its surface. [89] At the temple of
Triyugi Narayana in Garhwal is a pool said to be full of snakes of
a yellow colour which come out at the feast of the Nagpanchami to
be worshipped. The Gardevi, or river sprite of Garhwal, is very
malignant, and is the ghost of a person who has met his death by
suicide, violence, or accident. [90] These malignant water demons
naturally infest dangerous rapids and whirlpools, and it is necessary
to propitiate them. Thus we learn that on the river Tapti in Berar
timber floated down sometimes disappears in a subterraneous cavity;
so before trying the navigation there the Gonds sacrifice a goat to
propitiate the river demon. [91]

Another variety of these demons of water is the Naga and his wife the
Nagin, of whom we shall hear more in connection with snake-worship. In
the Sikandar, a tributary of the Son, is a deep water-hole where no
one dares to go. The water is said to reach down as far as Patala,
or the infernal regions. Here live the Naga and the Nagin. In the
middle of the river is a tree of the Kualo variety, and when ghosts
trouble the neighbourhood an experienced Ojha or sorcerer is called,
who bores holes in the bark of the tree and there shuts up the noxious
ghosts, which then come under the rule of the Naga and Nagin, who
are the supreme rulers of the ghostly band.

Another Mirzapur river, the Karsa, is infested by a Deo, or demon,
known as Jata Rohini, or "Rohini of the matted locks." He is worshipped
by the Baiga priest to ensure abundant rain and harvests and to keep
off disease. The Baiga catches a fish which he presents to the Deo,
but if any one but a Baiga dares to drink there, the water bubbles
up and the demon sweeps him away.

Like this Deo of Mirzapur, most of these water demons are malignant
and wait until some wretched creature enters their domains, when they
seize and drag him away. Some of them can even catch the reflection
of a person as he looks into water, and hence savages all over the
world are very averse to looking into deep water-holes. Thus, the Zulus
believe that there is a beast in the water which can seize the shadow
of a man, and men are forbidden to lean over and look into a deep pool,
lest their shadow should be taken away. There is a tale of the Godiva
cycle in which a woman at Arles is carried off by a creature called a
Drac and made to act as nurse to the demon's child. [92] In Scotland
water-holes are known as "the cups of the fairies." And there is the
Trinity well in Ireland, into which no one can gaze with impunity,
and from which the river Boyne once burst forth in pursuit of a lady
who had insulted it. [93]

In India, also, dangerous creatures of this kind abound. There is in
Mirzapur a famous water-hole, known as Barewa. A herdsman was once
grazing his buffaloes near the place, when the waters rose in anger
and carried off him and his cattle. Nowadays the drowned buffaloes
have taken the shape of a dangerous demon known as Bhainsasura, or the
buffalo demon, who now in company with the Naga and the Nagin lives in
this place, and no one dares to fish there until he has propitiated
the demons with the offering of a fowl, eggs, and a goat. Another
kind of water demon attacks fishermen; it appears in the form of a
turban which fixes itself to his hook and increases in length as he
tries to drag it to the shore.

There is, again, the water-horse, with whom we are familiar in the
"Arabian Nights," where he consorts with mares of mortal race. This
creature is known in Kashmir as the Zalgur. [94] The water-bull of
Manxland is a creature of the same class, and they constantly appear
through the whole range of Celtic folk-lore. [95] Such again is the
Hydra of Greek mythology, and the Teutonic Nikke or Nixy, who has
originated the legend of the Flying Dutchman, and in the shape of Old
Nick is the terror of sailors. Like him is the Kelpie of Scotland,
a water-horse who is believed to carry off the unwary by sudden floods
and devour them. Of the same kindred is the last of the dragons which
St. Patrick chained up in a lake on the Galtee Mountains in Tipperary.

Many pools, again, in Northern India are infested by a creature known
as the Burna, who is the ghost of a drowned person. He is always on
the look-out for someone to take his place, so he drags in people
who come to fish in his domains. [96] He is particularly feared by
the Magahiya Doms, a caste of degraded nomadic gipsies who infest
Gorakhpur and Behar.

Many of these demons, such as the Naga and Nagin, have kingdoms and
palaces stored with treasure under the water, and there they entice
young men and maidens, who occasionally come back to their mortal
kindred and tell them of the wonders which they have seen. These are
akin to Morgan la Fay of the Orlando Innamorato, La Motte Fouque's
Undine, and they often merge into the mermaid of the Swan Maiden type
of tale, who marries a mortal lover and leaves him at last because in
his folly he breaks some taboo which is a condition of the permanence
of their love.

But besides these dragons which infest rivers and lakes there are
special water gods, many of which are the primitive water monster in
a developed form. Such is Mahishasura, who is the Mahishoba of Berar,
and like the Bhainsasura already mentioned, infests great rivers and
demands propitiation. According to the early mythology this Mahisha,
the buffalo demon, was killed by Karttikeya at the Krauncha pass
in the Himalaya, which was opened by the god to make a passage for
the deities to visit the plains from Kailasa. The Kols, again, have
Naga Era, who presides over tanks, wells, and any stagnant water,
and Garha Era, the river goddess. "They," as Col. Dalton remarks,
"are frequently and very truly denounced as the cause of sickness
and propitiated with sacrifices to spare their victims." [97]



Floods and Drowning People.

Floods are, as we have seen, regarded as produced by demoniacal
agency. In the Panjab, when a village is in danger of floods, the
headman makes an offering of a cocoa-nut and a rupee to the flood
demon. As in many other places the cocoa-nut represents the head of a
human victim, which in olden times was the proper offering. He holds
the offering in his hand and stands in the water. When the flood rises
high enough to wash the offering from his hand, it is believed that the
waters will abate. Some people throw seven handfuls of boiled wheat and
sugar into the stream and distribute the remainder among the persons
present. Some take a male buffalo, a horse, or a ram, and after boring
the right ear of the victim, throw it into the water. If the victim be
a horse, it should be saddled before it is offered. A short time ago,
when the town and temples at Hardwar were in imminent danger during
the Gohna flood, the Brahmans poured vessels of milk, rice and flowers
into the waters of Mother Ganges and prayed to her to spare them.

In the same connection may be noticed the very common prejudice
which exists in India against saving drowning people. This is
familiar in Western folk-lore. It is supposed to be alluded to in
the "Twelfth Night" of Shakespeare, and the plot of Sir W. Scott's
"Pirate" turns upon it. Numerous instances of the same idea have been
collected by Dr. Tylor and Mr. Conway. [98] Dr. Tylor considers that
it is based upon the belief that to snatch a victim from the very
clutches of the water spirit is a rash defiance of the deity which
would hardly pass unavenged. Mr. Black [99] accounts for the idea on
the ground that the spirits of people who have died a violent death
may return to earth if they can find a substitute; hence the soul
of the last dead man is insulted or injured by anyone preventing
another from taking his place. This last theory is very common in
Western folk-lore. Thus Lady Wilde writes from Ireland [100]:--"It
is believed that the spirit of the dead last buried has to watch
in the churchyard until another corpse is laid there, or to perform
menial offices in the spirit world, such as carrying wood and water,
till the next spirit comes from earth. They are also sent on messages
to earth, chiefly to announce the coming death of some relative, and
at this they are glad, for their own time of peace and rest will come
at last." So in Argyllshire, [101] it was believed that the spirit of
the last interred kept watch around the churchyard until the arrival
of another occupant, to whom its custody was transmitted. This, as we
shall see in connection with the custom of barring the return of the
ghost, quite agrees with popular feeling in India, and furnishes an
adequate explanation of the prejudice against rescuing the drowning
and incurring the wrath of the former ghost, who is thus deprived of
the chance of release by making over his functions to a substitute.



Khwaja Khizr, the God of Water.

But besides these water spirits and local river gods, the Hindus
have a special god of water, Khwaja Khizr, whose Muhammadan title
has been Hinduised into Raja Kidar, or as he is called in Bengal,
Kawaj or Pir Badr. This is a good instance of a fact, which will be
separately discussed elsewhere, that the Hindus are always ready to
annex the deities and beliefs of other races.

According to the Sikandarnama, Khwaja Khizr was a saint of Islam,
who presided over the well of immortality, and directed Alexander of
Macedon in his vain search for the blessed waters. The fish is his
vehicle, and hence its image is painted over the doors of both Hindus
and Muhammadans, while it became the family crest of the late royal
house of Oudh. Among Muhammadans a prayer is said to Khwaja Khizr at
the first shaving of a boy, and a little boat is launched in a river
or tank in his honour. The same rite is performed at the close of the
rainy season, when it is supposed to have some connection with the
saint Ilisha, that is to say the prophet Elisha. Elisha, by the way,
apparently from the miraculous way in which his bones revived the
dead, has come down in modern times to Italy as a worker of miracles,
and is known to the Tuscan peasant as Elisaeus. [102]

Another legend represents Khwaja Khizr to be of the family of Noah, who
is also regarded by rural Muhammadans as a water deity in connection
with the flood. Others connect him with St. George, the patron saint
of England, who is the Ghergis of Syria, and according to Muhammadan
tradition was sent in the time of the Prophet to convert the King of
Maushil, and came to life after three successive martyrdoms. Others
identify him with Thammuz, Tauz, or Adonis. Others call him the
companion of Moses, and the commentator Husain says he was a general
in the army of Zu'l Qarnain, "he of the horns," or Alexander the
Great. [103]

Out of this jumble of all the mythologies has been evolved the Hindu
god of water, the patron deity of boatmen, who is invoked by them to
prevent their boats from being broken or submerged, or to show them
the way when they have lost it. He is worshipped by burning lamps,
feeding Brahmans, and by setting afloat on a village pond a little raft
of grass with a lighted lamp placed upon it. This, it may be noted,
is one of the many ways in which the demon of evil or disease is sent
away in many parts of the world. [104] Another curious function is,
in popular belief, allotted to Khwaja Khizr, that of haunting markets
in the early morning and fixing the rates of grain, which he also
protects from the Evil Eye. [105]



The Folk-lore of Wells.

In this connection some of the folk-lore of wells may be mentioned. The
digging of a well is a duty requiring infinite care and caution. The
work should begin on Sunday, and on the previous Saturday night little
bowls of water are placed round the proposed site, and the one which
dries up least marks the best site for the well, which reminds us
of the fleece of Gideon. The circumference is then marked and they
commence to dig, leaving the central lump of earth intact. They cut
out this clod of earth last and in the Panjab call it Khwajaji,
perhaps after Khwaja Khizr, the water god, worship it and feed
Brahmans. If it breaks it is a bad omen, and a new site will be
selected a week afterwards. Further east when a man intends to sink a
well he inquires from the Pandit an auspicious moment for commencing
the work. When that hour comes he worships Gauri, Ganesa, Sesha Naga,
the world serpent, the earth, the spade and the nine planets. Then
facing in the direction in which, according to the directions of the
Pandit, Sesha Naga is supposed to be lying at the time, he cuts five
clods with the spade. When the workmen reach the point at which the
wooden well-curb has to be fixed, the owner smears the curb in five
places with red powder, and tying Dub grass and a sacred thread to it,
lowers it into its place. A fire sacrifice is done, and Brahmans are
fed. When the well is ready, cow-dung, milk, cow urine, butter and
Ganges water, leaves of the sacred Tulasi and honey are thrown in
before the water is used.

But no well is considered lucky until the Salagrama, or spiral ammonite
sacred to Vishnu, is solemnly wedded to the Tulasi or basil plant,
representing the garden which the well is intended to water. The rite
is done according to the standard marriage formula: the relations
are assembled; the owner of the garden represents the bridegroom,
while a kinsman of his wife stands for the bride. Gifts are given to
Brahmans, a feast is held in the garden, and both it and the well
may then be used without danger. All this is on the same lines as
many of the emblematical marriage rites which in other places are
intended to promote the growth of vegetation. [106]

In Sirsa they have a legend that long ago, in time of drought, a
headman of a village went to a Faqir to beg him to pray for rain, and
promised him his daughter in marriage if his prayer was successful. The
rain came, but the headman would not perform his promise, and the
Faqir cursed the land, so that all the water became brackish. But
he so far relented as to permit sweet water to flow on condition
that it was given to all men free of cost. In one village the spring
became at once brackish when a water-rate was levied, and turned sweet
again when the tax was remitted. In another the brackish water became
sweet at the intercession of a Faqir. In the Panjab there is a class
of Faqirs who are known as Sunga, or "sniffers," because they can
smell out sweet water underground. They work on much the same lines
as their brethren in England, who discover springs by means of the
divining rod. [107] In one of the tales of Somadeva we have a doll
which can produce water at will, which is like Lucian's story of the
pestle that was sent to fetch water. When the Egyptian sorcerer was
away his pupil tried to perform the trick, but he did not know the
charm for making the water stop, and the house was flooded. Then he
chopped the pestle in two, but that only made matters worse, for both
halves set to bring the water. This is somewhat like the magic quern
of European folk-lore. [108]

The water of many wells is efficacious in the cure of disease. In
Ireland, the first water drawn from a sacred well after midnight
on May Eve is considered an effective antidote to witchcraft. [109]
In India many wells have a reputation for curing barrenness, which is
universally regarded as a disease, the work of supernatural agency. In
India the water of seven wells is collected on the night of the Diwali,
or feast of lamps, and barren women bathe in it as a means of procuring
children. In a well in Orissa the priests throw betel-nuts into the
mud, and barren women scramble for them. Those who find them will have
their desire for children gratified before long. [110] For the same
reason, after childbirth the mother is taken to worship the village
well. She walks round it in the course of the sun and smears the
platform with red lead, which is probably a survival of the original
rite of blood sacrifice. In Dharwar the child of a Brahman is taken
in the third month to worship water at the village well. [111] In
Palamau the Sarhul feast is observed in the month of Baisakh (May),
when dancing and singing goes on and the headmen entertain their
tenants. The whole village is purified, and then they proceed to the
village well, which is cleaned out, while the village Baiga does a
sacrifice and every one smears the platform with red lead. No one
may draw water from the well during the Sarhul. [112] Hydrophobia all
over Northern India is cured by looking down seven wells in succession.

In the Panjab the sites of deserted wells are discovered by driving
about a herd of goats, which are supposed to lie down at the place
where search should be made. Some people discover wells by dreams;
others, as the Luniyas, a caste of navvies, are said, like the Faqirs
in Sirsa, to be able to discover by smell where water is likely to
be found. I was once shown a well in the Muzaffarnagar district into
which a Faqir once spat, and for a long time after the visit of the
holy man it ran with excellent milk. The supply had ceased, I regret
to say, before my visit. The well of life which can survive even the
ashes of a corpse is found throughout the Indian folk-tales. [113]



Sacred Wells.

Sacred wells, of course, abound all over the country. Many of them are
supposed to have underground connection with the Ganges or some other
holy river. Many of these are connected with the wanderings of Rama
and Sita after their exile from Ayodhya. Sita's kitchen (Sita ki rasoi)
is shown in various places, as at Kanauj and Deoriya in the Allahabad
District. [114] Her well is on the Bindhachal hill in Mirzapur, and
is a famous resort of pilgrims. There is another near Monghyr, and
a third in the Sultanpur District in Oudh. The Monghyr well has been
provided with a special legend. Sita was suspected of faithlessness
during her captivity in the kingdom of Ravana. She threw herself into
a pit filled with fire, where the hot spring now flows, and came out
purified. When Dr. Buchanan visited the place they had just invented
a new legend in connection with it. Shortly before, it was said, the
water became so cool as to allow bathing in it. The governor prohibited
the practice, as it made the water so dirty that Europeans could not
drink it. "But on the very day when the bricklayers began to build a
wall in order to exclude the bathers, the water became so hot that no
one could dare to touch it, so that the precaution being unnecessary,
the work of the infidels was abandoned." [115]

At Benares are the Manikarnika well, which was produced by an ear-ring
of Siva falling into it, and the Jnanavapi, to drink of which brings
wisdom. The well at Sihor in Rajputana is sacred to Gautama, and is
considered efficacious in the cure of various disorders. At Sarkuhiya
in the Basti District is a well where Buddha struck the ground with his
arrow and caused water to flow, as Moses did from the rock. There are,
again, many wells which give omens. In the Middle Ages people used to
resort to the fountain of Baranta in the Forest of Breclieu and fling
water from a tankard on a stone close by, an act which was followed by
thunder, lightning and rain. [116] At a Cornish well people used to
go and inquire about absent friends. If the person "be living and in
health, the still, quiet waters of the well pit will instantly bubble
or boil up as a pot of clear, crystalline water; if sick, foul and
puddled water; if dead, it will neither boil nor bubble up, nor alter
its colour or stillness." [117] Many other instances of the same fact
might be given. So in Kashmir, in one well water rushes out when a
sheep or goat is sacrificed; another runs if the ninth of any month
happen to fall on Friday; in a third, those who have any special needs
throw in a nut; if it floats, it is considered an omen of success;
if it sinks, it is considered adverse. At Askot, in the Himalaya,
there is a holy well which is used for divination of the prospects
of the harvest. If the spring in a given time fills the brass vessel
to the brim into which the water falls, there will be a good season;
if only a little water comes, drought may be expected. [118]



Hot Springs.

Hot springs are naturally regarded as sacred. We have already noticed
an example in the case of Sita's well at Monghyr. The holy tract in
the hills, known as Vaishnava Kshetra, contains several hot springs,
in which Agni, the fire god, resides by the permission of Vishnu. The
hot springs at Jamnotri are occupied by the twelve Rishis who followed
Mahadeva from Lanka. [119]



Waterfalls.

Waterfalls, naturally uncommon in the flat country of Upper India, are,
as might have been expected, regarded with veneration, and the deity
of the fall is carefully propitiated. The visitor to the magnificent
waterfall in which the river Chandraprabha pours its waters over
a sheer precipice three hundred feet high in its descent from the
Vindhyan plateau to the Gangetic valley, will learn that it is visited
by women, particularly those who are desirous of offspring. On a
rock beside the fall they lay a simple offering consisting of a few
glass bangles, ear ornaments made of palm leaves, and cotton waist
strings. In Garhwal there is a waterfall known as Basodhara, which
ceases to flow when it is looked at by an impure person. [120]



Sacred Lakes.

There are also numerous lakes which are considered sacred and visited
by pilgrims. Such is Pushkar, or Pokhar, the lake par excellence,
in Rajputana. One theory of the sanctity of this lake is that it was
originally a natural depression and enlarged at a subsequent date
by supernatural agency. "Every Hindu family of note has its niche
for purposes of devotion. Here is the only temple in India sacred to
Brahma, the Creator. While he was creating the world he kindled the
sacred fire; but his wife Sawantari was nowhere to be found, and as
without a woman the rites could not proceed, a Gujar girl took her
place. Sawantari on her return was so enraged at the indignity that
she retired to the height close by, known as Ratnagiri, or 'the hill
of gems,' where she disappeared. On this spot a fountain gushed out,
still called by her name, close to which is her shrine, not the least
attractive in the precincts of Pokhar." Like many of these lakes,
such as are known in Great Britain as the Devil's Punch-bowls, Pokhar
has its dragon legend, and one of the rocks near the lake is known as
Nagpahar, or "Dragon Hill." There is a similar legend attached to the
Lonar Lake in Berar, which was then the den of the giant Lonasura,
whom Vishnu destroyed. [121]

Most famous of all the lakes is Mana Sarovara in Tibet, about which
many legends are told. "The lake of Mana Sarovara was formed from the
mind of Brahma, and thence derived its name. There dwell also Mahadeva
and the gods, and thence flow the Sarju and other female rivers,
and the Satadru (Satlaj) and other male rivers. When the earth of
Mana Sarovara touches any one's body, or when any one bathes therein,
he shall go to the Paradise of Brahma; and he who drinks its waters
shall go to the Heaven of Siva, and shall be released from the sins
of a hundred births; and even the beast which bears the name of Mana
Sarovara shall go to the Paradise of Brahma." It is said that the
sons of Brahma, Marichi, Vasishtha and the rest of the sages proceeded
to the north of Himalaya and performed austerities on Mount Kailasa,
where they saw Siva and Parvati and remained for twelve years absorbed
in meditation and prayer. There was very little rain and water was
scanty. In their distress they appealed to Brahma. He asked them what
their wishes might be. The Rishis replied, "We are absorbed in devotion
on Kailasa, and must always go thence to bathe in the Mandakini river;
make a place for us to bathe in." Then Brahma, by a mental effort,
formed the holy lake of Manasa, and the Rishis worshipped the golden
Linga which rose from the midst of the waters of the lake. [122]

So the Naini Tal Lake is sacred to Kali in one of her numerous
forms. The goddess Sambra, the tutelary deity of the Chauhan Rajputs,
converted a dense forest into a plain of gold and silver. But they,
dreading the strife which such a possession would excite, begged the
goddess to retract her gift, and she gave them the present lake of
salt. [123] The people say that the Katur valley was once a great lake
where lived a Rakshasa named Rana who used to devour the inhabitants
of the neighbouring villages. Indra's elephant Airavata descended
to earth at the place now known after him by the name Hathi China,
and with his mighty tusks he burst the embankment of the lake and
the water flowed away, so that the goddess Bhrawari, whose shrine is
there to this day, was enabled to destroy the monster.



The Lake of the Fairy Gifts.

In the Chanda District of the Central Provinces is the lake of Taroba
or Tadala, which is connected with an interesting series of folk-lore
legends. A marriage procession was once passing the place, and, finding
no water, a strange old man suggested that the bride and bridegroom
should join in digging for a spring. They laughingly consented,
and after removing a little earth a clear fountain gushed forth. As
they were all drinking with delight the waters rose, and spreading
over the land, overwhelmed the married pair. "But fairy hands soon
constructed a temple in the depths, where the spirits of the drowned
are supposed to dwell. Afterwards, on the lake side, a palm tree grew
up, which appeared only during the day, sinking into the earth at
twilight. One day a rash pilgrim seated himself on the tree and was
borne into the skies, where the flames of the sun consumed him." This
part of the story reads like a genuine solar myth. "The palm tree then
shrivelled away into dust, and in its place appeared an image of the
spirit of the lake, which is worshipped under the name of Taroba, or
'the palm-tree deity.' Formerly, at the call of pilgrims, all necessary
vessels rose from the lake, and after being washed were returned to
the waters. But an evil-minded man at last took those he had received
to his house, and from that day the mystic provision wholly ceased."

This legend of the fairy gifts which are lost through the selfish
greed of some mean-spirited man has been admirably illustrated by
Mr. Hartland. It is also told of the Amner Lake in Elichpur, of the
Karsota Lake in Mirzapur, and of many other places. [124]

Many of these lakes possess subaqueous palaces beneath their
waters. At Cudden Point in Cornwall, the unhallowed revelry of a
party of roisterers is heard from under the waves. [125] In one
of Somadeva's stories the hero dives after a lady, and comes on a
splendid temple of Siva; Sattvasila falls into the sea and finds a
city with palaces of gold, supported on pillars of jewels; Yasahketu
plunges into the sea and finds a city gleaming with palaces that
had bright pillars of precious stone, walls flashing with gold,
and latticed windows of pearl. So in the sixth fable of the second
chapter of the Hitopadesa, the hero dives into the water and sees a
princess seated on a couch in a palace of gold, waited on by youthful
sylphs. The sage Mandakarni alarmed the gods by his austerities,
and Indra sent five of his fairies to beguile him. They succeeded,
and now dwell in a house beneath the waters of the lake called from
them Panchapsaras. At the Lake of Taroba, the tale of which has been
already told, on quiet nights the country people hear faint sounds
of drum and trumpet passing round the lake, and old men say that in
one dry year when the waters sank low, golden pinnacles of a fairy
temple were seen glittering in the depths. This is exactly the legend
of Lough Neagh, immortalized by Thomas Moore.



The Shahgarh Lake.

A lake at Shahgarh in the Bareilly District is the seat of another
legend which appears widely in folk-lore. When Raja Vena ruled the
land, he, like Buddha, struck by the inequality of human life, retired
with his young wife Sundari or Ketaki to live like a peasant. One
day she went to the lake to draw water, and she had naught but a jar
of unbaked clay and a thread of untwisted cotton. In the innocence of
her heart she stepped into the lake, but the gods preserved her. After
a time she wearied of this sordid life, and one morning she arrayed
herself in her queenly robes and jewels, and going to the lake, as
usual, stepped on the lotus petals. When she plunged in her jar it
melted away, and the untwisted thread broke, and she herself sank
beneath the water. But she was saved, and thenceforward learned the
evil of vanity and pride in riches, and the strength of innocence
and a pure mind. And the lotus pool, in honour of the good queen
Sundari, was called by all men the Rani Tal, or "the Queen's Tank,"
and is to be seen to this day just outside the town of Kabar, though
the lotus flowers have perished and the castle of Shahgarh has sunk
into dust. [126]

The same tale is told in Southern India of Renuka, the mother of
Parasurama. In its Western form it is told in Switzerland of a pious
boy who served a monastery, and in his innocence was able to carry
water in a sieve without spilling a single drop. [127]



Other Sacred Tanks.

The number of lakes and tanks associated with some legend, or endued
with some special sanctity of their own, is legion. Thus, the tank
at Chakratiratha, near Nimkhar, marks the spot where the Chakra or
discus of Vishnu fell during his contest with Asuras. [128] That
near the Satopant glacier is said to be fathomless, and no bird can
fly over it. Bhotiyas presents offerings to the lake, requesting the
water spirit to keep the passes open and aid them in their dangerous
journeys. As they are denied entrance into the temple of Badarinath,
it has for them all the virtue of Badarinath itself. [129] Another
famous tank is that at Amritsar, "the Lake of Immortality." A holy
woman once took pity on a leper, and carried him to the banks of the
tank. As he lay there a crow swooped into the water and came out a
dove as white as snow. The leper saw the miracle, bathed, and was
healed. The woman on her return could not recognize her friend, and
withdrew in horror from his embraces. But the Guru Ram Das came and
explained matters, and the grateful pair assisted him in embellishing
the tank, which has become the centre of the Sikh religion. The Tadag
Tal in the Hills is sacred to Bhim Sen, and the curious fish which
it contains are said to be lice from the body of the hero.

One day a Brahman was passing the Mandkalla tank and saw a marriage
party sitting before the wedding feast; but they were all most
unaccountably silent and motionless. They asked him to join in the
meal, and he did so with some misgivings, which were soon justified
when he saw the heads of the whole party fall off before his eyes,
and they soon disappeared. [130] The Raja Rama Chandra Sena was once
hunting near the site of the present Dharawat tank. He saw a crow
drinking from a puddle, and, being in want of water, he ordered the
courtiers to have a tank dug, the limits of which were to be the
space that his horse would gallop round when released. Fortunately
for them they selected a site close to some hills which checked the
course of the horse. This reduced the tank to comparatively moderate
dimensions. [131]

The tank at Lalitpur is famous for the cure of leprosy. One day, a
Raja afflicted with the disease was passing by, and his Rani dreamt
that he should eat some of the confervae on the surface. He ate it,
and was cured; and next night the Rani dreamt that there was a vast
treasure concealed there, which when dug up was sufficient to pay
the cost of excavation. [132] So, at Qasur is the tank of the saint
Basant Shah, in which children are bathed to cure them of boils.

Of the Rin Mochan pool the Brahmans say that any one who bathes there
becomes free from debt. [133] Another at Pushkar turns red if the
shadow of a woman during her menstrual period fall upon it. [134]
Sita proved her virtue by bathing in a tank. She prayed to Mother
Earth, who appeared and carried her to the other bank, an incident of
which a curious parallel is quoted by Mr. Clouston from the Gospel of
the pseudo Mathew. [135] In the legend of Chyavana, as told in the
Mahabharata, the three suitors of Sukanya bathed in a tank and came
forth of a celestial beauty equal to hers. So in one of the Bengal
folk-tales the old discarded wife bathes in a tank and recovers her
youth and beauty. [136] It is a frequent condition imposed on visitors
to these holy tanks that they should remove a certain quantity of
earth and thus improve it.

Many tanks, again, are supposed to contain buried treasure which is
generally in charge of a Yaksha. Hence such places are regarded with
much awe. There is a tank of this kind in the Bijaygarh fort in the
Mirzapur District, where many speculators have dug in vain; another
forms an incident in Lal Bihari De's tale of Govinda Samanta. [137]



Mountain-worship; the Himalaya.

"He who thinks of Himachal (the Himalaya), though he should not behold
him, is greater than he who performs all worship at Kasi (Benares);
as the dew is dried up by the morning sun, so are the sins of mankind
by the sight of Himachal." [138] Such was the devotion with which the
early Hindus looked on it as the home of the gods. Beyond it their
fancy created the elysium of Uttara Kuru, which may be most properly
regarded as an ideal picture created by the imagination of a life of
tranquil felicity, and not as a reminiscence of any actual residence
of the Kurus in the north. [139]

From early times the Himalayan valleys were the resort of the sage
and the ascetic. Almost every hill and river is consecrated by their
legends, and the whole country teems with memories of the early
religious life of the Hindu race. As in the mythology of many other
peoples, [140] it was regarded as the home of the sainted dead, and
the common source or origin of Hinduism. Its caves were believed to
be the haunt of witches and fairies. Demons lurked in its recesses,
as at the Blockberg, where, as Aubrey tells us, "the devils and
witches do dance and feast." [141] Many of its most noted peaks
are the home of the deities. Siva and Kuvera rest on Mount Kailasa;
Vaikuntha, the paradise of Vishnu, is on Mount Meru. The whole range
is personified in Himavat, who is the father of Ganga and Uma Devi,
who from her origin is known as Parvati, or "the mountaineer." One of
the titles of Siva is Girisa, the "mountain god." His son Karttikeya
delights in the weird mountain heights.



Mountain-worship among the Dravidians.

But, deeply rooted as the veneration for mountains is in the minds
of the early Aryans, there is reason to suspect that this regard for
mountains may be a survival from the beliefs of non-Aryan races whom
the Hindus supplanted or absorbed. At any rate, the belief in the
sanctity of mountains widely prevails among the non-Aryan or Dravidian
races. Most of these peoples worship mountains in connection with the
god of the rain. The Santals sacrifice to Marang Bura on a flat rock
on the top of a mountain, and after feasting, work themselves up into
a state of frenzy to charm the rain. The Korwas and Kurs worship in
the same way Mainpat, a plateau in the mountainous country south of
the Son. The Nagbansis and the Mundari Kols worship a huge rock as
the abode of the "great god," Baradeo. [142] So, in Garhwal in the
Chhipula pass is a shrine to the god of the mountain. At Tolma is a
temple to the Himalaya, and below Dungagiri in the same valley is a
shrine in honour of the same peak. [143] In Hoshangabad in the Central
Indian plateau, Suryabhan or "Sun-rays" is a very common name for
isolated round-peaked hills, on which the god is supposed to dwell,
and among the Kurkus, Dungardeo, the mountain god, resides on the
nearest hill outside the village. He is worshipped every year at
the Dasahra festival with a goat, two cocoa-nuts, five dates, with
a ball of vermilion paste, and is regarded by them as their special
god. [144] The idea that dwarfs, spirits, and fairies live on the
tops of mountains is a common belief in Europe.

As in the Himalaya, one of the main peaks, Nanda Devi, has been
identified with Parvati, the mountain goddess, so the aborigines of
the Central Provinces have in Kattarpar, the Kattipen of the Khandhs,
a special deity of ravines, as Rhoea Sybeli was to the Etruscans. [145]
In the Mirzapur hills the aboriginal tribes have an intense respect for
mountains. On the Matra hill lives a Deo or demon known as Darrapat
Deo. When Ravana abducted Sita he is said to have kept her on this
hill for some time, and her palanquin, turned into stone, is there
to this day. No one ascends the mountain through fear of the demon,
except an Ojha or sorcerer, who sacrifices a goat at the foot of
the hill before he makes the attempt. So, in Garhwal the peak of
Barmdeo is sacred to Devi, and none can intrude with impunity. A
Faqir who ventured to do so in the days of yore was pitched across
the river by the offended goddess. [146] On another Mirzapur hill,
Chainpur, lives Koti Rani, who is embodied in the locusts which
usually are found there. Similarly Pahar Pando is a mountain deity
of the Dharkars, a sub-caste of the Doms. Bansapti Mai, who is half a
forest and half a mountain goddess, lives on Jhurma hill, and if any
one dares to sing in her neighbourhood, he becomes sick or mad. These
mountain demons often take the form of tigers and kill incautious
intruders on their domains. On the Aunri hill are two dreaded demons,
Deorasan and Birwat, the latter a Bir or malignant ghost of some one
who died a violent death. They rule the hail, and at harvest time the
Baiga offers a goat, and spreading rice on the ground, prays--"O Lord
Mahadeva! May this offering be effectual." Mangesar, the rugged peak
which frowns over the valley of the Son, is a popular local god of
the various Kolarian races, and a shrine to Baba or Raja Mangesar,
"the father and the king," is found in many of their villages.



Respect Paid to the Vindhya and Kaimur Ranges.

The Kaimur and Vindhyan ranges also enjoy a certain amount of
sanctity. On the latter the most famous shrines are those of Asthbhuja
or "the eight-armed Devi," Sitakunda or the pool of Sita, and the
temple of Maharani Vindhyeswari, the patron goddess of the range,
built where it trends towards the Gangetic valley. She has travelled
as far as Cutch, where she is worshipped under the corrupted name
of Vinjan. [147] Her shrine has evil associations with traditions of
human sacrifice, derived from the coarser aboriginal cultus which has
now been adopted into Brahmanism. [148] There the Thags used to meet
and share their spoils with their patron goddess, and her Pandas or
priests are so disorderly that a special police guard has to be posted
at the shrine to ensure the peaceable division of the offerings among
the sharers, who mortgage and sell their right to participate in the
profits, like the advowson of a living in the English Church.

These two ranges, says the legend, are an offshoot from the
Himalaya. When Rama was building the bridge across the strait to Lanka,
he sent his followers to Himalaya to collect materials. They returned
with a mighty burden, but meanwhile the hero had completed his task;
so he ordered them to throw down their loads, and where the stones
fell these ranges were produced. In the same way the Maniparvata at
Ajudhya is said to have been dropped by Sugriva, the monkey king of
Kishkindhya, and the Irichh hills at Jhansi are described to have
been formed in the same way.

There is another legend of the Vindhyas told in the story of Nala
and Damayanti. They were jealous of the Himalaya, the peaks of which
were each morning visited by the earliest rays of the rising sun. The
sun, on being appealed to, declared that it was impossible for him
to change his course. Immediately the Vindhyas swelled with rage,
and rising in the heavens, intercepted the view of the sun, moon,
and the constellations. The gods, alarmed, invoked the aid of the
saint Agastya. He went, accompanied by his wife, and requested the
Vindhyas to sink and let him pass to the south, and not rise till
he returned. They agreed, and gave passage to the saint, but as he
never came back they have never resumed their former height. Agastya
finally settled on the Malayam or Potiyam mountain, not far from
Cape Comorin. He now shines in the heavens as the regent of the star
Canopus, and to him is ascribed almost all the civilization of Southern
India. The legend possibly goes back to the arrival of the earliest
Brahmanic missionaries in Southern India, and the name of the range,
which probably means "the divider," marked the boundary between the
Aryan and Dravidian peoples. A similar story is told of one of the
ranges in Nepal. [149]



Other Famous Hills.

A mention of some other famous hills in Northern India may close
this account of mountain-worship. At Gaya is the Dharma Sila, or
"rock of piety," which was once the wife of the saint Marichi. The
lord of the infernal regions, by order of Brahma, crushed it down
on the head of the local demon. [150] The hills of Goghar ka dhar,
in the Mundi State, have a reputation similar to that of the Brocken
in the Hartz mountains on Wulpurgis night. On the 3rd of September
the demons, witches, and magicians from the most distant parts of
India assemble here and hold their revels, from which time it is
dangerous for men to cross the mountains. The spirits of the Kulu
range are said to wage war with those of the Goghar, and after a
violent storm the peasants will show the traveller the stones which
have been hurled from range to range. The last chief of Mundi was
a mighty wizard himself. He had a little book of spells which the
demons were forced to obey, and when he placed it in his mouth he
was instantly transported where he pleased through the air. [151]

Another famous hill is that of Govardhan, near Mathura. This is
the hill which Krishna is fabled to have held aloft on the tip of
his finger for seven days, to protect the people of Braj from the
tempests poured down on them by Indra when he was deprived of his
wonted sacrifices. There is a local belief that as the waters of
the Jumna are yearly decreasing in volume, so this hill is gradually
sinking. Not a particle of stone is allowed to be removed from it,
and even the road which crosses it at its lowest point, where only a
few fragments of the rock crop up overground, had to be carried over
them by a paved causeway. [152]



The Spirits of the Air.

"Aerial spirits or devils are such as keep quarter in the air, cause
many tempests, thunder and lightnings, tear oaks, fire steeples,
houses, strike men and beasts, make it rain wool, frogs, etc. They
cause whirlwinds on a sudden, and tempestuous storms, which though
our meteorologists refer to natural causes, yet I am of Bodin's mind
that they are more often caused by those aerial devils in their several
quarters." [153] This statement of Burton is a good summary of current
Hindu opinion on this subject; and it is just this class of physical
phenomena which civilized man admits to be beyond his control, that
primitive races profess to be able to regulate. As Dr. Taylor puts
it--"The rainfall is passing from the region of the supernatural to
join the tides and seasons in the realm of physical science." [154]

The old weather god was Indra, who wars with Vritra or Ahi, the dragon
demon of drought, whom he compels to dispense the rain. He was revered
as the causer of fertility, and feared as the lord of the lightning
and the thunder. He has now been deposed from his pre-eminence, and
is little more than a roi faineant, who lives in a luxurious heaven
of his own, solaced by the dances of the fairies who form his court,
one of whom he occasionally bestows on some favoured mortal who wins
his kindness or forces him to obey his orders. But his status is at
present decidedly low, and it is remarkable in what a contemptuous way
even so orthodox a poet as Tulasi Das speaks of him. [155] Mr. Wheeler
[156] suggests that this degradation of Indra may possibly be due to
the fact that he was a tribal god notoriously hostile to Brahmans;
and it is certainly very suggestive from this point of view that he
has come to be regarded as the great deity of the Burman Buddhists. It
is still further remarkable that at Benares, the headquarters of
Brahmanism, he has been replaced by a special rain god, Dalbhyeswara,
who perhaps takes his name from Dalbhya, an ancient Rishi, who must
be worshipped and kept properly dressed if the seasons are not to
become unfavourable. [157]



Bhimsen, a Weather Godling.

Bhimsen, of whom more will be said later on, is regarded by the Gonds
as a god of rain, and has a festival of four or five days' duration
held in his honour at the end of the rainy season, when two poles
about twenty feet high and five feet apart are set up with a rope
attached to the top, by which the boys of the village climb up and
then slide down the poles. This is apparently an instance of rude
sympathetic magic, representing the descent of the rain. [158]



Demoniacal Control of the Weather.

It is an idea common to the beliefs of many races, that the spirits
of the wind may be tied up in sacks and let out to injure an enemy
and assist a friend. To this day the Lapps give their sailors magic
sacks containing certain winds to secure them a safe journey. [159]

Another side of the matter may be illustrated from Marco Polo. "During
the three months of every year that the Lord (Kublai Khan) resides at
that place, if it should happen to be bad weather, there are certain
crafty enchanters and astrologers in his train, who are such adepts in
necromancy and the diabolical arts, that they are able to prevent any
cloud or storm passing over the spot on which the Emperor's palace
stands. Whatever they do in this way is by the help of the Devil;
but they make those people believe that it is compassed by their own
sanctity and the help of God. They always go in a state of dirt and
uncleanness, devoid of respect for themselves or for those who see
them, unkempt and sordidly attired." Timur in his "Memoirs" speaks
of the Indian Jats using incantations to produce heavy rain, which
hindered his cavalry from acting against them. A Yadachi was captured,
and when his head had been taken off the storm ceased. Babar speaks
of one of his early friends, Khwajaka Mulai, who was acquainted with
Yadagari, or the art of bringing on rain and snow by incantations. In
the same way in Nepal the control of the weather is supposed to be
vested in the Lamas. [160]



Rain-making and Nudity.

One very curious custom of rain-making has a series of remarkable
parallels in Europe. In Servia, in time of drought, a girl is stripped
and covered with flowers. She dances at each house, and the mistress
steps out and pours a jar of water over her, while her companions sing
rain songs. [161] In Russia the women draw a furrow round the village,
and bury at the juncture a cock, a cat, and a dog. "The dog is a
demonic character in Russia, while the cat is sacred. The offering
of both seems to represent a desire to conciliate both sides." [162]
Mr. Conway thinks that the nudity of the women represents their utter
poverty and inability to give more to conciliate the god of the rain;
or that we have here a form of the Godiva and Peeping Tom legend,
"where there is probably a distant reflection of the punishment
sometimes said to overtake those who gazed too curiously upon the
Swan Maiden with her feathers." [163]

The Godiva legend has been admirably illustrated by Mr. Hartland,
[164] who comes to the conclusion that it is the survival of an annual
rite in honour of a heathen goddess, and closely connected with those
nudity observances which we are discussing. The difficulty is, however,
to account for the nudity part of the ceremony. It may possibly be
based on the theory that spirits dread indecency, or rather the male
and female principles. [165]

This may be the origin of the indecencies of word and act practised at
the Holi and Kajari festivals in Upper India, which are both closely
connected with the control of the weather. Among the Ramoshis of
the Dakkhin the bridegroom is stripped naked before the anointing
ceremony commences, and the same custom prevails very generally
in Upper India. The Mhars of Sholapur are buried naked, even the
loin-cloth being taken off. Barren women worship a naked female figure
at Bijapur. At Dayamava's festival in the Karnatak, women walk naked
to the temple where they make their vows; and the Mang, who carries
the scraps of holy meat which he scatters in the fields to promote
fertility, is also naked. [166] The same idea of scaring evil spirits
from temples possibly accounts for much of the obscene sculpture to
be found on the walls of many Hindu shrines, and it may be noted in
illustration of the same principle that in Nepal temples are decorated
with groups of obscene figures as a protection against lightning. [167]



Rites Special to Women.

Connected with the same principle it may be noted that in India, as in
many other places, there are rites of the nature of the Bona Dea, in
which only women take part, and from which males are excluded. In some
of these rites nudity forms a part. Thus, in Italy, La Bella Marte is
invoked when three girls, always stark naked, consult the cards to know
whether a lover is true or which of them is likely to be married. [168]
A number of similar usages have been discussed by Mr. Hartland. We
have already noticed the custom of sun impregnation. Among Hindus,
a woman who is barren and desires a child stands naked facing the sun
and desires his aid to remove her barrenness. In one of the folk-tales
the witch stands naked while she performs her spells. [169]

The rain custom in India is precisely the same as has been already
illustrated by examples from Europe. During the Gorakhpur Famine
in 1873-74, there were many accounts received of women going about
with a plough by night, stripping themselves naked and dragging
the plough over the fields as an invocation of the rain god. The
men kept carefully out of the way while this was being done, and it
was supposed that if the women were seen by the men the rite would
lose its effect. Mr. Frazer on this remarks that "it is not said
they plunge the plough into a stream or sprinkle it with water. But
the charm would hardly be complete without it." [170] It was on my
authority that the custom which Messrs. Frazer and Hartland quote
was originally recorded, and I do not remember at the time hearing
of this part of the ritual. Later inquiries do not point to it as
part of the rite in Upper India.

It may be well to adduce other instances of this nudity rite. In Sirsa,
when a horse falls sick, the cure is to kill a fowl or a he-goat and
let its warm blood flow into the mouth of the animal; but if this
cannot be done quickly, it is sufficient for a man to take off all
his clothes and strike the horse seven times on the forehead with his
shoe. [171] Here the nudity and the blows with the shoe are means
to drive off the demon of disease. In Chhattarpur, when rain falls
a woman and her husband's sister take off all their clothes and drop
seven cakes of cow-dung into a mud reservoir for storing grain. If a
man and his maternal uncle perform the same ceremony, it is equally
effective; but as a rule women do it, and the special days for the
rite are Sunday and Wednesday. Here we have the custom in process of
modification, males, one of whom is a relation in the female line,
being substituted for the female officiants.

Another similar means of expelling the demon of disease is given
by Mrs. Fanny Parkes in her curious book entitled "Wanderings of a
Pilgrim in search of the Picturesque." [172] "The Hindu women in a
most curious way propitiate the goddess who brings cholera into the
bazar. They go out in the evening, about 7 p.m., sometimes two or
three hundred at a time, each carrying a lota or brass vessel filled
with sugar, water, cloves, etc. In the first place they make puja;
then, stripping off their sheets and binding their sole petticoat
round their waists, as high above the knee as it can be pulled up,
they perform a most frantic sort of dance, forming themselves into
a circle, while in the centre of the circle about five or six women
dance entirely naked, beating their hands together over their heads,
and then applying them behind with a great smack that keeps time with
the music, and with the song they scream out all the time, accompanied
by native instruments played by men who stand at a distance, to
the sound of which these women dance and sing, looking like frantic
creatures. The men avoid the place where the ceremony takes place,
but here and there one or two men may be seen looking on, whose
presence does not seem to molest the nut-brown dancers in the least;
they shriek and sing and dance and scream most marvellously." Here
we find the rule of privacy at these nudity rites slightly modified.

Another instance of the nudity rite in connection with cattle disease
comes from Jalandhar. [173] "When an animal is sick the remedy is
for some one to strip himself and to walk round the patient with some
burning straw or cane fibre in his hands."

Nudity also appears to be in some places a condition of the erection of
a pinnacle on a Hindu temple. "The Temple of Arang in Raepur district
and that at Deobalada were built at the same time. When they were
finished and the pinnacles (kalas) had to be put on, the mason and
his sister agreed to put them on simultaneously at an auspicious
moment. The day and hour being fixed by Brahmans, the two, stripping
themselves naked, according to custom on such occasions, climbed
up to the top. As they got up to the top each could see the other,
and each through shame jumped down into the tank close to their
respective temples, where they still stand turned into stone, and
are visible when the tank water falls low in seasons of drought." [174]

Of the regular nudity rite in case of failure of rain, we have a
recent instance from Chunar in the Mirzapur district. "The rains
this year held off for a long time, and last night (24th July, 1892)
the following ceremony was performed secretly. Between the hours of
9 and 10 p.m. a barber's wife went from door to door and invited all
the women to join in ploughing. They all collected in a field from
which all males were excluded. Three women from a cultivator's family
stripped off all their clothes; two were yoked to a plough like oxen,
and a third held the handle. They then began to imitate the operation
of ploughing. The woman who had the plough in her hand shouted,
'O Mother Earth! bring parched grain, water and chaff. Our bellies
are bursting to pieces from hunger and thirst.' Then the landlord and
village accountant approached them and laid down some grain, water
and chaff in the field. The women then dressed and went home. By the
grace of God the weather changed almost immediately, and we had a
good shower." [175] Here we see the ceremony elaborately organized;
the privacy taboo is enforced, and the ritual is in the nature of
sympathetic magic, intended to propitiate Mother Earth.

The nudity rite for the expulsion of disease is also found in
Madras. "The image of Mariyamma, cut out of Margosa wood, is carried
from her temple to a stone called a Baddukal, in the centre of the
village, on the afternoon of the first day of the feast. A rounded
stone, about six inches above the ground and about eight inches
across, is to be seen just inside the gate of every village. It
is what is called the Baddukal or navel stone; it is worshipped
in times of calamity, especially during periods of cattle disease;
often women passing it with water pour a little on it, and every one
on first going out of the village in the morning is supposed to give
it some little tribute of attention. The following day all men and
women of Sudra castes substitute garments of leaves of the Margosa,
little branches tied together, for their ordinary clothes, and thus
attired go with music to the goddess." [176] Here the dress may imply
some form of nudity rite, or may be a reminiscence of the time when,
like the Juangs of Chota Nagpur, they wore leaf aprons.

There can be little doubt that rites of this kind largely prevail in
India, but, as might naturally be expected, they are very carefully
concealed, and it is extremely difficult to obtain precise information
about them.



Other Rites to bring Rain.

Besides these nudity rites there are many ways of causing rain to
fall. In Kumaun when rain fails they sink a Brahman up to his lips
in a tank, and there he goes on repeating the name of Raja Indra,
the god of rain, for a day or two, when rain is sure to fall; or they
dig a trench five or six feet deep and make a Brahman or a Jogi sit
in it, when the god, in pity for the holy man, will relent and give
rain. Another plan is to hang a frog with his mouth open on a bamboo,
and the deity pities him and brings the rain. [177] In Mirzapur they
turn a plough upside down and bury it in a field, rub the lingam of
Mahadeva with cow-dung, and offer water at the grave of a Brahm or
bachelor Brahman.

Among the Bhils in time of drought women and girls go out dancing and
singing with bows and arrows in their hands, and seizing a buffalo
belonging to another village, sacrifice it to the goddess Kali. The
headman of the village to which the animal belongs seldom objects
to the appropriation of it. If he does, the women by abusing and
threatening to shoot him always have their own way. [178] Analogous
to this regular rain sacrifice is the custom at Ahmadnagar, where on
the bright 3rd of Baisakh (April-May) the boys of two neighbouring
villages fight with slings and stones. The local belief is that if
the fight be discontinued, rain fails, or if rain does fall that it
produces a plague of rats. [179] At Ahmadabad, again, there is a city
headman, known as the Nagar Seth or "chief man of the town." When rain
holds off he has to perambulate the city walls, pouring out milk to
appease Raja Indra. [180] Here we reach the "sympathetic magic" type
of observance under which most of the other practices may be classed,
though here and there we seem to find the germ of the principle of
vicarious sacrifice. Thus in the Panjab the village girls pour down
on an old woman as she passes some cow-dung dissolved in water; or
an old woman is made to sit down under the house-roof spout and get
a wetting when it rains. Here the idea must be that her sufferings
in some way propitiate the angry god. In the Muzaffarnagar District,
if rain fails, they worship Raja Indra and read the story of the
Megha Raja, or king of the rain. In his name they give alms to the
poor and release a young bull or buffalo. Crushed grain is cooked
on the edge of a tank in his honour and in the name of the rain god
Khwaja Khizr, and some offering is made to Bhumiya, the lord of the
soil. In Chhattarpur, on a wall facing the east, they paint two figures
with cow-dung--one representing Indra and the other Megha Raja, with
their legs up and their heads hanging down. It is supposed that the
discomfort thus caused to them will compel them to grant the boon of
rain. The Mirzapur Korwas, when rain fails, get the Baiga to make a
sacrifice and prayer to Suraj Deota, the Sun godling.

Another common plan in Upper India is for a gang of women to come
out to where a man is ploughing and drive him and his oxen by force
back to the village, where he and his cattle are well fed. Another
device is to seize the blacksmith's anvil and pitch it into a well or
the village tank. We have already given instances of the connection
of wells with rainfall, such as the case of the well in Farghana
which caused rain if defiled. [181] Mr. Gomme has collected several
European instances of the same belief. [182] The anvil is probably
used for this purpose because it is regarded as a sort of fetish,
and the blacksmith himself is, as we shall see later on, considered
as invested with supernatural powers.

In the Panjab, apparently on the principle of vicarious sacrifice
to which reference has been already made, an earthen pot of filth
is carried to the door of some old woman cursed with a bad temper,
and thrown down at her threshold, which is a sacred place. If she then
falls into a rage and gives vent to her feelings in abusive language,
the rain will come down. The old woman is considered a sort of witch,
and if she is punished the influence which restrains the rain will
be removed. [183]

There are numerous instances in which the king is held responsible
for a failure of the rain. In Kangra there are some local gods whose
temples are endowed with rent-free lands. When rain is wanted, these
deities are ordered to provide it; and if they fail, they have to pay
a fine into the Raja's treasury. This is the way the Chinese treat
their gods who refuse to do their duty. [184]

The song of Alha and Udal, which describes the struggle between the
Hindus and the early Muhammadan invaders, is sung in Oudh to procure
rain. In the Hills smart showers are attributed to the number of
marriages going on at the time in the plains. The bride and bridegroom,
as we shall see in the legend of Dulha Deo, are particularly exposed
to the demoniacal influence of the weather. In the Eastern Districts
of the North-Western Provinces the people will not kill wolves, as
they say that wherever there falls a drop of a wolf's blood the rain
will be deficient.

To close this catalogue of devices to procure rain, we may note that it
is a common belief that sacred stones are connected with rainfall. In
the temple of Mars at Rome there was a great stone cylinder which, when
there was a drought, was rolled by the priests through the town. [185]
In Mingrelia, to get rain they dip a holy image in water daily till
it rains. In Navarre the image of St. Peter was taken to a river,
where some prayed to him for rain, but others called out to duck him
in the water. [186] A stone in the form of a cross at Iona was used
for the same purpose. [187] So in India the relics of Gautama Buddha
were believed to have the same influence. [188] In Behar in seasons
of drought a holy stone, known as Narayana Chakra, is kept in a vessel
of water; sometimes a piece of plantain leaf on which are written the
names of one hundred and eight villages beginning with the letter K
and not ending in Pur is thrown into the water. [189] In the same
way the lingam of Mahadeva, a thirsty deity, who needs continual
cooling to relieve his distress, must be kept continually moist to
avoid drought. Not long ago when rain failed at Mirzapur, the people
contributed to maintain a gang of labourers who brought water to pour
on a famous lingam. The same custom prevails in Samoa. [190] There,
when rain was excessive, the stone representing the rain-making god was
laid by the fire and kept warm till fine weather set in; but in time
of drought the priest and his followers, dressed up in fine mats, went
in procession to the stream, dipped the stone, and prayed for a shower.



Devices to Cause Rain to Cease.

In England when rain is in excess the little children sing, "Rain!
Rain! Go away! Come again on a Saturday!"

In India there are many devices intended to secure the same object. One
is the reverse of the nudity charm which we have already discussed. In
Madras, a woman, generally an ugly widow, is made to dance, sometimes
naked, with a burning stick in her hand and facing the sky. This is
supposed to disgust Varuna, the sky god, who shrinks away from such
a sight and withholds the rain. [191] Other devices have the same
object, to put pressure on the deities who are responsible for the
excessive rain. Thus, in Muzaffarnagar the Muni or Rishi Agastya, who
is a great personage in early folk-lore, is supposed to have power to
stop the rain. When rain is in excess they draw a figure of him on a
loin cloth and put it out in the rain. Some paint his figure on the
outside of the house and let the rain wash it away. This generally
brings him to his senses and he gives relief. Another practice, which
is believed to be employed by evil-minded people who are selfishly
interested in a drought, is to light a lamp with melted butter and
put it outside when the rain-clouds collect. The rain god is afraid
to put out the sacred light, and retires. Another way in use in the
Panjab is to give an unmarried girl some oil and get her to pour
it on the ground, saying, "If I pour not out the oil, mine the sin;
if thou disperse not the clouds, thine the sin." In Mirzapur it is
considered a good plan to name twenty-one men who are blind of an eye,
and consequently ill-omened, and make twenty-one knots in a cord and
tie it under the eaves of the house. In Kumaun many devices are used to
effect the same result. Some hot oil is poured into the left ear of a
dog. When the pain makes him yell it is believed that Raja Indra takes
pity on him and stops the rain. Another plan is very like the Mirzapur
device. Five, seven, or eleven grains of Urad pulse are placed in a
piece of cloth, wrapped up and tied with a treble cord. Each grain
bears the name of a blind person, known to the man who is carrying
out the rite. This is known as the "binding of the blind men." The
packet is either buried under the eaves of a house where the water
drips, or put in a tree. The object is to excite the compassion of
Raja Indra by their sufferings. Others take seven pieces of granite,
seven grains of mustard, and seven bits of goat-dung, parch them in an
oven, and then put them under the drip of the eaves. These represent
the demons, who are enemies of Indra, and he is so pleased at their
discomfiture that he disperses the clouds. Others fix up a harrow
perpendicularly where four roads meet. As this instrument is always
used in a horizontal position, this indicates that gross injustice
is being done to the world, and the rain god relents. Others when
the thunder roars in the rain-clouds invoke the saint Agastya, who
once drank up all the waters of the world in four sips; so all the
clouds fear him and disperse when he is invoked.

Another favourite plan is to fee a Brahman to make sixty holes in a
piece of wood and run a string through all of them. While he is thus
"binding up the rain" he recites spells in honour of the Sun godling,
Suraj Narayan, who is moved to interfere. Others take a piece of
unleavened bread, go into the fields and place it on the ground;
or taking some sugar, rice, and other articles ordinarily used in
worship to a place where four roads meet, defile them in a particularly
disgusting way. On such substances the rain is ashamed to fall. In
Bombay a leaf-plate filled with cooked rice and curds is placed in
some open spot where the rain can see it and avoid it. If the rain
should persist in coming, a live coal is laid on a tile and placed in
some open place, where it is implored to swallow the hateful rain. All
these practices are magic of the ordinary sympathetic kind. [192]

Rain-clouds are supposed also to be under the influence of the Evil
Eye, and will blow over without giving rain if the malicious glance
falls upon them. Hence, when rain is needed, if any one runs out of
a house bareheaded while it is raining, he is ordered in at once,
or he is told to put on his cap or turban, for a bareheaded man is
apt to wish involuntarily that the rain may cease, and thus injure
his neighbours.

Everywhere it is believed that the Banya or cornchandler, who is
interested in high prices, buries some water in an earthen pot in
order to stop the rain.



Hail and Whirlwind.

The hail and the whirlwind are, like most of the natural phenomena
which we have been discussing, attributed to demoniacal agency. The
Maruts who ride on the whirlwind and direct the storm hold a prominent
place in the Veda, where they are represented as the friends and
allies of Indra. Another famous tempest demon was Trinavartta, who
assumed the form of a whirlwind and carried off the infant Krishna,
but was killed by the child.

Mr. Leland [193] tells a curious Italian story of a peasant who killed
the church sexton with his billhook because he stopped ringing the
bell and thus allowed the hail to injure his vines. This illustrates
a well-known principle that demons, and in particular the demon
who brings the hail, can be scared by noise. Thus Aubrey tells us:
[194]--"At Paris, when it begins to thunder and lighten, they do
presently ring out the great bell at the Abbey of St. Germain, which
they do believe makes it cease. When it thundered and lightened they
did ring St. Adelm's bell in Malmesbury Abbey. The curious do say that
the ringing of bells exceedingly disturbs spirits." Hence one plan of
driving away the hail is to take out an iron griddle-plate and beat
it with a bamboo. Here the use of iron, a well-known demon scarer,
increases the efficacy of the rite. It is also an improvement if this
be done by a virgin, and in some places it is considered sufficient
if when the hail falls an unmarried girl is sent out with an iron
plate in her hand. Possibly following out the same train of ideas,
the Kharwars of Mirzapur, when hail falls, throw into the courtyard
the wooden peg of the corn-mill, which, as we shall see, is considered
possessed of certain magical powers.

In Muzaffarnagar, when hail begins they pray at once to two noted
demons, Ismail Jogi and Nona Chamarin, and ring a bell in a Saiva
temple to scare the demon.

Another method is to put pressure on the hail demon by the pretence
of sheer physical pain. Thus in Multan it is believed that if you
can catch a hailstone in the air before it reaches the ground and
cut it in two with a pair of scissors the hail will abate. [195]
Not long ago a lady at Nami Tal, when a hailstorm came on, saw her
gardener rush into the kitchen and bring out the cook's chopper,
with which he began to make strokes on the ground where the hail was
falling. It appeared on inquiry that he believed that the hail would
dread being cut and cease to fall. [196] In Kumaun, where hail is much
dreaded, there are many devices of the same kind. Some put an axe in
the open air with the edge turned up, so that the hailstones may be
cut in pieces and cease falling. Another plan is to spit at the hail
as it falls, or to sprinkle the hailstones with blood drawn from some
famous magician, a rite which can hardly be anything but a survival of
human sacrifice. A third device is to call an enchanter and make him
blow a conch-shell in the direction of the hail. Others put a churn
in the open air when the rain is falling, in the belief that when
the hailstones touch it they will become as soft as butter. Others,
again, when hail falls, send out a wizard or one possessed by some
deity and make him beat the hailstones with a shoe. [197]

There are, again, certain persons specially in charge of the
hail. Thus, "at the town of Cleonae in Argolis there were watchmen
maintained at the public expense to look out for hailstorms. When
they saw a hail-cloud approaching they made a signal, whereupon the
farmers turned out and sacrificed lambs and fowls. They believed that
when the clouds had tasted the blood they would turn aside and go
somewhere else. If any man was too poor to afford a lamb or a fowl,
he pricked his finger with a sharp instrument and offered his own
blood to the clouds; and the hail, we are told, turned aside from his
fields as readily as from those where it had been propitiated with
the blood of victims." [198] In the same way the duty of charming
away the hail is, in Kumaun, entrusted to a certain class of Brahmans
known as Woli or Oliya (ola, "hail"). Their method is to take a dry
gourd, which they fill with pebbles, grains of Urad pulse, mustard,
goat-dung and seeds of cotton. This is then tied by a triple cord
to the highest tree on a mountain overhanging the village. Until the
crops are cut the Oliya goes to this place every day and mutters his
incantations. If the crops are reaped without disaster of any kind
he is liberally remunerated. [199]

As has been already said, whirlwinds are the work of demons. The
witches in Macbeth meet in thunder, lightning and rain, they can loose
and bind the winds and cause vessels to be tempest-tossed at sea. The
same principle was laid down by Pythagoras; [200] and Herodotus [201]
describes the people of Psylli marching in a body to fight the south
wind which had dried up their water-tanks. In Ireland it is believed
that a whirlwind denotes that a devil is dancing with a witch; or
that the fairies are rushing by, intent on carrying off some victim
to fairyland. The only help is to fling clay at the passing wind,
and the fairies will be compelled to drop the mortal child or the
beautiful young girl they have abducted. [202] A gentleman at Listowel
not long ago was much astonished when a cloud of dust was being blown
along a road to see an old woman rush to the side and drag handfuls
of grass out of the fence, which she threw in great haste into the
cloud of dust. He inquired and learned that this was in order to give
something to the fairies which were flying along in the dust. So in
Italy, Spolviero is the wind spirit which flies along in the dust
eddies. [203]

In the Panjab Pheru [204] is the deity of the petty whirlwinds which
blow when the little dust-clouds rise in the hot weather. He was a
Brahman, and a long story is told of him, how he worshipped Sakhi
Sarwar, was made Governor of Imanabad by Akbar, but he abandoned
the saint and returned to his caste, whereupon he was afflicted with
leprosy. When he repented he was cured by eating some magical earth
and believed in the saint till he died. His shrine is at Miyanke, in
the Lahore District, and when a Panjabi sees a whirlwind he calls out,
Bhai Pheru, teri kar--"May Bhai Pheru protect us!" Another whirlwind
demon, the saint Rahma, was once neglected at the wheat harvest,
and he raised a whirlwind which blew for nine days in succession,
and wrought such damage in the threshing-floors that since then his
shrine receives the appropriate offerings. On the same principle
whirlwinds are called in Bombay Bagalya or devils. [205]

Among the Mirzapur Korwas, when a dust-storm comes, the women thrust
the house broom, which, as we shall see, is a demon scarer, into the
thatch, so that it may not be blown away. The Pankas in the same way
make their women hold the thatch and throw the rice mortar and the
flour-mill pivot into the courtyard. The wind is ashamed of being
defeated by the power of women and ceases to blow.



Aerolites.

All over the world people say that if when a meteor or falling star
darts across the sky they can utter a wish before it disappears,
that wish will be granted. The old Norsemen believed that it implied
that a dragon was flashing through the air. In Italy [206] the sight
of such a body is a cure for blear eyes. In India it is believed that
the residence of a soul in heaven is proportionate to the charities
done by him on earth, and when his allotted period is over he falls
as an aerolite. A falling star means that the soul of some great man
is passing through the air, and when people see one of these stars
they thrust their five fingers into their mouths to prevent their own
souls from joining his company. Many of these aerolites are worshipped
as lingams in Saiva shrines. One which fell at Sitamarhi in Bengal
in 1880, has now been deified, and is worshipped as Adbhut-natha, or
"the miraculous god." [207]







CHAPTER II.

THE HEROIC AND VILLAGE GODLINGS.


                    Arma procul currusque virum miratur inanes.
                    Stant terra defixae hastae, passimque soluti
                    Per campum pascuntur equi.

                                                     AEneid, vi. 652-654.


The Heroic Godlings.

Next to these deities which have been classed as the godlings of
nature, come those which have a special local worship of their
own. The number of these godlings is immense, and their functions
and attributes so varied, that it is extremely difficult to classify
them on any intelligible principle. Some of them are pure village
godlings, of whom the last Census has unearthed an enormous number
all through Northern India. Some of them, like Hanuman or Bhimsen,
are survivals in a somewhat debased form of the second-rate deities
or heroes of the older mythology. Some have risen to the rank, or are
gradually being elevated to the status, of national deities. Some
are in all probability the local gods of the degraded races, whom
we may tentatively assume to be autochthonous. Many of these have
almost certainly been absorbed into Brahmanism at a comparatively
recent period. Some are in process of elevation to the orthodox
pantheon. But it will require a much more detailed analysis of the
national faith than the existing materials permit, before it will
be possible to make a final classification of this mob of deities on
anything approaching a definite principle.

The deities of the heroic class are as a rule benignant, and are
generally worshipped by most Hindus. Those that have been definitely
promoted into the respectable divine cabinet, like Hanuman, have
Brahmans or members of the ascetic orders as their priests, and
their images, if not exactly admitted into the holy of holies of the
greater shrines, are still allotted a respectable position in the
neighbourhood, and receive a share in the offerings of the faithful.

The local position of the shrine very often defines the status of the
deity. To many godlings of this class is allotted the duty of acting
as warders (dwarapala) to the temples of the great gods. Thus, at
the Ashthbhuja hill in Mirzapur, the pilgrim to the shrine of the
eight-armed Devi meets first on the road an image of the monkey
god Hanuman, before he comes into the immediate presence of the
goddess. So at Benares, Bhaironnath is chief police officer (Kotwal)
or guardian of all the Saiva temples. Similarly at Jageswar beyond
Almora we find Kshetrapal, at Badarinath Ghantakaran, at Kedarnath
Bhairava, and at Tungnath Kal Bhairon. [208] In many places, as the
pilgrim ascends to the greater temples, he comes to a place where the
first view of the shrine is obtained. This is known as the Devadekhni
or spot from which the deity is viewed. This is generally occupied
by some lower-class deity, who is just beginning to be considered
respectable. Then comes the temple dedicated to the warden, and lastly
the real shrine itself. There can be little doubt that this represents
the process by which gods which are now admittedly within the inner
circle of the first class, such as the beast incarnations of Vishnu,
the elephant-headed Ganesa, and the Saktis or impersonations of the
female energies of nature, underwent a gradual elevation.

This process is actually still going on before our eyes. Thus, the
familiar Gor Baba, a deified ghost of the aboriginal races, has in many
places become a new manifestation of Siva, as Goreswara. Similarly,
the powerful and malignant goddesses, who were by ruder tribes
propitiated with the sacrifice of a buffalo or a goat, have been
annexed to Brahmanism as two of the numerous forms of Durga Devi,
by the transparent fiction of a Bhainsasuri or Kali Devi. In the
case of the former her origin is clearly proved by the fact that
she is regarded as a sort of tribal deity of the mixed tribe of
Kanhpuriya Rajputs in Oudh. Similarly Mahamai, or the "Great Mother,"
a distinctively aboriginal goddess whose shrine consists of a low
flat mound of earth with seven knobs of coloured clay at the head or
west side, has been promoted into the higher pantheon as Jagadamba
Devi, or "Mother of the World." Her shrine is still a simple flat
mound of earth with seven knobs at the top, and a flag in front to
the east. [209] More extended analysis will probably show that the
obligations of Brahmanism to the local cultus are much greater than
is commonly supposed.



Hanuman.

First among the heroic godlings is Hanuman, "He of the large
jaws," or, as he is generally called, Mahabir, the "great hero,"
the celebrated monkey chief of the Ramayana, who assisted Rama in
his campaign against the giant Ravana to recover Sita. Hardly any
event in his mythology, thanks to the genius of Tulasi Das, the great
Hindi poet of Hindustan, is more familiar to the Hindu peasant than
this. It forms the favourite subject of dramatic representation at
the annual festival of the Dasahra. There Hanuman, in fitting attire,
marches along the stage at the head of his army of bears and monkeys,
and the play ends with the destruction of Ravana, whose great body,
formed of wickerwork and paper, is blown up with fireworks, amid the
delighted enthusiasm of the excited audience.

It is almost certain that the worship of Hanuman does not come down
from the earliest ages of the Hindu faith, though it has been suggested
that he is the legitimate descendant of Vrisha-kapi, the great monkey
of the Veda. [210] Besides being a great warrior he was noted for his
skill in magic, grammar and the art of healing. Many local legends
connect him with sites in Northern India. Hills, like the Vindhya
and that at Govardhan, are, as we have seen, attributed to him or
to his companions. The more extreme school of modern comparative
mythologists would make out that Hanuman is only the impersonation
of the great cloud-monkey which fights the sun. [211]

But the fact of monkey-worship is susceptible of a much simpler
explanation. The ape, from his appearance and human ways, is closely
associated with man. It is a belief common to all folk-lore that
monkeys were once human beings who have suffered degradation, [212]
and according to one common belief stealers of fruit become monkeys
in their next incarnation. But the common theory that the monkey is
venerated in memory of the demigod Hanuman is, as Sir A. Lyall [213]
remarks, "plainly putting the cart before the horse, for the monkey is
evidently at the bottom of the whole story. Hanuman is now generally
supposed to have been adopted into the Hindu heaven from the non-Aryan
or aboriginal idolaters; though, to my mind, any uncivilized Indian
would surely fall down and worship at first sight of an ape. Then there
is the modern idea that the god was really a great chief of some such
aboriginal tribe as those which to this day dwell almost like wild
creatures in the remote forests of India; and this may be the nucleus
of fact in the legend regarding him. It seems as if hero-worship and
animal-worship had got mixed up in the legend of Hanuman."

At the same time, it must be remembered that the so-called Aryans
enjoy no monopoly of his worship. He is sometimes like a tribal
godling of the aboriginal Suiris, and the wild Bhuiyas of Keunjhar
identify him with Boram, the Sun godling. [214] It is at least a
possible supposition that his worship may have been imported into
Brahmanism from some such source as these.



Hanuman as a Village Godling.

But whatever may be the origin of the cult, the fact remains that
he is a great village godling, with potent influence to scare evil
spirits from his votaries. His rude image, smeared with oil and red
ochre, meets one somewhere or other in almost every respectable Hindu
village. One of his functions is to act as an embodiment of virile
power. He is a giver of offspring, and in Bombay women sometimes
go to his temple in the early morning, strip themselves naked, and
embrace the god. [215] Mr. Hartland has collected many instances
of similar practices. Thus a cannon at Batavia used to be utilized
in the same way; and at Athens there is a rock near the Callirrhoe,
whereon women who wish to be made fertile rub themselves, calling on
the Moirai to be gracious to them. [216]

On the same principle he is, with Hindu wrestlers, their patron deity,
his place among Musalmans being taken by 'Ali. Their aid is invoked
at the commencement of all athletic exercises, and at each wrestling
school a platform is erected in their honour. Tuesday is sacred to
Mahabir and Friday to 'Ali. Hindu wrestlers on Mahabir's day bathe in
a river in the morning, and after bathing dress in clean clothes. Then
taking a jar of water, some incense, sweets, and red or white flowers,
they repair to the wrestling school, bow down before the platform and
smear it with cow-dung or earth. After this the sweets are offered
to Mahabir and verses are recited in his honour. Then they do the
exercise five times and bow before the platform. When the service is
over they smear their bodies with the incense, which is supposed to
give them strength and courage. Care is taken that no woman sees the
athletes exercising, lest she should cast the Evil Eye upon them.

One special haunt of the monkey deity is what is known as the
Bandarpunchh or "monkey tail" peak in the Himalayas. They say that
every year in the spring a single monkey comes from Hardwar to
this peak and remains there twelve months, when he makes way for
his successor.

Hanuman is a favourite deity of the semi-Hinduized Dravidian races
of the Vindhya-Kaimur plateau. "The most awe-inspiring of their
tremendous rocks are his fanes; the most lovely of their pools are
sacred by virtue of the tradition of his having bathed in them." He
was known as Pawan-ka-put, or "son of the wind," which corresponds
to his older title of Marutputra, or "son of the wind god." And the
Bhuiyas of Sinhbhum, who are, as Colonel Dalton gravely remarks,
"without doubt the apes of the Ramayana," call themselves Pawan-bans,
or "sons of the wind," to this day. [217] But in the plains his chief
function is as a warden or guardian against demoniacal influence,
and at the Hanumangarhi shrine at Ajudhya he is provided with a
regular priesthood consisting of Khaki ascetics.

The respect paid to the monkey does not need much illustration. The
ordinary monkey of the plains (Macacus Rhesus) is a most troublesome,
mischievous beast, and does enormous mischief to crops, while in
cities he is little short of a pest. But his life is protected by a
most effective sanction, and no one dares to injure him.

General Sleeman [218] tells a story of a Muhammadan Nawab of Oudh,
who was believed to have died of fever, the result of killing a
monkey. "Mumtaz-ud-daula," said his informant, "might have been
King of Oudh had his father not shot that monkey." In the Panjab
an appeal to the monkey overcomes the demon of the whirlwind. There
is a Bombay story that in the village of Makargaon, whenever there
is a marriage in a house, the owner puts outside the wedding booth
a turban, a waist-cloth, rice, fruits, turmeric, and betel-nuts for
the village monkeys. The monkeys assemble and sit round their Patel,
or chief. The chief tears the turban and gives a piece to each of
them, and the other things are divided. If the householder does not
present these offerings they ascend the booth and defile the wedding
feast. He has then to come out and apologize, and when he gives them
the usual gifts they retire. [219] The feeding of monkeys is part of
the ritual at the Durga Temple at Benares, and there, too, there is
a king of the monkeys who is treated with much respect. Instances of
Rajas carrying out the wedding of a monkey at enormous expense are
not unknown. Where a monkey has been killed it is believed that no
one can live. His bones are also exceedingly unlucky, and a special
class of exorcisers in Bihar make it their business to ascertain that
his bones do not pollute the ground on which a house is about to be
erected. [220]

The worship of Hanuman appears, if the Census returns are to be
trusted, to be much more popular in the North-West Provinces than
in the Panjab. In the former his devotees numbered about a million,
and in the latter less than ten thousand persons. But the figures are
probably open to question, as he is often worshipped in association
with other deities.



Worship of Bhimsen.

Another of these beneficent guardians or wardens is Bhimsen, "he
who has a terrible army." He has now in popular belief very little
in common with the burly hero of the Mahabharata, who was notorious
for his gigantic strength, great animal courage, prodigious appetite
and irascible temper; jovial and jocular when in good humour, but
abusive, truculent and brutal when his passions were roused. [221]
He is now little more than one of the wardens of the house or village.

In parts of the Central Provinces he has become degraded into
a mere fetish, and is represented by a piece of iron fixed in a
stone or in a tree. [222] Under the name of Bhimsen or Bhimpen,
his worship extends from Berar to the extreme east of Bastar,
and not merely among the Hinduized aborigines, who have begun to
honour Khandoba, Hanuman, Ganpati and their brethren, but among the
rudest and most savage tribes. He is generally adored under the form
of an unshapely stone covered with vermilion, or of two pieces of
wood standing from three to four feet out of the ground, which are
possibly connected with the phallic idea, towards which so many
of these deities often diverge. Bhiwasu, the regular Gond deity,
is identical with him. Mr. Hislop [223] mentions a large idol of
him eight feet high, with a dagger in one hand and a javelin in the
other. He has an aboriginal priest, known as Bhumak, or "he of the
soil," and the people repair to worship on Tuesdays and Saturdays,
offering he-goats, hogs, hens, cocks and cocoa-nuts. The headman of
the village and the cultivators subscribe for an annual feast, which
takes place at the commencement of the rains, when the priest takes
a cow from the headman by force and offers it to the godling in the
presence of his congregation. The Mariya Gonds worship him in the
form of two pieces of wood previous to the sowing of the crops. The
Naikude Gonds adore him in the form of a huge stone daubed with
vermilion. Before it a little rice is cooked. They then besmear the
stone with vermilion and burn resin as incense in its honour, after
which the victims--sheep, hogs and fowls--with the usual oblation of
spirits, are offered. The god is now supposed to inspire the priest,
who rolls his head, leaps frantically round and round, and finally
falls down in a trance, when he announces whether Bhimsen has accepted
the service or not. At night all join in drinking, dancing and beating
drums. Next morning the congregation disperses. Those who are unable
to attend this tribal gathering perform similar rites at home under
the shade of the Mahua tree (Bassia latifolia). [224]



Pillar-worship of Bhimsen.

The local worship of Bhimsen beyond the Dravidian tract is specially
in the form of pillars, which are called Bhimlath or Bhimgada, "Bhim's
clubs." Many of these are really the edict pillars which were erected
by the pious Buddhist King Asoka, but they have been appropriated by
Bhimsen. Such are the pillars in the Balaghat District of the Central
Provinces and at Kahaon in Gorakhpur. At Devadhara, in the Lower
Himalaya, are two boulders, the uppermost of which is called Ransila,
or "the stone of war." On this rests a smaller boulder, said to be
the same as that used by Bhimsen to produce the fissures in the rocks;
in proof of which the print of his five fingers is still pointed out,
as they show the hand-mark of the Giant Bolster in Cornwall. [225]

Bhimsen is one of the special gods of the Bhuiyas of Keunjhar, and they
consider themselves to be descended from him, as he is the brother of
Hanuman, the founder of their race. According to the Hindu ritual he
has his special feast on the Bhaimy Ekadashi, or eleventh of the bright
fortnight in the month of Magh. The Bengal legend tells that Bhimsen,
the brother of Yudhisthira, when he was sent to the snowy mountains
and lay benumbed with cold, was restored by the Saint Gorakhnath,
and made king of one hundred and ten thousand hills, stretching from
the source of the Ganges to Bhutan. Among other miracles Bhimsen and
Gorakhnath introduced the sacrifice of buffaloes in place of human
beings, and in order to effect this Bhimsen thrust some of the flesh
down the throat of the holy man. So though they have both lost caste
in consequence, they are both deified. The saint is still the tutelary
deity of the reigning family of Nepal, and all over that kingdom and
Mithila Bhimsen is a very common object of worship. That mysterious
personage Gorakhnath flits through religious legend and folk-lore
from post-Vedic to mediaeval times; and little has yet been done to
discover the element of historical truth which underlies an immense
mass of the wildest fiction. [226]



Worship of Bhishma.

In about the same rank as Bhimsen is Bhishma, "the terrible one,"
another hero of the Mahabharata. To the Hindu nowadays he is chiefly
known by the tragic circumstances of his death. He was covered all
over by the innumerable arrows discharged at him by Arjuna, and when he
fell from his chariot he was upheld from the ground by the arrows and
lay as on a couch of darts. This Sara-sayya or "arrow-bed" of Bhishma
is probably the origin of the Kantaka-sayya or "thorn-couch" of some
modern Bairagis, who lie and sleep on a couch studded with nails. He
wished to marry the maiden Satyavati, but he gave her up to his father
Santanu, and Bhishma elected to live a single life, so that his sons
might not claim the throne from his step-brethren. Hence, as he died
childless and left no descendant to perform his funeral rites, he is
worshipped with libations of water on the Bhishma Ashtami, or 23rd
of the month of Magh; but this ceremony hardly extends beyond Bengal.

In Upper India five days in the month of Karttik (November-December)
are sacred to him. This is a woman's festival. They send lamps to a
Brahman's house, whose wife during these five days must sleep on the
ground, on a spot covered with cow-dung, close to the lamps, which it
is her duty to keep alight. The lamps are filled with sesamum oil,
and red wicks wound round sticks of the sesamum plant rest in the
lamp saucers. A walnut, an aonla (the fruit of the emblic myrobolon),
a lotus-seed, and two copper coins are placed in each lamp. Each
evening the women come and prostrate themselves before the lamps or
walk round them. They bathe on each day of the feast before sunrise,
and are allowed only one meal in the day, consisting of sugar-cane,
sweet potatoes and other roots, with meal made of amarinth seed,
millet and buckwheat cakes, to which the rich add sugar, dry
ginger, and butter. They drink only milk. Of course the Brahman
gets a share of these good things, to which the rich contribute in
addition a lamp-saucer made of silver, with a golden wick, clothes,
and money. At the early morning bath of the last day five lighted
lamps made of dough are placed, one at the entrance of the town or
village, others at the four cross-roads, under the Pipal or sacred
fig tree, at a temple of Siva, and at a pond. This last is put in a
small raft made of the leaves of the sugar-cane, and floated on the
water. A little grain is placed beside each lamp. After the lamps
handed over to the Brahman have burnt away or gone out, the black
from the wicks is rubbed on the eyes and fingers of the worshippers,
and their toe-nails are anointed with the remainder of the oil. All
the articles used in the worship are well-known scarers of demons,
and there can be little doubt that the rite is intended to conciliate
Bhishma in his character of a guardian deity, and induce him to ward
off evil spirits from the household of the worshipper.

There is a curious legend told to explain the motive of the rite. A
childless Raja once threatened to kill all his queens unless one
of them gave birth to a child. One of the Ranis who had a cat,
announced that she had been brought to bed of a girl, who was to be
shut up for twelve years, a common incident in the folk-tales. [227]
This was all very well, but the supposed princess had to be married,
and here lay the difficulty. Now this cat had been very attentive
during this rite in honour of Bhishma, keeping the wicks alight by
raising them from time to time with her paws, and cleaning them on
her body. So the grateful godling turned her into a beautiful girl,
but her tail remained as before. However, the bridegroom's friends
admired her so much that they kept her secret at the wedding, and
so saved the Rani from destruction, and when the time came for the
bride to go to her husband her tail dropped off too. So Hindu ladies
use the oil and lamp-black of Bhishma's feast day as valuable aids
to beauty. Such cases of animal transformation constantly appear in
the folk-tales. In one of the Kashmir stories a cat, by the advice
of Parvati, rubs herself with oil and is turned into a girl; but she
does not rub a small patch between her shoulders, and this remained
covered with the cat's fur. [228]

The worship of the heroes of the Mahabharata does not prevail widely,
unless we have a survival of it in the worship of the Panch Pir. At
the last Census in the North-Western Provinces less than four thousand
persons declared themselves worshippers of the Pandavas. The number
in the Panjab is even smaller.



Worship of the Local Godlings.

We now come to the local or village godlings, a most nondescript
collection of deities, possessing very various attributes. There
is good reason to believe that most of these deities, if not all,
belong to the races whom it is convenient to call non-Aryan, or at
least outside Brahmanism, though some of them may have been from time
to time promoted into the official pantheon. But Dr. Oppert, [229]
writing of Southern India, remarks that "if the pure Vedic doctrine
has been altered by the influx of non-Aryan tenets, so have also the
latter undergone a change by coming in contact with Aryan ideas, and
not only have males intruded into the once exclusive female circle of
the Gramadevatas, but also a motley of queer figures have crept in,
forming indeed a very strange gathering. The Gramadevata-prathishtha
mentions as Gramadevatas the skull of Brahma, the head of Vishnu,
the skull of Renuka, the figure of Draupadi, the body of Sita,
the harassing followers of Siva (the Pramathas), the attendants
of Vishnu (Parishadas), demons, Yoginis, various kinds of Saktis
made of wood, stone, or clay; persons who were unsuccessful in
their devotional practice, Sunasepha, Trisanku, Ghatotkacha, and
others; Devaki's daughter, multiform Durgas and Saktis; Putana and
others who kill children; Bhutas, Pretas, and Pisachas; Kusmanda,
Sakini, Dakini, Vetalas, and others; Yakshas, Kiratadevi, Sabari,
Rudra, one hundred millions of forms of Rudra; Matangi, Syamala,
unclean Ganapati, unclean Chandali, the goddess of the liquor pot
(Surabhandeswari), Mohini, Rakshasi, Tripura, Lankhini, Saubhadevi,
Samudrika, Vanadurga, Jaladurga, Agnidurga, suicides, culprits,
faithful wives, the goddesses of matter, goddesses of qualities,
and goddesses of deeds, etc." Through such a maze as this it is no
easy task to find a clue.

The non-Brahmanic character of the worship is implied by the character
of the priesthood. In the neighbourhood of Delhi, where the worship
of Bhumiya as a local godling widely prevails, the so-called priest
of the shrine, whose functions are limited to beating a drum during
the service and receiving the offerings, is usually of the sweeper
caste. Sitala, the small-pox goddess, is very often served by a Mali,
or gardener. Sir John Malcolm notes that the Bhopa of Central India,
who acts as the village priest, is generally drawn from some menial
tribe. [230] In the hill country of South Mirzapur, the Baiga who
manages the worship of Gansam, Raja Lakhan, or the aggregate of the
local deities, known as the Dih or Deohar, is almost invariably a
Bhuiyar or a Chero, both semi-savage Dravidian tribes. Even the shrine
erected in honour of Nahar Rao, the famous King of Mandor, who met
in equal combat the chivalrous Chauhan in the pass of the Aravalli
range, is tended by a barber officiant. [231] Though the votaries of
the meaner godling are looked on with some contempt or pity by their
more respectable neighbours, little active hostility or intolerance is
exhibited. More than this, the higher classes, and particularly their
women, occasionally join in the worship of the older gods. At weddings
and other feasts their aid and protection are invoked. Every woman,
no matter what her caste may be, will bow to the ghosts which haunt
the old banyan or pipal tree in the village, and in time of trouble,
when the clouds withhold the rain, when the pestilence walketh in
darkness, and the murrain devastates the herds, it is to the patron
deities of the village that they appeal for assistance.



Village Shrines.

The shrine of the regular village godling, the Gramadevata or
Ganwdevata, is generally a small square building of brick masonry,
with a bulbous head and perhaps an iron spike as a finial. A red flag
hung on an adjoining tree, often a pipal, or some other sacred fig,
or a nim, marks the position of the shrine. In the interior lamps
are occasionally lighted, fire sacrifices (homa) made and petty
offerings presented. If a victim is offered, its head is cut off
outside the shrine and perhaps a few drops of blood allowed to fall on
the inner platform, which is the seat of the godling. These shrines
never contain a special image, such as are found in the temples of
the higher gods. There may be a few carved stones lying about, the
relics of some dismantled temple, but these are seldom identified
with any special deity, and villagers will rub a projecting knob on
one of them with a little vermilion and oil as an act of worship.

Speaking of this class of shrine in the Panjab, Mr. Ibbetson writes:
[232] "The Hindu shrine must always face east, while the Musalman
shrine is in the form of a tomb and faces the south. This sometimes
gives rise to delicate questions. In one village a section of the
community had become Muhammadan. The shrine of the common ancestor
needed rebuilding, and there was much dispute as to its shape and
aspect. They solved the difficulty by building a Musalman grave facing
south, and over it a Hindu shrine facing east. In another village
an Imperial trooper was once burnt alive by the shed in which he was
sleeping catching fire, and it was thought best to propitiate him by
a shrine, or his ghost might become troublesome. He was by religion
a Musalman, but he had been burnt, not buried, which seemed to make
him a Hindu. After much discussion the latter opinion prevailed,
and a Hindu shrine with an eastern aspect now stands to his memory."

To the east of the North-Western Provinces the village shrines are
much less substantial erections. In the Gangetic valley, where
the population has been completely Hinduized, the shrine of the
collective village deities, known as the Deohar, consists of a pile
of stones, some of which may be the fragments of a temple of the
olden days, collected under some ancient, sacred tree. The shrine
is the store-house of anything in the way of a curious stone to be
found in the village, water-worn pebbles or boulders, anything with
eccentric veining or marking. Here have been occasionally found celts
and stone hatchets, relics of an age anterior to the general use of
iron. In the same way in some European countries the celt or stone
arrow-head is worn as an amulet.

Little clay images of elephants and horses are often found near these
shrines. Some villagers will say that these represent the equipage
(sawari) of the deity; others explain them by the fact that a person in
distress vows a horse or an elephant to the god, and when his wishes
are realized, offers as a substitute this trumpery donation. It was
a common practice to offer substitutes of this kind. Thus when an
animal could not be procured for sacrifice, an image of it in dough
or wax was prepared and offered as a substitute. [233] We shall meet
later on other examples of substitution of the same kind. On the
same principle women used to give cakes in the form of a phallus to
a Brahman. [234] At these shrines are also found curious little clay
bowls with short legs which are known as kalsa. The kalsa or water
jar is always placed near the pole of the marriage shed, and the use
of these beehive-shaped vessels at village shrines is found all along
the hills of Central India. [235] On the neighbouring trees are often
hung miniature cots, which commemorate the recovery of a patient from
small-pox or other infectious disease.

Among the semi-Hinduized Dravidian races of the Vindhyan range, many
of whom worship Gansam or Raja Lakhan, the shrine usually consists of
a rude mud building or a structure made of bamboo and straw, roofed
with a coarse thatch, which is often allowed to fall into disrepair,
until the godling reminds his votaries of his displeasure by an
outbreak of epidemic disease or some other misfortune which attacks
the village. The shrine is in charge of the village Baiga, who is
invariably selected from among some of the ruder forest tribes, such
as the Bhuiya, Bhuiyar or Chero. Inside is a small platform known as
"the seat of the godling" (Devata ka baithak), on which are usually
placed some of the curious earthen bowls already described, which
are made specially for this worship, and are not used for domestic
purposes. In these water is placed for the refreshment of the godling,
and they thus resemble the funeral vases of the Greeks. In ordinary
cases the offering deposited on the platform consists of a thick
griddle cake, a little milk, and perhaps a few jungle flowers; but
in more serious cases where the deity makes his presence disagreeably
felt, he is propitiated with a goat, pig, or fowl, which is decapitated
outside the shrine, with the national and sacrificial axe. The head
is brought inside dripping with blood, and a few drops of blood are
allowed to fall on the platform. The head of the victim then becomes
the perquisite of the officiating Baiga, and the rest of the meat
is cooked and eaten near the shrine by the adult male worshippers,
married women and children being carefully excluded from a share in the
offering. The special regard paid to the head of the victim is quite in
consonance with traditions of European paganism and folk-lore in many
countries. [236] Lower south, beyond the river Son, the shrine is of
even a simpler type, and is there often represented by a few boulders
near a stream, where the worshippers assemble and make their offerings.

The non-Brahmanic character of the worship is still further marked by
the fact that no special direction from the homestead is prescribed
in selecting the site for the shrine. No orthodox Hindu temple can be
built south of the village site, as this quarter is regarded as the
realm of Yama, the god of death; here vagrant evil spirits prowl and
consume or defile the offerings made to the greater gods. In the more
Hinduized jungle villages some attempt is occasionally made to conform
to this rule, and sometimes, as in the case of the more respectable
Hindu shrines, the door faces the east. But this rule is not universal,
and the site of the shrine is often selected under some suitable
tree, whatever may be its position as regards the homestead, and it
very often commemorates some half-forgotten tragedy, where a man was
carried off by a tiger or slain or murdered, where he fell from a tree
or was drowned in a watercourse. Here some sort of shrine is generally
erected with the object of appeasing the angry spirit of the dead man.

These shrines have no idol, no bell to scare vagrant ghosts and awake
the godling to partake of the offerings or listen to the prayers
of his votaries. If he is believed to be absent or asleep, a drum
is beaten to awaken or recall him, and this answers the additional
purpose of scaring off intruding spirits, who are always hungry and
on the watch to appropriate the offerings of the faithful. Here are
also none of the sacrificial vessels, brazen lamps and cups, which
are largely used in respectable fanes for waving a light before the
deity as part of the service, or for cooling the idol with libations
of water, and the instrument used for sacrificing the victim is only
the ordinary axe which the dweller in the jungle always carries.

There is one special implement which is very commonly found in the
village shrines of the hill country south of the Ganges. This is an
iron chain with a heavy knob at the end, to which a strap, like a
Scotch tawse, is often attached. The chain is ordinarily three and
a half feet long, the tawse two feet, and the total weight is about
seven pounds. This is known as the Gurda; it hangs from the roof of
the shrine, and is believed to be directly under the influence of
the deity, so that it is very difficult to procure a specimen. The
Baiga priest, when his services are required for the exorcism of a
disease ghost, thrashes himself on the back and loins with his chain,
until he works himself up to the proper degree of religious ecstasy.

Among the more primitive Gonds the chain has become a godling and
is regularly worshipped. In serious cases of epilepsy, hysteria,
and the like, which do not readily yield to ordinary exorcism, the
patient is taken to the shrine and severely beaten with the holy
chain until the demon is expelled. This treatment is, I understand,
considered particularly effective in the case of hysteria and kindred
ailments under which young women are wont to suffer, and like the
use of the thong at the Lupercalia at Rome, a few blows of the chain
are considered advisable as a remedy for barrenness. The custom of
castigating girls when they attain puberty prevails among many races
of savages. [237]



Identification of the Local Godling.

The business of selecting a site for a new village or hamlet is one
which needs infinite care and attention to the local godlings of the
place. No place can be chosen without special regard to the local
omens. There is a story told of one of the Gond Rajas of Garh Mandla,
whose attention was first called to the place by seeing a hare,
when pursued by his dogs, turn and chase them. It struck him that
there must be much virtue in the air of a place where a timid animal
acquired such courage. [238] The site of the settlement of Almora is
said to have been selected by one of the kings before whom in this
place a hare was transformed into a tiger. [239] Similar legends are
told of the foundation of many forts and cities.

But it is with the local godlings that the founder of a new settlement
has most concern. The speciality of this class of godlings is
that they frequent only particular places. Each has his separate
jurisdiction, which includes generally one or sometimes a group of
villages. This idea has doubtless promoted the rooted disinclination
of the Hindu to leave his home and come into the domain of a fresh set
of godlings with whom he has no acquaintance, who have never received
due propitiation from him or his forefathers, and who are hence in
all probability inimical to him. But people to whom the local godling
of their village has shown his hostility by bringing affliction upon
them for their neglect of his service, can usually escape from his
malignity by leaving his district. This habit of emigration to escape
the malignity of the offended godling doubtless accounts for many
of the sites of deserted villages, which are scattered all over the
country. We say that they were abandoned on account of a great famine
or a severe epidemic, but to the native mind these afflictions are
the work of the local deity, who could have warded them off had he
been so disposed. Hence when a settlement is being founded it is a
matter of prime necessity that the local godling or group of godlings
should be brought under proper control and carefully identified,
so as to ensure the safety and prosperity of the settlement. The
next and final stage is the establishment of a suitable shrine and
the appointment of a competent priest.

There are, as might have been expected, many methods of identifying
and establishing the local gods. Thus in North Oudh, when a village
is founded the site is marked off by cross stakes of wood driven into
the ground, which are solemnly worshipped on the day of the completion
of the settlement, and then lapse into neglect unless some indication
of the displeasure of the god again direct attention to them. These
crosses, which are called Daharchandi, are particularly frequent and
well-marked in the villages occupied by the aboriginal Tharus in the
sub-Himalayan Tarai, where they may be found in groups of ten or more
on the edge of the cultivated lands. So, among the Santals, a piece
of split bamboo, about three feet high, is placed in the ground in an
inclined position and is called the Sipahi or sentinel of the hamlet;
among the Gonds two curved posts, one of which is much smaller than
the other, represent the male and female tutelary gods. [240]

In the Eastern Districts of the North-Western Provinces a more
elaborate process is carried out, which admirably illustrates the
special form of local worship now under consideration. When the site
of a new settlement is selected, an Ojha is called in to identify
and mark down the deities of the place. He begins by beating a drum
round the place for some time, which is intended to scare vagrant,
outsider ghosts and to call together the local deities. All the people
assemble, and two men, known as the Mattiwah and the Pattiwah, "the
earth man" and "the leaf man," who represent the gods of the soil and
of the trees, soon become filled with the spirit and are found to be
possessed by the local deities. They dance and shout for some time in
a state of religious frenzy, and their disconnected ejaculations are
interpreted by the Ojha, who suddenly rushes upon them, grasps with
his hands at the spirits which are supposed to be circling round them,
and finally pours through their hands some grains of sesamum, which
is received in a perforated piece of the wood of the Gular or sacred
fig-tree. The whole is immediately plastered up with a mixture of clay
and cow-dung, and the wood is carefully buried on the site selected for
the Deohar or local shrine. By this process the deities are supposed to
be fastened up in the sacred wood and to be unable to do any mischief,
provided that the usual periodical offerings are made in their honour.

This system does not seem to prevail among the Dravidian races of the
Vindhyan plateau. Some time ago I discussed the matter with Hannu
Baiga, the chief priest of the Bhuiyas beyond the Son, and he was
pleased to express his unqualified approval of the arrangement. Indeed,
he promised to adopt it himself, but unfortunately Hannu, who was a
mine of information on the religion and demonology of his people, died
before he could apply this test to the local deities of his parish. His
wife has died also, and I understand that he is known to be the head
of all the Bhuts or malignant ghosts of the neighbourhood, while his
wife rules all the Churels who infest that part of the country.

At the same time, to an ordinary Baiga the plan would hardly be as
comfortable as the present arrangement. It would not suit him to
have the local ghosts brought under any control, because he makes his
living by doing the periodical services to propitiate them. Nowadays he
believes fully in the influence of the magic circle and of spirituous
liquor as ghost scarers. Both these principles will be discussed
elsewhere. So he is supposed once a year at least, or oftener in case
of pestilence or other trouble, to perambulate all round the village
boundary, sprinkling a line of spirits as he walks. The idea is to
form a magic circle impervious to strange and, in the nature of the
case, necessarily malignant ghosts, who might wish to intrude from
outside; and to control the resident local deities, and prevent them
from contracting evil habits of mischief by wandering beyond their
prescribed domains.

The worst about this ritual is that the Baiga is apt to be very
deliberate in his movements, and to drink the liquor on the
road and to spoil the symmetry of the circle during his fits of
intoxication. I know of one disreputable shepherd who was upwards of
a fortnight getting round an ordinary sized village, and the levy on
his parishioners to pay the wine bill was, as may easily be imagined,
a very serious matter, to say nothing of several calamities, which
occurred to the inhabitants in their unprotected state owing to his
negligence. At present the feeling in his parish is very strong against
him, and his constituents are thinking of removing him, particularly
as he has only one eye. This is a very dangerous deformity in ordinary
people, but in a Baiga, who is invested with religious functions,
it is most objectionable, and likely to detract from his efficiency.

In Hoshangabad a different system prevails. When a new village is
formed by the aboriginal Kurkus, there is no difficulty in finding the
abode of the godlings Dungar Devata and Mata, because you have only to
look for and discover them upon their hill and under their tree. But
Mutua Devata has generally to be created by taking a heap of stones
from the nearest stream and sacrificing a pig and seven chickens
to him. "There is one ceremony, however, which is worth notice,
not so much as being distinctively Kurku, as illustrating the sense
of mystery and chance which in the native mind seems to be connected
with the idea of measurement, and which arises probably from the fact
that with superficial measures, by heaping lightly or pressing down
tight, very different results can be obtained. A measure is filled
up with grain to the level of the brim, but no head is poured on,
and it is put before Mutua Devata. They watch it all night, and in
the morning pour it out, and measure it again. If the grain now fills
up the measure and leaves enough for a head to it, and still more,
if it brims and runs over, this is a sign that the village will be
very prosperous, and that every cultivator's granaries will run over
in the same way. But it is an evil omen if the grain does not fill up
to the level of the rims of the vessel. A similar practice obtains
in the Narmada valley when they begin winnowing, and some repeat it
every night while the winnowing goes on." [241]

The same custom prevails among the Kols and kindred races in Mirzapur,
who make the bride and bridegroom carry it out as an omen of their
success or failure in life. By carefully packing and pressing down
the grain, any chance of an evil augury is easily avoided. We shall
see later on that measuring the grain is a favourite device intended
to save it from the depredations of evil-minded ghosts.



Worship of Dwara Gusain.

A typical case of the worship of a local godling is found among the
Malers of Chota Nagpur. His name is Dwara Gusain, or "Lord of the
house door." "Whenever from some calamity falling upon the household,
it is considered necessary to propitiate him, the head of the family
cleans a place in front of his door, and sets up a branch of the
tree called Mukmum, which is held very sacred; an egg is placed near
the branch, then a hog is killed and friends feasted; and when the
ceremony is over the egg is broken and the branch placed on the
suppliant's house." [242] Dwara Gusain is now called Barahdvari,
because he is supposed to live in a temple with twelve doors and is
worshipped by the whole village in the month of Magh. [243] The egg is
apparently supposed to hold the deity, and this, it may be remarked,
is not an uncommon folk-lore incident. [244]



Worship of Bhumiya.

One of the most characteristic of the benevolent village godlings is
Bhumiya--"the godling of the land or soil" (bhumi). He is very commonly
known as Khetpal or Kshetrapala, "the protector of the fields"; Khera
or "the homestead mound"; Zamindar or "the landowner"; and in the hills
Saim or Sayam, "the black one" (Sanskrit syama). In the neighbourhood
of Delhi he is a male godling; in Oudh Bhumiya is a goddess and is
called Bhumiya Rani or "soil queen." She is worshipped by spreading
flat cakes and sweetmeats on the ground, which having been exposed
some time to the sun, are eventually consumed by the worshipper and
his family. The rite obviously implies the close connection between
the fertility of the soil and sunshine.

To the west of the Province the creation of Bhumiya's shrine is
"the first formal act by which the proposed site of a village is
consecrated, and when two villages have combined their homesteads
for greater security against the marauders of former days, the people
of the one which moved still worship at the Bhumiya of the deserted
site. Bhumiya is worshipped after the harvests, at marriages, and
on the birth of a male child; and Brahmans are commonly fed in his
name. Women often take their children to the shrine on Sundays, and
the first milk of a cow or buffalo is always offered there." [245]
Young bulls are sometimes released in his honour, and the term Bhumiya
sand has come to be equivalent to our "parish bull."

In the Hills he is regarded by some as a beneficent deity, who does
not, as a rule, force his worship on anyone by possessing them
or injuring their crops. When seed is sown, a handful of grain
is sprinkled over a stone in the field nearest to his shrine, in
order to protect the crop from hail, blight, and the ravages of wild
animals, and at harvest time he receives the first-fruits to protect
the garnered grain from rats and insects. He punishes the wicked and
rewards the virtuous, and is lord of the village, always interested
in its prosperity, and a partaker in the good things provided on
all occasions of rejoicing, such as marriage, the birth of a son,
or any great good fortune. Unlike the other rural deities, he seldom
receives animal sacrifices, but is satisfied with the humblest offering
of the fruits of the earth. [246]

In Gurgaon, again, he is very generally identified with one of the
founders of the village or with a Brahman priest of the original
settlers. The special day for making offerings to him is the fourteenth
day of the month. Some of the Bhumiyas are said to grant the prayers
of their votaries and to punish severely those who offend them. He
visits people who sleep in the vicinity of his shrine with pains in
the chest, and one man who was rash enough to clean his teeth near
his shrine was attacked with sore disease. Those Bhumiyas who thus
bear the reputation of being revengeful and vicious in temper are
respected, and offerings to them are often made, while those who have
the character of easy good-nature are neglected. [247]

In parts of the Panjab [248] Khera Devata or Chanwand is identified
with Bhumiya; according to another account she is a lady and the wife
of Bhumiya, and she sometimes has a special shrine, and is worshipped
on Sunday only. To illustrate the close connection between this worship
of Bhumiya as the soil godling with that of the sainted dead, it may be
noted that in some places the shrine of Bhumiya is identified with the
Jathera, which is the ancestral mound, sacred to the common ancestor of
the village or tribe. One of the most celebrated of these Jatheras is
Kala Mahar, the ancestor of the Sindhu Jats, who has peculiar influence
over cows, and to whom the first milk of every cow is offered. The
place of the Jathera is, however, often taken by the Theh or mound
which marks the site of the original village of the tribe.

But Bhumiya, a simple village godling, is already well on his way to
promotion to the higher heaven. In Patna some have already begun to
identify him with Vishnu. In the Hills the same process is going on,
and he is beginning to be known as Saim, a corruption of Svayambhuva,
the Bauddha form now worshipped in Nepal. In the plains he is
becoming promoted under the title of Bhumisvara Mahadeva and his
spouse Bhumisvari Devi, both of whom have temples at Banda. [249]
In the Hills it is believed that he sometimes possesses people, and
the sign of this is that the hair of the scalplock becomes hopelessly
entangled. This reminds us of that very Mab "that plaits the manes
of horses in the night and bakes the elflocks in foul sluttish hairs,
which once untangled much misfortune bodes."

It was a common English belief that all who have communication with
fairies find their hair all tied in double knots. [250] As we shall see
later on, the hair is universally regarded as an entry for spirits,
perhaps, as Mr. Campbell suggests, because it leads to the opening
in the skull through which the dying spirit makes its exit. Hence
many of the customs connected with letting the hair loose, cutting
it off or shaving.

No less than eighty-five thousand persons declared themselves, at
the last census, to be worshippers of Bhumiya in the North-Western
Provinces, while in the Panjab they numbered only one hundred and
sixty-three.



Worship of Bhairon.

Bhumiya, again, is often confounded with Bhairon, another warden
godling of the land; while, to illustrate the extraordinary jumble
of these mythologies, Bhairon, who is almost certainly the Karo Bairo
(Kal Bhairon) of the Bhuiyas of Keunjhar, is identified by them with
Bhimsen. [251]

Bhairon has a curious history. There is little doubt that he was
originally a simple village deity; but with a slight change of name
he has been adopted into Brahmanism as Bhairava, "the terrible one,"
one of the most awful forms of Siva, while the female form Bhairavi
is an equivalent for Devi, a worship specially prevalent among Jogis
and Saktas. On the other hand, the Jainas worship Bhairava as the
protector or agent of the Jaina church and community, and do not
offer him flesh and blood sacrifices, but fruits and sweetmeats. [252]

In his Saiva form he is often called Svasva, or "he who rides
on a dog," and this vehicle of his marks him down at once as an
offshoot from the village Bhairon, because all through Upper India
the favourite method of conciliating Bhairon is to feed a black dog
until he is surfeited.

One of his distinctive forms is Kal Bhairon, or Kala Bhairava, whose
image depicted with his dog is often found as a sort of warden in Saiva
temples. One of his most famous shrines is at Kalinjar, of which Abul
Fazl says "marvellous tales are related." [253] He is depicted with
eighteen arms and is ornamented with the usual garlands of skulls,
with snake earrings and snake armlets and a serpent twined round his
head. In his hands he holds a sword and a bowl of blood. In the Panjab
he is said to frighten away death, and in Rajputana Col. Tod calls
him "the blood-stained divinity of war." [254] The same godling is
known in Bombay as Bhairoba, of whom Mr. Campbell [255] writes--"He is
represented as a standing male figure with a trident in the left hand
and a drum (damaru) in the right, and encircled with a serpent. When
thus represented he is called Kala Bhairava. But generally he is
represented by a rough stone covered over with oil and red lead. He
is said to be very terrible, and, when offended, difficult to be
pleased. By some he is believed to be an incarnation of Siva himself,
and by others as a spirit much in favour with the god Siva. He is
also consulted as an oracle. When anyone is desirous of ascertaining
whether anything he is about to undertake will turn out according to
his wishes, he sticks two unbroken betel-nuts, one on each breast
of the stone image of Bhairava, and tells it, if his wish is to be
accomplished, that the right or left nut is to fall first. It is
said, like other spirits, Bhairava is not a subordinate of Vetala,
and that when he sets out on his circuit at night, he rides a black
horse and is accompanied by a black dog."

In the Panjab he [256] is usually represented as an inferior deity,
a stout black figure, with a bottle of wine in his hand; he is an evil
spirit, and his followers drink wine and eat meat. One set of ascetics,
akin to the Jogis, besmear themselves with red powder and oil and go
about begging and singing the praises of Bhairon, with bells or gongs
hung about their loins and striking themselves with whips. They are
found mainly in large towns, and are not celibates. Their chief place
of pilgrimage is the Girnar Hill in Kathiawar. That very old temple,
the Bhairon Ka Asthan near Lahore, is so named from a quaint legend
regarding Bhairon, connected with its foundation. In the old days the
Dhinwar girls of Riwari used to be married to the godling at Bandoda,
but they always died soon after, and the custom has been abandoned. We
shall meet later on other instances of the marriage of girls to a god.

As a village godling Bhairon appears in various forms as Lath Bhairon
or "Bhairon of the club," which approximates him to Bhimsen, Battuk
Bhairon or "the child Bhairon," and Nand Bhairon, in which we may
possibly trace a connection with the legend of the divine child
Krishna and his foster-father Nanda. In Benares, again, he is known
as Bhaironnath or "Lord Bhairon," and Bhut Bhairon, "Ghost Bhairon,"
and he is regarded as the deified magistrate of the city, who guards
all the temples of Siva and saves his votaries from demons. [257]

But in his original character as a simple village godling Bhairon is
worshipped with milk and sweetmeats as the protector of fields, cattle
and homestead. Some worship him by pouring spirits at his shrine and
drinking there; and on a new house being built, he is propitiated to
expel the local ghosts. He is respected even by Muhammadans as the
minister of the great saint Sakhi Sarwar, and in this connection is
usually known as Bhairon Jati or "Bhairon the chaste." [258] But as we
have seen, he is becoming rapidly promoted into the more respectable
cabinet of the gods, and his apotheosis will possibly finally take
place at the great Saiva shrine of Mandhata on the Narmada, with
which a local legend closely connects him. [259] All over Northern
India his stone fetish is found in close connection with the images
of the greater gods, to whom he acts the part of guardian, and this,
as we have already seen, probably marks a stage in his promotion.

He has, according to the last census, only five thousand followers
in the Panjab, as compared with one hundred and and seventy-five
thousand in the North-Western Provinces.



Worship of Ganesa.

On pretty much the same stage as these warden godlings whom we have
been considering is Ganesa, whose name means "lord of the Ganas"
or inferior deities, especially those in attendance on Siva. He
is represented as a short, fat man, of a yellow colour, with a
protuberant belly, four hands, and the head of an elephant with a
single tusk. Parvati is said to have formed him from the scurf of
her body, and so proud was she of her offspring that she showed him
to the ill-omened Sani, who when he looked at him reduced his head
to ashes. Brahma advised her to replace the head with the first she
could find, and the first she found was that of an elephant. Another
story says that Ganesa's head was that of the elephant of Indra, and
that one of his tusks was broken off by the axe of Parasurama. Ganesa
is the god of learning, the patron of undertakings and the remover of
obstacles. Hence he is worshipped at marriages, and his quaint figure
stands over the house door and the entrance of the greater temples. But
there can be little doubt that he, too, is an importation from the
indigenous mythology. His elephant head and the rat as his vehicle
suggest that his worship arose from the primitive animal cultus.



The Worship of the Great Mothers.

From these generally benevolent village godlings we pass on to a
very obscure form of local worship, that of the Great Mothers. It
prevails both in Aryan and Semetic lands, [260] and there can be very
little doubt that it is founded on some of the very earliest beliefs
of the human race. No great religion is without its deified woman,
the Virgin, Maya, Radha, Fatimah, and it has been suggested that the
cultus has come down from a time before the present organization of
the family came into existence, and when descent through the mother
was the only recognized form. [261]

We have already met instances of this mother-worship in the case of
Ganga Mai, "Mother Ganges," and Dharti Mata, "the Earth Mother." We
shall meet it again in Sitala Mata, "the small-pox Mother."

In the old mythology Aditi, or infinite space, was regarded as the
Eternal Mother, and Prakriti was the Eternal Mother, capable of
evolving all created things out of herself, but never so creating
unless united with the eternal spirit principle embodied in the Eternal
Male, Parusha. There appears to have been a tendency on the part of
the Indo-Germanic race to look upon their deities as belonging to
both sexes at once, and hence the dualistic idea in Brahmanism of
Ardhanari, or the androgynous Siva. [262]

We shall meet later on with the ghost of the unpurified mother,
the Churel, which is based on a different but cognate association of
ideas. Akin to this, again, is the worship of the Sati, or model wife,
to which we shall refer again, and that of the Charan women of Gujarat,
who were obliged to immolate themselves to prevent outrage from the
Kolis and other freebooters.

This worship, probably derived from one of the so-called non-Aryan
races, was subsequently developed into that of the female energies
of the greater gods, a Brahmani of Brahma, Indrani of Indra, and
so on; and thus the simple worship of the mother has developed and
degenerated into the abominations of the Tantras. These mothers
are usually regarded as eight in number, the Ashta Matri, but the
enumeration of them varies. Sometimes there are only seven--Brahmi or
Brahmani, Maheshvari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Indrani or Aindrani,
or Mahendri and Chamunda. Sometimes the number is nine--Brahmani,
Vaishnavi, Raudri, Varahi, Narasinhika, Kaumari, Mahendri, Chamunda,
Chandika. Sometimes sixteen--Gauri, Padma, Sachi, Medha, Savitri,
Vijaya, Jaya, Devasena, Svadha, Svaha, Santi, Pushti, Dhriti, Tushti,
Atmadevata, Kuladevata. [263] They are closely connected with the
worship of Siva and are attendants on his son Skanda, or Karttikeya,
and rise in the later mythology to a much greater number.



Mother-worship in Gujarat.

But it is in Gujarat that this form of worship prevails most widely
at the present day. Sir Monier-Williams enumerates about one hundred
and forty distinct Mothers, besides numerous varieties of the more
popular forms. They are probably all local deities of the Churel
type, who have been adopted into Brahmanism. Some are represented
by rudely carved images, others by simple shrines, and others are
remarkable for preferring empty shrines, and the absence of all
visible representations. Each has special functions. Thus one called
Khodiar, or "mischief," is said to cause trouble unless propitiated;
another called Antai causes and prevents whooping cough; another named
Berai prevents cholera; another called Maraki causes cholera; Hadakai
controls mad dogs and prevents hydrophobia; Asapura, represented by
two idols, satisfies the hopes of wives by giving children. Not a few
are worshipped either as causing or preventing demoniacal possession
as a form of disease. The offering of a goat's blood to some of these
Mothers is regarded as very effectual. A story is told of a Hindu
doctor who cured a whole village of an outbreak of violent influenza,
attributed to the malignant influence of an angry Mother goddess, by
simply assembling the inhabitants, muttering some cabalistic texts,
and solemnly letting loose a pair of scapegoats in a neighbouring wood
as an offering to the offended deity. One of these Mothers is connected
with the curious custom of the Couvade, which will be discussed later
on. [264] Another famous Gujarat Mother is Amba Bhavani. On the eighth
night of the Nauratra the Rana of Danta attends the worship, fans the
goddess with a horsehair fly-flapper, celebrates the fire sacrifice,
and fills with sweetmeats a huge cauldron, which, on the fall of
the garland from the neck of the goddess, the Bhils empty. Among
the offerings to her are animal sacrifice and spirituous liquor. The
image is a block of stone roughly hewn into the semblance of a human
figure. [265]



Mother-worship in Upper India.

In the Hills what is known as the Matri Puja is very popular. The
celebrant takes a plank and cleans it with rice flour. On it he
draws sixteen figures representing the Matris, and to the right
of them a representation of Ganesa. Figures of the sun and moon
are also delineated, and a brush made of sacred grass is dipped in
cow-dung and the figures touched with it. After the recital of verses,
a mixture of sugar and butter is let drop on the plank, three, five,
or seven times. The celebrant then marks the forehead of the person for
whose benefit the service is intended with a coin soaked in butter,
and keeps the money as his fee. The service concludes with a waving
of lamps to scare vicious ghosts, singing of hymns and offering of
gifts to Brahmans. [266]

At Khalari, in the Raepur District of the Central Provinces, is a
Sati pillar worshipped under the name of Khalari Mata. According to
the current legend Khalari Mata often assumes a female human form and
goes to the adjacent fairs, carrying vegetables for sale. Whoever asks
any gift from her receives it. Once a young man returning from a fair
was overtaken by a strange woman on the road, who said she was going
to see her sister. She asked him to go in front, and said that she
would follow. Not wishing to allow a beautiful young woman to travel
alone at night, he hid himself among some bushes. Presently he heard
a great jingling noise and saw a four-armed woman go up the steep,
bare hill and disappear. It was quite certain that this was Khalari
Mata herself. [267]

In many parts of the plains, Maya, the mother of Buddha, has been
introduced into the local worship as the Ganwdevi, or village
goddess. Her statues, which are very numerous in some places, are
freely utilized for this purpose. In the same way a figure of the
Buddha Asvaghosha is worshipped at Deoriya in the Allahabad District
as Srinagari Devi. [268]



The Jungle Mothers.

As an instance of another type of Mother-worship we may take Poru Mai
of Nadiya. She is "represented by a little piece of rough black stone
painted with red ochre, and placed beneath the boughs of an ancient
banyan tree. She is said to have been in the heart of the jungles,
with which Nadiya was originally covered, and to have suffered
from the fire which Raja Kasi Nath's men lighted to burn down the
jungle." [269] She is, in fact, a Mother goddess of the jungle, of
whom there are numerous instances. In the North-Western Provinces she
is usually known as Banspati or Bansapati Mai (Vanaspati, "mistress
of the wood"). Agni, the fire god, is described in the Rig Veda as
"the son of the Vanaspatis," or the deities of the large, old forest
trees. [270] Another name for her in the Western Districts is Asarori,
because her shrine is a pile of pebbles (rori) in which her votaries
have confidence (asa) that it will protect them from harm. The shrine
of the jungle mother is usually a pile of stones and branches to which
every passer-by contributes. When she is displeased she allows a tiger
or a leopard to kill her negligent votary. She is the great goddess
of the herdsmen and other dwellers in the forest, and they vow to her
a cock, a goat, or a young pig if she saves them and their cattle
from beasts of prey. Sometimes she is identified with the Churel,
more often with a Havva or Bhut, the spirit, usually malignant, of
some one who has met untimely death in the jungle. Akin to her is
the Ghataut of Mirzapur, who is the deity of dangerous hill passes
(ghat) and is worshipped in the same way, and Baghaut, the ghost of
a man who was killed by a tiger (bagh). These all, in the villages
along the edge of the jungle, merge in character and function with
the divine council, or Deohar, of the local gods.



Other Mother Goddesses.

Another of these divine mothers, Mata Januvi or Janami, the goddess
of births, is a sort of Juno Lucina among the Rajputs, like the Greek
Ilithyia, or the Carmenta of the Romans. Her power rests in a bead,
and all over Northern India midwives carry as a charm to secure
easy delivery a particular sort of bead, known as Kailas Maura, or
"the crown of the sacred mountain Kailasa." Difficult parturition is
a disease caused by malignant spirits, and numerous are the devices
to cure it. The ancient Britons, we are told, [271] used to bind a
magic girdle, impressed with numerous mystical figures, round the
waist of the expectant mother, and the jewel named Aetites, found
in the eagle's nest, applied to the thigh of one in labour, eases
pain and quickens delivery. Sir W. Scott [272] had a small stone,
called a toad-stone, which repelled demons from lying-in women.

On the sacred plain of Kurukshetra there once stood a fort, known
as Chakravyuha, and to the moderns as Chakabu Ka Qila, from which to
the present day immense ancient bricks are occasionally dug. Popular
belief ascribes great efficacy to these bricks, and in cases of
protracted labour, one of them is soaked in water, which is given to
the patient to drink. Sometimes an image of the fort, which is in the
form of a labyrinth or maze, is drawn on a dish, which is first shown
to the mother and then washed in water, which is administered to the
woman. All through Nepal and the neighbouring districts, the local
rupee, which is covered with Saiva emblems, is used in the same way,
and Akbar's square rupee, known as the Charyari, because it bears the
names of the four companions (Char-Yar) of the Prophet, is credited
with the same power. There are numerous Mantras or mystic formulae
which are used for the same purpose.

Dread famine has become a goddess under the title of Bhukhi Mata,
the "hunger Mother," who, like all the deities of this class, is
of a lean and starved appearance. [273] An interesting ceremony
for the exorcism of the hunger Mother is recorded from Bombay. The
people subscribed to purchase ten sheep, fifty fowls, one hundred
cocoanuts, betel nuts, sugar, clarified butter, frankincense, red
powder, turmeric, and flowers. A day previous to the commencement
of the ceremony, all the inhabitants of the village, taking with
them their clothes, vessels, cattle, and other movable goods, left
their houses and encamped at the gate or boundary of the village. At
the village gate a triumphal arch was erected, and it was adorned
with garlands of flowers and mango leaves covered with red powder
and turmeric. All these things are, as we shall see, well known
as scarers of demons. The villagers bathed, put on new clothes,
and then a procession was formed. On coming to the triumphal arch
the whole procession was stopped. A hole was dug in the ground,
and the village watchman put in it the head of a sheep, a cocoanut,
betel nuts, with leaves and flowers. The arch was then worshipped by
each of the villagers. The village watchman first entered the arch,
and he was followed by the villagers with music, loud cheering, and
clapping of hands. The whole party then went to the village temple,
bowed to the village god, and went to their respective houses. The
blood of the ten sheep and fifty fowls was offered to the village god,
and the flesh was distributed among the people. A dinner was given to
Brahmans and the rite came to an end. [274] The idea of the sanctity of
the arch is probably based on the same principle as that of perforated
stones, to which reference will be made in another connection.

Greatest of all the mother goddesses of the Rajputs is Mama Devi,
the mother of the gods. She is thus on the same plane as Cybele Rhea
and Demeter, the Corn Mother, who gives the kindly increase of the
fruits of the earth. In one of her temples she is represented in the
midst of her numerous family, including the greater and the minor
divinities. Their statues are all of the purest marble, each about
three feet high and tolerably executed, though evidently since the
decline of the art. [275]



Worship of Gansam Deo.

We now come to consider some divinities special to the Dravidian
races, who touch on the North-Western Provinces to the south, across
the Kaimur and Vindhyan ranges, the physical as well as the ethnical
frontier between the valleys of the Ganges and Jumna and the mountain
country of Central India. The chief Gond deity is Gansam Deo. Some
vague attempt has been made to elevate him into the pantheon of
Brahmanism, and his name has been corrupted into Ghanasyama, which
means in Sanskrit, "black like the heavy rain clouds of the rainy
season," and is an epithet of Rama and of Krishna. One legend derives
him from an actual Gond chieftain, just as many of the local godlings
whom we shall consider afterwards have sprung from real living persons
of eminence, or those who have lost their lives in some exceptional
way. It is said that this chieftain was devoured by a tiger soon after
his marriage. As might have been expected, his spirit was restless,
and one year after his death he visited his wife and she conceived
by him. Instances of such miraculous conceptions are common in
folk-lore. [276] "The descendants of this ghostly embrace are, it is
said, living to this day at Amoda, in the Central Provinces. He, about
the same time, appeared to many of his old friends, and persuaded them
that he could save them from the maws of tigers and other calamities,
if his worship were duly inaugurated and regularly performed; and in
consequence of this, two festivals in the year were established in
his honour; but he may be worshipped at any time, and in all sickness
and misfortunes his votaries confidently appeal to him." [277]

In the Hill country of Mirzapur, the shrine of Gansam is about one
hundred yards from the village site and without any ornamentation. Both
inside and outside is a platform of mud, on which the deity can rest
when so disposed. The only special offerings to him are the curious
water-pots (kalsa) already described, and some rude clay figures of
horses and elephants, which are regarded as the equipage (sawari) of
the deity. In the Central Provinces, "a bamboo with a red or yellow
flag tied to the end is planted in one corner, an old withered garland
or two is hung up, a few blocks of rough stone, some smeared with
vermilion, are strewn about the place which is specially dedicated
to Gansam Deo." [278]



Worship of Dantan Deo and Lalita.

To the east of the Mirzapur District, there is a projecting mass
of rock, which, looked at from a particular place, bears a rude
resemblance to a hideous, grinning skull, with enormous teeth. This
has come to be known as Dantan Deo or "the deity of the teeth,"
and is carefully propitiated by people when they are sick or in
trouble. Akin to this deity is Lalita, who is worshipped to the west
of the Province. She is the sister of Kali, and brings bad dreams. Her
speciality is her long teeth, and she has sometimes a curious way
of blowing up or inflating the bodies of people who do not pay her
due respect.



Worship of Dulha Deo, the Bridegroom Godling.

Another great godling of the Dravidian races is Dulha Deo, "the
bridegroom godling." In his worship we have an echo of some great
tragedy, which still exercises a profound influence over the minds
of the people.

The bridegroom on his way to fetch the bride, is, by established
Hindu custom, treated with special reverence, and this unfortunate
bridegroom, whose name is forgotten, is said to have been killed by
lightning in the midst of his marriage rejoicings, and he and his
horse were turned into stone. In fact, like Ganymede or Hylas, he was
carried off by the envy or cruel love of the merciless divine powers.

He is now one of the chief household deities of the Dravidian
people. Flowers are offered to him on the last day of Phalgun
(February), and at marriages a goat. Among some of the Gond tribes
he has the first place, and is identified with Pharsipen, the god
of war. In the native States of Riwa and Sarguja, even Brahmans
worship him, and his symbol or fetish is the battle-axe, the national
weapon of the Dravidian races, fastened to a tree. In Mirzapur he
is pre-eminently the marriage godling. In the marriage season he is
worshipped in the family cook-room, and at weddings oil and turmeric
are offered to him. When two or three children in the same hamlet
are being married at the same time, there is a great offering made
of a red goat and cakes; and to mark the benevolent character of the
deity as a household godling, the women, contrary to the usual rule,
are allowed a share of the meat. This purely domestic worship is
not done by the Baiga or devil priest, but by the Tikait or eldest
son of the family. He is specially the tribal god of the Ghasiyas,
who pour a little spirits in the cook-room in honour of him and of
deceased relatives. The songs in his honour lay special stress on the
delicacies which the house-mother prepares for his entertainment. Among
the Kharwars, when the newly married pair come home, he is worshipped
near the family hearth. A goat is fed on rice and pulse, and its head
is cut off with an axe, the worshipper folding his hands and saying,
"Take it, Dulha Deo!"

On the day when this worship is performed, the ashes of the fireplace
are carefully removed with the hands, a broom is not used, and special
precautions are taken that none of the ashes fall on the ground.

General Sleeman gives the legend of Dulha Deo in another form.

"In descending into the valley of the Narmada over the Vindhya range
from Bhopal, one may see on the side of the road, upon a spur of
the hill, a singular pillar of sandstone rising in two spires, one
turning and rising above the other to the height of some twenty to
thirty feet. On the spur of a hill, half a mile distant, is another
sandstone pillar not quite so high. The tradition is that the smaller
pillar was the affianced bride of the larger one, who was a youth
of a family of great eminence in those parts. Coming with his uncle
to pay his first visit to his bride in the marriage procession, he
grew more and more impatient as he approached nearer and nearer,
and she shared the feeling. At last, unable to restrain himself,
he jumped from his uncle's shoulders, and looked with all his might
towards the place where his bride was said to be seated. Unhappily
she felt no less impatient than he did, and they saw each other at
the same moment. In that moment the bride, bridegroom, and uncle were,
all three, converted into pillars, and there they stand to this day,
a monument to warn mankind against an inclination to indulge in
curiosity. It is a singular fact that in one of the most extensive
tribes of the Gond population, to which this couple is said to have
belonged, the bride always, contrary to the usual Hindu custom,
goes to the bridegroom in procession to prevent a recurrence of this
calamity." [279]

This legend is interesting from various points of view. In the first
place it is an example of a process of thought of which we shall find
instances in dealing with fetishism, whereby a legend is localized in
connection with some curious phenomenon in the scenery, which attracts
general attention. Secondly, we have an instance of the primitive
taboo which appears constantly in folk-lore, where, as in the case
of Lot's wife, the person who shows indiscreet curiosity by a look is
turned into stone or ashes. [280] Thirdly, it may represent a survival
of a custom not uncommon among primitive races, where the marriage
capturing is done, not by the bridegroom, but by the bride. Thus,
among the Garos, all proposals of marriage must come from the lady's
side, and any infringement of the custom can only be atoned for by
liberal presents of beer given to her relations by the friends of
the bridegroom, who pretends to be unwilling and runs away, but is
caught and subjected to ablution, and then taken, in spite of the
resistance and counterfeited grief and lamentations of the parents,
to the bride's house. [281] It may then reasonably be expected that
this custom of marriage prevailed among some branches of the Gond
tribe, and that as they came more and more under Hindu influence,
an unorthodox ritual prevailing in certain clans was explained by
annexing the familiar legend of Dulha Deo.







CHAPTER III.

THE GODLINGS OF DISEASE.


                Kai gar toisi kakon chrysothronos Artemis orsen
                Chosamene ho oi outi thalysia gouno aloes
                Oineus rhex.

                                                      Iliad ix. 533-535.


We now come to consider a class of rural godlings, the deities who
control disease.



The Demoniacal Theory of Disease.

It is a commonplace of folk-lore and the beliefs of all savage
races that disease and death are not the result of natural causes,
but are the work of devils and demons, witchcraft, the Evil Eye,
and so forth. It is not difficult to understand the basis on which
beliefs of this class depend. There are certain varieties of disease,
such as hysteria, dementia, epilepsy, convulsions, the delirium of
fever, which in the rural mind indicate the actual working of an evil
spirit which has attacked the patient. There are, again, others, such
as cholera, which are so sudden and unexpected, so irregular in their
appearances, so capricious in the victims which they select, that they
naturally suggest the idea that they are caused by demons. Even to
this day the belief in the origin of disease from spirit possession
is still common in rural England. Fits, the falling sickness, ague,
cramp, warts, are all believed to be caused by a spirit entering the
body of the patient. Hence comes the idea that the spirit which is
working the mischief can be scared by a charm or by the exorcism of
a sorcerer. They say to the ague, "Ague! farewell till we meet in
hell," and to the cramp, "Cramp! be thou faultless, as Our Lady was
when she bore Jesus."

It is needless to say that the same theory flourishes in rural
India. Thus, in Rajputana, [282] sickness is popularly attributed to
Khor, or the agency of the offended spirits of deceased relations,
and for treatment they call in a "cunning man," who propitiates the
Khor by offering sweetmeats, milk, and similar things, and gives burnt
ash and black pepper sanctified by charms to the patient. The Mahadeo
Kolis of Ahmadnagar believe that every malady or disease that seizes
man, woman, child, or cattle is caused either by an evil spirit or
by an angry god. The Bijapur Vaddars have a yearly feast to their
ancestors to prevent the dead bringing sickness into the house. [283]

Further east in North Bhutan all diseases are supposed to be due to
possession, and the only treatment is by the use of exorcisms. Among
the Garos, when a man sickens the priest asks which god has done
it. The Kukis and Khandhs believe that all sickness is caused by a
god or by an offended ancestor. [284]

So among the jungle tribes of Mirzapur, the Korwas believe that all
disease is caused by the displeasure of the Deohar, or the collective
village godlings. These deities sometimes become displeased for
no apparent reason, sometimes because their accustomed worship is
neglected, and sometimes through the malignity of some witch. The
special diseases which are attributed to the displeasure of these
godlings are fever, diarrhoea and cough. If small-pox comes of its
own accord in the ordinary form, it is harmless, but a more dangerous
variety is attributed to the anger of the local deities. Cholera
and fever are regarded as generally the work of some special Bhut or
angry ghost. The Kharwars believe that disease is due to the Baiga not
having paid proper attention to Raja Chandol and the other tutelary
godlings of the village. The Pankas think that disease comes in
various ways--sometimes through ghosts or witches, sometimes because
the godlings and deceased ancestors were not suitably propitiated. All
these people believe that in the blazing days of the Indian summer
the goddess Devi flies through the air and strikes any child which
wears a red garment. The result is the symptoms which less imaginative
people call sunstroke. Instances of similar beliefs drawn from the
superstitions of the lower races all over the country might be almost
indefinitely extended. Even in our own prayers for the sick we pray the
Father "to renew whatsoever has been decayed by the fraud and malice
of the Devil, or by the carnal will and frailness" of the patient.

Leprosy is a disease which is specially regarded as a punishment for
sin, and a Hindu affected by this disease remains an outcast until he
can afford to undertake a purificatory ceremony. Even lesser ailments
are often attributed to the wrath of some offended god or saint. Thus,
in Satara, the King Sateswar asked the saint Sumitra for water. The
sage was wrapped in contemplation, and did not answer him. So the
angry monarch took some lice from the ground and threw them at the
saint, who cursed the King with vermin all over his body. He endured
the affliction for twelve years, until he was cured by ablution at
the sacred fountain of Devrashta. [285] As we shall see, the Bengalis
have a special deity who rules the itch.

From ideas of this kind the next stage is the actual impersonation of
the deity who brings disease, and hence the troop of disease godlings
which are worshipped all over India, and to whose propitiation much
of the thoughts of the peasant are devoted.



Sitala, the Goddess of Small-pox.

Of these deities the most familiar is Sitala, "she that loves the
cool," so called euphemistically in consequence of the fever which
accompanies small-pox, the chief infant plague of India, which is under
her control. Sitala has other euphemistic names. She is called Mata,
"the Mother" par excellence; Jag Rani, "the queen of the world;"
Phapholewali, "she of the vesicle;" Kalejewali, "she who attacks the
liver," which is to the rustic the seat of all disease. Some call
her Maha Mai, "the great Mother." These euphemistic titles for the
deities of terror are common to all the mythologies. The Greeks of old
called the awful Erinyes, the Eumenides, "the well-meaning." So the
modern Greeks picture the small-pox as a woman, the enemy of children,
and call her Sunchoremene, "indulgent," or "exorable," and Eulogia,
"one to be praised or blessed;" and the Celts call the fairies "the
men of peace" and "the good people," or "good neighbours." [286]

In her original form as a village goddess she has seldom a special
priest or a regular temple. A few fetish stones, tended by some
low-class menial, constitute her shrine. As she comes to be promoted
into some form of Kali or Devi, she is provided with an orthodox
shrine. She receives little or no respect from men, but women and
children attend her service in large numbers on "Sitala's seventh,"
Sitala Ki Saptami, which is her feast day. In Bengal she is worshipped
on a piece of ground marked out and smeared with cow-dung. A fire
being lighted, and butter and spirits thrown upon it, the worshipper
makes obeisance, bowing his forehead to the ground and muttering
incantations. A hog is then sacrificed, and the bones and offal being
burnt, the flesh is roasted and eaten, but no one must take home with
him any scrap of the victim. [287]

Two special shrines of Sitala in Upper India may be specially referred
to. That at Kankhal near Hardwar has a curious legend, which admirably
illustrates the catholicity of Hinduism. Here the local Sitala has
the special title of Turkin, or "the Muhammadan lady." There was once
a princess born to one of the Mughal Emperors, who, according to the
traditions of the dynasty, when many of the chief ladies of the harem
were of Hindu birth, had a warm sympathy for her ancestral faith. So
she made a pilgrimage to Hardwar, and thence set off to visit the holy
shrines situated in the upper course of the Ganges. When she reached
the holy land of Badarinath, the god himself appeared to her in a
dream, and warned her that she being a Musalman, her intrusion into
his domains would probably encourage the attacks of the infidel. So
he ordered her to return and take up her abode in Kankhal, where as a
reward for her piety she should after her death become the guardian
goddess of children and be deified as a manifestation of Sitala. So
after her death a temple was erected on the site of her tomb, and she
receives the homage of multitudes of pilgrims. There is another noted
shrine of Sitala at Raewala, in the Dehra Dun District. She is a Sati,
Gandhari, the wife of Dhritarashtra, the mother of Duryodhana. When
Dhritarashtra, through the force of his divine absorption, was consumed
with fire at Sapta-srota, near Hardwar, Gandhari also jumped into
the fire and became Sati with her husband. Then, in recognition of
her piety, the gods blessed her with the boon that in the Iron Age
she should become the guardian deity of children and the goddess of
small-pox in particular. Another noted Sitala in this part of the
country is the deity known as Ujali Mata, or "the White Mother,"
who has a shrine in the Muzaffarnagar District. Here vast crowds
assemble, and women make vows at her temple for the boon of sons,
and when a child is born they take it there and perform their vow
by making the necessary offering to the goddess. One peculiarity of
the worship of the Kankhal goddess and of Ujali Mata is that calves
are released at her shrine. This can hardly be anything else but a
survival of the rite of cattle slaughter, and this is one of many
indications that the worship of Sitala is a most primitive cult,
and probably of indigenous origin.

Sitala, according to one story, is only the eldest of a band of seven
sisters, by whom the pustular group of diseases is supposed to be
caused. So the charmer Lilith has twelve daughters, who are the twelve
kinds of fevers, and this arrangement of diseases or evil spirits in
categories of sevens or twelves is found in the Chaldaic magic. [288]
Similarly in the older Indian mythology we have the seven Matris,
the seven oceans, the seven Rishis, the seven Adityas and Danavas,
and the seven horses of the sun, and numerous other combinations of
this mystic number. One list gives their names as Sitala, Masani,
Basanti, Maha Mai, Polamde, Lamkariya, and Agwani. [289] We shall
meet Masani or Masan, the deity of the cremation ground, in another
connection. Basanti is the "yellow goddess," so called probably on
account of the colour of the skin in these diseases. Maha Mai is merely
"the great Mother." Polamde is possibly "she who makes the body soft or
flabby," and Lamkariya, "she that hasteneth." Agwani is said to mean
"the leader," and by one account, Agwan, who has twenty-five thousand
votaries, according to the last census returns, in the North-West
Provinces, is the son of Raja Ben, or Vena, and the brother of the
small-pox sisters. At Hardwar they give the names of the seven sisters
as Sitala, Sedala, Runuki, Jhunuki, Mihila, Merhala, and Mandila, a
set of names which smacks of some modification of an aboriginal cultus.

Their shrines cluster round the special shrine of Sitala, and the
villagers to the west of the North-West Provinces call them her
Khidmatgars, or body servants. Round many of the shrines again, as at
Kankhal, we find a group of minor shrines, which by one explanation
are called the shrines of the other disease godlings. Villagers
say that when disease appears in a family, the housewife comes and
makes a vow, and if the patient recovers she makes a little shrine
to the peculiar form of Devi which she considers responsible for the
illness. The Brahmans say that these minor shrines are in honour
of the Yoginis, who are usually said to number eight--Marjani,
Karpuratilaka, Malayagandhini Kauamudika, Bherunda, Matali, Nayaki,
Jaya or Subhachara, Sulakshana and Sunanda. In the Gurgaon District,
accompanying images of Sitala, is one of Sedhu Lala, who is inferior
to her, yet often worshipped before her, because he is regarded as her
servant and intercessor. Copper coins are thrown behind her shrine into
a saucer, which is known as her Malkhana or Treasury. Rice and other
articles of food are placed in front of her shrine, and afterwards
distributed to Chamars, the currier caste, and to dogs. [290]

Like so many deities of this class Sitala is on the way to promotion
to the higher heaven. In some places she is identified with Kalika
Bhavani, and one list of the seven small-pox sisters gives their
names as Sitala, Phulmati, Chamariya, Durga Kali, Maha Kali,
and Bhadra Kali. This has obviously passed through the mill of
Brahmanism. Of these, Chamariya is doubtless allied to Chamar, who is
a vaguely described low-caste deity, worshipped in the North-Western
Provinces. Some say he is the ghost of a Chamar, or worker in leather,
who died an untimely death. Chamariya is said to be the eldest and
Phulmati the youngest sister of Sitala. She, by the common account,
takes her name from the pustules (phul) of the disease. She brings
the malady in its mildest form, and the worst variety is the work
of Sitala in person. She lives in the Nim tree, and hence a patient
suffering from the disease is fanned with its leaves. A very bad
form of confluent small-pox is the work of Chamariya, who must be
propitiated with the offering of a pig through a Chamar or other
low-caste priest. The influence of Kali in her threefold form is
chiefly felt in connection with other pustular diseases besides
small-pox. Earthenware images of elephants are placed at her shrine,
and her offerings consist of cakes, sweetmeats, pigs, goats, sheep,
and black fowls. Bhadra Kali is the least formidable of all. The only
person who has influence over Kali is the Ojha, or sorcerer, who,
when cholera and similar epidemics prevail, collects a subscription
and performs a regular expiatory service.



Connection of Sitala with Human Sacrifice.

In her form as household goddess, Sitala is often known as Thandi,
or "the cool one," and her habitation is in the house behind the
water-pots, in the cold, damp place where the water drips. Here she
is worshipped by the house-mother, but only cold food or cold water
is offered to her.

There is, however, a darker side to the worship of Sitala and the
other disease godlings than this mild household service. In 1817
a terrible epidemic of cholera broke out at Jessore. "The disease
commenced its ravages in August, and it was at once discovered that
the August of this year had five Saturdays (a day under the influence
of the ill-omened Sani). The number five being the express property of
the destructive Siva, a mystical connection was at once detected, the
infallibly baneful influence of which it would have been sacrilege to
question. On the night of the 27th a strange commotion spread through
the villages adjacent to the station. A number of magicians were
reported to have quitted Marelli with a human head in their possession,
which they were to be directed by the presence of supernatural signs
to leave in a certain, and to them unknown, village. The people on all
sides were ready by force to arrest the progress of these nocturnal
visitors. For the prophecy foretold that wherever the head fell,
the destroying angel terminating her sanguinary course would rest,
and the demon of death, thus satisfied, would refrain from further
devastation in that part of the country. Dr. Tytler says that on
that night, while walking along the road, endeavouring to allay the
agitation, the judge and he perceived a faint light arising from
a thick clump of bamboos. Attracted to the spot, they found a hut
which was illuminated, and contained images of five Hindu gods, one of
which was Sitala, the celebrated and formidable Aula Bibi, 'Our Lady
of the Flux,' an incarnation of Kali, who it is believed is one day
to appear riding on a horse for the purpose of slaughtering mankind,
and of setting the world on fire. In front of the idol a female child
about nine years of age lay on the ground. She was evidently stupefied
with intoxicating drugs, and in this way prepared to answer responses
to such questions as those initiated into the mysteries should think
proper to propose." [291] There is much in this statement which is open
to question, and it seems doubtful whether, as Dr. Chevers is disposed
to believe, the case was really one of intended human sacrifice.



Small-pox Worship in Bengal.

In Bengal the divine force antagonistic to Sitala is Shashthi,
"goddess of the sixth," who is regarded as the special guardian of
children. The worship of Shashthi rests on a physiological fact,
which has only recently been applied to explain this special form
of worship. The most fatal disease of Indian children is a form of
infantile lock-jaw, which is caused by the use of a coarse, blunt
instrument, such as a sickle, for severing the umbilical cord. This
disease usually makes its appearance between the sixth and twelfth
day of the life of the child, and hence we have the formal rites of
purification from the birth pollution performed as the Chhathi on
the sixth and the Barahi on the twelfth day after delivery.

"In Bengal when small-pox rages, the gardeners are busiest. As
soon as the nature of the disease is determined, the physician
retires and a gardener is summoned. His first act is to forbid the
introduction of meat, fish, and all food requiring oil or spices
for its preparation. He then ties a lock of hair, a cowry shell,
a piece of turmeric, and an article of gold on the right wrist of
the patient. (The use of these articles as scarers of evil spirits
will be considered later on.) The sick person is then laid on the
Majhpatta, the young and unexpanded leaf of the plantain tree, and
milk is prescribed as the sole article of food. He is fanned with a
branch of the sacred Nim (Azidirachta Indica), and any one entering
the chamber is sprinkled with water. Should the fever become aggravated
and delirium ensue, or if the child cries much and sleeps little, the
gardener performs the Mata Puja. This consists in bathing an image of
the goddess causing the disease, and giving a draught of the water to
drink. To relieve the irritation of the skin, pease meal, turmeric,
flour or shell sawdust is sprinkled over the body. If the eruption
be copious, a piece of new cloth in the figure of eight is wrapped
round the chest and shoulders. On the night between the seventh and
eighth days of the eruption, the gardener has much to do. He places
a water-pot in the sick-room, and puts on it rice, a cocoanut, sugar,
plantains, a yellow rag, flowers, and a few Nim leaves. Having mumbled
several spells (mantra), he recites the tale (qissa) of the particular
goddess, which often occupies several hours. When the pustules
are mature, the gardener dips a thorn of the Karaunda (Carissa) in
sesamum oil and punctures each one. The body is then anointed with
oil, and cooling fruits are given. When the scabs have peeled off,
another ceremony called Godam is gone through. All the offerings on
the water-pot are rolled in a cloth and fastened round the waist of
the patient. The offerings are the perquisite of the gardener, who
also receives a fee. Government vaccinators earn a considerable sum
yearly by executing the Sitala worship, and when a child is vaccinated,
a portion of the service is performed"--a curious compromise between
the indigenous faith and European medical science. [292]

The special Tirhut observance of the Jur Sital or "smallpox fever"
feast will be more conveniently considered in connection with other
usages of the same kind.



Matangi Sakti and Masan.

We have already seen that Sitala is in the stage of promotion to the
Brahmanical heaven. Here her special name is Matangi Sakti, a word
which has been connected with Mata and Masan, but really refers to
Durga-Devi in her terrible elephant form. Masan or Masani is quite
a different goddess. She resides at the Masan or cremation ground,
and is greatly dreaded. The same name is in the eastern district of
the North-Western Provinces applied to the tomb of some low-caste man,
very often a Teli or oilman, or a Dhobi or washerman, both of whose
ghosts are generally obnoxious. Envious women will take the ashes
from a cremation ground and throw them over an enemy's child. This is
said to cause them to be "under the influence of the shadow" (Saya,
Chhaya) and to waste away by slow decline. This idea is familiar
in folk-lore. All savages believe that their shadow is a part of
themselves, that if it be hurt the owner of it will feel pain, that a
man may lose his shadow altogether and thus be deprived of part of his
soul and strength, and that vicious people, as in the present case,
can fling their shadow upon you and cause you injury. [293]

Matangi Sakti, again, appears in at least eight forms--Rauka Devi,
Ghrauka Devi, Mela Devi, Mandla Devi, Sitala Devi, Durga Devi and
Sankara Devi, a collection of names which indicates the extraordinary
mixture of beliefs, some of them importations from the regular
mythology, but others obscure and local manifestations of the deity,
out of which this worship has been developed. She is described as
having ears as large as a winnowing fan, projecting teeth, a hideous
face with a wide open mouth. Her vehicle is the ass, an animal very
often found in association with shrines of Sitala. She carries a broom
and winnowing fan with which she sifts mankind, and in one hand a
pitcher and ewer. This fan and broom are, as we shall see later on,
most powerful fetishes. All this is sheer mythology at its lowest
stage, and represents the grouping of various local fetish beliefs
on the original household worship.



Journey forbidden during an Epidemic of Small-pox.

During a small-pox epidemic no journey, not even a pilgrimage to a holy
shrine, should be undertaken. Gen. Sleeman [294] gives a curious case
in illustration of this: "At this time the only son of Rama Krishna's
brother, Khushhal Chand, an interesting boy of about four years of age,
was extremely ill of small-pox. His father was told that he had better
defer his journey to Benares till the child should recover; but he
could neither eat nor sleep, so great was his terror lest some dreadful
calamity should befall the whole family before he could expiate a
sacrilege which he had committed unwittingly, or take the advice of
his high priest, as to the best manner of doing so, and he resolved
to leave the decision to God himself. He took two pieces of paper and
having caused Benares to be written on one and Jabalpur on the other,
he put them both in a brass vessel. After shaking the vessel well,
he drew forth that on which Benares had been written. 'It is the will
of God,' said Rama Krishna. All the family who were interested in the
preservation of the poor boy implored him not to set out, lest the Devi
who presides over small-pox should be angry. It was all in vain. He
would set out with his household god, and unable to carry it himself,
he put it upon a small litter upon a pole, and hired a bearer to carry
it at one end while he supported the other. His brother Khushhal Chand
sent his second wife at the same time with offerings to the Devi, to
ward off the effects of his brother's rashness from the child. By the
time his brother had got with his god to Adhartal, three miles from
Jabalpur, he heard of the death of his nephew. But he seemed not to
feel this slight blow in the terror of the dreadful, but undefined,
calamity which he felt to be impending over him and the whole family,
and he went on his road. Soon after, an infant son of his uncle died
of the same disease, and the whole town at once became divided into
two parties--those who held that the child had been killed by the Devi
as a punishment for Rama Krishna's presuming to leave Jabalpur before
they recovered, and those who held that they were killed by the god
Vishnu himself for having deprived him of one of his arms. Khushhal
Chand's wife sickened on the road and died before reaching Mirzapur;
and as the Devi was supposed to have nothing to say to fevers, this
event greatly augmented the advocates of Vishnu."



Observances during Small-pox Epidemics.

In the Panjab when a child falls ill of small-pox no one is allowed
to enter the house, especially if he have bathed, washed, or combed
his hair, and if any one does come in, he is made to burn incense
at the door. Should a thunderstorm come on before the vesicles have
fully come out, the sound is not allowed to enter the ear of the
sick child, and metal plates are violently beaten to drown the noise
of the thunder. For six or seven days, when the disease is at its
height, the child is fed with raisins covered with silver leaf. When
the vesicles have fully developed it is believed that Devi Mata has
come. When the disease has abated a little, water is thrown over the
child. Singers and drummers are summoned and the parents make with
their friends a procession to the temple of Devi, carrying the child
dressed in saffron-coloured clothes. A man goes in advance with a bunch
of sacred grass in his hands, from which he sprinkles a mixture of
milk and water. In this way they visit some fig-tree or other shrine
of Devi, to which they tie red ribbons and besmear it with red lead,
paint and curds. [295]

One method of protecting children from the disease is to give them
opprobrious names, and dress them in rags. This, with other devices
for disease transference, will be discussed later on. We have seen that
the Nim tree is supposed to influence the disease; hence branches of it
are hung over the door of the sick-room. Thunder disturbs the goddess
in possession of the child, so the family flour-mill, which, as as
we shall see, has mystic powers, is rattled near the child. Another
device is to feed a donkey, which is the animal on which Sitala
rides. This is specially known in the Panjab as the Jandi Puja. [296]
In the same belief that the patient is under the direct influence
of the goddess, if death ensues the purification of the corpse by
cremation is considered both unnecessary and improper. Like Gusains,
Jogis, and similar persons who are regarded as inspired, those who
die of this disease are buried, not cremated. As Sir A. C. Lyall
observes, [297] "The rule is ordinarily expounded by the priests to
be imperative, because the outward signs and symptoms mark the actual
presence of divinity; the small-pox is not the god's work, but the
god himself manifest; but there is also some ground for concluding
that the process of burying has been found more wholesome than the
hurried and ill-managed cremation, which prevails during a fatal
epidemic." Gen. Sleeman gives an instance of an outbreak of the disease
which was attributed to a violation of this traditional rule. [298]



Minor Disease Godlings.

There are a number of minor disease godlings, some of whom may be
mentioned here. The Benares godling of malaria is Jvaraharisvara,
"the god who repels the fever." The special offering to him is what
is called Dudhbhanga, a confection made of milk, the leaves of the
hemp plant and sweetmeats. Among the Kols of Chaibasa, Bangara is
the godling of fever and is associated with Gohem, Chondu, Negra and
Dichali, who are considered respectively the godlings of cholera,
the itch, indigestion and death. The Bengalis have a special service
for the worship of Ghentu, the itch godling. The scene of the service
is a dunghill. A broken earthenware pot, its bottom blackened with
constant use for cooking, daubed white with lime, interspersed with a
few streaks of turmeric, together with a branch or two of the Ghentu
plant, and last, not least, a broomstick of the genuine palmyra or
cocoanut stock, serve as the representation of the presiding deity
of itch. The mistress of the family, for whose benefit the worship
is done, acts as priestess. After a few doggrel lines are recited,
the pot is broken and the pieces collected by the children, who sing
songs about the itch godling. [299]

Some of these godlings are, like Shashthi, protectors of children
from infantile disorders. Such are in Hoshangabad Bijaysen, in
whose name a string, which, as we shall see, exercises a powerful
influence over demons, is hung round the necks of children from birth
till marriage, and Kurdeo, whose name represents the Kuladevata, or
family deity. Among the Kurkus he presides over the growth and health
of the children in three or four villages together. [300] Acheri, a
disease sprite in the Hills, particularly favours those who wear red
garments, and in his name a scarlet thread is tied round the throat as
an amulet against cold, and goitre. Ghanta Karana, "he who has ears
as broad as a bell," or "who wears bells in his ears," is another
disease godling of the Hills. He is supposed to be of great personal
attractions, and is worshipped under the form of a water jar as the
healer of cutaneous diseases. He is a gate-keeper, or, in other words,
a godling on his promotion, in many of the Garhwal temples. [301]

Among the Kurkus of Hoshangabad, Mutua Deo is represented by a heap
of stones inside the village. His special sacrifice is a pig, and his
particular mission is to send epidemics, and particularly fevers, in
which case he must be propitiated with extraordinary sacrifices. [302]

One of the great disease Mothers is Mari Bhavani. She has
her speciality in the regulation of cholera, which she spreads or
withholds according to the attention she receives. They tell a curious
story about her in Oudh. Safdar Jang, having established his virtual
independence of the Mughal Empire, determined to build a capital. He
selected as the site for it the high bank of the Gumti, overlooking
Paparghat in Sultanpur. And but for the accident of a sickly season,
that now comparatively unknown locality might have enjoyed the
celebrity which afterwards fell to the lot of Faizabad. The fort was
already begun when the news reached the Emperor, who sent his minister
a khilat, to all outward appearance suited to his rank and dignity. The
royal gift had been packed up with becoming care, and its arrival does
not seem to have struck Safdar Jang as incompatible with the rebellious
attitude which he had assumed. The box in which it was enclosed was
opened with due ceremony, when it was discovered that the Emperor,
with grim pleasantry, had selected as an appropriate gift an image
of Mari Bhavani. The mortality which ensued in Safdar Jang's army was
appalling, and the site was abandoned, Mari Bhavani being left in sole
possession. Periodical fairs are now held there in her honour. [303]



Hardaul Lala, the Cholera Godling.

But the great cholera godling of Northern India is Hardaul, Hardaur,
Harda, Hardiya or Hardiha Lala. It is only north of the Jumna that he
appears to control the plague, and in Bundelkhand, his native home,
he seems to have little connection with it. With him we reach a class
of godlings quite distinct from nearly all those whom we have been
considering. He is one of that numerous class who were in their
lifetime actual historical personages, and who from some special
cause, in his case from the tragic circumstances of his death, have
been elevated to a seat among the hosts of heaven. Hardaur Lala, or
Divan Hardaur, was the second son of Bir Sinha Deva, the miscreant
Raja of Orchha, in Bundelkhand, who, at the instigation of Prince
Jahangir, assassinated the accomplished Abul Fazl, the litterateur
of the court of Akbar. [304] His brother Jhajhar, or Jhujhar, Sinh
succeeded to the throne on the death of his father; and after some
time suspecting Hardaur of undue intimacy with his wife, he compelled
her to poison her lover with all his companions at a feast in 1627 A.D.

After this tragedy it happened that the daughter of the Princess
Kanjavati, sister of Jhajhar and Hardaur, was about to be married. Her
mother, according to the ordinary rule of family etiquette, sent an
invitation to Jhajhar Sinh to attend the wedding. He refused with the
mocking taunt that she would be wise to invite her favourite brother
Hardaur. Thereupon, she in despair went to his cenotaph and lamented
his wretched end. Hardaur from below answered her cries, and promised
to attend the wedding and make all the necessary arrangements. The
ghost kept his promise, and arranged the marriage ceremony as befitted
the honour of his house.

Subsequently he is said to have visited the bedside of the Emperor
Akbar at midnight, and besought him to issue an order that platforms
should be erected in his name, and honour be paid to him in every
village of the Empire, promising that if he were duly propitiated,
no wedding should ever be marred with storm or rain, and that no one
who before eating presented a share of his meal to him, should ever
want for bread. Akbar, it is said, complied with these requests, and
since then the ghost of Hardaul has been worshipped in nearly every
village in Northern India. But here, as in many of these legends,
the chronology is hopeless. Akbar died in 1605 A.D., and the murder
of Hardaul is fixed in 1627.

He is chiefly honoured at weddings, and in the month of Baisakh (May),
when the women, particularly those of the lower classes, visit his
shrine and eat the offerings presented to him. The shrine is always
erected outside the hamlet, and is decorated with flags. On the day
but one before the arrival of a wedding procession, the women of
the family worship Hardaul, and invite him to the ceremony. If any
signs of a storm appear, he is propitiated with songs, one of the
best known of which runs thus--


    Lala! Thy shrine is in every hamlet!
    Thy name throughout the land!
    Lord of the Bundela land!
    May God increase thy fame!


Or in the local patois--


    Ganwan chauntra,
    Lala desan nam:
    Bundele des ke Raiya,
    Rau ke.
    Tumhari jay rakhe
    Bhagwan!


Many of these shrines have a stone figure of the hero represented on
horseback, set up at the head or west side of the platform. From his
birthplace Hardaul is also known as Bundela, and one of the quarters
in Mirzapur, and in the town of Brindaban in the Mathura District,
is named after him. [305]

But while in his native land of Bundelkhand Hardaul is a wedding
godling, in about the same rank as Dulha Deo among the Dravidian
tribes, to the north of the Jumna it is on his power of influencing
epidemics of cholera that his reputation mainly rests. The terrible
outbreak of this pestilence, which occurred in the camp of the
Governor-General, the Marquess Hastings, during the Pindari war, was
generally attributed by the people to the killing of beef for the
use of the British troops in the grove where the ashes of Hardaul
repose. Sir C. A. Elliott remarks that he has seen statements in
the old official correspondence of 1828 A.D., when we first took
possession of Hoshangabad, that the district officers were directed
to force the village headmen to set up altars to Hardaul Lala in every
village. This was part of the system of "preserving the cultivators,"
since it was found that they ran away, if their fears of epidemics were
not calmed by the respect paid to the local gods. But in Hoshangabad,
the worship of Hardaul Lala has fallen into great neglect in recent
times, the repeated recurrence of cholera having shaken the belief
in the potency of his influence over the disease. [306]



Exorcism of the Cholera Demon.

Mention has been already made of the common belief in an actual
embodiment of pestilence in a human or ghostly form. A disease
so sudden and mysterious as cholera is naturally capable of a
superstitious explanation of this kind. Everywhere it is believed to
be due to the agency of a demon, which can be expelled by noise and
special incantations, or removed by means of a scapegoat. Thus, the
Muhammadans of Herat believed that a spirit of cholera stalked through
the land in advance of the actual disease. [307] All over Upper India,
when cholera prevails, you may see fires lighted on the boundaries
of villages to bar the approach of the demon of the plague, and the
people shouting and beating drums to hasten his departure. On one
occasion I was present at such a ceremonial while out for an evening
drive, and as we approached the place the grooms advised us to stop
the horses in order to allow the demon to cross the road ahead of us
without interruption.

This expulsion of the disease spirit is often a cause of quarrels and
riots, as villages who are still safe from the epidemic strongly resent
the introduction of the demon within their boundaries. In a recent case
at Allahabad a man stated that the cholera monster used to attempt to
enter his house nightly, that his head resembled a large earthen pot,
and that he and his brother were obliged to bar his entrance with their
clubs. Another attributed the immunity of his family to the fact that
he possessed a gun, which he regularly fired at night to scare the
demon. Not long ago some men in the same district enticed the cholera
demon into an earthen pot by magical rites, and clapping on the lid,
formed a procession in the dead of night for the purpose of carrying
the pot to a neighbouring village, with which their relations were the
reverse of cordial, and burying it there secretly. But the enemy were
on the watch, and turned out in force to frustrate this fell intent. A
serious riot occurred, in the course of which the receptacle containing
the evil spirit was unfortunately broken and he escaped to continue
his ravages in the neighbourhood. [308] In Bombay, when cholera breaks
out in a village, the village potter is asked to make an image of the
goddess of cholera. When the image is ready, the village people go in
procession to the potter's house, and tell him to carry the image to
a spot outside the village. When it is taken to the selected place,
it is first worshipped by the potter and then by the villagers. [309]
Here, as in many instances of similar rites, the priest is a man of
low caste, which points to the indigenous character of the worship.

In the western districts of the North-Western Provinces the rite takes
a more advanced form. When cholera prevails, Kali Devi is worshipped,
and a magic circle of milk and spirits is drawn round the village,
over which the cholera demon does not care to step. They have also
a reading of the Scriptures in honour of Durga, and worship a Sati
shrine, if there be one in the village. The next stage is the actual
scapegoat, which is, as we shall see, very generally used for this
purpose. A buffalo bull is marked with a red pigment and driven to the
next village, where he carries the plague with him. Quite recently,
at Meerut, the people purchased a buffalo, painted it red and led
the animal through the city in procession. Colonel Tod describes how
Zalim Sinh, the celebrated regent of Kota, drove cholera out of the
place. "Having assembled the Brahmans, astrologers and those versed
in incantations, a grand rite was got up, sacrifices made, and a
solemn decree of banishment was pronounced against Mari, the cholera
goddess. Accordingly an equipage was prepared for her, decorated with
funeral emblems, painted black and drawn by a double team of black
oxen; bags of grain, also black, were put into the vehicle, that the
lady might not go without food, and driven by a man in sable vestments,
followed by the yells of the populace, Mari was deported across the
Chambal river, with the commands of the priests that she should never
again set foot in Kota. No sooner did my deceased friend hear of her
expulsion from that capital, and being placed on the road for Bundi,
than the wise men of the city were called on to provide means to keep
her from entering therein. Accordingly, all the water of the Ganges
at hand was in requisition; an earthen vessel was placed over the
southern portal from which the sacred water was continually dripping,
and against which no evil could prevail. Whether my friend's supply
of the holy water failed, or Mari disregarded such opposition, she
reached the palace." [310]



Cholera caused by Witchcraft.

In Gujarat, among the wilder tribes, the belief prevails that cholera
is caused by old women who feed on the corpses of the victims of the
pestilence. Formerly, when a case occurred their practice was to go to
the soothsayer (Bhagat), find out from him who was the guilty witch,
and kill her with much torture. Of late years this practice has,
to a great extent, ceased. The people now attribute an outbreak to
the wrath of the goddess Kali, and, to please her, draw her cart
through the streets, and lifting it over the village boundaries,
offer up goats and buffaloes. Sometimes, to keep off the disease,
they make a magic circle with milk or coloured threads round the
village. At Nasik, when cholera breaks out in the city, the leading
Brahmans collect in little doles from each house a small allowance of
rice, put the rice in a cart, take it beyond the limits of the town,
and there it is thrown away. [311]

A visitation of the plague in Nepal was attributed to the Raja
insisting on celebrating the Dasahra during an intercalary month. On
another occasion the arrival of the disease was attributed to the
Evil Eye of Saturn and other planets, which secretly came together
in one sign of the zodiac. A third attack was supposed to be caused
by the Raja being in his eighteenth year, and the year of the cycle
being eighty-eight--eight being a very unlucky number. [312]

So the Gonds try to ward off the anger of the spirits of cholera and
small-pox by sacrifices, and by thoroughly cleaning their villages and
transferring the sweepings into some road or travelled track. Their
idea is that unless the disease is communicated to some person who will
take it on to the next village, the plague will not leave them. For
this reason they do not throw the sweepings into the jungle, as no
one passes that way, and consequently the benefit of sweeping is
lost. [313]

An extraordinary case was recently reported from the Dehra Ismail Khan
District. There had been a good deal of sickness in the village, and
the people spread a report that this was due to the fact that a woman,
who had died some seven months previously, had been chewing her funeral
sheet. The relatives were asked to allow the body to be examined, which
was done, and it was found that owing to the subsidence of the ground
through rain, some earth had fallen into the mouth of the corpse. A
copper coin was placed in the mouth as a viaticum, and a fowl killed
and laid on the body, which was again interred. The same result is very
often believed to follow from burying persons of the sweeper caste in
the usual extended position, instead of a sitting posture or with the
face downwards. A sweeper being one of the aboriginal or casteless
tribes is believed to have something uncanny about him. Recently in
Muzaffarnagar, a corpse buried in the unorthodox way was disinterred
by force, and the matter finally came before the courts.



The Demon of Cattle Disease.

In the same way cattle disease is caused by the plague demon. Once
upon a time a man, whose descendants live in the Mathura District,
was sleeping out in the fields when he saw the cattle disease creeping
up to his oxen in an animal shape. He watched his opportunity and got
the demon under his shield, which he fixed firmly down. The disease
demon entreated to be released, but he would not let it go till it
promised that it would never remain where he or his descendants
were present. So to this day, when the murrain visits a village,
his descendants are summoned and work round the village, calling on
the disease to fulfil its contract. [314]

The murrain demon is expelled in the same way as that of the cholera,
and removed by the agency of the scapegoat. In the western part of
the North-Western Provinces you will often notice wisps of straw tied
round the trunks of acacia trees, which, as we shall see, possess
mystic powers, as a means to bar disease.

Kasi Baba is the tribal deity of the Binds of Bengal. Of him it is
reported: "A mysterious epidemic was carrying off the herds on the
banks of the Ganges, and the ordinary expiatory sacrifices were
ineffectual. One evening a clownish Ahir, on going to the river,
saw a figure rinsing its mouth from time to time, and making an
unearthly sound with a conch shell. The lout, concluding that this
must be the demon that caused the epidemic, crept up and clubbed the
unsuspecting bather. Kasi Nath was the name of the murdered Brahman,
and as the cessation of the murrain coincided with his death, the low
Hindustani castes have ever since regarded Kasi Baba as the maleficent
spirit that sends disease among the cattle. Nowadays he is propitiated
by the following curious ceremony. As soon as an infectious disease
breaks out, the village cattle are massed together, and cotton seed
sprinkled over them. The fattest and sleekest animal being singled
out, is severely beaten with rods. The herd, scared by the noise,
scamper off to the nearest shelter, followed by the scape bull;
and by this means it is thought the murrain is stayed." [315]

Kasi Das, according to the last census, has 172,000 worshippers in
the eastern districts of the North-Western Provinces.



Other Cholera Godlings.

Beside Hardaul Lala, the great cholera godling, Hulka Devi, the
impersonation of vomiting, is worshipped in Bengal with the same
object. She appears to be the same as Holika or Horka Maiyya, whom
we shall meet in connection with the Holi festival. We have already
noticed Mari or Mari Mai, "Mother death," or as she is called when
promoted to Brahmanism, Mari Bhavani. She and Hatthi, a minor cholera
goddess, are worshipped when cholera prevails. By one account she and
Sitala are daughters of Raja Vena. About ten thousand people recorded
themselves at the last census as worshippers of Hatthi and Mari in the
North-Western Provinces. Among the jungle tribes of Mirzapur she is
known as Oba, an Arabic word (waba) meaning pestilence. Mari, as we
have said, has a special shrine in Sultanpur to commemorate a fatal
outbreak of cholera in the army of Safdar Jang. In the Panjab Mari
is honoured with an offering of a pumpkin, a male buffalo, a cock, a
ram and a goat. These animals are each decapitated with a single blow
before her altar. If more than one blow is required the ceremony is a
failure. Formerly, in addition to these five kinds of offering a man
and woman were sacrificed, to make up the mystic number seven. [316]



Exorcism of Disease.

The practice of exorcising these demons of disease has been elaborated
into something like a science. Disease, according to the general belief
of the rural population, can be removed by a species of magic, usually
of the variety known as "sympathetic," and it can be transferred
from the sufferer to some one else. The special incantations for
disease are in the hands of low-caste sorcerers or magicians. Among
the more primitive races, such as those of Dravidian origin in
Central India, this is the business of the Baiga, or aboriginal
devil priest. But even here there is a differentiation of function,
and though the Baiga is usually considered competent to deal with
the cases of persons possessed of evil spirits, it is only special
persons who can undertake the regular exorcism. This is among the
lower tribes of Hindus the business of the Syana, "the cunning man,"
the Sokha (Sanskrit sukskma, "the subtile one"), or the Ojha, which
is a corruption of the Sanskrit Upadhyaya or "teacher."

Like AEsculapius, Paieon, and even Apollo himself, the successful
magician and healer gradually develops into a god. All over the
country there are, as we have seen, the shrines of saints who won
the reverence of the people by the cures wrought at their tombs. The
great deified healer in Behar and the eastern Districts of the
North-Western Provinces is Sokha Baba, who, according to the last
census, had thirteen thousand special worshippers. He is said to have
been a Brahman who was killed by a snake, and now possesses the power
of inflicting snake-bite on those who do not propitiate him.

Exorcisers are both professional and non-professional.
"Non-professional exorcisers are generally persons who get naturally
improved by a guardian spirit (deva), and a few of them learn the art
of exorcism from a Guru or teacher. Most of the professional
exorcisers learn from a Guru. The first study is begun on a lunar or
on a solar eclipse day. On such a day the teacher after bathing, and
without wiping his body, or his head or hair, puts on dry clothes,
and goes to the village godling's temple. The candidate then spreads
a white cloth before the god, and on one side of the cloth makes a
heap of rice, and on another a heap of Urad (phaseolus radiatus),
sprinkles red lead on the heaps, and breaks a cocoanut in front of
the idol. The Guru then teaches him the incantation (mantra), which
he commits to memory. An ochre-coloured flag is then tied to a staff
in front of the temple, and the teacher and candidate come home.

"After this, on the first new moon which falls on a Saturday, the
teacher and the candidate go together out of the village to a place
previously marked out by them on the boundary. A servant accompanies
them, who carries a bag of Urad, oil, seven earthen lamps, lemons,
cocoanuts, and red powder. After coming to the spot, the teacher and
the candidate bathe, and then the teacher goes to the village temple,
and sits praying for the safety of the candidate. The candidate,
who has been already instructed as to what should be done, then
starts for the boundary of the next village, accompanied by the
servant. On reaching the village boundary, he picks up seven pebbles,
sets them in a line on the road, and after lighting a lamp near them,
he worships them with flowers, red powder, and Urad. Incense is then
burnt, and a cocoanut is broken near the pebble which represents Vetala
and his lieutenants, and a second cocoanut is broken for the village
godling." Here the cocoanut is symbolical of a sacrifice which was
probably originally of a human victim.

"When this is over, he goes to a river, well, or other bathing place,
and bathes, and without wiping his body or putting on dry clothes,
proceeds to the boundary of the next village. There he repeats the
same process as he did before, and then goes to the boundary of a third
village. In this manner he goes to seven villages and repeats the same
process. All this while he keeps on repeating incantations. After
finishing his worship at the seventh village, the candidate returns
to his village, and going to the temple, sees his teacher and tells
him what he has done.

"In this manner, having worshipped and propitiated the Vetalas of
seven villages, he becomes an exorcist. After having been able to
exercise these powers, he must observe certain rules. Thus, on every
eclipse day he must go to a sea-shore or a river bank, bathe in cold
water, and while standing in the water repeat incantations a number
of times. After bathing daily he must neither wring his head hair,
nor wipe his body dry. While he is taking his meals, he should leave
off if he hears a woman in her monthly sickness speak or if a lamp
be extinguished.

"The Muhammadan methods of studying exorcism are different from those
of the Hindus. One of them is as follows:--The candidate begins his
study under the guidance of his teacher on the last day of the lunar
month, provided it falls on a Tuesday or Sunday. The initiation takes
place in a room, the walls and floor of which have been plastered
with mud, and here and there daubed with sandal paste. On the floor
a white sheet is spread, and the candidate after washing his hands
and feet, and wearing a new waist-cloth or trousers, sits on the
sheet. He lights one or two incense sticks and makes offerings of a
white cloth and meat to one of the principal Musalman saints. This
process is repeated for from fourteen to forty days." [317]

Few rural exorcisers go through this elaborate ritual, the object of
which it is not difficult to understand. The candidate wishes to get
the Vetala or local demon of the village into his power and to make
him work his will. So he provides himself with a number of articles
which, as we shall see, are known for their influence over the
spirits of evil, such as the Urad pulse, lamps, cocoanuts, etc. The
careful rule of bathing, the precautions against personal impurity,
the worship done at the shrine of the village godling by the teacher,
are all intended to guard him in the hour of danger. The common village
"wise man" contents himself with learning a few charms of the hocus
pocus variety, and a cure in some difficult case of devil possession
secures his reputation as a healer.



Methods of Rural Exorcism.

The number of these charms is legion, and most exorcisers have
one of their own in which they place special confidence and which
they are unwilling to disclose. As Sir Monier Williams writes
[318]:--"No magician, wizard, sorcerer or witch whose feats are
recorded in history, biography or fable, has ever pretended to be
able to accomplish by incantation and enchantment half of what
the Mantra-sastri claims to have power to effect by help of his
Mantras. For example, he can prognosticate futurity, work the most
startling prodigies, infuse breath into dead bodies, kill or humiliate
enemies, afflict any one anywhere with disease or madness, inspire
anyone with love, charm weapons and give them unerring efficacy,
enchant armour and make it impenetrable, turn milk into wine, plants
into meat, or invert all such processes at will. He is even superior to
the gods, and can make goddesses, gods, imps and demons carry out his
most trifling behests. Hence it is not surprising that the following
remarkable saying is everywhere current throughout India: 'The whole
universe is subject to the gods; the gods are subject to the Mantras;
the Mantras to the Brahmans; therefore the Brahmans are our gods.'"

All these devices of Mantras or spells, Kavachas or amulets, Nyasas
or mentally assigning various parts of the body to the protection
of tutelary presiding deities, and Mudras or intertwining of the
fingers with a mystic meaning, spring from the corrupt fountain head
of the Tantras, the bible of Saktism. But these are the speciality
of the higher class of professional exorciser, who is very generally
a Brahman, and do not concern us here.

A few examples of the formulae used by the village "cunning man" may
be given here. Thus in Mirzapur when a person is known to be under
the influence of a witch the Ojha recites a spell, which runs--"Bind
the evil eye; bind the fist; bind the spell; bind the curse; bind the
ghost and the churel; bind the witch's hands and feet. Who can bind
her? The teacher can bind her. I, the disciple of the teacher, can bind
her. Go, witch, to wherever thy shrine may be; sit there and leave
the afflicted person." In these spells Hanuman, the monkey godling,
is often invoked. Thus--"I salute the command of my teacher. Hanuman,
the hero, is the hero of heroes. He has in his quiver nine lakhs
of arrows. He is sometimes on the right, sometimes on the left,
and sometimes in the front. I serve thee, powerful master. May not
this man's body be crippled. I see the cremation ground in the two
worlds and outside them. If in my body or in the body of this man
any ill arise, then I call on the influence of Hanuman. My piety,
the power of the teacher, this charm is true because it comes from
the Almighty." In the same way two great witches, Lona Chamarin and
Ismail the Jogi are often invoked. The Musalman calls on Sulaiman,
the lord Solomon, who is a leader of demons and a controller of evil
spirits, for which there is ample authority in the Quran.

But it is in charms for disease that the rural exorciser is most
proficient. Accidents, such as the bites of snakes, stings of
scorpions, or wasps are in particular treated in this way, and these
charms make up most of the folk-medicine of Northern India. Thus,
when a man is stung by a scorpion the exorciser says--"Black scorpion
of the limestone! Green is thy tail and black thy mouth. God orders
thee to go home. Come out! Come out! If thou fail to come out Mahadeva
and Parvati will drive thee out!" Another spell for scorpion sting
runs thus--"On the hill and mountain is the holy cow. From its dung
the scorpions were born, six black and six brown. Help me! O Nara
Sinha! (the man lion incarnation of Vishnu). Rub each foot with
millet and the poison will depart." So, to cure the bite of a dog,
get some clay which has been worked on a potter's wheel, which as we
shall see is a noted fetish, make a lump of it and rub it to the wound
and say--"The black dog is covered with thick hair." Another plan in
cases of hydrophobia is to kill a dog, and after burning it to make
the patient imbibe the smoke. Headache is caused by a worm in the
head, which comes out if the ear be rubbed with butter. Women of the
gipsy tribes are noted for their charms to take out the worm which
causes toothache. When a man is bitten by a snake the practitioner
says--"True god, true hero, Hanuman! The snake moves in a tortuous
way. The male and female weasel come out of their hole to destroy
it. Which poison will they devour? First they will eat the black Karait
snake, then the snake with the jewel, then the Ghor snake. I pray to
thee for help, my true teacher." So, if you desire to be safe from
the attacks of the tiger, say--"Tie up the tiger, tie up the tigress,
tie up her seven cubs. Tie up the roads and the footpaths and the
fields. O Vasudeva, have mercy? Have mercy, O Lona Chamarin!" Lastly,
if you desire an appointment, say--"O Kali, Kankali, Mahakali! Thy
face is beautiful, but at thy heart is a serpent. There are four
demon heroes and eighty-four Bhairons. If thou givest the order I
will worship them with betel nuts and sweetmeats. Now shout--'Mercy, O
Mother Kali!'" It would not be difficult to describe hundreds of such
charms, but what has been recorded will be sufficient to exemplify
the ordinary methods of rural exorcism. [319]

When the Ojha is called in to identify the demon which has beset
a patient, he begins by ascertaining whether it is a local ghost
or an outsider which has attacked him on a journey. Then he calls
for some cloves, and muttering a charm over them, ties them to the
bedstead on which the sick man lies. Then the patient is told to
name the ghost which has possessed him, and he generally names one
of his dead relations, or the ghost of a hill, a tree or a burial
ground. Then the Ojha suggests an appropriate offering, which when
bestowed and food given to Brahmans, the patient ought in all decency
to recover. If he does not, the Ojha asserts that the right ghost
has not been named, and the whole process is gone through again,
if necessary funds are forthcoming.

The Baiga of Mirzapur, who very often combines the function of an Ojha
with his own legitimate business of managing the local ghosts, works
in very much the same way. He takes some barley in a sieve, which as
we shall see is a very powerful fetish, and shakes it until only a few
grains are left in the interstices. Then he marks down the intruding
ghost by counting the grains, and recommends the sacrifice of a fowl
or a goat, or the offering of some liquor, most of which he usually
consumes himself. If his patient die, he gets out of the difficulty
by saying--"Such and such a powerful Bhut carried him off. What can
a poor man, such as I am, do?" If a tiger or a bear kills a man,
the Baiga tells his friends that such and such a Bhut was offended
because no attention was paid to him, and in revenge entered into
the animal which killed the deceased, the obvious moral being that
in future more regular offerings should be made through the Baiga.

In Hoshangabad the Bhomka sorcerer has a handful of grain waved over
the head of the sick man. This is then carried to the Bhomka, who makes
a heap of it on the floor, and sitting over it, swings a lighted lamp
suspended by four strings from his fingers. He then repeats slowly
the names of the patient's ancestors and of the village and local
godling, pausing between each, and when the lamp stops spinning the
name at which it halts is the name to be propitiated. Then in the
same way he asks--"What is the propitiation offering to be? A pig? A
cocoanut? A chicken? A goat?" And the same mystic sign indicates the
satisfaction of the god. [320]

The Kol diviner drops oil into a vessel of water. The name of the
deity is pronounced as the oil is dropped. If it forms one globule
in the water, it is considered that the particular god to be appeased
has been correctly named; if it splutters and forms several globules,
another name is tried. The Oraon Ojha puts the fowls intended as
victims before a small mud image, on which he sprinkles a few grains
of rice; if they pick at the rice it indicates that the particular
devil represented by the image is satisfied with the intentions of
his votaries, and the sacrifice proceeds. [321]

The Panjab diviner adopts a stock method common to such practitioners
all over the world. He writes some spells on a piece of paper,
and pours on it a large drop of ink. Flowers are then placed in the
hands of a young child, who is told to look into the ink and say,
"Summon the four guardians." He is asked if he sees anything in the
ink, and according to the answer a result is arrived at. [322] The
modus operandi of these exorcisers is, in fact, very much the same
in India as in other parts of the world. [323]



Exorcism by Dancing.

In all rites of this class religious dancing as a means of scaring
the demon of evil holds an important place. Thus of the Bengal Muasis
Col. Dalton writes [324]--"The affection comes on like a fit of ague,
lasting sometimes for a quarter of an hour, the patient or possessed
person writhing and trembling with intense violence, especially at
the commencement of the paroxysm. Then he is seen to spring from the
ground into the air, and a succession of leaps follow, all executed
as though he were shot at by unseen agency. During this stage of
the seizure he is supposed to be quite unconscious, and rolls into
the fire, if there be one, or under the feet of the dancers, without
sustaining injury from the heat or from the pressure. This lasts for
a few minutes only, and is followed by the spasmodic stage. With hands
and knees on the ground and hair loosened, the body is convulsed, and
the head shakes violently, whilst from the mouth issues a hissing or
gurgling noise. The patient next evincing an inclination to stand on
his legs, the bystanders assist him, and place a stick in his hand,
with the aid of which he hops about, the spasmodic action of the
body still continuing, and the head performing by jerks a violently
fatiguing circular movement. This may go on for hours, though Captain
Samuells says that no one in his senses could continue such exertion
for many minutes. When the Baiga is appealed to to cast out the
spirit, he must first ascertain whether it is Gansam or one of his
familiars that has possessed the victim. If it be the great Gansam,
the Baiga implores him to desist, meanwhile gradually anointing the
victim with butter; and if the treatment is successful, the patient
gradually and naturally subsides into a state of repose, from which
he rises into consciousness, and, restored to his normal state,
feels no fatigue or other ill-effects from the attack."

The same religious dance of ecstasy appears in what is known as the Ras
Mandala of the modern Vaishnava sects, which is supposed to represent
the dance of the Gopis with Krishna. So in Bombay among the Marathas
the worship of the chief goddess of the Dakkhin, Tulja Bhavani,
is celebrated by a set of dancing devotees, called Gondhalis, whose
leader becomes possessed by the goddess. A high stool is covered with
a black cloth. On the cloth thirty-six pinches of rice are dropped in
a heap, and with them turmeric and red powder, all scarers of demons,
are mixed. On the rice is set a copper vessel filled with milk and
water, and in this the goddess is supposed to take her abode. Over it
are laid betel leaves and a cocoanut. Five torches are carried round
the vessel by five men, each shouting "Amba Bhavani!" The music plays,
and dancers dance before her. So at a Brahman marriage at Puna the
boy and girl are seated on the shoulders of their maternal uncles
or other relations, who perform a frantic dance, the object being,
as in all these cases, to scare away the spirits of evil. [325]



Flagellation.

So with flagellation, which all over the world is supposed to have the
power of scaring demons. Thus in the Central Indian Hills the Baiga
with his Gurda, or sacred chain, which being made of iron, possesses
additional potency, soundly thrashes patients attacked with epilepsy,
hysteria, and similar ailments, which from their nature are obviously
due to demoniacal agency. There are numerous instances of the use of
the lash for this purpose. In Bombay, among the Lingayats, the woman
who names the child has her back beaten with gentle blows; and some
beggar Brahmans refuse to take alms until the giver beats them. [326]
There is a famous shrine at Ghauspur, in the Jaunpur District, where
the Ojhas beat their patients to drive out the disease demon. [327]
The records of Roman Catholic hagiology and of the special sect of
the Flagellants will furnish numerous parallel instances.



Treatment of Sorcerers.

While the sorcerer by virtue of his profession is generally
respected and feared, in some places they have been dealt with
rather summarily. There is everywhere a struggle between the
Brahman priest of the greater gods and the exorciser, who works by
the agency of demons. Sudarsan Sah rid Garhwal of them by summoning
all the professors of the black art with their books. When they were
collected he had them bound hand and foot and thrown with their books
and implements into the river. The same monarch also disposed very
effectually of a case of possession in his own family. One day he heard
a sound of drumming and dancing in one of his courtyards, and learnt
that a ghost named Goril had taken possession of one of his female
slaves. The Raja was wroth, and taking a thick bamboo, he proceeded to
the spot and laid about him so vigorously that the votaries of Goril
soon declared that the deity had taken his departure. The Raja then
ordered Goril to cease from possessing people, and nowadays if any
Garhwali thinks himself possessed, he has only to call on the name
of Sudarsan Sah and the demon departs. [328]



Appointment of Ojhas.

The mode of succession to the dignity of an Ojha varies in different
places. In Mirzapur the son is usually educated by his father,
and taught the various spells and modes of incantation. But this is
not always the case; and here at the present time the institution
is in a transition stage. South of the Son we have the Baiga, who
usually acts as an Ojha also; and he is invariably drawn from the
aboriginal races. Further north he is known as Naya (Sanskrit nayaka)
or "leader." Further north, again, as we leave the hilly country and
enter the completely Brahmanized Gangetic valley, he changes into
the regular Ojha, who is always a low-class Brahman.

In one instance which came under my own notice, the Naya of the village
had been an aboriginal Kol, and he before his death announced that
"the god had sat on the head" of a Brahman candidate for the office,
who was duly initiated, and is now the recognized village Ojha. This
is a good example of the way in which Brahmanism annexes and absorbs
the demonolatry of the lower races. This, too, enables us to correct
a statement which has been made even by such a careful inquirer
as Mr. Sherring when he says [329]--"Formerly the Ojha was always
a Brahman; but his profession has become so lucrative that sharp,
clever, shrewd men in all the Hindu castes have taken to it." There
can be no question that the process has been the very reverse of this,
and that the early Ojhas were aboriginal sorcerers, and that their
trade was taken over by the Brahman as the land became Hinduized.

In Hoshangabad the son usually succeeds his father, but a Bhomka does
not necessarily marry into a Bhomka family, nor does it follow that
"once a Bhomka, always a Bhomka." On the contrary, the position seems
to be the result of the special favour of the godling of the particular
village in which he lives; and if the whole of the residents emigrate
in a body, then the godling of the new village site will have to be
consulted afresh as to the servant whom he chooses to attend upon him.

"If a Bhomka dies or goes away, or a new village is established, his
successor is appointed in the following way. All the villagers assemble
at the shrine of Mutua Deo, and offer a black and white chicken to
him. A Parihar, or priest, should be enticed to grace the solemnity
and make the sacrifice, but if that cannot be done the oldest man
in the assembly does it. Then he sets a wooden grain measure rolling
along the line of seated people, and the man before whom it stops is
marked out by the intervention of the deity as the new Bhomka." [330]

It marks perhaps some approximation to Hinduism that the priest,
when inspired by the god, wears a thread made of the hair of a
bullock's tail, unless this is based on the common use of thread or
hair as a scarer of demons, or is some token or fetish peculiar to
the race. At the same time the non-Brahmanic character of the worship
is proved by the fact that the priest, when in a state of ecstasy,
cannot bear the presence of a cow, or Brahman. "The god," they say,
"would leave their heads if either of these came near."

On one occasion, when Sir C. A. Elliott saw the process of exorcism,
the men did not actually revolve when "the god came on his head." He
covered his head up well in a cloth, leaving space for the god to
approach, and in this state he twisted and turned himself rapidly,
and soon sat down exhausted. We shall see elsewhere that the head
is one of the chief spirit entries, and the top of the head is left
uncovered in order to let the spirit make its way through the sutures
of the skull. Then from the pit of his stomach he uttered words which
the bystanders interpreted to direct a certain line of conduct for
the sick man to pursue. "But perhaps the occasion was not a fair test,
as the Parihar strongly objected to the presence of an unbeliever, on
the pretence that the god would be afraid to come before so great an
official." This has always been the standing difficulty in Europeans
obtaining a practical knowledge of the details of rural sorcery,
and when a performance of the kind is specially arranged, it will
usually be found that the officiant performs the introductory rites
with comparative success, but as it comes to the crucial point he
breaks down, just as the ecstatic crisis should have commenced. This is
always attributed to the presence of an unbeliever, however interested
and sympathetic. The same result usually happens at spiritualistic
seances, when anyone with even an elementary knowledge of physics or
mechanics happens to be one of the audience.



Fraud in Exorcism.

The question naturally arises--Are all these Ojhas and Baigas
conscious hypocrites and swindlers? Dr. Tylor shrewdly remarks that
"the sorcerer generally learns his time-honoured profession in good
faith, and retains the belief in it more or less from first to last. At
once dupe and cheat, he combines the energy of a believer with the
cunning of a hypocrite." [331] This coincides with the experience
of most competent Indian observers. No one who consults a Syana and
observes the confident way in which he asserts his mystic power, can
doubt that he at least believes to a large extent in the sacredness
of his mission. Captain Samuells, who repeatedly witnessed these
performances, distinctly asserts that it is a mistake to suppose that
there is always intentional deception. [332]



Disease Charms.

Next to the services of the professional exorciser for the purpose
of preventing or curing disease, comes the use of special charms for
this purpose. There is a large native literature dealing with this
branch of science. As a rule most native patients undergo a course
of this treatment before they visit our hospitals, and the result
of European medical science is hence occasionally disappointing. One
favourite talisman of this kind is the magic square, which consists
in an arrangement of certain numbers in a special way. For instance,
in order to cure barrenness, it is a good plan to write a series
of numbers which added up make 73 both ways on a piece of bread,
and with it feed a black dog, which is the attendant of Bhairon, a
giver of offspring. To cure a tumour a figure in the form of a cross
is drawn with three cyphers in the centre and one at each of the four
ends. This is prepared on a Sunday and tied round the left arm. Another
has a series of numbers aggregating 15 every way. This is engraved on
copper and tied round a child's neck to keep off the Evil Eye. In the
case of cattle disease, some gibberish, which pretends to be Arabic
or Sanskrit, appealing for the aid of Lona Chamarin or Ismail Jogi,
with a series of mystic numbers, is written on a piece of tile. This
is hung on a rope over the village cattle path, and a ploughshare is
buried at the entrance to make the charm more powerful. When cattle
are attacked with worms, the owner fills a clean earthen pot with
water drawn from the well with one hand; he then mutters a blessing,
and with some sacred Dabh grass sprinkles a little water seven times
along the back of the animal.

The number of these charms is legion. Many of them merge into the
special preservatives against the Evil Eye, which will be discussed
later on. Thus the bazar merchant writes the words Ram! Ram! several
times near his door, or he makes a representation of the sun and moon,
or a rude image of Ganesa, the godling of good luck, or draws the
mystical Swastika. A house of a banker at Kankhal which I recently
examined bore a whole gallery of pictures round it. There were Siva
and Parvati on an ox with their son Markandeya; Yamaraja, the deity
of death, with a servant waving a fan over his head; Krishna with
his spouse Radha: Hanuman, the monkey godling; the Ganges riding on a
fish, with Bhagiratha, who brought her down from heaven; Bhishma, the
hero of the Mahabharata; Arjuna representing the Pandavas; the saints
Uddalaka and Narada Muni; Ganesa with his two maidservants; and Brahma
and Vishnu riding on Sesha Naga, the great serpent. Beneath these
was an inscription invoking Rama, Lakshmana, the Ganges and Hanuman.



Rag Offerings.

Next come the arrangements by which disease may be expelled or
transferred to someone else. In this connection we may discuss the
curious custom of hanging up rags on trees or near sacred wells. Of
this custom India supplies numerous examples. At the Balchha pass in
Garhwal there is a small heap of stones at the summit, with sticks and
rags attached to them, to which travellers add a stone or two as they
pass. [333] In Persia they fix rags on bushes in the name of the Imam
Raza. They explain the custom by saying that the eye of the Imam being
always on the top of the mountain, the shreds which are left there by
those who hold him in reverence, remind him of what he ought to do
in their behalf with Muhammad, 'Ali and the other holy personages,
who are able to propitiate the Almighty in their favour. [334]
Moorcroft in his journey to Ladakh describes how he propitiated the
evil spirit of a dangerous pass with the leg of a pair of worn-out
nankin trousers. [335] Among the Mirzapur Korwas the Baiga hangs rags
on the trees which shade the village shrine, as a charm to bring health
and good luck. These rag shrines are to be found all over the country,
and are generally known as Chithariya or Chithraiya Bhavani, "Our Lady
of Tatters." So in the Panjab the trees on which rags are hung are
called Lingri Pir or the rag saint. [336] The same custom prevails at
various Himalayan shrines and at the Vastra Harana or sacred tree at
Brindaban near Mathura, which is now invested with a special legend,
as commemorating the place where Krishna carried off the clothes of
the milkmaids when they were bathing, an incident which constantly
appears in both European and Indian folk-lore. [337] In Berar a heap
of stones daubed with red and placed under a tree fluttering with
rags represents Chindiya Deo or "the Lord of Tatters," where, if you
present a rag in due season, you may chance to get new clothes. [338]
The practice of putting or tying rags from the person of the sick to a
tree, especially a banyan, cocoanut, or some thorny tree, is prevalent
in the Konkan, but not to such an extent as that of fixing nails or
tying bottles to trees. In the Konkan, when a person is suffering from
a spirit disease, the exorcist takes the spirit away from the sick
man and fixes it in a tree by thrusting a nail in it. We have already
had an example of this treatment of ghosts by the Baiga. Sometimes he
catches the spirit of the disease in a bottle and ties the bottle to
a tree. [339] In a well-known story of the Arabian Knights the Jinn
is shut up in a bottle under the seal of the Lord Solomon.

There have been various explanations of this custom of hanging rags
on trees. [340] One is that they are offerings to the local deity
of the tree. Mr. Gomme quotes an instance of an Irishman who made a
similar offering with the following invocation: "To St. Columbkill--I
offer up this button, a bit o' the waistband o' my own breeches,
an' a taste o' my wife's petticoat, in remembrance of us havin' made
this holy station; an' may they rise up in glory to prove it for us
in the last day."

He "points to the undoubted nature of the offerings and their service,
in the identification of their owners--a service which implies their
power to bear witness in spirit-land to the pilgrimage of those
who deposited them during lifetime at the sacred well." Some of the
Indian evidence seems to show that these rags are really offerings
to the sacred tree. Thus, Colonel Tod [341] describes the trees
in a sacred grove in Rajputana as decorated with shreds of various
coloured cloth, "offerings of the traveller to the forest divinity for
protection against evil spirits." This usage often merges into actual
tree-worship, as among the Mirzapur Pataris, who, when fever prevails,
tie a cotton string which has never touched water round the trunk of
a Pipal tree, and hang rags from the branches. So, the Kharwars have
a sacred Mahua tree, known as the Byahi Mahua or "Mahua of marriage,"
on which threads are hung at marriages. At almost any holy place women
may be seen winding a cotton thread round the trunk of a Pipal tree.

Another explanation is that the hanging of the rags is done with the
object of transferring a disease to some one else. Professor Rhys
suggests that a distinction is to be drawn between the rags hung on
trees or near a well and the pins, which are so commonly thrown into
the water itself. It is noteworthy that in some cases the pins are
replaced by buttons, or even by copper coins. The rags, on the other
hand, he thinks may be vehicles of the disease. To this Mr. Hartland
objects--"If this opinion were correct, one would expect to find both
ceremonies performed by the same patient at the same well; he would
throw in the pin and also place the rag on the bush, or wherever its
proper place might be. The performance of both ceremonies is, however,
I think, exceptional. Where the pin or button is dropped into the well,
the patient does not trouble about the rag, and vice versa."

He goes on to say that "the curious detail mentioned by Mrs. Evans in
reference to the rags tied on the bushes at St. Elian's well--namely,
that they must be tied with wool--points to a still further degradation
of the rite in the case we are now examining. Probably at one time
rags were used and simply tied to the sacred tree with wool. What may
have been the reason for using wool remains to be discovered. But it
is easy to see how, if the reason were lost, the wool might be looked
on as the essential condition of the due performance of the ceremony,
and so continue after the disuse of the rags."

In reference to this it may be noted that there is some reason to
believe that the sheep was a sacred animal. In Western India high-caste
Hindus wear blankets after bathing. The Kunbis use a mixture of
sheep's milk with lime juice and opium as a cure for diarrhoea. The
Parheyas of Bengal used to wash their houses with sheep's dung to
scare spirits. And the use of woollen clothes in certain rites is
prescribed in the current ritual.

Mr. Hartland is inclined to think that the rags represent entire
articles of clothing which were at an earlier time deposited, and on
the analogy of the habit of the witch of getting hold of some part of
the body, such as nail-cuttings and so on, by which she may get the
owner into her power, the rags were meant to connect the worshipper
with the deity. "In like manner my shirt or stocking, or a rag to
represent it, placed upon a sacred bush or thrust into a sacred well,
my name written on the walls of a temple, a stone or pellet from
my hand cast upon a sacred image or a sacred cairn, is thenceforth
in constant contact with divinity; and the effluence of divinity,
reaching and involving it, will reach and involve me. In this way I
may be permanently united with the god."

It is quite possible that some or all of the ideas thus given may
have resulted in the present practice in India.



Disease Transference.

Disease is also transferred in an actual physical way. Thus, in
Ireland, a charm or curse is left on a gate or stile, and the first
healthy person who passes through will, it is believed, have the
disease transferred to him. So, in Scotland, if a child is affected
with the whooping cough, it is taken into the land of another laird,
and there the disease is left. [342] Similarly, in Northern India,
one way of transferring disease is to fill a pot with flowers and
rice and bury it in a path, with a stone to cover it. Whoever touches
this is supposed to contract the disease. This is known as Chalauwa,
which means "passing on" the malady. This goes on daily in Upper
India. Often when walking in a bazar in the early morning, you will
see a little pile of earth decorated with flowers in the middle of
the road. This usually contains some of the scabs or scales from
the body of a small-pox patient, which are placed there in the hope
that someone may touch them, contract the malady and thus relieve the
sufferer. In 1885 it was officially reported that in Cawnpur small-pox
had greatly increased from the practice of placing these scales on
the roads. At the instance of Government the matter was investigated,
and it was found that in the early stages of the disease, the Diuli
ceremony is performed at cross-roads; and that at a later period the
crusts from smallpox patients mixed with curdled milk and cocoanut
juice are carried to the temple or platform of the small-pox goddess
and are dedicated to her. [343]

One morning, in a village near Agra, I came by chance on two old women
fiercely quarrelling. On making inquiries, I found that one of them
had placed some small-pox crusts from her child on her neighbour's
threshold. The people agreed that this was a wicked act, as it
displayed special animus against a particular person. If they had
been placed on the cross-road, and any one had been unlucky enough
to touch them and contract the disease, it would not have mattered
much--that was the will of God.

Some time ago an indigo planter, near Benares, was astonished by a
respectable native friend asking the loan of one of his geese. On
inquiry he ascertained that his friend's son was suffering from bowel
complaint, and that he had been advised by a native physician to get
a goose, place it in the boy's bed, and that the disease would be
communicated to the bird, with the result of curing the patient. This
remedy was known in Italy. One of the prescriptions of Marcellus runs:
[344] "To those who are suffering from a colic. Let them fasten a
live duck to their stomachs, thus the disease will pass from the
man to the duck, and the duck will die." In the same way when any
one wants to set their neighbour's household at variance, a quill
of a porcupine, which is supposed to be a quarrelsome animal, is
thrown over the wall. On this principle in Italy a short and simple
method of setting people by the ears is to buy some of the herb
Discordia and throw it into a house, when the result is sure to be
a vendetta. [345] In the Indian Hills, in case of illness a stake is
driven down into the earth where four roads meet, and certain drugs
and grains are buried close by, which are speedily disinterred and
eaten by crows. This gives immediate relief to the sufferer. [346]
Here the idea apparently is, that the disease is transferred to the
crow, a sacred bird, and in close communication with the spirits of
the sainted dead. So in cases of cattle disease, a buffalo's skull,
a small lamb, fire in a pan, vessels of butter and milk, wisps of
grass and branches of the Siras tree (Acacia speciosa) are thrown
over the boundary of another village and are supposed to carry the
disease demon with them. This often causes a riot. [347] In the same
way, killing buffaloes and putting their heads in the next village
removes cholera, and by pouring oil on grain and burning it, the
disease flies elsewhere in the smoke. This seems to be one of the
principles which underlie the general practice of fire sacrifice.



Scapegoats.

This brings us to the regular scapegoat. At shrines of Sitala, the
small-pox goddess, sweepers bring round a small pig. Contributions are
called for from the worshippers, and when the value of the animal is
made up, it is driven by the people into the jungle, pursued by an
excited crowd, who believe that the creature has taken the disease
with it.

General Sleeman gives an excellent example of this custom. [348]
"More than four-fifths of the city and cantonments of Sagar had
been affected by a violent influenza, which, commencing with a
violent cough, was followed by a fever and in some cases terminated
in death. I had an application from the old Queen Dowager of Sagar,
to allow of a noisy religious procession for the purpose of imploring
deliverance from this great calamity. The women and children in this
procession were to do their utmost to add to the noise by raising
their voices in psalmody, beating upon their brass pans and pots
with all their might, and discharging firearms where they could
get them. Before the noisy crowd was to be driven a buffalo, which
had been purchased by general subscription, in order that every
family might participate in the merit. They were to follow it out
eight miles, where it was to be turned out for anyone who would take
it. If the animal returned, the disease must return with it, and the
ceremony be performed over again. I was requested to intimate the
circumstances to the officer commanding the troops in cantonments,
in order that the noise they intended to make might not excite any
alarm and bring down upon them the visit of the soldiery. It was,
however, subsequently determined that the animal should be a goat,
and he was driven before the crowd. Accordingly, I have on several
occasions been requested to allow of such noisy ceremonies in cases of
epidemics, and the confidence the people feel in their efficacy has,
no doubt, a good effect."



Demons Scared by Noise.

This incidentally leads to the consideration of the principle that evil
spirits are scared by noise. In the first place this appears largely
to account for the use of bells in religious worship. The tolling of
the bells keeps off the evil spirits which throng round any place where
the worship of the regular gods is being performed. Milton speaks of--


    "The bellman's drowsy charm;
    To bless the doors from nightly harm." [349]


So, the passing bell protects the departing soul as it flies through
the air from demoniacal influence. As Grose writes [350]--"The passing
bell was anciently rung for two purposes; one to bespeak the prayers
of all good Christians for a soul just departing; the other, to drive
away the evil spirits who stood at the bed's foot, and about the house,
ready to seize their prey, or at least to molest and terrify the soul
in its passage; but by the ringing of that bell (for Durandus informs
us evil spirits are much afraid of bells), they were kept aloof,
and the soul, like a hunted hare, gained the start, or had what is by
sportsmen called 'law.'" The keening at an Irish wake is probably a
survival of the same custom. But Panjabi Musalmans have a prejudice
against beating a brass tray, as it is believed to disturb the dead,
who wake, supposing the Day of Judgment has arrived. [351]

Another fact which adds to the efficacy of bells for this purpose,
is that they are made of metal, which, as we shall see elsewhere,
is a well-known scarer of demons.

Hence in Indian temples the use of the bell, or resounding shell
trumpet, is universal. The intention is to call the divinity and wake
him from his sleep, so that he may consume the offerings prepared for
him by his votaries, and to scare vagrant ghosts, who would otherwise
partake of the meal. On the same principle the drum is, as we have
seen, a sacred instrument. The same is the case with bells. The Todas
of Madras worship Hiriya Deva, whose representative is the sacred
buffalo bell, which hangs from the neck of the finest buffalo in
the sacred herd. [352] The Gonds have also elevated the bell into
a deity in the form of Ghagarapen, and one special class of their
devil priests, the Ojhyals, always wear bells. [353] So, the Patari
priest in Mirzapur and many classes of ascetics throughout the country
carry bells and rattles made of iron, which they move as they walk to
scare demons. Iron, it need hardly be said, is most efficacious for
this purpose. This also accounts for the music played at weddings,
when the young pair are in special danger from the attacks of evil
spirits. At many rites it is the rule to clap the hands at a special
part of the ritual with the same purpose. The Raedasi Chamars and
many other people shout or sing loudly as they remove a corpse for
burial or cremation, and there are few magistrates in India who have
not been asked for leave by some happy father to allow guns to be
fired from his house-top to drive evil spirits from the mother and
her child. Mr. Campbell records that they fire a gun over the back
of a sick cow in Scotland with the same intention. [354]



Disease Scapegoats.

To return to the use of the scape animal as a means of expelling
disease. In Berar, if cholera is very severe, the people get a
scapegoat or young buffalo, but in either case it must be a female and
as black as possible, the latter condition being based on the fact that
Yamaraja, the lord of death, uses such an animal as his vehicle. They
then tie some grain, cloves and red lead (all demon scarers) on its
back and turn it out of the village. A man of the gardener caste takes
the goat outside the boundary, and it is not allowed to return. [355]
So among the Korwas of Mirzapur, when cholera begins, a black cock,
and when it is severe, a black goat, is offered by the Baiga at the
shrine of the village godling, and he then drives the animal off
in the direction of some other village. After it has gone a little
distance, the Baiga, who is protected from evil by virtue of his holy
office, follows it, kills it and eats it. Among the Pataris in cholera
epidemics the elders of the village and the Ojha wizard feed a black
fowl with grain and drive it beyond the boundary, ordering it to take
the plague with it. If the resident of another village finds such
a fowl and eats it, cholera comes with it into his village. Hence,
when disease prevails, people are very cautious about meddling with
strange fowls. When these animals are sent off, a little oil, red lead,
and a woman's forehead spangle are put upon it, a decoration which,
perhaps, points to a survival of an actual sacrifice to appease the
demon of disease. When such an animal comes into a village, the Baiga
takes it to the local shrine, worships it and then passes it on quietly
outside the boundary. Among the Kharwars, when rinderpest attacks the
cattle, they take a black cock, put some red lead on its head, some
antimony on its eyes, a spangle on its forehead, and fixing a pewter
bangle to its leg, let it loose, calling to the disease--"Mount on
the fowl and go elsewhere into the ravines and thickets; destroy the
sin!" This dressing up of the scape animal in a woman's ornaments
and trinkets is almost certainly a relic of some grosser form of
expiation in which a human being was sacrificed. We have another
survival of the same practice in the Panjab custom, which directs
that when cholera prevails, a man of the Chamar or currier caste,
one of the hereditary menials, should be branded on the buttocks and
turned out of the village. [356]

A curious modification of the ordinary scape animal, of which it
is unnecessary to give any more instances, comes from Kulu. [357]
"The people occasionally perform an expiatory ceremony with the
object of removing ill-luck or evil influence, which is supposed to
be brooding over the hamlet. The godling (Deota) of the place is,
as usual, first consulted through his disciple (Chela) and declares
himself also under the influence of a charm and advises a feast,
which is given in the evening at the temple. Next morning a man
goes round from house to house, a creel on his back, into which
each family throws all sorts of odds and ends, parings of nails,
pinches of salt, bits of old iron, handfuls of grain, etc. The whole
community then turns out and perambulates the village, at the same
time stretching an unbroken thread round it, fastened to pegs at the
four corners. This done, the man with the creel carries it down to
the river bank and empties the contents therein, and a sheep, fowl,
and some small animals are sacrificed on the spot. Half the sheep is
the property of the man who dares to carry the creel, and he is also
entertained from house to house on the following night."

It is obvious that this exactly corresponds with the old English
custom of sin-eating. Thus we read: [358]--"Within the memory of our
fathers, in Shropshire, when a person died, there was a notice given
to an old sire (for so they called him), who presently repaired to the
place where the deceased lay, and stood before the door of the house,
when some of the family came out and furnished him with a cricket on
which he sat down facing the door. Then they gave him a groat, which
he put in his pocket; a crust of bread, which he ate; and a full bowl
of ale, which he drank off at a draught. After this he got out from
the cricket and pronounced, with a composed gesture, the ease and
rest of the soul departed, for which he would pawn his own soul."

There are other Indian customs based on the same principle. [359]
Thus, in the Ambala District a Brahman named Nathu stated "that he had
eaten food out of the hand of the Raja of Bilaspur, after his death,
and that in consequence he had for the space of one year been placed
on the throne at Bilaspur. At the end of the year he had been given
presents, including a village, and had then been turned out of Bilaspur
territory and forbidden apparently to return. Now he is an outcast
among his co-religionists, as he has eaten food out of the dead man's
hand." So at the funeral ceremonies of the late Rani of Chamba, it is
said that rice and ghi were placed in the hands of the corpse, which
a Brahman consumed on payment of a fee. The custom has given rise to a
class of outcast Brahmans in the Hill States about Kangra. In another
account of the funeral rites of the Rani of Chamba, it is added that
after the feeding of the Brahman, as already described, "a stranger,
who had been caught beyond Chamba territory, was given the costly
wrappings round the corpse, a new bed and a change of raiment, and
then told to depart, and never to show his face in Chamba again." At
the death of a respectable Hindu the clothes and other belongings of
the dead man are, in the same way, given to the Mahabrahman or funeral
priest. This seems to be partly based on the principle that he, by
using these articles, passes them on for the use of the deceased in
the land of death; but the detestation and contempt felt for this class
of priest may be, to some extent, based on the idea that by the use of
these articles he takes upon his head the sins of the dead man. [360]

Again, writing of the customs prevailing among the Rajput tribes
of Oudh which practise female infanticide, Gen. Sleeman writes:
[361]--"The infant is destroyed in the room where it was born,
and there buried. The room is then plastered over with cow-dung,
and on the thirteenth day after, the village or family priest must
cook and eat his food in this room. He is provided with wood, ghi,
barley, rice, and sesamum. He boils the rice, barley, and sesamum
in a brass vessel, throws the ghi over them when they are dressed,
and eats the whole. This is considered as a Homa or burnt offering,
and by eating it in that place, the priest is supposed to take the
whole Hatya or sin upon himself, and to cleanse the family from it."

So, in Central India the Gonds in November assemble at the shrine of
Gansyam Deo to worship him. Sacrifices of fowls and spirits, or a pig,
occasionally, according to the size of the village, are offered, and
Gansyam Deo is said to descend on the head of one of the worshippers,
who is suddenly seized with a kind of fit, and after staggering
about for a while, rushes off into the wildest jungles, where the
popular theory is that, if not pursued and brought back, he would
inevitably die of starvation, and become a raving lunatic. As it is,
after being brought back by one or two men, he does not recover his
senses for one or two days. The idea is that one man is thus singled
out as a scapegoat for the sins of the rest of the village.

In the final stage we find the scape animal merging into a regular
expiatory sacrifice. Other examples will be given in another connection
of the curious customs, like that of the Irish and Manxland rites of
hunting the wren, which are almost certainly based on the principle
of a sacrifice. Here it may be noted that at one of their festivals,
the Bhumij used to drive two male buffaloes into a small enclosure,
while the Raja and his suite used to witness the proceedings. They
first discharged arrows at the animals, and the tormented and enraged
beasts fell to and gored each other, while arrow after arrow was
discharged. When the animals were past doing very much mischief, the
people rushed in and hacked them to pieces with axes. This custom is
now discontinued. [362]

Similarly in the Hills, at the Nand Ashtami, or feast in honour of
Nanda, the foster father of Krishna, a buffalo is specially fed with
sweetmeats, and, after being decked with a garland round the neck, is
worshipped. The headman of the village then lays a sword across its
neck and the beast is let loose, when all proceed to chase it, pelt
it with stones, and hack it with knives until it dies. It is curious
that this savage rite is carried out in connection with the worship
of the Krishna Cultus, in which blood sacrifice finds no place. [363]

In the same part of the country the same rite is performed after a
death, on the analogy of the other instances, which have been already
quoted. When a man dies, his relations assemble at the end of the year
in which the death occurred, and the nearest male relative dances
naked (another instance of the nudity charm, to which reference has
been already made) with a drawn sword in his hand, to the music of a
drum, in which he is assisted by others for a whole day and night. The
following day a buffalo is brought and made intoxicated with Bhang
or Indian hemp, and spirits, and beaten to death with sticks, stones
and weapons.

So, the Hill Bhotiyas have a feast in honour of the village god, and
towards evening they take a dog, make him drunk with spirits and hemp,
and kill him with sticks and stones, in the belief that no disease
or misfortune will visit the village during the year. [364] At the
periodical feast in honour of the mountain goddess of the Himalaya,
Nanda Devi, it is said that a four-horned goat is invariably born and
accompanies the pilgrims. When unloosed on the mountain, the sacred
goat suddenly disappears and as suddenly reappears without its head,
and then furnishes food for the party. The head is supposed to be
consumed by the goddess herself, who by accepting it with its load
of sin, washes away the transgressions of her votaries.







CHAPTER IV.

THE WORSHIP OF THE SAINTED DEAD.


                    Aipssa d' ikonto kat' asphodelon leimona
                    Entha te naiousi psychai, eidola kamonton.

                                                  Odyssey, xxiv. 12, 14.


Ancestor-worship: its Origin.

The worship of ancestors is one of the main branches of the religion
of the Indian races. "Its principles are not difficult to understand,
for they plainly keep up the arrangements of the living world. The
dead ancestor, now passed into a deity, simply goes on protecting
his own family, and receiving suit and service from them as of old;
the dead chief still watches over his own tribe, still holds his
authority by helping friends and harming enemies; still rewards the
right and sharply punishes the wrong." [365] It is in fact the earliest
attempt of the savage to realize the problems of human existence,
as the theology of the Vedas or Olympus is the explanation which
the youth of the world offers of physical phenomena. The latter is
primitive physics, the former primitive biology, and it marks a stage
in the growth of anthropomorphism when the worship of unseen spirits
in general passes to that of unseen spirits in particular.



Among the Aryans and Dravidians.

It is admitted on all sides that this form of worship was general
among the Aryan nations; [366] but it is a mistake to suppose, as
is too often done, that the worship was peculiar to them. That such
was not the case can be proved by numerous examples drawn from the
practices of aboriginal tribes in India, who have lived hitherto
in such complete isolation, that the worship can hardly be due to
imitation of the customs of their more civilized neighbours.

Thus, on the tenth day after a death in the family, the Ghasiyas of
Mirzapur, about the most degraded of the Dravidian tribes, feed the
brotherhood, and at the door of the cook-house spread flour or ashes a
cubit square on the ground. They light a lamp there and cover both the
square and the light with a basket. Then the son of the dead man goes a
little distance in the direction in which the corpse had been carried
out, and calls out his name loudly two or three times. He invites him
to come and sit on the shrine which his descendants have prepared for
him, and to consume the offerings which they are ready to present. It
is said that if the deceased died in any ordinary way and not by the
attack of a Bhut, he often calls from the burying ground and says,
"I am coming!" After calling his father's spirit two or three times,
the son returns to the house and examines the flour or ashes, and
if the deceased did not die by the attack of a Bhut, the mark of his
spirit is found on the flour or ashes in the shape of the footprint
of a rat or a weasel. When this is observed, the son takes a white
fowl and sacrifices it with a knife near the cook-house, calling
to the spirit of his father--"Come and accept the offering which is
ready for you!" Some of them strangle the fowl with their hands, and
before killing it sprinkle a little grain before it, saying--"If you
are really the spirit of my father, you will accept the grain!" Then
he goes on to his father's spirit--"Accept the offering, sit in
the corner and bless your offspring!" If the fowl eats the grain,
there is great rejoicing, as it implies that the spirit has quietly
taken up its residence in the house. If the fowl does not eat, it is
supposed that some sorcerer or enemy has detained the spirit with the
ultimate object of releasing it some time or other on its own family,
with whom it is presumably displeased because they have taken no
care to propitiate it. If the soul does not answer from the burial
ground, or if there is no mark on the square of ashes, it is assumed
that he has fallen into the hands of some Bhut or Pret, who has shut
him up in the hollow stalk of a bamboo, or buried him in the earth;
in any case there is a risk that he may return, and the rite is still
performed as a precautionary measure.

Among the Kharwars the holiest part of the house is the south room,
where it is supposed that the Devata pitri or sainted dead reside. They
worship the spirits of the dead in the month of Sawan (August) near
the house-fire. The house-master offers up one or two black fowls and
some cakes and makes a burnt offering with butter and molasses. Then he
calls out--"Whatever ghosts of the holy dead or evil spirits may be in
my family, accept this offering and keep the field and house free from
trouble!" Many of the Kharwars are now coming more completely under
Brahmanical influence, and these worship the Pitri at weddings in the
courtyard. The house-master offers some balls of rice boiled in milk,
and a Brahman standing by mutters some texts. They are now so advanced
as to do the annual service for the repose of the sainted spirits at
the Pitripaksha or fortnight of the dead in the month of Kuar (August).

The other Dravidian tribes follow similar customs. Thus, the Korwas
worship their dead relations in February with an offering of goats,
which is done by the eldest son of the dead man in the family
cook-house. Their ancestors are said not to appear in the flesh after
death, but to show themselves in dreams if they are dissatisfied
with the arrangements made for their comfort. On the day on which
they are expected to appear the householder makes an offering of
cakes to them in the family kitchen. The Pataris think that the dead
occasionally attend when worship is being done to them. At other times
they remain in the sky or wander about the mountains. Sometimes they
call in the night to their descendants and say--"Worship us! Give
us food and drink!" If they are not propitiated they give trouble
and cause sickness. The Kisans and Bhuiyars of Chota Nagpur adore
their ancestors, "but they have no notion that the latter are now
spirits, or that there are spirits and ghosts, or a future state,
or anything." The Bhuiyas revere their ancestors under the name of
Bir or Vira, "hero," a term which is elsewhere applied to ghosts of
a specially malignant character. The Khariyas put the ashes of their
dead into an earthen pot and throw it into a river. They afterwards
set up in the vicinity slabs of stone as a resting-place for them,
and to these they make daily oblations. The only worship performed by
the Korwas of Chota Nagpur is to their dead relatives, and the same is
the case with other allied races, such as the Bhils and Santals. [367]



Spirits Mortal.

Most of these Dravidian tribes believe that like themselves the
spirits of the dead are mortal. What becomes of them after a couple
of generations no one can say. But when this period has elapsed
they are supposed to be finally disposed of some way or other,
and being no longer objects of fear to the survivors, their worship
is neglected, and attention is paid only to the more recent dead,
whose powers of mischief still continue. The Gonds go further and
propitiate for only one year the spirits of their departed friends,
and this is done even if they have been persons of no note during
their lifetime; but with worthies of the tribe the case is different,
and if one of them, for example, has founded a village or been its
headman or priest, then he is treated as a god for years, and a
small shrine of earth is erected to his memory, at which sacrifices
are annually offered. [368] It is said that the Juangs, who until
quite recently used to dress in garments of leaves, are the only one
of these tribes who do not practise this form of worship. [369] But
these races are particularly reticent about their beliefs and usages,
and it is more than probable that further inquiry will show that they
are not peculiar in this respect.



Ancestors Re-born in Children.

Among many races, again, there is a common belief that the father or
grandfather is re-born in one of his descendants. The modern reader
is familiar with examples of such beliefs in Mr. Du Maurier's "Peter
Ibbetson," and Mr. Rider Haggard's "She." Manu expresses this belief
when he writes--"The husband after conception by his wife, becomes
an embryo and is born again of her; for that is the wifehood of a
wife, that he is born again by her." The feeling that children are
really the ancestors re-born is obviously based on the principle of
hereditary resemblance. Hence the general feeling in favour of calling
a child by the name of the grandfather or grandmother, which is about
as far as the rustic goes in recognizing the ascending line. The
Konkan Kunbis, and even Brahmans, believe that the dead ancestors
sometimes appear in children. Among Gujarat Musalmans the nurse,
if a child is peevish, says, "Its kind has come upon its head." The
same idea is found among the Khandhs. Among the Laplanders of Europe
an ancestral spirit tells the mother that he has come into the child,
and directs her to call it after his name. [370] Another variant of
the same belief is that common among some of the Dravidian races that
the ancestor is revived in a calf, which is in consequence well fed
and treated with particular respect.



The Sraddha.

The ordinary worship of ancestors among Brahmanized Hindu races has
been so often described in well-known books as to need little further
illustration. [371] The spirits of departed ancestors attend upon the
Brahmans invited to the ceremony of the Sraddha, "hovering round them
like pure spirits, and sitting by them when they are seated." "An
offering to the gods is to be made at the beginning and end of the
Sraddha; it must not begin and end with an offering to ancestors,
for he who begins and ends it with an offering to the Pitri quickly
perishes with his progeny." The belief is common to many races that the
spirits of the dead assemble to partake of the food provided by the
piety of their relations on earth. Alcinous addressing the Phaeacians
tells them--"For ever heretofore the gods appear manifest among us,
whensoever we offer glorious hecatombs, and they feast at our side
sitting by the same board." And the old Prussians used to prepare a
meal, to which, standing at the door, they invited the soul of the
deceased. "When the meal was over the priest took a broom and swept
the souls out of the house, saying--'Dear souls! ye have eaten and
drunk. Go forth! go forth!'" [372]

The place where the oblation is to be made is to be sequestered,
facing the south, the land of departed spirits, and smeared with
cow-dung. The use of this substance is easily to be accounted for,
without following the remarkable explanation of a modern writer, who
connects it with the dropping of the Aurora. [373] "The divine manes
are always pleased with an oblation in empty glades, naturally clean,
on the banks of rivers, and in solitary spots." The ceremony is to
be performed by the eldest son, which furnishes the Hindu with the
well-known argument for marriage and the procreation of male issue. We
have seen that the Dravidians also regard the rite as merely domestic
and to be performed by the house-master.

The orthodox Hindu, besides the usual Sraddha, in connection with
his daily worship, offers the Tarpana or water oblation to the
sainted dead. The object of the annual Sraddha is, as is well known,
to accelerate the progress (gati) of the soul through the various
stages of bliss, known as Salokya, Samipya and Sarupya, and by its
performance at Gaya the wearied soul passes into Vaikuntha, or the
paradise of Vishnu.

Hindus do not allow their sons to bathe during the fortnight sacred to
the manes, as they believe that the dirt produced by bathing, shaving,
and washing the apparel will reach and annoy the sainted dead. The
story goes that Raja Karana made a vow that he would not touch food
until he had given a maund and a quarter (about one hundred pounds) of
gold daily to Brahmans. When he died he went to heaven, and was there
given a palace of gold to dwell in, and gold for his food and drink,
as this was all he had given away in charity during his mortal life. So
in his distress he asked to be allowed to return to earth for fifteen
days. His prayer was granted, and warned by sad experience he occupied
himself during his time of grace in giving nothing but food in charity,
being so busy that he neglected to bathe, shave, or wash his clothes,
and thus he became an example to succeeding generations. [374]



Degradation of Ancestor-worship.

The worship which has been thus described easily passes into other
and grosser forms. Thus, in the family of the Gaikwars of Baroda,
when they worship Mahadeva they think of the greatest of this line of
princes. The temple contains a rudely-executed portrait of Khande Rao,
the shrine to the left the bed, garments, and phial of Ganges water,
which commemorate his mother, Chimnabai. Govind Rao has an image
dressed up, and Fateh Sinh a stone face. [375]

In Central India Rajputs wear the figure of a distinguished ancestor
or relation engraved in gold or silver. This image, usually that of a
warrior on horseback, is sometimes worshipped, but its chief utility
is as a charm to keep off ghosts and evil spirits. [376]

The aboriginal Bhuiyas of Chota Nagpur, "after disposing of their dead,
perform a ceremony which is supposed to bring back to the house the
spirit of the deceased, henceforth an object of household worship. A
vessel filled with rice and flour is placed for the time on the tomb,
and when brought back the mark of a fowl's foot is found at the bottom
of the vessel, and this indicates that the spirit of the deceased
has returned." [377] This is, as we have seen, common to many of the
Dravidian tribes, and we shall meet instances of similar practices
when we consider the malignant variety of ghosts.

A curious example of the popular form of ancestor-worship is given by
General Sleeman:--"Rama Chandra, the Pandit, said that villages which
had been held by old Gond proprietors were more liable than others to
visitation from local ghosts, that it was easy to say what village was
or was not haunted, but often exceedingly difficult to say to whom the
ghost belonged. This once discovered, the nearest surviving relation
was, of course, expected to take steps to put him to rest. But,"
said he, "it is wrong to suppose that the ghost of an old proprietor
must be always doing mischief. He is often the best friend of the
cultivators, and of the present proprietor too, if he treats him with
proper respect; for he will not allow the people of any other village
to encroach upon the boundaries with impunity, and they will be saved
all expense and annoyance of a reference to the judicial tribunals
for the settlement of boundary disputes. It will not cost much to
conciliate these spirits, and the money is generally well laid out."

He instances a case of a family of village proprietors, "who had for
several generations insisted at every new settlement upon having the
name of the spirit of the old proprietor inserted in the lease instead
of their own, and thereby secured his good graces on all occasions." "A
cultivator who trespassed on land believed to be in charge of such a
spirit had his son bitten by a snake, and his two oxen were seized with
the murrain. In terror he went off to the village temple, confessed
his sin, and vowed to restore not only the half-acre of land, but to
build a very handsome temple on the spot as a perpetual sign of his
repentance. The boy and the bullocks all then recovered, the shrine was
built, and is, I believe, still to be seen as a boundary mark." [378]



Worship of Worthies.

From this family worship of deceased relations, the transition to
the special worship of persons of high local reputation in life,
or who have died in some remarkable way, is easy. The intermediate
links are the Sadhu and the Sati, and the worship finally culminates
in a creed like that of the Jainas, who worship a pantheon of deified
saints, that of the Lingayat worship of Siva incarnated as Chambasapa,
or the godlike weaver Kabir of the Kabirpanthis. The lowest phase of
all is the worship by the Halbas of Central India of a pantheon of
glorified distillers. [379]



The Sadhu.

The Sadhu is a saint who is regarded as "the great power of God,"
the name meaning "he that is eminent in virtue." He is a visible
manifestation of the divine energy acquired by his piety and
self-devotion. We shall meet later on instances of deified holy men of
this class. Meanwhile, it may be noted, we see around us the constant
development of the cultus in all its successive stages. Thus, in Berar
at Askot the saint is still alive; at Wadnera he died nearly a century
ago, and his descendants live on the offerings made by the pious; at
Jalganw a crazy vagabond was canonized on grounds which strict people
consider quite insufficient. There is, of course, among the disciples
and descendants of these local saints a constant competition going
on for the honour of canonization, which once secured, the shrine
may become a very valuable source of income and reputation. But the
indiscriminate and ill-regulated deification of mortals is one of the
main causes of the weakness of modern Hinduism, because, by a process
of abscission, the formation of multitudinous sects, which take their
titles and special forms of belief from the saint whose disciples
they profess to be, is promoted and encouraged. Thus, as has been
well remarked, Hinduism lies in urgent need of a Pope or acknowledged
orthodox head, "to control its wonderful elasticity and receptivity,
to keep up the standard of deities and saints, and generally to prevent
superstitions running wild into a tangled jungle of polytheism." [380]

It would be out of place to give here any of the details of the
numerous sects which have been founded in this way to commemorate the
life and teaching of some eminent saint. The remarkable point about
this movement is that the leaders of these sects are not always or
even constantly drawn from the priestly classes. Thus the Charandasis,
who are Krishna worshippers, take their name from Charan Das, a Dhusar,
who are usually classed as Banyas, but claim to be Brahmans; Jhambaji,
the founder of the Bishnois, was a Rajput; Kabir, whoever he may have
been, was brought up by a family of Muhammadan weavers at Benares;
Namdeo was a cotton carder; Rae Das is said to have been a Chamar;
Dadu was a cotton cleaner; many of them are half Muhammadans, as
the Chhaju-panthis and Shamsis. It is difficult to estimate highly
enough the result of this feeling of toleration and catholicism on
the progress of modern Hinduism.



Miracle-working Tombs.

These saints have wrested from the reluctant gods by sheer piety and
relentless austerities, a portion of the divine thaumaturgic power,
which exudes after their death from the places where their bodies are
laid. This is the case with the shrines of both Hindu and Musalman
saints. Many instances of this will be found in succeeding pages. Thus
at Chunar there is a famous shrine in honour of Shah Qasim Sulaimani,
[381] a local saint whose opinions were so displeasing to Akbar that
he imprisoned him here till his death in 1614 A.D. His cap and turban
are still shown at his tomb, and these, when gently rubbed by one
of his disciples, pour out a divine influence through the assembled
multitude of votaries, many of whom are Hindus. This holy influence
extends even to the animal kingdom. Thus the tomb of the saint Nirgan
Shah at Sarauli in the Bareilly District abounds in scorpions, which
bite no one through the virtue of the saint.

Hindu saints of the same class are so directly imbued with the
divine afflatus that they need not the purifying influence of fire,
and are buried, not cremated. Their Samadhi or final resting-place
is usually represented by a pile of earth, or a tomb or tumulus of
a conical or circular form. Others, again, like some of the Gusains,
are after death enclosed in a box of stone and consigned to the waters
of the Ganges. These shrines are generally occupied by a disciple or
actual descendant of the saint, and there vows and prayers are made
and offerings presented.



The Sati.

The next link between ancestor-worship and that of special deceased
worthies is seen in the Sati, or "faithful wife," who, before the
practice was prohibited by our Government, was bound to bear her
deceased lord company to the world of spirits for his consolation and
service. The rite seems to have at one time prevailed throughout the
Aryan world. [382] It undoubtedly prevailed in Slavonic lands, [383]
and there are even traces of it in Greece. Evadne is said to have
burnt herself with the body of her husband, Capaneus, and Oenone,
according to one account, leaped into the pyre on which the body
of Paris was being cremated. There are indications that the rite
prevailed among the Dravidian races, and it has been suggested that
the Hindus may have adopted it from them. Even to the present day
among some of the Bhil tribes the wife of the dead man is carried
along with him on the bier to the burning ground, where she is laid
down. There she breaks her marriage necklace, and her ornaments are
consumed with the corpse of her husband, obviously a survival of the
time when she was actually burnt with him. [384]

It is unnecessary here to enter into the controversy whether or not
the rite was based on a misinterpretation or perversion of one of the
sacred texts. That in old times the Sati was treated with exceptional
honour is certain. In some places she went to the burning ground
richly dressed, scattering money and flowers, and calling out the
names of the deities, with music sounding and drums beating. In some
places she used to mark with her hands the gateways and walls of the
chief temple, and she sometimes marked in the same way a stone for
her descendants to worship, a practice to which reference will be made
later on. On such stones it was the custom to carve a representation
of her, and in many places a Chhatri, or ornamental cenotaph pavilion,
was erected in her honour. The small shrines in honour of the village
Sati are found often in considerable numbers on the banks of tanks
all over Upper India. They are visited by women at marriages and other
festivals, and are periodically repaired and kept in order. According
to Mr. Ibbetson, [385] in the Delhi territory, these shrines take the
place of those dedicated to the Pitri, or sainted dead. They often
contain a representation in stone of the lord and his faithful spouse,
and one of his arms rests affectionately on her neck. Sometimes, if he
died in battle, he is mounted on his war steed and she walks beside
him; but her worshippers are not always careful in identifying her
shrine, and I have seen at least one undoubted Revenue Survey pillar
doing duty as a monument to some unnamed local divinity of this class.

Among the warrior tribes of Rajputana, the Sati shrine usually takes
the form of a monument, on which is carved the warrior on his charger,
with his wife standing beside him, and the images of the sun and the
moon on either side, emblematical of never-dying fame. Such places
are the scene of many a ghostly legend. As Col. Tod writes in his
sentimental way [386]--"Among the altars on which have burnt the
beautiful and brave, the harpy or Dakini takes up her abode, and stalks
forth to devour the heart of her victims." The Rajput never enters
these places of silence, but to perform stated rites or anniversary
offerings of flowers and water to the manes of his ancestors. There
is a peculiarly beautiful Sati necropolis at Udaypur, and the Sati
Burj, or tower at Mathura, erected in honour of the queen of Raja
Bihar Mal of Jaypur in 1570 A.D., is one of the chief ornaments of
the city. [387]



The Sati and the Pitri.

The connection between the special worship of the Sati and that of the
Pitri or sainted dead will have been remarked. In many places the Sati
represents the company of the venerated ancestors and is regarded as
the guardian mother of the village, and in many of the rustic shrines
of this class the same connection with the Pitri is shown in another
interesting way. The snake is, as we shall see, regarded as a type
of the household deity, which is often one of the deified ancestors,
and so, in the Sati shrine we often see a snake delineated in the
act of rising out of the masonry, as if it were the guardian mother
snake arising to receive the devotion of her descendants.

The Sati having thus secured the honour of deification by her
sacrifice, is able to protect her worshippers and gratify their
desires. Some are even the subject of special honour, such as
Sakhu Bai, who is worshipped at Akola. [388] Even the Dravidian
Kaurs of Sarguja worship a deified Sati, another link connecting
the cultus with the aboriginal races. She has a sacred grove,
and every year a fowl is sacrificed to her, and every third year
a goat. Col. Dalton [389] observes that the Hindus who accompanied
him were intensely amused at the idea of offering fowls to a Sati,
who is accustomed to the simpler bloodless tribute of milk, cakes,
fruit and flowers. This is the form of the offering at Jilmili, the
Sati shrines belonging to the local Raja. The curses of a dying Sati
were greatly feared. Numerous instances of families ruined in this
way are told both in Rajputana and in Nepal, the last places where
the rite is occasionally performed. [390]

The arrangements for the cremation varied in different places. In
Western India she sat in a specially built grass hut, and keeping her
husband's head in her lap, supported it with her right hand, while
she kindled the hut with a torch held in her left hand. Nowadays in
Nepal the husband and the Sati are made to lie side by side on the
pyre. The woman's right hand is put under the husband's neck, and
round her face are placed all kinds of inflammable substances. Three
long poles of undried wood are laid over the bodies--one over the
legs, the second over the chest, and the third over the neck. Three
men on either side press down the poles till the woman is burnt to
death. There have been cases in which the wretched victim tried to
escape, and was dragged back by force to her death.

A curious modification of the practice of Sati, which so far has been
traced only in Rajputana, is what is known as Ma Sati, or mother Sati,
where the mother immolates herself with her dead child. Colonel Powlett
[391] remarks that in inquiring about it one is often told that it is
really Maha Sati, or "the great Sati." He adds that there can be no
doubt that mother Sati really prevails, but was confined to the sandy
and desert tract, where domestic affection is said to be stronger
than elsewhere. "In one large remote village I found five monuments
to Mother Satis, one a Chhatri or pavilion of some pretensions. A
Rajput lady from Jaysalmer was on a visit to her father's family
with her youngest son. The boy was thrown when exercising his pony,
dragged in the stirrup and killed. His mother became Sati with her
son's body, and probably her example, for she was a person of some
rank, led to the subsequent practice of Ma Sati in the same district."



Modern Saints.

We have already noticed some instances of the canonization in modern
times of saints and holy men. Of worthies of this kind, who have
received divine honours, the number is legion. This deification of
human beings is found in the very early Brahmanical literature. One
of the most noteworthy ideas to be found in the Brahmanas is that
the gods were merely mortal till they conquered Death by their
sacrifices. Death, alarmed, protested to the gods, and it was then
arranged that no one should become immortal by the force of his piety
without first offering his body to Death. Manu declares that "from
his birth alone a Brahman is regarded as a divinity, even by the
gods." [392] Modern practice supports this by calling him Maha-raja
or "Great king," and he rises to heaven as a deity, like many of the
famous kings of old. [393] In the same way the Etruscans had certain
rites through which the souls of men could become gods and were
called Dii Animales, because they had once been human souls. Quite in
consonance with Indian practice they first became Penates and Lares
before they rose to the rank of the superior deities. [394]



Deification in Modern Times.

A few examples of modern deification may be given to illustrate this
phase of the popular faith. Thus, one Gauhar Shah was quite recently
canonized at Meerut because he delivered a prophecy that a windmill
belonging to a certain Mr. Smith would soon cease to work. The
fulfilment of his prediction was considered ample evidence of his
sanctity, and the question was put beyond the possibility of doubt
when, just before his death, the holy man directed his disciples to
remove him from an inn, which immediately fell down. Another saint
of the same place is said to have given five years of his life to the
notorious Begam Samru, who died in 1836, in all the odour of sanctity.



Shaikh Burhan.

Shaikh Burhan, a saint of Amber, was offered a drink of milk by Mokul,
one of the Shaikhawat chiefs, and immediately performed the miracle of
drawing a copious stream of milk from the udder of an exhausted female
buffalo. "This was sufficient to convince the old chief that he could
work other miracles, and he prayed that through his means he might no
longer be childless. In due time he had an heir, who, according to the
injunction of Burhan, was styled, after his own tribe, Shaikh, whence
the title of the clan. He directed that the child should wear the cross
strings (baddiya) worn by Muhammadan children, which, when laid aside,
were to be deposited at the saint's shrine, and further that he should
assume the blue tunic and cap, abstain from hog's flesh, and eat no
meat in which the blood remained. He also ordained that at the birth
of every Shaikhawat a goat should be sacrificed, the Islamite creed or
Kalima recited, and the child sprinkled with the blood." These customs
are still observed, and the Shaikh's shrine is still a sanctuary,
while his descendants enjoy lands specially assigned to them. [395]



Salim Chishti.

The power of conferring male offspring has made the reputation of many
saints of this class, like the famous Salim Chishti of Fatehpur Sikri,
whose prayers were efficacious in procuring an heir for the Emperor
Akbar. Up to the present day childless women visit his shrine and hang
rags on the delicate marble traceries of his tomb to mark their vows.



Deification of Noted Persons.

Besides this sainthood which is based on sanctity of life and approved
thaumaturgic powers, the right of deification is conferred on persons
who have been eminent or notorious in their lives, or who have died
in some extraordinary or notorious way. All or nearly all the deified
saints of Northern India may be grouped under one or other of these
categories.



Harshu Panre.

We have already given an instance of the second class in Hardaul Lala,
the cholera godling. Another example of the same kind is that of Harshu
Panre or Harshu Baba, the local god of Chayanpur, near Sahsaram in
Bengal, whose worship is now rapidly spreading over Northern India, and
promises to become as widely diffused as that of Hardaul himself. He
was, according to the current account, a Kanaujiya Brahman, the family
priest of Raja Salivahana of Chayanpur. The Raja had two queens, one of
whom was jealous of the priest's influence. About this time the priest
built a fine house close to the palace, and one night the Raja and the
Rani saw a light from its upper story gleaming aloft in the sky. The
Rani hinted to the Raja that the priest had designs of ousting his
master from the kingdom; so the Raja had his house demolished and
resumed the lands which had been conferred upon him. The enraged
Brahman did dharna, in other words fasted till he died at the palace
gate. This tragical event occurred in 1427 A.D., and when they took his
body for cremation at Benares, they found Harshu standing in his wooden
sandals on the steps of the burning Ghat. He then informed them that
he had become a Brahm, or malignant Brahman ghost. The Raja's daughter
had been kind to the Brahman in his misfortunes and he blessed her,
so that her family exists in prosperity to this day. But the rest
of his house was destroyed, and now only the gateway at which the
Brahman died remains to commemorate the tragedy. [396]

Harshu is now worshipped as a Brahm with the fire sacrifice and
offerings of Brahmanical cords and sweetmeats. If any one obtains his
desires through his intercession, he makes an offering of a golden
sacred cord and a silken waist-string, and feeds Brahmans in his
honour. Harshu's speciality is exorcising evil spirits which attack
people and cause disease. Such spirits are usually of low caste and
cannot withstand the influence of this deified Brahman.



Ratan Panre.

Another worthy, whose legend much resembles that of Harshu, is Ratan
Panre, who is venerated by the Kalhans Rajputs of Oudh. The last of
the race, Raja Achal Narayan Sinh, ravished the daughter of Ratan
Panre. He pleaded in vain to the wicked Raja for reparation, and at
last he and his wife starved themselves to death at the gate of the
fort. He too, like Harshu, spared a princess of the Raja's house,
but he cursed the rest of his family with ruin. After he died his
ghost went to the river Sarju and claimed her assistance in revenging
himself on the Raja. She at last consented to help him, provided
he could get the Raja into his power by inducing him to accept some
present from him. So he went to the Raja's family priest and induced
him to take from him a sacred cord with which he was to invest the
Raja. When Achal Narayan Sinh heard to whom he was indebted for the
gift he flung it away in terror. But soon after an angry wave rushed
from the Sarju, and on its crest sat the wraith of Ratan Panre. It
swept away his palace and left not a soul of his household alive. [397]



Maheni.

There is a similar case among the Hayobans Rajputs of Ghazipur. In
1528 A.D. their Raja Bhopat Deva, or perhaps one of his sons, seduced
Maheni, a Brahman girl, a relation of their family priest. She burned
herself to death, and in dying, imprecated the most fearful curses on
the Hayobans sept. In consequence of a succession of disasters which
followed, the tribe completely abandoned their family settlement
at Baliya, where the woman's tomb is worshipped to this day. Even
now none of the sept dares to enter the precincts of their former
home. In the same way, in the case of Harshu Panre no pilgrim will
eat or drink near his tomb, as the place is accursed through the
murder of a Brahman. [398]

There are numerous other cases of this deification of suicide Brahmans
in Northern India. The forms in which they sought vengeance by their
death on their persecutors are diversified in the extreme. There is
a case of a Brahman in the Partabgarh District who, when turned out
of his land, to avenge himself, gathered a heap of cow-dung in the
centre of one of the fields and lay down on it till he was devoured
by worms. This happened sixty years ago, but his fields still stand
a waste of jungle grass in the midst of rich cultivation, and neither
Hindu nor Muhammadan dares to plough them. [399]

At the last census of the North-Western Provinces over four hundred
thousand people recorded themselves as worshippers of various forms
of the Brahm or malignant Brahman ghost. Most of these are Rajputs,
who were probably the most violent oppressors of Brahmans in the
olden days.



Nahar Khan.

Another instance of the same type may be given from Rajputana. Jaswant
Sinh of Marwar had an intrigue with the daughter of one of his chief
officers. "But the avenging ghost of the Brahman interposed between
him and his wishes; a dreadful struggle ensued, in which Jaswant
lost his senses, and no effort could banish the impression from his
mind. The ghost persecuted his fancy, and he was generally believed
to be possessed of a wicked spirit, which when exorcised was made to
say he would depart only on the sacrifice of a chief equal in dignity
to Jaswant. Nahar Khan, 'the tiger lord,' chief of the Kumpawat clan,
who led the van in all his battles, immediately offered his head in
expiation for his prince; and he had no sooner expressed his loyal
determination, than the holy man who exorcised the spirit, caused
it to descend into a vessel of water, and having waved it round his
head, they presented it to Nahar Khan, who drank it off, and Jaswant's
senses were instantly restored. This miraculous transfer of the ghost
is implicitly believed by every chief of Rajasthan, by whom Nahar
Khan is called 'the faithful of the faithful,' and worshipped as a
local god." [400]



Ganganath and Bholanath.

Two other godlings of the Hills owe their promotion to the tragic
circumstances of their deaths. Ganganath was a Raja's son, who
quarrelled with his father and became a religious mendicant. He
subsequently fell into an intrigue with the wife of an astrologer,
who murdered him and his paramour. They both became malignant ghosts,
to whom numerous temples were erected. When anyone is injured by the
wicked or powerful, he has recourse to Ganganath, who punishes the
evil-doer. Of the same type is Bholanath, whose brother, Gyan Chand,
was one of the Almora princes. He had him assassinated with his
pregnant mistress, both of whom became malignant ghosts, and are
especially obnoxious to gardeners, one of whom murdered them. This
caste now specially worships them, and a small iron trident is
sometimes placed in the corner of a cottage and resorted to in
their names when any sudden or unexpected calamity attacks the
occupants. [401]



Bhairwanand.

Similar is the case of Bhairwanand, the tribal deity of the Raikwar
Rajputs of Oudh. He was pushed into a well in order to fulfil a
prophecy, and has since been deified. [402]

So with the queen of Ganor, who killed herself by means of a poisoned
robe when she was obliged to surrender her honour to her Mughal
conqueror. He died in extreme torture, and was buried on the road to
Bhopal. A visit to his grave is believed to cure tertian ague. [403]



Vyasa.

Next come those mortals who have been deified on account of the glory
of their lives. Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas, has been canonized,
and there is a temple in his honour both at Benares and Ramnagar. In
the latter place he has been promoted to the dignity of an incarnation
of Siva, whereas in Benares he has a temple of his own. His worship
extends as far as Kulu, where he has an image near a stream. Pilgrims
offer flowers in his name and set up a stone on end in commemoration
of their visit. [404]



Valmiki.

Valmiki, the author of the Ramayana, is worshipped in the same
way. He has shrines at Balu in the Karnal District and at Baleni
of Meerut. Baliya, the headquarters of the district of that name,
is said to be called after him. The Aheriyas and Baheliyas, both
hunting tribes of the North-Western Provinces, claim descent from
him, and he has now, by an extraordinary feat in hagiolatry, become
identified with Lal Beg, the low caste godling of the sweepers. [405]



Various Saints.

Many other worthies of the olden time are worshipped in the same
way. From the Himalaya to Bombay, Dattatreya, a saint in whom a
part of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva was incarnate, is worshipped by
Vaishnavas as a partial manifestation of the deity, and by Saivas as
a distinguished authority on the Yoga philosophy. He has temples both
in Garhwal and in the Konkan, like Parasara Rishi, the reputed author
of the Vishnu Purana, who wished to make a sacrifice to destroy the
Rakshasas, but was dissuaded by the saints, and then scattered the
fire over the slope of the Himalaya, where it blazes forth at the
phases of the moon. [406] In like fashion the records of the last
census have shown worshippers of the poets Kalidasa and Tulasi Das,
as in Bombay their great writers Dnyanadeva and Tukaram are deified
by the Marathas. Nearly seven thousand people in the North-Western
Provinces adore Vasishtha, the famous Rishi, and many others Narada
Muni, who is a well-known personage and generally acts as a sort of
Deus ex machina in the folk-tales. On the whole in the North-Western
Provinces over a quarter million people recorded themselves as votaries
of these deified saints, devotees and teachers.

The same form of worship largely prevails in the Panjab. Among other
worthies we find Syamji, a Chauhan Raja who is said to have given his
head to Krishna and Arjuna on condition that he should be allowed to
witness the fight between the Kauravas and Pandavas; Dhanwantari,
the physician of the gods; Drona Acharya, the teacher of military
science to the heroes of the great war. The Kumhars or potters worship
Prajapati, the active creator of the universe; and the Kayasth scribes
adore Chitragupta, who keeps the register of the deeds of men, which
will be opened at the last day. This is quite irrespective of a horde
of tutelary saints, who are adored by various tribes of handicraftsmen.



Deified Robbers.

Even the thieving and nomadic tribes have as their godlings deified
bandits. Such is Gandak, the patron of the Magahiya Doms, and Salhes,
who is worshipped by the Doms and Dusadhs of Behar. He was a great
hero and the first watchman. He fought a famous battle with Chuhar Mai
of Mohama, and is the subject of a popular epic in Tirhut. With his
worship is associated that of his brother Motiram, another worthy of
the same kind. [407] At Sherpur near Patna is the shrine of Goraiya or
Gauraiya, a Dusadh bandit chief, to which members of all castes resort,
the higher castes making offerings of meal, the outcastes sacrificing
a hog or several young pigs and pouring out libations of spirits on
the ground. But even here the primitive local cultus is in a state
of transition, as in the case of Salhes, who, according to some, was
the porter of Bhim Sen. [408] Doubtless he and his comrades will some
day blossom forth as manifestations of one or other of the higher gods.

Another bandit godling is Mitthu Bhukhiya, a freebooter, worshipped
by the Banjaras or wandering carriers. He has a special hut, in which
no one may drink or sleep, and which is marked with a white flag. The
tribe always worship him before committing a crime. They assemble
together and an image of the famous tribal Sati is produced. Butter
is put into a saucer, and in this a light is placed, very broad at
the bottom and tapering upwards. The wick, standing erect, is lit,
an appeal is made to the Sati for an omen, and those worshipping
mention in a low tone to the godling where they are going, and what
they propose to do. The wick is then carefully watched, and should
it drop at all, the omen is propitious. All then salute the flag and
start on their marauding expedition. [409]

Vindhya-basini Devi, the personification of the Vindhyan range,
is, as we have seen, the goddess of the Thags, and the Dhanuks, a
thieving tribe in Behar, worship one of their chiefs who was killed
in a skirmish with the Muhammadans six hundred years ago, and whose
ghost has since been troublesome. He is worshipped in a shrine of
brick, and one of the members of the tribe acts as his priest. [410]



Raja Lakhan.

We have already spoken of Gansam, one of the tribal deities of the
Kols. Another famous Kol deity in Mirzapur is Raja Lakhan. One story
of him is that he came from Lucknow, a legend based, of course,
on the similarity of the name. But there can be no reasonable doubt
that he was really Lakhana Deva, the son of the famous Raja Jaychand
of Kanauj, who is known in the popular ballads as the Kanaujiya
Rae. There is an inscribed pillar erected by him near Bhuili in the
Mirzapur District, and he was perhaps locally connected with that
part of the country in some way. [411] Some say that he was taken to
Delhi, where he became a Musalman, and the popularity of his name in
the local legends points to the theory that he was possibly one of
the leaders of the Hindus against the Muhammadan invaders. All this
being granted, it is remarkable that he, a Rajput, and almost as much
a stranger to those primitive jungle dwellers as his Muhammadan rival,
should have found a place in the Dravidian pantheon.



Raja Chandol.

Another deity of the same race is Raja Chandol, who is said to
have been a jungle Raja of the Bhuiyar tribe. He was attacked by
his neighbour the Raja of Nagar, who overcame him and cut off his
head. Meanwhile the conqueror forgot his patron deity, and his temple
was overturned and the image buried in the earth. One day a goldsmith
who was passing by the place heard a voice from beneath the ground
saying that if he dug there he would find the idol. He did so, and,
digging up the image, which was of gold, cut it up and sold it. But
his whole household came to ruin, and then the Raja of Nagar restored
the temple, and the Kols remembered Raja Chandol and have venerated
him ever since.



Bela.

The goddess Bela was the sister of Lakhana Deva, whose story has
been already told. Once, the story goes, Siva went to pay a visit to
Hastinapura, and the bell of his bull Nandi disturbed the brothers
Arjuna and Bhima, who, thinking the god a wandering beggar, drove
him out of the palace. Then he cursed the Rajput race that among
them should be born two fatal women, who should work the ruin of
their power. So first was born Draupadi, who caused the war of the
Mahabharata, and after her Bela, to whom was due the unhappy warfare
which paved the way to the Musalman invasion. Bela now has a famous
temple at Belaun on the banks of the Ganges in Bulandshahr.

We shall come elsewhere on instances of the belief that human beings
were sacrificed under the foundations of important buildings. Nathu
Kahar, the godling of the Oudh boatmen, is said to have been buried
alive under the foundations of the fort of Akbarpur in the Faizabad
District, where a fair is held in his honour. [412] At the last census
one hundred and twenty-four thousand persons recorded themselves as
his votaries.



Jokhaiya.

Jokhaiya, who had by the same enumeration eighty-seven thousand
worshippers, was a Bhangi or sweeper, who is said to have been killed
in the war between Prithivi Raja of Delhi and Jaychand of Kanauj. He
has a noted shrine at Paindhat in the Mainpuri District, where a
sweeper for a small fee will kill a pig and let its blood drop on
his shrine.



Ramasa Pir.

So, the godling invoked by the Pindhari women when their husbands
went on marauding expeditions, was Ramasa Pir. He was a well-known
warrior killed in a battle at Ranuja, near Pushkar. Saturday is his
day for prayer, on which occasions small images of horses in clay or
stone are offered at his shrine. The figure of a man on horseback,
stamped in gold or silver, representing the godling, was found on
the necks of many of the Pindharis killed in the great campaign of
1817-18. It was worn by them as an amulet. He is now known as Deva
Dharma Raja, which is one of the titles of Yama, the god of death,
and Yudhisthira, his putative son.



Rae Sinh.

Another local godling of the same class is Rae Sinh, whose legend is
thus told by General Sleeman: "At Sanoda there is a very beautiful
little fortress or castle, now occupied, but still entire. It was built
by an officer of Raja Chhattar Sal of Bundelkhand about 1725 A.D. His
son, by name Rae Sinh, was, soon after the castle had been completed,
killed in an attack upon a town near Chhatarkot, and having in the
estimation of the people become a god, he had a temple and a tank
raised to him. I asked the people how he became a god, and was told
that some one who had been long suffering from quartan ague went to
the tomb one night and promised Rae Sinh, whose ashes lay under it,
that if he could contrive to cure his ague for him, he would during the
rest of his life make offerings at his shrine. After this he never had
an attack and was very punctual in his offerings. Others followed his
example and with like success, till Rae Sinh was recognized universally
among them as a god, and had a temple raised to his name." "This is
the way," remarks General Sleeman, "gods were made all over the world
and are now made in India." [413]



The Pirs and Sayyids.

We now come to a more miscellaneous class--the Pirs and Sayyids. Some
of these we have encountered already. We have also seen instances of
some holy men who, like Paul and Silas at Lystra, have been raised to
the rank of deities. These saints are usually of Muhammadan origin,
but most of them are worshipped indiscriminately both by Musalmans
and low class Hindus. The word Pir properly means "an elder," but
according to Sufi belief is the equivalent of Murshid, or "religious
leader." Sayyid, an Arabic word meaning "lord" or "prince," is probably
in many cases a corruption of Shahid, "a martyr of the faith," because
many of these worthies owe their reputation to having lost their lives
in the early struggles between Islam and Hinduism. Mr. Ibbetson notes
that he has seen a shrine of some Sayyids in the Jalandhar District,
who were said to have been Sikhs, who died in the front of the
battle. It took the form of a Muhammadan tomb, lying east and west,
surmounted by two small domes of Hindu shape with their openings
to the south. Under each, in the face of the tomb, was a niche to
receive a lamp. [414]

This and many other instances of the same kind illustrate in an
admirable way the extreme receptivity of the popular belief. We
have here a body of saints, many of whom were deadly enemies of the
Hindu faith, who are now worshipped by Hindus. This is well put by
Sir A. Lyall--"The 'Urs, or annual ceremony of these saints, like the
martyr's day of St. Edmund or St. Thomas of Canterbury, has degenerated
into much that is mere carnal traffic and pagan idolatry, a scandal
to the rigid Islamite. Yet, if he uplifts his voice against such
soul-destroying abuses, he may be hooted by loose-living Musalmans as
a Wahhabi who denies the power of intercession, while the shopkeepers
are no better than Ephesian goldsmiths in crying down an inconvenient
religious reformer." [415] And the same writer illustrates the fusion
of the two creeds in their lower forms by the fact that the holy Hindu
now in the flesh at Askot has only recently taken over the business,
as it were, from a Muhammadan Faqir, whose disciple he was during
his life, and now that the Faqir is dead, Narsinh Bawa presides over
the annual veneration of his slippers. Similarly at the Muharram
celebration and at pilgrimages to tombs, like those of Ghazi Miyan, a
large number of the votaries are Hindus. In many towns the maintenance
of these Muhammadan festivals mainly depends on the assistance of the
Hindus, and it is only recently that the unfortunate concurrence of
these exhibitions with special Hindu holidays has, it may be hoped
only temporarily, interrupted the tolerant and kindly intercourse
between the followers of the rival creeds.

In many of these shrines the actual or pretended relics of the deceased
worthy are exhibited. Under the shadow of the Fort of Chunar is the
shrine of Shah Qasim Sulaimani, of whom mention has been already
made. The guardian of the shrine shows to pilgrims the turban of the
saint, who was deified about three hundred years ago, and the conical
cap of his supposed preceptor, the eminent Pir Jahaniya Jahangasht;
but, as in many such cases, the chronology is hopeless.



The Panj Pir.

The most eminent of the Pirs are, of course, the Panj Pir, or five
original saints of Islam. They were--the Prophet Muhammad, 'Ali, his
cousin-german and adopted son, Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet and
wife of 'Ali, and their sons, Hasan and Husain, whose tragical fate
is commemorated with such ardent sympathy at the annual celebration
of the Muharram. [416] But by modern Indian Muhammadans the name is
usually applied to five leading saints--Baha-ud-din Zikariya of Multan,
Shah Ruqa-i-Alam Hazrat of Lucknow, Shah Shams Tabriz of Multan,
Shaikh Jalal Makhdum Jahaniyan Jahangasht of Uchcha in Multan,
and Baba Shaikh Farid-ud-din Shakkarganj of Pak Patan. Another
enumeration gives the Char Pir or four great saints as 'Ali and
his successors in saintship--Khwaja Hasan Basri, Khwaja Habib 'Ajmi,
'Abdul Wahid. Another list of Pirs of Upper India gives their names as
Ghazi Miyan, Pir Hathile, sister's son of Ghazi Miyan, Pir Jalil of
Lucknow, and Pir Muhammad of Jaunpur. It is, in fact, impossible to
find a generally recognized catalogue of these worthies, and modern
Islam is no less subject to periodical change than other religions
organized on a less rigid system. [417]



Caste Saints.

The worship of the original saints of Islam has, however, undergone
a grievous degradation. We are familiar in Western hagiology with
the specialization of saints for certain purposes. St. Agatha is
invoked to cure sore breasts, St. Anthony against inflammation,
St. Blaise against bones sticking in the throat, St. Martin for
the itch, St. Valentine against epilepsy, and so on. So St. Agatha
presides over nurses, St. Catherine and St. Gregory over learned men,
St. Cecilia over musicians, St. Valentine over lovers, St. Nicholas
over thieves, while St. Thomas a Becket looks after blind men,
eunuchs, and sinners. [418] So almost all the artizan classes have
each their special patron saint. The dyers venerate Pir 'Ali Rangrez,
the Lohars or blacksmiths, Hazrat Daud, or the Lord David, because
the Quran says--"We taught him the art of making coats of mail
that they might defend you from your suffering in warring with your
enemies." The Mehtars or sweepers have Lal Pir or Lal Beg, of whom
something more will be said later on. In the Panjab Sadhua Bhagat is
the saint of butchers, because once when he was about to kill a goat,
the animal threatened that he would revenge himself in another life,
and so he joined the sect of Sadhs, who refrain from destroying animal
life. The barbers revere Sain Bhagat or Husain Bhagat. He is said
to have been a resident of Pratappura in the Jalandhar District, and
his descendants were for some time family Gurus or preceptors of the
Raja of Bandhogarh. One day he was so engaged in his devotions that he
forgot to shave the Raja's head, but when he came in fear and trembling
to apologize, he found the Raja shaved and in his right mind. Then it
was found that the deity himself had come and officiated for him. So,
Namdeo, the Chhipi or cotton-printer, became a follower of Ramanand,
and is regarded as the tribal saint.



Domestic Worship of the Pir.

Muhammadan domestic worship is largely concerned with the propitiation
of the household Pir. In almost every house is a dreaded spot where,
as the Russian peasant keeps his holy image, is the abode or corner
of the Pir, and the owner erects a little shelf, lights a lamp every
Thursday night, and hangs up garlands of flowers. Shaikh Saddu,
of whom we shall see more later on, is the women's favourite Pir,
especially with those who wish to gain an undue ascendency over
their husbands. When a woman wishes to have a private entertainment
of her own, she pretends to be "shadow smitten," that is that the
shadow of some Pir, usually Shaikh Saddu, has fallen upon her, and
her husband is bound to give an entertainment, known as a Baithak or
"session," for the purpose of exorcising him, to which no male is
allowed admittance. At these rites of the Bona Dea, it is believed
that the Pir enters the woman's head and that she becomes possessed,
and in that state of frenzy can answer any question put to her. All
her female neighbours, accordingly, assemble to have their fortunes
told by the Pir, and when they are satisfied they exorcise him with
music and singing.



The Pachpiriyas.

But it is in the eastern districts of the North-Western Provinces and
Behar that the worship has reached its most degraded form. No less
than one million seven hundred thousand persons at the last census,
almost entirely in the Gorakhpur and Benares Divisions, recorded
themselves as Pachpiriyas or worshippers of the Panch Pir. It
is impossible to get any consistent account of these worthies,
and the whole cultus has become imbedded in a mass of the wildest
legend and mythology. [419] According to the census lists these
five saints are, in the order of their popularity--Ghazi Miyan,
Buahna Pir, Palihar, Amina Sati and Hathile or Hathila. In Benares,
according to Mr. Greeven, there are no less than five enumerations
of the sacred quintette. One gives--Ghazi Miyan, Amina Sati, Suthan,
'Ajab Salar and Palihar; a second--Ghazi Miyan, Amina Sati, Suthan,
'Ajab Salar and Buahna; a third--Ghazi Miyan, Amina Sati, Buahna,
Bhairon and Bande; a fourth--Ghazi Miyan, Amina Sati, Palihar,
Kalika and Shahza; a fifth--Ghazi Miyan, Suthan, 'Ajab Salar, Buahna
and Bahlano. Among these we have the names of well-known Hindu gods,
like Bhairon and Kalika, a form of Kali. Among the actual companions of
Ghazi Miyan are, it is believed, Hathile Pir, who is said to have been
his sister's son, Miyan Rajjab or Rajjab Salar, and Sikandar Diwana,
the Buahna Pir, who are all buried at Bahraich, and Sahu Salar,
father of the martyr prince, whose tomb is near Barabanki.

In Behar, again, the five saints are Ghazi Miyan, Hathila, Parihar,
Sahja Mai and 'Ajab Salar, and with them are associated Amina Sati,
Langra Tar, who is represented by a piece of crooked wire, and Sobarna
Tir, the bank of the Sobarna river. Here we reach an atmosphere of
the crudest fetishism. A little further west Sanwar or Kunwar Dhir,
of whom nothing certain is known, is joined with them, and has numerous
worshippers in the Gorakhpur and Benares Divisions.



The Panch Pir and the Pandavas.

It has often been remarked that the five Pandavas have strangely passed
out of the national worship. At the last census in the North-Western
Provinces only four thousand people gave them as their personal
deities, and in the Panjab only one hundred acknowledged them. Now
in the west the title of Panch Pir is sometimes given to five Rajput
heroes, Ramdeo, Pabu, Harbu, Mallinath and Guga, [420] and it is
at least a plausible theory that the five Pirs may have originally
been the five Pandu brothers, whose worship has, in course of time,
become degraded, been annexed by the lower Musalmans, and again taken
over by their menial Hindu brethren.

As a matter of fact, the system of worship does not materially differ
from the cultus of the degraded indigenous godlings, such as Kare
Gore Deo, Burhe Baba, Jokhaiya, and their kindred. The priests of
the faith are drawn from the Dafali or Musalman drummer caste, who
go about from house to house reciting the tale of Ghazi Miyan and
his martyrdom, with a number of wild legends which have in course
of time been adopted in connection with him. An iron bar wrapped in
red cloth and adorned with flowers represents Ghazi Miyan, which is
taken from door to door, drums are beaten and petty offerings of grain
collected from the villagers. Low caste Hindus, like Pasis and Chamars,
worship them in the form of five wooden pegs fixed in the courtyard
of the house. The Barwars, a degraded criminal tribe in Oudh, build
in their houses an altar in the shape of a tomb, at which yearly in
August the head of the family sacrifices in the name of the Pirs a
fowl and offers some thin cakes, which he makes over to a Muhammadan
beggar who goes about from house to house beating a drum.



Ghazi Miyan.

The whole worship centres round Ghazi Miyan. His real name was Sayyid
Salar Masaud, and he was nephew of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. He was
born in 1015 A.D., was leader of one of the early invasions of Oudh,
and is claimed as one of the first martyrs of Islam in India. He was
killed in battle with the Hindus of Bahraich in 1034 A.D. Close to
the battle-field was a tank with an image of the sun on its banks, a
shrine sacred in the eyes of all Hindus. Masaud, whenever he passed it,
was wont to say that he wished to have this spot for a dwelling-place,
and would, if it so pleased God, through the power of the spiritual
sun, destroy the worship of the material. He was, it is said, buried
by some of his followers in the place which he had chosen for his
resting-place, and tradition avers that his head rests on the image
of the sun, the worship of which he had given his life to destroy.

There is some reason to believe that this cultus of Masaud may have
merely succeeded to some local worship, such as that of the sun, and
in this connection it is significant that the great rite in honour of
the martyr is called the Byah or marriage of the saint, and this would
associate it with other emblematical marriages of the earth and sun
or sky which were intended to promote fertility. [421] Masaud, again,
is the type of youth and valour in military Islam, and to the Hindu
mind assumes the form of one of those godlike youths, such as Krishna
or Dulha Deo, snatched away by an untimely and tragical fate in the
prime of boyish beauty. So, though he was a fanatical devotee of Islam,
his tomb is visited as much by Hindus as by Muhammadans. Besides his
regular shrine at Bahraich, he has cenotaphs at various places, as at
Gorakhpur and Bhadohi in the Mirzapur District, where annual fairs are
held in his honour. The worship of Masaud, which is now discouraged by
Muhammadan purists, embodied, even in early times, so much idolatry
and fetishism as to be obnoxious to the puritanic party; it fell
under the censure of the authorities, and Sikandar Lodi interdicted
the procession of his spear. [422] Nowadays at his festivals a long
spear or pole is paraded about, crowned at the top with bushy hair,
representing the head of the martyr, which, it is said, kept rolling
on the ground long after it was severed from the trunk. [423]



Sakhi Sarwar.

Sakhi Sarwar, or "generous leader," the title of a saint whose
real name was Sayyid Ahmad, is hardly popular beyond the Panjab,
where his followers are known as Sultanis, and are more than four
hundred thousand in number. [424] No one knows exactly when he lived;
some place him in the twelfth and others in the thirteenth century;
but there are other traditions which would bring him down to the
sixteenth. Whatever be the exact time of his birth and death, he
was one of the class of Muhammadan saints, like Baha-ud-din and
Shams Tabriz, who settled and practised austerities in the country
about Multan. Other names for him are Lakhdata or "the giver of
lakhs," Lalanwala, "he of the rubies," and Rohianwala, or "he of the
Hills." His life, as we have it, is but a mass of legends. He once
cured a camel of a broken leg by riveting it together. Miraculously,
as so many of these saints do, he gave two sons to one Gannu of
Multan and married his daughter. The hill that overlooks his tomb at
Nigaha in the Dera Ghazi Khan District, at the edge of the Sulaiman
mountains, is said to have been infested by a fearful giant. This
monster used at night to stand on the hill-top and with a torch lure
unwary travellers to their destruction. Against him Sakhi Sarwar and
his four companions waged war, but all except the saint were killed;
and such was the fall of the monster that the hill trembled to its
base. Within an enclosure are seen the tombs of the saint, his lady,
Bibi Rae, and a Jinn who fell before the onset of the hero. To the
east is the apartment containing the stool and spinning-wheel of
Mai 'Aeshan, Sakhi Sarwar's mother. It is a curious instance of the
combination of the two rival faiths, so constantly observable in this
phase of the popular worship, that close to the shrine of Sakhi Sarwar
is a temple of Vishnu, a shrine of Baba Nanak, the founder of Sikhism,
and an image of Bhairon, who appears in the legends as the servant
or messenger of the saint. The tomb presents a curious mixture of
Musalman and Hindu architecture. It was recently destroyed by fire,
and two rubies presented by Nadir Shah, and some valuable jewels,
the gift of Sultan Zaman Shah, were destroyed or lost.

The Sultani sect, in large numbers, under the guidance of conductors
known as Bharai, make pilgrimages to the tomb. Near it are two dead
trees, said to have sprung from the pegs which were used to tether
Kakki, the saint's mare. The walls are hung with small pillows of
various degrees of ornamentation. Persons who suffer from ophthalmia
vow gold or silver eyes for their recovery. They vow to shave the
hair of an expected child at the temple, and its weight in gold or
silver is presented to the saint. Some childless parents vow to him
their first child, and on its birth take it to the temple with a cord
round its neck. There are numbers of sacred pigeons attached to the
shrine, which are supported by an allowance realized from certain
dedicated villages. The marks of 'Ali's fingers and the print of
his foot are still shown to the devout in consideration of a fee to
the guardians, and a visit is considered peculiarly efficacious for
the cure of demoniacal possession, exhibiting itself in the form of
epilepsy or hysteria.

Besides the shrine at Nigaha, there are numerous other shrines of
the saint, of which the most celebrated are those connected with the
annual fair at Dhonkal in Gujranwala, the Jhanda fair at Peshawar,
and the Kadmon fair at Anarkali, near Lahore. At Dhonkal there is a
magic well which was produced by the saint, the water of which is
much in request. At Anarkali a class of musicians, called Dholis,
take young children, who are presented at the tomb, and dance about
with them. In the neighbourhood of Delhi he is not held in so much
respect, but shrines in his honour are common, vows and pilgrimages
to him are frequent, and Brahmans tie threads on the wrists of their
clients on a fixed day in his name. Under the name of Lakhdata he
has become the patron deity of athletes, and especially of wrestlers.

In the central districts of the Panjab, his shrine, an unpretending
little edifice, is to be seen outside nearly every hamlet. "The shrine
is a hollow plastered brick cube, eight or ten feet in each direction,
covered with a dome some ten or twelve feet high and with low minarets
or pillars at the four corners, and a doorway in front, opening out
generally on a plastered brick platform. Facing the doorway inside are
two or three niches for lamps, but otherwise the shrine is perfectly
empty. The saint is especially worshipped on Thursdays, when the shrine
is swept, and at night lamps are lit inside it. The guardians of the
shrine are Musalmans of the Bharai clan, who go round on Thursdays
beating drums and collecting offerings. These offerings, which are
generally in small change or small handfuls of grain or cotton, are
mainly presented by women. Another method of pleasing the saint is by
vowing a Rot; the Rot is made by placing dough to the extent vowed on
a hot piece of earth, where a fire has been burning, and distributing
it when it is baked. He is also worshipped by sleeping on the ground
instead of on a bed. Wrestling matches are also held in his honour,
and the offerings made to the performers go towards keeping up the
shrine at Nigaha. A true worshipper of Sultan will not sell milk on
Thursday; he will consume it himself or give it away."

Sarwar is essentially a saint of the Jats, and he is also revered
by Gujars and Jhinwars, and women even of the Khatri and Brahman
castes adore him. He has, according to the last returns, over four
hundred thousand worshippers in the Panjab, and eight thousand in
the North-Western Provinces.



Guga Pir.

Another noted local saint is Guga Pir, also known as Zahir Pir,
"the saint apparent," or Zahir Diwan, "the minister apparent," or in
the Panjab as Bagarwala, as his grave is near Dadrewa in Bikaner,
and he is said to have reigned over the Bagar or great prairies of
Northern Rajputana. Nothing is known for certain about him, and the
tales told of him are merely a mass of wild legends. According to some
he flourished somewhere about the middle of the twelfth century, when
Indian hagiolatry was at its zenith. Others say that he was a Chauhan
Rajput, a contemporary of Prithivi Raja of Delhi, while by another
story he died with his forty-five sons and sixty nephews opposing
Mahmud of Ghazni. He is said to have been a Hindu with the title
of Guga Bir, or "the hero"; and one account represents him to have
become a convert to Islam. "He is said to have killed his two nephews
and to have been condemned by their mother to follow them below. He
attempted to do so, but the earth objected that he being a Hindu, she
was quite unable to receive him till he should be properly burnt. As
he was anxious to revisit his wife nightly, this did not suit him,
and so he became a Musalman, and her scruples being thus removed,
the earth swallowed him and his horse alive." [425] In another and
more degraded form of the legend current in Muzaffarnagar, he is
said to have jumped into a pile of cow-dung, where he disappeared,
a series of stories which remind us of the Curtius myth. [426]

Another elaborate legend represents Guga to be the son of the Rani
Bachhal, and fixes his birthplace at Sirsawa in the Saharanpur
District. About the time of the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni, she
married Vatsa, the Raja of Bagardesa, or the Rajputana desert. By
the influence of that ubiquitous saint, Gorakhnath, she conceived in
spite of the intrigues of her sister, and her child was called Guga,
because the saint gave to his mother, as a preservative, a piece of
gum resin known as Gugal. His cousins attacked him and tried to rob
him of his kingdom, but Guga defeated them and cut off their heads,
which he presented to his mother. She, in her anger, ordered him to
go to the place where he had sent her nephews; so he requested the
earth to receive him into her bosom, which she refused to do until
he became a convert to Islam. He then went to Mecca, and became a
disciple of one Ratan Haji, and on his return the earth opened and
received him, with his famous black mare Javadiya. [427]

The mare has, of course, a story of her own. Guga had no children,
and lamenting this to his guardian deity, he received from him two
barley-corns, one of which he gave to his wife and the other to his
famous mare, which gave birth to his charger, hence called Javadiya
or "barley-born." We find this wonderful mare through the whole range
of folk-lore, but the best parallel to her is the famous mare of Gwri
of the golden hair, and Setanta in the Celtic tale. [428]

From Scotland, too, we get a parallel to the magic birth: "Here are
three grains for thee that thou shalt give thy wife this very night,
and three others to the dog, and these three to the mare; and these
three thou shalt plant behind thy house; and in their own time thy wife
will have three sons, the mare three foals, and the dog three puppies,
and there will grow three trees behind thy house; and the trees will be
a sign, when one of thy sons dies one of the trees will wither." [429]
It is needless to say that this is a stock incident in folk-lore.



Guga and Snake-worship.

But it is in his function as one of the Snake kings that Guga is
specially worshipped. When he is duly propitiated he can save from
snake-bite, and cause those who neglect him to be bitten. His shrine
is often found in association with that of Nara Sinha, the man-lion
incarnation of Vishnu, and of Gorakhnath, the famous ascetic,
whose disciple he is said to have been. He is adored by Hindus
and Muhammadans alike, and by all castes, by Rajputs and Jats, as
well as by Chamars and Chuhras. Even the Brahman looks on him with
respect. "Which is greater," says the proverb, "Rama or Guga?" and
the reply is, "Be who may the greater, shall I get myself bitten by
a snake?" in other words, "Though Rama may be the greater, between
ourselves, I dare not say so for fear of offending Guga."

He is represented on horseback, with his mother trying to detain
him as he descends to the infernal regions. He holds as a mark of
dignity a long staff in his hands, and over him two snakes meet, one
being coiled round his staff. Both the Hindu and Muhammadan Faqirs
take the offerings devoted to him, and carry his Chhari or standard,
covered with peacocks' feathers, from house to house in the month of
August. As is the case with godlings of this class all over India,
it is significant of the association of his worship with some early
non-Aryan beliefs that the village scavenger is considered to be
entitled to a share of the offerings presented at his shrine.

According to the last census Guga had thirty-five thousand worshippers
in the Panjab and one hundred and twenty-three thousand in the
North-Western Provinces.



Worship of Tejaji.

Another godling of the same kind is Tejaji, the Jat snake godling
of Marwar. He is said to have lived about 900 years ago. One day he
noticed that a Brahman's cow was in the habit of going to a certain
place in the jungle, where milk fell from her udder into the hole
of a snake. Teja agreed to supply the snake daily with milk, and
thus save the Brahman from loss. Once when he was preparing to visit
his father-in-law, he forgot the compact, and the snake appearing,
declared that it was necessary that he should bite Teja. He stipulated
for permission first to visit his father-in-law, to which the snake
agreed. Teja proceeded on his journey, and on the way rescued the
village cattle from a gang of robbers, but was desperately wounded in
the encounter. Mindful of his promise, he with difficulty presented
himself to the snake, who, however, could find no spot to bite, as
Teja had been so grievously wounded by the robbers. Teja therefore
put out his tongue, which the snake bit, and so he died. He is now a
protector against snake-bite, and is represented as a man on horseback,
while a snake is biting his tongue. [430] Tejaji and Guga, as snake
godlings, thus rank with Bhajang, the snake godling of Kathiawar, who
is a brother of Sesha Naga, and with Manasa, the goddess of Bengal,
who is the sister of Vasuki, the wife of Jaratkaru, and mother of
Astika, whose intervention saved the snake race from destruction by
Janamejaya. [431]



Worship of Baba Farid Shakkarganj.

Baba Farid Shakkarganj, or "fountain of sweets," so called because he
was able miraculously to transmute dust or salt into sugar, was born
in 1173 A.D., and died in 1265. His tomb is at Pakpatan, and he enjoys
high consideration in Northern India. He was a disciple of Qutb-ud-din
Bakhtyar Kaki, who again sat at the feet of Muin-ud-din Chishti of
Ajmer, also a great name to swear by. Farid's most distinguished
disciple was Nizam-ud-din Auliya, who has a lovely tomb at Ghayaspur,
near Delhi. Farid was very closely associated with Baba Nanak,
and much of the doctrine of early Sikhism seems to have been based
on his teaching. He is said to have possessed the Dast-i-ghaib, or
"hidden hand," a sort of magic bag which gave him anything he wished,
which is like the wishing hat and inexhaustible pot or purse, which
is a stock element in Indian and European folk-lore. [432]

The Emperor, it is said, tried to humble him when he came to Delhi, but
he answered in the famous proverb--Delhi dur ast--"Delhi is far away,"
the Oriental equivalent to Rob Roy's "It is a far cry to Lochow."

The Musalman Thags looked on him as the founder of their system,
and used to make pilgrimages to his tomb. He is believed to have
been connected with the Assassins or disciples of the Old Man of
the Mountain. [433] Every devotee who contrives to get through the
door of his mausoleum at the prescribed time of his feast is assured
of a free entrance into Paradise hereafter. The crowd is therefore
immense, and the pressure so great that two or three layers of men,
pushed closely over each other, generally attempt the passage at the
same time, and serious accidents, notwithstanding every precaution
taken by the police, are not uncommon. [434]

He comes in direct succession to some of the worthies to whom reference
has been already made. To Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chishti succeeded Khwaja
Qutb-ud-din Bakhtyar Kaki, and Baba Farid followed him. They were
the founders of the Chishtiya order of Faqirs.

Besides his shrine at Pakpatan he has another famous Dargah at
Shaikhsir in Bikaner, which is called after him, and the Jats used
to esteem him highly until, as Col. Tod [435] says, "The Bona Dea
assumed the shape of a Jatni, to whom in the name of Kirani Mata,
'Our Mother of the ray,' all bend the head." Another legend fixes
his tomb at Girar, in the Wardha District of the Central Provinces.

The zeolitic concretions of the Girar hill are accounted for as the
petrified cocoanuts and other articles of merchandise belonging to
two travelling dealers who mocked the saint, on which he turned their
whole stock-in-trade into stones as a punishment. They implored his
pardon, and he created a fresh supply for them from dry leaves, on
which they were so struck by his power that they attached themselves
to his service till they died. [436]

In the Western districts of the North-Western Provinces the
first-fruits of the sugar-cane crop are dedicated to him.

He was a thrifty saint, and for the last thirty years of his life he
supported himself by holding to his stomach wooden cakes and fruits
whenever he felt hungry. In this he resembled Qutb-ud-Din Ushi, who
was able by a miracle to produce cakes for the support of his family
and himself. [437]



Minor Saints.

Of the minor saints the number is legion, and only a few instances
can be given. At Makanpur in the Cawnpur District is the tomb of Zinda
Shah Madar, who gives his name to the class of Musalman Faqirs, known
as Madari. He is said to have been a native of Halab or Aleppo, and to
have come to this place in 1415 A.D., when he expelled a famous demon
named Makan Deo, after whom the place was named. Low class Hindus and
Musalmans worship him because he is supposed to save them from snakes
and scorpions, and the Kahar bearers, as they go through jungle at
night, call out Dam Madar! The saint is said to have had the power
of restraining his breath, whence his name. In the holy of holies
of his shrine no woman is allowed to enter, no lights are lighted,
no hymns are chanted and no food is cooked.

'Abdul Qadir Jilani, who is said to take his name from Jil, a
village near Baghdad, is another noted saint. He is also known as
Pir-i-Dastgir, Pir-i-'Azam, Ghaus-ul-'Azam, and was born in 1078 A.D.,
and died at Baghdad. Some say that he is identical with Miran Sahib,
who is worshipped all over Northern India. He is said to have been a
magician, and to have subdued to his service a Jinn named Zain Khan,
whom he treated with great cruelty. One day the Jinn surprised his
master in a state of uncleanness and slew him, but even then he was
unable to escape from the influence of this arch-magician, who rules
him in the world of spirits. Miran Sahib is said to be buried at
Ajmer, but he has Dargahs at Amroha, in the Moradabad District, at
Benares and at Bundi. By another account the tomb at Amroha is that
of Shaikh Saddu or Sadr-ud-din, who was once a crier of the mosque,
and near his are pointed out the tombs of his mother Ghaziya or Ase
and of Zain Khan, the Jinn. The saint of Jalesar, Hazrat Pir Zari,
is also known as Miran Sahib, and he is by some identified with the
Amroha worthy. In Karnal he is said to have led the Sayyid army against
the Raja of Tharwa, and had his head carried off by a cannon ball
during the battle. He did not mind this, and went on fighting. Then a
woman in one of the Raja's villages said--"Who is fighting without his
head?" upon which the body said--"Haq! Haq!" "The Lord! the Lord!" and
fell down dead, calling out--"What? Are not these villages upside down
yet?" upon which every village in the Raja's territory was turned
upside down and everyone killed except a Brahman girl, the paramour
of the Raja. Their ruins remain to authenticate the story. Now the
saint and his sister's son, Sayyid Kabir, are jointly worshipped. We
shall meet this headless hero again in the case of the Dund, and it
will be remembered that a similar legend is told of Ghazi Miyan.



Villages Overturned.

Of these villages which were overturned by a curse we have many
examples all over the country. The ruins at Bakhira Dih in Basti
are said to have been a great city which was overthrown because a
Raja seduced a Brahman girl. At Batesar in Agra is the Aundha Khera,
which records a similar catastrophe. So Bangarmau in Unao is called
the Lauta Shahr or "overthrown city," because Miran Sahib destroyed
it to punish the curiosity of the Raja who wanted to know why the
robes of the saint which a washerman was washing gave forth a divine
perfume. So the town of Kako was overwhelmed by the saint Bibi Kamalo
because the Buddhist Raja gave her a dish cooked of the flesh of rats,
which came to life when she touched them. At Besnagar in Bhopal the
king and his subjects clung to a heavenly chariot and were carried
to the skies and their city was overthrown, and the saint Qutb Shah
overturned the city of Sunit because the Raja used to kill a child
daily to cure an ulcer with which he was afflicted. [438]

Abu 'Ali Qalandar is hardly known beyond the Panjab. He came from
Persia and died at Panipat in 1324 A.D. He is usually known as Bu 'Ali
Qalandar, and it is said that he used to ride about on a wall. He
prayed so constantly that it was laborious to get water for his
ablutions each time; so he stood in the Jumna, which then ran past
the town. After standing there seven years the fishes had gnawed his
legs and he was so stiff that he could hardly move, so he asked the
Jumna to step back seven paces. She, in her hurry to oblige the saint,
went back seven Kos or ten miles, and there she is now. [439]

Many other saints are said to have had similar power over rivers. So
recently as 1865 A.D., a miraculous bridge of sand was built over
the Jumna at Karnal by the prayer of a Faqir, of such rare virtue
that lepers passing over and bathing at both ends were cured; but the
people say that the bridge had got lost when they came there. [440]
It was only the prayers of the saint Farid-ud-din Shakkarganj which
stopped the westward movement of the Satlaj, and the intercession of
a holy Rishi changed the course of the river at Bagheswar. [441]

Bu 'Ali gave the Panipat people a charm which dispelled all the flies
from the town, but they grumbled and said that they rather liked
flies; so he brought them back a thousandfold. He was buried first at
Karnal, but the Panipat people claimed his body, and opened his grave,
whereupon he sat up and looked at them till they became ashamed. They
then took away some bricks for the foundation of a shrine; but when
they got to Panipat and opened the box, they found his body in it;
so he is now buried in both places, and there is a shrine erected
over the place where he used to ride on the wall.



Malamat Shah.

Malamat Shah is treated with much respect in Barabanki. The disciple in
charge of his tomb calls the jackals with a peculiar cry at dusk. They
devour what is left of the offerings, but will only touch such things
as are given with a sincere mind and not to be seen of men. A religious
tiger is also said to come over from Bahraich and pay an annual visit
to the shrine. [442]



Miyan Ahmad.

At Qasur is the tomb of the saint Miyan Ahmad Khan Darvesh, on which
the attendants place a number of small pebbles. These are called
"Ahmad Khan's lions," and are sold to people who tie them round the
necks of children troubled in their sleep. [443]



Shaikh Saddu.

Shaikh Saddu has been mentioned in another connection. His visitations
cause melancholy and hypochondria. He is exorcised by the distribution
of sweets to the poor and the sacrifice of a black goat. He once found
a magic lamp, like that of Alauddin, the powers of which he abused,
and was torn to pieces by the Jinn. [444]

The list of these worthies is immense. We can only mention in passing
Shah Abdul Ghafur, commonly known as Baba Kapur, a disciple of Shah
Madar, whose shrine is in Gwalyar; Mir Abdul 'Ala, the Nakhshbandi who
is buried at Agra; Sultan Bayazid, who kindled a lamp which lighted
the world for one hundred and twenty miles, and thus drove the Jinn
from Chatganw in Bengal, where he is worshipped; Shaikh Kabir, known
as Bala Pir, the son of Shah Qasim Sulaimani of Chunar, whose shrine
is at Kanauj; Shaikh Muhammad Ghaus of Gwaliyar; and Sidi Maula, who
possessed the power of transmuting metals into gold. Lastly comes
Shah Daula, whose shrine is at Gujarat in the Panjab. His priest
is able to confer offspring on childless people on condition that
they dedicate the first child to the saint, and this child is then
born with the head of a rat. Some wretched imbeciles with rat-like
features are found at his tomb. [445]

These wonder-working shrines belong to Hindu as well as Musalman
saints. In the Etah District is the tomb of Kalyan Bharati, a
Hindu ascetic. He was buried alive at his own request about four
hundred years ago. Before his death he announced that exactly six
months after he was dead the arch of his tomb would crack, and so
it happened. Now a mound of earth in the centre is supposed to mark
the head of the saint. The virtue of his shrine is such that if any
one take a false oath within its precincts he will die at once. The
tomb is hence largely used for the settlement of disputes, and many
a wearied district officer longs that there were more such places
throughout the land.



Shrines Which Cure Disease.

Many of these local shrines owe their reputation to notorious cures,
which have been performed by the intervention of the local saint. At
Chhattarpur is the shrine of Rukhar Baba, an ascetic of the Gusain
class, who has the power of removing fever and ague, and hence among
the many tombs of his brethren his is kept clean and white-washed,
while the others are neglected. [446] A shrine in Berar is noted for
its power in cases of snake-bite and scrofula. A large two-storied
gate of its enclosure owes its erection to the gratitude of a wealthy
tailor, who was cured of sore disease of the loins. [447] Recently at
the shrine of the saint of Fatehpur in the Saharanpur District, the
Faqir in charge informed me that when the people bring sick children
to him, he pulls off a leaf from the tree overhanging the tomb, blows
upon it, and says to the disease, "Begone, you rascal!" and the child
is cured. At the tomb of Pir Jahaniyan in the Muzaffargarh District,
people suffering from leprosy and boils get the incumbent to prepare
baths of heated sand, in which the diseased part, or the whole body
is placed. The efficacy of the remedy is ascribed to the thaumaturgic
power of the saint. [448] The tomb of Makhdum Sahib in the Faizabad
District is famous for the exorcism of evil spirits, a reputation
which it shares with the shrine of Bairam at Bidauli in Muzaffarnagar,
and that of Bibi Kamalo at Kako, half-way between Gaya and Patna. [449]

So, in Bengal, the chief disease shrines are those of Tarakeswara in
Hughli, sacred to Mahadeva, of Vaidyanatha in the Santal Parganas,
and Gondalpara in Hughli, famous in cases of hydrophobia. "The device
followed at the last place is for the bitten person, after fasting,
to defray the expense of a special service, and to receive a piece of
broad cloth impregnated with the snuff of a lamp-wick, and secreted
in the heart of a plantain. As long as this charm is preserved and the
patient abstains from eating of this variety of plantain, the effects
of the bite are warded off. Another plan is for the patient to take
a secret medicine, probably cantharides, pounded with twenty-one
pepper-corns, before the twenty-first day. This causes the patient
to throw off some mucus, known as 'the dog's whelp,' and this leads
to cure." [450]

In the Partabgarh District are to be seen here and there
strange-looking brick-built erections called Kukar Deora or "dogs'
house," in the shape of cupolas or pyramids. Some of them are supposed
to be the treasure houses of the ancient races. If a man walks round
one of these seven times and then looks in at the door, he will be
cured from the bite of a mad dog. [451]



Sayyid Yusuf.

Dr. Buchanan gives a case at Patna of a certain Sayyid Yusuf, who
manifested himself to a poor blind weaver and told him that he would
recover his sight next day. At the same time the saint ordered his
patient to search for his tomb and proclaim its virtues. The weaver,
on recovering his sight, did not fail to obey the orders of his
benefactor, and he and his descendants have since then lived on the
contributions of the faithful, though the tomb is a mere heap of clay
and has no endowment. [452]

The tomb at Faizabad known as Fazl-ul-haqq, or "Grace of God," brings
good luck if sweetmeats are offered every Thursday, and another, called
'Ilm Bakhsh, or "Wisdom-giver," causes boys who are taken there to
learn their lessons quickly. [453] The same result may be secured by
a charm which is found in the Samavidhana Brahmana--"After a fast of
three nights, take a plant of Soma, recite a certain formula and eat
of the plant a thousand times, you will be able to repeat anything
after hearing it once."



Wonder-working Tombs.

There are other tombs which present special peculiarities. Thus,
not long since crowds of people assembled at Khetwadi, in Bombay,
to see a shrine erected by some sweepers to Zahir Pir, which at
intervals seemed to oscillate from its foundations. At Anjar in
Sindh are the tombs of a noted outlaw named Jaisar Pir and his wife
Turi Khatrani, who were originally buried apart, but their tombs
are gradually approaching, and it is believed that at their meeting
the world will be destroyed. So there is a wall at Gurdaspur which
a Faqir saw being built, and asked the master-mason if he considered
it to be firm. The mason said that he believed it to be substantial,
whereupon the holy man touched it and made it shake, and it has gone
on shaking ever since. At Faizabad is the tomb of a saint, and some
time ago the metal top of one of the pinnacles took to shaking, and
the weaver population were so impressed that they levied a tax on the
community for its repair. At Jhanjhana is the tomb of Sayyid Mahmud,
who was buried next to one of his disciples. But the latter is too
modest to place himself on an equality with his master, so his tomb,
however much it is repaired, always sinks to a lower level than that
of his preceptor. At Barabanki is the tomb of the saint Shaikh Ahmad
Abdul-haq, who thought he could acquire some useful information by
keeping company with the dead. So he got himself buried alive, and
after six months his grave opened of its own accord and he was taken
out half dead.



The Nine-yard Tombs.

There is another class of tombs which are known as the Naugaza or
Naugaja, that is to say tombs nine yards long. In these rest the
giants of the older world. There is one of these tombs at Nagaur in
Rajputana, and several others have been discovered in the course of the
Archaeological Survey. [454] Five of them at Vijhi measure respectively
29, 31, 30 and 38 feet. Mr. W. Simpson calls these tombs Buddhistic,
but this is very doubtful. [455] The belief largely prevails among
Muhammadans that there were giants in the early times. Adam himself
is said to have been sixty yards in height, and there was a monster
called 'Uj in the days of Adam, and the flood of Noah reached only
to his waist. There is a tomb of Noah at Faizabad which is said to
have been built by Alexander the Great, and not far off are those of
Seth and Job. The latter, curiously enough, are gradually growing in
size. They are now 17 and 12 feet long respectively, but when Abul
Fazl wrote they were only 10-1/2 and 9 feet long. [456]



Shrines with Images or Relics.

The reputation, again, of many shrines rests on the assumed discovery,
generally by means of a dream, that an ancient image or the bones of
a martyr were buried on the spot, and in their honour a shrine was
established. Thus, the great temple at Bandakpur in the Damoh District
owes its origin to the fact that a Pandit in 1781 A.D. dreamed a
dream, that in a certain spot lay buried in the earth an image of
Jagiswar Mahadeva, and that if he built a suitable temple over the
place indicated, the image would make its appearance. On the strength
of this dream the Pandit built a temple, and it is asserted that
in due course of time the image developed itself without the aid
of man. [457] So, the Bhairava temple on the Langur peak owes its
establishment to a cowherd having found on the spot a yellow-coloured
stick, which on his attempting to cut it with an axe, poured out
drops of blood. Frightened at the sight, the cowherd fled, only to
be visited at night by the god in his terrible form, who commanded
him to set up his shrine here. A similar legend is attached to the
Narayana image in Nepal. [458] The celebrated shrine of Hanuman at
Beguthiya was discovered by a wandering ascetic, [459] and a Gujar
cowboy is said not very long ago to have found in one of the Saharanpur
jungles the image of the goddess Sakambari Devi, which now attracts
large numbers of worshippers. The Maharaja of Balrampur some time ago
noticed a rude shrine of Bijleswari Devi, the goddess of lightning,
and remarked that he would build a handsome temple in honour of her,
were it not for the sacred banyan tree which shaded it and prevented
the erection of the spire to the proper height. That very night the
tree was uprooted by a hurricane, and a handsome temple was erected,
this manifestation of her power having made the goddess more popular
than ever. [460]

Mistakes are, however, sometimes made. This was the case some time
ago at Ajudhya, where certain images were discovered and worshipped,
until a learned Pandit ascertained that they were actually the deities
of the aboriginal Bhars, who used to sacrifice Brahmans to them. They
were really Jaina images, but it is needless to say that their worship
was immediately abandoned. [461]

As is only natural, shrines which have been discovered in this way at
the outset rest under a certain degree of suspicion, and have to make
their reputation by works of healing and similar miracles. If they
fail to do so they sink into disrepute. Such was the case with a very
promising shrine, supposed to be that of the saint Ashraf 'Ali, whose
bones were found accidentally not long ago at Ahraura in the Mirzapur
District. It enjoyed considerable reputation for a time, but failing
to maintain its character, was finally discredited and abandoned.

Continuous respect is naturally accorded to ancient saints and local
godlings, who have long since established their claim to recognition
by a series of exhibitions of their thaumaturgic virtues. But the
competition is so keen and the pecuniary value of a successful
institution of this kind so considerable, that the claims of any
interloper must be well tested and approved before it establishes
its position and succeeds in attracting pilgrims.



The Curing of Barrenness.

Barrenness is in popular belief mainly due to the agency of evil
spirits. Sterile women were in Rome beaten with rods by the naked
youths who ran through the city at the Lupercalia. The barren,
as Shakespeare says, "Touched by this holy chase, shake off their
sterile curse." In Bombay it is believed that the cause of not
getting children is that the man or his wife must have killed a
serpent in their former birth, whose spirit haunts them and makes the
woman barren. To get rid of the spirit which causes sterility, the
serpent's image is burnt and its funeral rites are performed. [462]
The desire for male offspring is so intense that some of these shrines
do a thriving trade in providing nostrums for this purpose.

One extraordinary method of procuring children, which long troubled
our magistrates in Upper India, was for the would-be mother to burn
down the hut of some neighbour. The Panjabi woman, who under the reign
of British law is prevented from burning the house of her neighbour,
now takes a little grass from seven thatches and burns it. [463]

In another form of the charm the Khandh priest takes the woman to
the confluence of two streams, sprinkles water over her to purify her
from the dangerous influence of the spirit and makes an offering to
the god of births.

Some special influence has been in many lands considered to attach
to a person who has been publicly executed, and to the appliances
used by the hangman.

Recently at an execution in Bombay, the hangman was observed to
carefully secure the rope, and particularly that part of it which had
encircled the neck of the culprit. He stated that he could sell every
quarter inch of it, as it averted evil spirits and ghosts, and even
prevented death from hanging. This idea accounts for the respect paid
throughout Europe to the mandrake, which is supposed to be generated
from the droppings of the brain of a thief on the gallows. In Cornwall
a wen or strumous swelling can be cured by touching it with the hand
of a man who has been publicly hanged. [464] According to the same
principle, barren women in India bathe underneath a person who has
been hanged, and women of the middle classes try to obtain a piece
of the wood of the gallows for the same object.

Another practice depends upon the principle that creeping under
a bent tree or through a perforated stone expels the demon. Other
instances of this will be given in another place. Hence in Gujarat,
when an ascetic of the Dundiya sect dies, women who seek the blessing
of a son try to secure it by creeping under the litter on which his
corpse is removed. [465]

A rite carried out with the same object rests on a sort of symbolic
magic indicating fertility. Along the roads may often be seen trees
almost destroyed by a noxious creeper known as the Akash Bel. Women
in hope of offspring often transplant this from one tree to another,
and are thus a decided nuisance to a district officer with a taste
for arboriculture.

But the most approved plan is to visit a shrine with a reputation for
healing this class of malady. There the patient is given a cocoanut,
which is a magic substance, a fruit, or even a barley-corn from the
holy of holies. Mr. Hartland has recently made an elaborate study of
this subject, and he points out the principle on which the eating of
such substances produced the desired effect. "Whether from an analogy
between the normal act of impregnation and that of eating and drinking,
or because savages had learnt that at least one mode of operating
effectively on the organism, for purposes alike of injury and healing,
was by drugs taken through the mouth, this was the favourite method
of supernatural impregnation."

And again--"Flowers, fruit and other vegetables, eggs, fishes,
spiders, worms, and even stones, are all capable of becoming human
beings. They only await absorption in the shape of food, or in some
other appropriate manner, into the body of a woman, to enable the
metamorphosis to be accomplished." [466]

The same idea constantly occurs in Indian folk-lore. The barren queen
is given the juice of a pomegranate by a Faqir, or the king plucks one
of the seven mangoes which grow on a special tree, or a beggar gives
the princess the drug which causes her to give birth to twins. [467]
Even in the Ramayana we read that Raja Dasaratha divides the oblation
among his wives and they conceive. Even nowadays in Florence, if a
woman wishes to be with child, she goes to a priest and gets from
him an enchanted apple, with which she repairs to Saint Anna, who
was the Lucina of Roman times, and repeats a prayer or a spell. [468]

Some holy men, it must be admitted, do not escape the tongue of
slander for their doings in this department of their business.



Harmless Saints and Godlings.

Most of these saints and godlings whom we have been considering, are
comparatively harmless, and even benevolent. Such is nearly always
the case with the ghosts of the European dead, who are constantly
deified. Perhaps because the Sahib is such a curiously incomprehensible
personage to the rustic, he is believed to retain his powers in the
other world. But it is a remarkable and unconscious tribute to the
foreign ruler that his ghost should be beneficent.

The gardener in charge of the station cemetery in Mirzapur some time
ago informed me that he constantly sees the ghosts of the ladies and
gentlemen buried there coming out for a walk in the hot summer nights,
and that they never harm him.

But with ordinary graves it is necessary to be cautious. As appears
in the cycle of tales which turn on the magic ointment which enables
the possessor to see the beings of the other world, spirits hate being
watched. The spirit, for instance, often announces its wishes. When
the Emperor Tughlaq began to build the tomb of the Saint Bahawal
Haq, a voice was heard from below, saying, "You are treading on my
body." Another site was chosen at a short distance, and the voice
said, "You are treading on my knees." He went a little further,
and the voice said, "You are treading on my toes." So he had to go
to the other end of the fort, and as the voice was not heard there,
the tomb was built. If you visit an old tomb, it is well to clap
your hands, as the ghost sometimes revisits its resting-place, and
if discovered in deshabille, is likely to resent the intrusion in a
very disagreeable manner. So it is very dangerous to pollute a tomb
or insult its occupant in any way, and instances have occurred of
cases of epilepsy and hysteria, which were attributed to the neglect
of these precautions.

Thus, there is nothing permanent, no established rule of faith in the
popular belief of the rustic. Discredited saints and shrines are always
passing into contempt and oblivion; new worthies are being constantly
canonized. The worst part of the matter is that there is no official
controller of the right to deification, no Advocatus Diaboli to dispute
the claims of the candidate to celestial honours. At the same time the
system, though often discredited by fraud, admirably illustrates the
elastic character of the popular creed. Hinduism would hardly be so
congenial to the minds of the masses, if some rigid supervising agency
disputed the right of any tribe to worship its hero, of any village
to canonize its local worthy. The steady popularity of the system,
for the present at least, shows that it satisfactorily provides for
the religious wants of the people.







CHAPTER V.

WORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD.


                    Prote de psyche Elpenoros elthen etairou,
                    Ou gar po etethapto hypo chthonos euryodeies.

                                                    Odyssey, xi. 51, 52.


These deified ghosts and saints whom we have been discussing, though
occasionally touchy and sensitive to insult or disrespect, are, as
a rule, benevolent. But there is another class of beings at whose
feet the rustic lies in grievous and perpetual bondage. These are
the malevolent dead.



Spirits of the Dead Hostile.

It is not difficult to understand why the spirits of the dead should
be regarded as hostile. A stranger is, in the belief of all primitive
people, synonymous with an enemy; and the spirit of the departed
having abandoned his own and joined some other and invisible tribe,
whose domains lie outside the world of sense, is sure to be considered
inimical to the survivors left on earth. As we have already seen, even
the usually kindly spirit of the departed household dead requires
propitiation and resents neglect; much more those of a different
tribe or family.

Again, those disembodied souls in particular whose departure from the
earth occurred under unexpected or specially tragical circumstances
are naturally considered to have been ejected against their will
from their tenement of clay, and as for many of them the proper
funeral rites have not been performed, they carry with them to the
next world an angry longing for revenge. As Brand, writing of British
ghosts, says, "The ghosts of murdered persons, whose bodies have been
secretly buried, are restless until their bones have been taken up
and deposited in consecrated ground with the due rites of Christian
burial; this idea being the survival of the old heathen superstition
that Charon was not allowed to ferry over the ghosts of the unburied,
but that they wandered up and down the banks of the river Styx for
a period of a hundred years, at the expiration of which they were
admitted to a passage." [469]

This conception of the state of the soul after death may be illustrated
by the savage theory of dreams.



Savage Theory of Dreams.

Many savages believe that the evidence of dreams is sufficient to
prove that the soul moves about during sleep, and that the dream is
the record of its experiences in hunting, dancing, visiting friends,
and so on.



The Separable Soul.

Hence arises the possibility that in the temporary absence of a man's
soul his body may be occupied by some other person's spirit, or even by
a malignant ghost or demon. In the Panchatantra there is a story of a
king who lost his own soul, but afterwards recovered it. A Panjab tale
tells how a Hindu was once asleep and his soul went on its travels as
usual. During its wanderings it felt thirsty and went into a pitcher of
water to drink. While it was in the pitcher some one shut the lid, and
it was imprisoned. His friends took the corpse to the cremation ground,
but some one happened fortunately to open the pitcher just in time,
and the spirit flew into its own body, which awoke on the bier. [470]
In the same way, according to Apollonius, the soul of Hermotimos of
Klazomenoe left his body frequently, resided in different places,
uttered all sorts of predictions, and used to come back to his body,
which remained in his house. At last some spiteful persons burnt
his body in the absence of his soul. In another tale of Somadeva the
soul of Chandraprabha abandons his own body and enters that of a hero
under the influence of Maya or delusion. [471]

On this principle Hindus are very cautious about awaking a sleeping
friend, lest his soul may happen to be absent at the time, and in
Bombay it is considered most reprehensible to play jokes on a sleeping
person, such as painting the face in fantastic colours, or giving
moustaches to a sleeping woman. The absent soul may not be able to
find its own body, the appearance of which has been thus changed,
and may depart altogether, leaving the body a corpse.

It is a common incident of the folk-tales that the soul departs
in a dream and falls in love with a girl. We have it in the common
tale of the Rival Queens, where the king sees in a dream the most
lovely woman in the world, and imposes on his courtiers the task of
finding her. The same idea is found more or less in Somadeva, and
constantly recurs in European folk-lore. [472] In the same way we have
the well-known tale of the instantaneous lapse of time in dreams,
as that of the king who plunges his head into water, goes through
wondrous adventures, and when he takes his head out of the vessel,
finds himself surrounded by his courtiers as before.

The rustic Hindu firmly believes that in the absence of a man's proper
soul in a dream his body is occupied by some strange and consequently
malignant ghost. Hence come the nightmare and evil dreams. Thus the
Korwas of Mirzapur believe that a Bhutin or dangerous female ghost
named Reiya besets them at night under the orders of some witch, and
attacks people's joints with the rheumatism. The Majhwars believe that
the Rakshasa attacks them in dreams. He comes in the shape of an old
man with enormous teeth, brown of colour, with black, entangled hair,
and sometimes swallows his victims. It is fear of him that brings the
fever, and he can be exorcised only by the Baiga with an offering
of rice and pulse. The Dano also comes in dreams, squeezes a man's
throat, and stops his breath. The Bhuiyars have adopted from the
Hindu mythology Jam or Yama as one of their dream ghosts. He sits
on his victim's breast in sleep, and it is impossible to shake him
off or make an alarm. Sometimes these night ghosts come as tigers,
wolves, or bears, and hunt a man down in his sleep.

On the same principle the shadow of a man is believed to be part of
a man's soul, and may be separated from him, injured or wounded by
an enemy. Hence it is considered dangerous to tread on the shadow of
a man in the sunshine. Buddha is said to have left his shadow in the
cave at Pabhosa, where he killed the Naga. [473]

The same is the case with looking into other people's mirrors, because
you may chance leave behind your reflection, which is part of your
soul. As we have seen, this is the basis of much of the theory of water
spirits, which lurk in water holes and seize the reflection of anyone
who looks into them. The Sunni Muhammadans in Bombay cover up all the
looking-glasses in a house when a person is sick, as the soul, which is
just then on the prowl, may be absorbed, and leave its owner a corpse.

Lastly, the same theory accounts for the disinclination which rustics
have to being painted or photographed. Some of the soul goes out in
the image and does not return. There is a rest-house on the Asthbhuja
Hill at Mirzapur which was many years ago presented to the Europeans
of the station by a wealthy banker. He was overpersuaded to allow
his picture to be painted, and fell into a lingering consumption,
of which he soon after died.



The Bhut.

The general term for these spirits is Bhut, in Sanskrit Bhuta, which
means "formed" or "created." In the earlier Hindu writings the word
is applied to the powers of Nature, and even to deities. Siva himself
is called Bhutisvara, or "Lord of spirits," and, under the name of
Bhutisvara Mahadeva, has a shrine at Mathura. But as the Greek Daemon
acquired a less respectable meaning in the later ages of the history
of the nation, so Bhut has now come to imply a malignant evil spirit.

But Bhut is a general term which includes many grades of evil spirits
which it is necessary to distinguish. We shall first, however, deal
with certain characters common to Bhuts in general.

The proper Bhut is the spirit emanating from a man who has died a
violent death, either by accident, suicide, or capital punishment. Such
a soul reaches an additional grade of malignancy if he has been
denied proper funeral ceremonies after death. This is one of his
special wants which deprive the spirit of his longed-for rest. Thus,
we read in Childe Harold, "Unsepulchred they roamed and shrieked,
each wandering ghost." The shade of Patroclus appeared to Achilles
in his sleep and demanded the performance of his funeral, and the
younger Pliny tells of a haunted house in Athens, in which a ghost
played all kinds of pranks owing to his funeral rites having been
neglected. This idea is at the base of the Hindu funeral ceremonies,
and of the periodical Sraddha. Hence arose the conception of the Gayal,
or sonless ghost. He is the spirit of a man who has died without any
issue competent to perform the customary rites; hence he is spiteful,
and he is especially obnoxious to the lives of the young sons of
other people. Accordingly in every Panjab village will be seen small
platforms, with rows of little hemispherical depressions into which
milk and Ganges water are poured, and by which lamps are lit and
Brahmans fed to conciliate the Gayal; "while the careful mother will
always dedicate a rupee to him, and hang it round her child's neck
till he grows up." Mr. Ibbetson [474] suggests that this may have
been the origin of the mysterious so-called "cup-marks," described
by Mr. Rivett-Carnac. But this is far from certain; they may equally
well have been used for sacrifices to Mother Earth, or in any other
primeval form of worship.



Shrines to Persons Accidentally Killed.

Many of these shrines to persons who have died by an untimely death
are known by special names, which indicate the character of the
accident. We shall meet again with the Baghaut, or shrine, to a man
killed by a tiger. We have also Bijaliya Bir, the man who was killed
by lightning, Tar Bir, a man who fell from a Tar or toddy tree, and
Nagiya Bir, a person killed by a snake. General Cunningham mentions
shrines of this kind; one to an elephant driver who was killed by
a fall from a tree, another to a Brahman who was killed by a cow, a
third to a Kashmiri lady who had only one leg and died in her flight
from Delhi to Oudh of exhaustion on the journey.

Bhuts are most to be feared by women and children, and by people at any
serious crisis of their lives, such as marriage or child-birth. They
also attack people after eating sweets, "so that if you treat a
school to sweetmeats, the sweetmeat seller will also bring salt, of
which he will give a pinch to each boy to take the sweet taste out
of his mouth." [475] Salt is, as we shall see later on, particularly
offensive to evil spirits. [476]



Second Marriage and Bhuts.

Women who have married a second time are specially liable to the
envious attacks of the first husband. If in Bombay "a Mahadeo
Koli widow bride or her husband sicken, it is considered the work
of the former husband. Among the Somavansi Kshatriyas, there is a
strong belief that when a woman marries another husband, her first
husband becomes a ghost and troubles her. This fear is so strongly
rooted in their minds, that whenever a woman of this caste sickens,
she attributes her sickness to the ghost of her former husband, and
consults an exorcist as to how she can get rid of him. The exorcist
gives her some charmed rice, flowers, and basil leaves, and tells
her to enclose them in a small copper box and wear it round her
neck. Sometimes the exorcist gives her a charmed cocoanut, which he
tells her to worship daily, and in some cases he advises the woman
to make a copper or silver image of the dead and worship it every
day." [477]

So in Northern India, people who marry again after the death of the
first wife wear what is known as the Saukan Maura, or second wife's
crown. This is a little silver amulet, generally with an image of Devi
engraved on it. This is hung round the husband's neck, and all presents
made to the second wife are first dedicated to it. The idea is that
the new wife recognizes the superiority of her predecessor, and thus
appeases her malignity. The illness or death of the second wife or
of her husband soon after marriage is attributed to the jealousy of
the ghost of the first wife, which has not been suitably propitiated.

In the Panjab, on the same principle, if a man has lost two or three
wives in succession, he gets a woman to catch a bird and adopt it
as her daughter. He then pays the dower, marries his bird bride,
and immediately divorces her. By this means the malignant influence
is diverted to the bird, and the real wife is safe. [478] We shall
meet again with the same principle in dealing with the curious custom
of tree marriage.



Food of Bhuts.

Like evil spirits all the world over, Bhuts will eat filthy food,
and as they are always thirsty, they are glad to secure even a drop
of water, no matter how impure the purpose may have been for which
it has been used. On the other hand, they are very fond of milk, and
no Panjabi woman likes her child to leave the house after drinking
fresh milk. If she cannot prevent it from going, she puts some salt
or ashes into its mouth to scare the Bhut. [479]



Posture of Bhuts.

Bhuts can never sit on the ground, apparently, because, as has been
shown already, the earth, personified as a goddess, scares away all
evil influence. Hence, near the low-caste shrines a couple of pegs
or bricks are set up for the Bhut to rest on, or a bamboo is hung
over it, on which the Bhut perches when he visits the place. [480]
On the same principle the Oraons hang up the cinerary urn containing
the bones of a dead man on a post in front of the house, [481] and
the person who is going on a pilgrimage, or conveying the bones of a
relative to the Ganges, sleeps on the ground; but the bones must not
rest on the ground; they are hung on the branch of a tree, so that
their late owner may revisit them if so disposed. Near shrines where
Bhuts are always about on the chance of appropriating the offerings,
it is expedient to sleep on the ground. So the bride and bridegroom
rest, and the dying man is laid at the moment of dissolution.



Tests of Bhuts.

There are at least three infallible tests by which you may
recognize a Bhut. In the first place he casts no shadow. In the
third Canto of the Purgatorio, Dante is much distressed because
Virgil, being a disembodied spirit, casts no shadow. In the second
place a Bhut can stand almost anything in his neighbourhood but the
scent of burning turmeric, which, as we shall see, is a well-known
demon-scarer. Thirdly, a genuine Bhut always speaks with a nasal twang,
and it is possibly for this last reason that the term for the gibberish
in the mediaeval plays and for modern English is Pisacha Bhasha, or
the language of goblins. [482] Some of them have throats as narrow
as a needle, but they can drink gallons of water at a time. Some,
like the Churel, whom we shall meet later on, have their feet turned
backwards. Some, like Brahman ghosts, are wheat-coloured or white;
others, like the Kafari, the ghost of a murdered negro, are black,
and particularly dreaded. A famous ghost of this class haunts a lane
in Calcutta, which takes its name from him.



Spirit Lovers.

Many denizens of the spirit land have connection with mortals. We
have the cycle of folk-tales known as that of the Swan maidens.

Urvasi came and lived with Paruravas until he broke the curiosity
taboo. We shall see instances where Indra gives one of his fairies to
a mortal lover, and spirits like the Incubi and Succubi of European
folk-lore can be brought down by incantation.



Spirit Entries: The Head.

Spirits enter and leave the body in various ways. They often use the
head in this way, and in particular the tenth aperture of the body,
one of the skull sutures, known as Brahma-randhra. This is the reason
why the skull is broken at cremation to open the "crevice of Brahma,"
as this orifice is called.

In the case of one of the ascetic orders, who are buried and not
cremated, a blow is given on the head with a cocoanut or a conch
shell. Thus, when the chief teacher of the Brahmans in Bombay dies,
his successor breaks a cocoanut on his skull and makes an opening,
in which the sacred Salagrama stone is laid. [483] This rite of
skull-breaking, which is done by the next relation, is a recognized
part of the Hindu cremation rite, and is known as Kapalakriya.

The same theory that the head is an entry for spirits accounts for
numerous strange practices. Thus, when in Kumaun a man is bitten
by a snake they pull three hairs from his scalp-lock and strike
him three times on the top of the head with the first joint of the
middle finger, a kind of blow which in ordinary cases is regarded
with the utmost terror. So when a person has fever, they take a bone
and fill it with grain, and, making the patient stand in the sun, dig
a hole where the shadow of his head falls, and there bury the bone,
saying, "Fever! Begone with the bone!" [484] At a Gond wedding, the
old man who officiates knocks the heads of the bride and bridegroom
together to scare the evil spirits, [485] and at a Hindu marriage
in Northern India the mother of the youth, as he leaves to fetch
his bride, and as he returns with her, waves lamps, a brass tray,
grain, and a rice pounder, to drive off the Bhuts fluttering round
his head. It is on the same principle that the bridegroom wears a
marriage crown, and this also accounts for many of the customs of
blessing by the laying on of hands and anointing which prevail all
over the world. In the same way the hair has always been regarded
as a spirit entry. Magistrates in Northern India are often troubled
by people who announce their intention of "letting their hair grow"
at some one whom they desire to injure. This, if one can judge by
the manifest terror exhibited by the person against whom this rite
is directed, must be a very stringent form of coercion. For the same
reason ascetics wear the hair loose and keep it uncut, as Sampson
did, and the same idea probably accounts for the rites of ceremonial
shaving of youths, and of the mourners after death.



The Mouth.

As might have been expected, Bhuts are very fond of entering by the
mouth. Hence arise much of the mouth-washing which is part of the
daily ritual of the Hindu, and many of the elaborate precautions which
he takes at meals. This will be referred to again in connection with
the Evil Eye.



Yawning.

Hence it is very dangerous to yawn, as two kinds of danger are to
be apprehended--either a Bhut may go down your throat, or part of
your soul may escape, and you will be hard set to recover it. So if
you chance to yawn, you should put your hand to your mouth and say
Narayan--"Great God!" afterwards, or you should crack your fingers,
which scares the evil spirit. This idea is the common property of
folk-lore. [486]



Sneezing.

So, sneezing is due to demoniacal influence, but opinions differ as
to whether it is caused by a Bhut entering or leaving the nose. The
latter view is generally taken by Musalmans, because it is one of the
traditions of the Prophet that the nose should be washed out with
water, as the devil resides in it during the night. The sneezing
superstition in India is at least as old as the Buddhist Jatakas,
where we have a remarkable tale about it, which describes how the
future Buddha and his father Gagga went to pass the night in a place
haunted by a Yakkha, or Yaksha, and were very near being devoured by
him because they did not say the spell "Live!" when they sneezed. [487]

So, in Somadeva's tale of Sulochana and Sushena, the spirit of the
air says, "When he enters into his private apartments, he shall sneeze
a hundred times; and if some one there does not say to him a hundred
times, 'God bless you,' he shall fall into the grasp of death." [488]
It is needless to say that the same belief prevails in Europe. As
Dr. Tylor says, "Even the Emperor Tiberius, that saddest of men,
exacted this observance." According to the Muhammadan rule, if a
person sneezes and then says immediately afterwards, Al-hamdu li'llah,
"God be praised," it is incumbent upon at least one of the party to
reply, Yarhamu-ka 'llah, just as among the Jews the sneezing formula
was Tobkin Khayim, "Good life!"

On the whole, sneezing is considered auspicious, because it implies
the expulsion of a Bhut. As a general rule, if a person sneezes
when another is beginning some work, the latter stops for a while,
and then begins afresh; if there be two sneezes in succession, there
is no necessity for interruption. If a man sneezes behind the back
of another, the back of the latter is slightly pinched. In Bombay,
if a man sneezes during a meal, one of the party calls on him to
name his birthplace. [489] The threshold in the folk-lore of all
nations is regarded as a sacred place. It is here, according to the
Scotch and Irish belief, that the house fairies reside. Sitting
on the threshold is believed by Indian matrons likely to produce
boils in children in that part of the body which touches it, and it
is thought most unlucky to sneeze on the threshold. On the whole,
one sneeze is ominous, while after two work may be commenced with
safety. So it was in the days of Homer--"Even so she spoke, and
Telemachus sneezed loudly, and around the roof rang wondrously,
and Penelope laughed, and straightway spoke Eumoeus winged words,
'Go! call me the stranger, even so into my presence. Dost thou not
mark how my son has sneezed a blessing on all my words?'" [490]



The Hands and Feet.

The hands and feet are also means by which Bhuts enter the body. Hence
much of the ablution at prayers and meals; the hand-clapping which
accompanies so many religious and mystical rites; the passing of the
hand over the head; the laying of the hands on the eyes to restore
sight, of which we have many examples in the Indian folk-tales;
the hand-pledging at marriages; the drinking of the Charan-amrita,
or water, in which the feet of a holy man have been washed; the
ceremonial washing of the feet of the bridegroom at a wedding by
the father of the bride. The stock case of the danger of the not
washing the feet at night is that of Adili, whose impurity allowed
Indra to form the Maruts out of her embryo. A man with flat feet is
considered most unlucky, as in North England, where if you meet a
flat-soled man on Monday you are advised to go home, eat and drink,
or evil will befall you. [491] The chief basis of feet-washing is the
idea that a person coming from abroad and not immediately carrying
out the required ablution runs the risk of bringing some foreign,
and presumably dangerous, spirit with him.



The Ears.

And so with the ears, which are believed to communicate direct with
the brain, and are kept by the rustic carefully muffled up on chilly
mornings. Hence the custom of Kanchhedan, or ear-piercing, which is
in Northern India about the only survival of the world-wide rite of
mutilation when males attain puberty, and of wearing ear-rings and
similar ornaments, which is habitual with all classes of Hindus,
and specialized among the Kanphata Jogis, who take their name from
this practice.



Varieties of Bhuts.

In Bengal the ordinary Bhut is a member of the Kshatriya, Vaisya,
or Sudra class. The Brahman Bhut, or Brahmadaitya, is quite another
variety. The ordinary Bhuts are as tall as palmyra trees, generally
thin and very black. They usually live on trees, except those which
the Brahmadaitya frequent. At night, and especially at the hour of
midnight, they wander about the fields frightening travellers. They
prefer dirty places to those which are clean; so when a person goes
to worship a Bhut, he does so in some dirty, retired place, and gives
him only half-cooked food, so that he may not have time to gobble
it up, and perchance rend his worshipper. They are never seen in
the temples of the gods, though they often, as we have seen, lurk
about in the vicinity in the hope of getting some of the offerings
if the priest be not on the alert and scare them with his bell or
shell-trumpet. They are always stark naked, and are fond of women,
whom they sometimes abduct. They eat rice, and all sorts of human
food, but their favourite diet is fish. Hence no Bengali, except for
a considerable bribe, will talk about fish at night. Here they agree
with the fairies of Manxland. Professor Rhys [492] tells a story of a
Manx fisherman, who was taking a fresh fish home, and was pursued by a
pack of fairy dogs, so that it was only with great trouble he reached
his own door. He drove the dogs away with a stone, but he was shot by
the fairies, and had a narrow escape of his life. On the other hand,
the Small People in Cornwall hate the smell of fish as much as the
savour of salt or grease. [493] The best chance of escape from these
Bengal Bhuts is when they begin to quarrel among themselves. A person
beset by them should invoke the gods and goddesses, especially Kali,
Durga, and Siva, the last of whom is, as already noted, the Lord of
Bhuts. [494]

Bhuts are of many varieties. Vetala, or Baital, their leader, is
familiar to everyone in the tales of the Baital Pachisi. He is not,
as a rule, particularly offensive. More usually he is a vagrant Bhut
which enters the body of a man when the real spirit is absent. But
he often approximates to the Vampire as we meet him in Western
folk-lore. "It is as a vitalized corpse that the visitor from
the other world comes to trouble mankind, often subject to human
appetites, constantly endowed with more than human strength and
malignity." [495] Thus in one of Somadeva's stories the hero goes at
night to a cemetery and summons at the foot of a tree a Vetala into
the body of a man, and after worshipping him, makes an oblation of
human flesh to him. In another there is a Vetala with a body made up
of the limbs of many animals, who hurls the king to the earth, and
when he sits on the Vetala's back the demon flies with him through
the air like a bird and flings him into the sea. [496] The spirit
entering the body of the dead man forms the leading incident in the
tale of Fadlallah in the Arabian Nights, and there are many instances
of it in Indian folk-lore. This disposes of the assertion which has
been sometimes made that among races which bury their dead little
is known of regular corpse spectres, or that they are special to
lands tenanted or influenced by the Slavonians. [497] Most usually
the Vetala appears as the spirit of some living person dissatisfied
with his lodgings on earth, which leaves his own body and occupies a
corpse in preference. He, in company with the Vasus, Yakshas, Bhutas,
and Gandharvas, has passed into the degraded Tantrika worship. [498]



The Pret.

The Hindu notion of the state of the soul between death and the
performance of the prescribed funeral rites agrees exactly with that
of the older European races. They wandered about in a state of unhappy
restlessness, and were not suffered to mix with the other dead. The
term Pret or Preta, which simply means "deceased" or "departed,"
represents the soul during this time. It wanders round its original
home, and, like the Balakhilyas, who surround the chariot of the
sun, is no larger than a man's thumb. The stages of his progress,
according to the best authorities, are that up to the performance of
the ten Pindas the dead man remains a Preta, through the Narayanabali
rite he becomes a Pisacha, and by the Sapindikarana he reaches the
dignity of the Pitri or sainted dead. The term Preta is, however,
sometimes applied to the spirit of a deformed or crippled person,
or one defective in some limb or organ, or of a child who dies
prematurely owing to the omission of the prescribed ceremonies during
the formation of the embryo. Here it may be noted that there are
indications in India of the belief which is common among savages,
that young children, apparently in consequence of their incomplete
protection from the birth impurity, are under a taboo. Thus in India a
child is regarded as a Bhut until the birth hair is cut. Some of the
jungle tribes believe that it is unnecessary to protect a child from
evil spirits until it begins to eat grain, because up to that time
it is nothing more than a Bhut itself. Under the old ritual a child
under two years of age was not burnt, but buried, and no offering of
water was made to it. We are familiar with the same idea in England
regarding unbaptized children, whose spirits are supposed to be
responsible for the noise of Gabriel's Hounds in the sky, really
caused by the bean geese in their southern flight.

The Pret is occasionally under provocation malignant, but as it
partakes to some degree of the functions of the benign ancestral
household spirit, it is not necessarily malicious or evil-disposed
towards living persons. The Pret is specially worshipped at Gaya
on the Hill, known as Pretsila, or "the rock of the Pret," and a
special class of Brahmans at Patna call themselves Pretiya, because
they worship the ghost of some hero or saint. [499]



The Pisacha.

Next comes the Pisacha, which, as we have seen, is by one account
only a stage in the progress of the soul to its final rest. But more
properly speaking it is an evil spirit produced by a man's vices,
the ghost of a liar, adulterer, or criminal of any kind, or of one who
has died insane. But his attributes and functions are not very clearly
defined, and he merges into the general class of Bhuts. In some cases
he seems to have the power to cure disease. Thus we read in Somadeva,
"Rise up in the last watch of the night, and with dishevelled hair,
and naked, and without rinsing your mouth, take two handfuls of rice
as large as you can grasp with the two hands, and, uttering a form
of words, go to a place where four roads meet and there place the
two handfuls of rice, and return in silence without looking behind
you. Do so always until that Pisacha appears and says, 'I will put
an end to your ailment.' Then receive his aid gladly, and he will
remove your complaint." [500]



The Rakshasa.

The Rakshasa again, a word that means "the harmer" or "the destroyer,"
is of the ogre-vampire type. He goes about at night, haunts cemeteries,
disturbs sacrifices and devout men, animates dead bodies, even
devouring human beings, in which capacity he is known as Kravyada,
or carnivorous, and is generally hostile to the human race. He is
emphatically a devourer of human flesh, and eats carrion. He is
often represented in the folk-tales as having a pretty daughter, who
protects the hero when he ventures perchance into the abode of the
monster. Her father comes in, and with the cry of "Manush gandha,"
which is equivalent to the "Fee! fo! fum! I smell the blood of an
Englishman!" of the Western tale, searches about, but fails to find
him. When Hanuman entered the city of Lanka in the form of a cat, to
reconnoitre, he saw that the Rakshasas who slept in the house "were
of every shape and form. Some of them disgusted the eye, while some
were beautiful to look on. Some had long arms and frightful shapes;
some were very fat and some were very lean; some were dwarf and some
were prodigiously tall. Some had only one eye, and others had only
one ear. Some had monstrous bellies, hanging breasts, long projecting
teeth, and crooked thighs; whilst others were exceedingly beautiful to
behold and clothed in great splendour. Some had the heads of serpents,
some the heads of asses, some of horses, and some of elephants." The
leader of them was Ravana, who is said to have been once a Brahman and
to have been turned into a Rakshasa, "with twenty arms, copper-coloured
eyes, and bright teeth like the young moon. His form was as a thick
cloud or as a mountain, or the god of death with open mouth."

The Rakshasa is the great Deus ex machina of folk-lore. He can change
into almost any form he pleases, his breath is a roaring wind; he can
lengthen his arms to eighty miles; he can smell out human beings like
Giant Blunderbore. He can carry a man leagues through the air; if his
head be cut off, it grows again. He is the Eastern type of the monster
dragon which is subdued by St. George, Siegmund, Siegfried, or Beowulf.

His spouse, the Rakshasi, is a creature of much the same kind. In the
folk-tales she often takes the form of the ogress queen who marries
the king and gets up at night and devours an elephant, or two or
three horses, or some sheep or a camel, and then puts the blood and
scraps of meat at the doors of her rivals, and gets them banished,
until the clever lad discovers her wiles and brings her to condign
punishment. [501] Often she besets a city and demands the daily
tribute of a human victim. The king takes the place of the victim,
and the Rakshasi is so affected by his generosity that she abandons
eating the flesh of men. In a case in the folk-tales a boy becomes
a Rakshasa by eating the brains of a corpse. [502] Like all other
demons, Rakshasas are scared by light, and one of the names of the
lamp is Rakshogna, or "the destroyer of the Rakshasas."

The idea of the Rakshasa comes from the earliest times. Some have
thought them to be types of the early Dravidian opponents of the
Hindus. Nirriti, the female personification of death, is a Rakshasa
deity in the Vedas, and Dr. Muir has traced the various stages
by which the Rakshasa was developed into a godling. [503] Thus,
in the Mahabharata, Jara is called a household goddess; the great
King Jarasandha was born in two halves, and Jara united them; she
is always represented as seeking to requite by benefits the worship
which is paid to her. Manu prescribes a special oblation for "the
spirits which walk in darkness." The blood in the sacrifice is,
according to the old ritual, offered to them, though even here we
notice the transition from animal to corn offerings. [504]

Nowadays Rakshasas live in trees and cause vomiting and indigestion
to those who trespass on their domains at night. They mislead night
travellers like Will-o'-the-Wisp, and they are always greedy and in
quest of food. So, if a man is eating by lamp-light and the light
goes out, he will cover the dish with his hands, which are, as we
have already seen, scarers of demons, to preserve the food from the
Rakshasa, and Bengal women go at night with a lamp into every room
to expel the evil spirits. [505]

The Rakshasas are said to be always fighting with the gods and
their blood remains on many of these ghostly battlefields. In the
Hills this is believed to be the cause of the red ferruginous clay
which is occasionally observed, and the Lohu or "blood-red" river
has a similar origin. [506] The same idea appears in the folk-lore of
Europe. In a Swabian legend the red colour of shoots of rye when they
first appear above the surface is attributed to Cain having killed Abel
in a rye-field, which thus became reddened with innocent blood. [507]
One species of feathered pink has a dark purple spot in it which people
in Germany say is a drop of the blood of the Redeemer which fell from
the Cross. [508] In one of the Irish Sagas the blood of a murdered man
fell on a white stone and formed the red veins which are still shown
to the traveller. [509] In Cornwall a red stain on the rocks marks
where giant Bolster died, and the red lichen in a brook commemorates a
murder. [510] Every English child knows the legend of Robin Redbreast.

In folk-lore Rakshasas have kingdoms, and possess enormous riches,
which they bestow on those whom they favour, like Tara Bai in the story
of Seventee Bai. In this they resemble the Irish fairies, who hide away
much treasure in their palaces underneath the hills and in the lakes
and sea. "All the treasure of wrecked ships is theirs; and all the gold
that men have hidden or buried in the earth when danger was on them,
and then died and left no sign to their descendants. And all the gold
of the mine and the jewels of the rocks belong to them, and in the
Sifra or fairy house the walls are silver and the pavement is gold,
and the banquet hall is lit by the diamonds that stud the rocks." [511]

The finger nails of the Rakshasas, as those of Europeans in
popular belief, are a deadly poison, and the touch of them produces
insensibility, or even death. They often take the disguise of old women
and have very long hair, which is a potent charm. Their malignity is
so great that it would be difficult to avoid them, but fortunately,
like the Devil in the European tales, and evil spirits all the world
over, they are usually fools, and readily disclose the secrets of
their enchantment to the distressed heroine who is unlucky enough to
fall into their power, and the victim has generally only to address
the monster as "Uncle!" to escape from his clutches. [512]

They are, as has been said already, usually cannibals. One of these
was Vaka in the Mahabharata, who lived at Ekachakra and levied a
daily toll of food and human victims on the Raja till he was torn
to pieces by Bhima. Bhima also contrived to kill another monster of
the same kind named Hidimba. In the great Panjab legend of Rasalu,
he conquers the seven Rakshasas, who used to eat a human being every
day, and there is a Nepal story of the Rakshasa Gurung Mapa, who used
to eat corpses. He was propitiated with a grant of land to live on
and an annual offering of a buffalo and some rice. [513]



Power of Lengthening Themselves.

All ghosts, as we shall see later on, have the power of lengthening
themselves like the Naugaza, whom we have already mentioned. For
this reason demons, as a rule, are of gigantic form, and many of the
enormous fossil bones found in the Siwalik Hills were confidently
attributed to the Rakshasas, which reminds us of the story of the
smith in Herodotus who found the gigantic coffin seven cubits long
containing the bones of Orestes. [514]



Night Spirits.

Like the ghost in Hamlet, the angel that visited Jacob, and the
destroying angels of Sodom, the Rakshasas always fly before the
dawn. They invariably travel through the air and keep their souls in
birds or trees--a fertile element in folk-lore which has been called
by Major Temple "The Life Index." [515]



Rakshasas as Builders.

The tales of Western lands abound with instances of buildings, bridges,
etc., constructed by the Devil. So the Indian Rakshasa is commonly
regarded as an architect. Thus, at Ramtek in the Central Provinces
there is a curious old temple built of hewn stones, well fitted
together without mortar. From its shape and structure it is probably
of Jaina origin, though local tradition connects it with the name of
Hemadpant, the Rakshasa. He is an example of Rakshasas developed in
comparatively recent times from a historical personage. He was probably
the Minister of Mahadeva (1260-1271 A.D.), the fourth of the Yadava
Kings of Deogiri. According to the common story, he was a giant or a
physician, who brought the current Marathi character from Ceylon. The
Dakkhin swarms with ancient buildings attributed to him. [516]

Such is also the case with another class of demons, the Asuras,
a word which means "spiritual" or "superhuman," who were the rivals
of the gods. In Mirzapur the ancient embankment at the Karsota tank
is considered to be their work. Once upon a time two of these demons
vowed that whoever first succeeded in building a fort should be the
conqueror, and that his defeated rival should lose his life. So
they set to work in the evening, one on the Bijaygarh Hill, and
the other on the opposite peak of Kundakot, about twelve miles
distant. The demon of Bijaygarh, having lost his tools in the dark,
struck a light to search for them. His adversary seeing the light,
and imagining that the sun was rising and his rival's work completed,
fled precipitously. The Bijaygarh fort was completed during the night
and stands to the present day, while on Kundakot you see only a few
enormous blocks of stone which was all the vanquished Asura had time
to collect. The tales of demons interfering with the construction of
buildings are common in European folk-lore.

Many other buildings are said to have been built in the same way. The
Barahkhamba at Shikarpur in the Bulandshahr District was built by
demons; Baliya in Pilibhit was the work of Bali, the Daitya; the
demon Loha or Lohajangha built Lohaban in Mathura. [517] In the same
way the Cornish giants built chiefly in granite, and the Hack and
Cast embankment was constructed by them. [518] In Patna the Asura
Jarasandha is the reputed builder of an enormous embankment which is
called Asuren after him, and another demon of the same class is said
to be the architect of an ancient fortification in Puraniya. [519]

Many buildings, again, are attributed to personages who succeeded in
getting an Asura under their influence, and being obliged to find
work for him, compelled him to occupy his time in architecture. In
the "Lay of the Last Minstrel" Michael Scott got out of the dilemma
by making the demons twist ropes of sand, and the same tale is told
of Tregeagle in Cornwall. [520]



Modern Rakshasas.

Rakshasas are developed even in these prosaic days of ours. In the
folk-tales many human beings lie under the well-founded suspicion
of being Asuras or Rakshasas. [521] The ghost of some Musalmans is
believed by some Hindus to become a most malignant Rakshasa. Such a
ghost is conciliated by being addressed by the euphemistic title of
Mamduh, "the praised one." Visaladeva, the famous King of Ajmer, was
turned into a Rakshasa on account of his oppression of his subjects,
in which condition he resumed the evil work of his earthly existence,
"devouring his subjects," until one of his grandchildren offered
himself as a victim to appease his hitherto insatiable appetite. "The
language of innocent affection," says Col. Tod, "made its way to the
heart of the Rakshasa, who recognized his offspring, and winged his
flight to the Jumna." [522]

Young men who are obliged to travel at night have reason to be
cautious of the Rakshasi, as well as of the Churel, with whom she
is occasionally identified. She takes the form of a lovely woman and
lures her victims to destruction.



Brahman Ghosts.

We have already mentioned the Brahm or malignant Brahman ghost. These
often develop into Rakshasas, and are a particularly dangerous
species. Thus the sept of Gaur Rajputs are haunted by the Rakshasa
or ghost of the Brahman Mansa Ram, who, on account of the tyranny
of the Raja Tej Sinh, committed suicide. He lives in a tree in a
fort in the Sitapur District, and no marriage or any other important
business in the family of the Raja is undertaken until he has been duly
propitiated. [523] So, at the mound of Bilsar in the Etah District,
there lived a Raja whose house overlooked that of a Brahman named
Puran Mall. The Brahman asked the Raja to change the position of his
sitting-room, as it was inconvenient to the ladies of his family,
and when the request was refused, poisoned himself with a dose
of opium. His body turned blue like indigo, and he became a most
malignant demon or Bir, known as the Brahm Rakshasa, which caused
the death of the Raja and his family, and forced his successors to
remove to a distance from their original family residence.



The Deo.

Closely connected with the Rakshasas are various classes of demons,
known as Deo, Dano, or Bir. The Deo is a survival of the Devas or
"shining ones" of the old mythology. It is another of the terms
which have suffered grievous degradation. It was originally applied
to the thirty-three great divinities, eleven of which inhabited each
of the three worlds. Now the term represents a vague class of the
demon-ogre family. The Deo is a cannibal, and were he not exceedingly
stupid could do much harm, but in the folk-tales he is always being
deceived in the most silly way. He has long lips, one of which sticks
up in the air, while the other hangs down pendant. Like many of his
kinsfolk all over the world, he is a potent cause of tempests. [524]



The Bir.

The Bir, who takes his name from the Sanskrit Vira, "hero," is a
very malignant village demon. In one of the Mirzapur villages is
the shrine of Kharbar Bir, or "the noisy hero." No one can give any
satisfactory account of him, but it is quite certain that if he is not
propitiated by the Baiga, he brings disease on men and cattle. Genda
Bir, a woman who was tired of life, and, instead of burning herself,
threw herself down from a tree, is worshipped at Nagpur. [525] Kerar
Bir has, according to the last census returns, thirty-one thousand
worshippers in the eastern districts of the North-West Provinces. He
is said to have been a demon who resided on the spot where the present
fort of Jaunpur now stands. He became such a pest to the country about,
that the great Rama Chandra warred against him and overcame him. His
head and limbs he flung to the four corners of heaven, and his trunk
in the form of a shapeless mass of stone remains as a memorial and is
worshipped. Some allege that he was really some hero of the aboriginal
Bhar race who fell in battle with the Aryan. It is also alleged that
when the British engineers attempted to blow down the fort their
mines failed to disturb the shrine of Kerar, whose importance has
been much increased by this example of his prowess. [526] In Bombay
there are seven Birs who go about together and scour the fields and
gardens at night. [527]



The Dano.

The Dano represents the Danava of the early mythology. Of these
there are seven also, and the leader of them is Vritra, who is
the ancestor of the dragons and keeps back and steals the heavenly
waters, on which account Indra slays him with his thunderbolt. Vala,
the cave in which the rain cows are hidden, is called the brother of
Vritra. No trace remains now of this beautiful weather myth. The Dano
nowadays is hardly to be distinguished from the Bir and his brethren,
and at Hazaribagh he is worshipped in the form of a stone daubed with
five streaks of red lead and set up outside the house. [528]



The Daitya.

So with the Dait or Daitya, who is connected in nothing but name with
the demons of the olden world who warred with the gods. In Mirzapur he
lives in a tree; in front he looks like a man, but seen from behind
he is quite hollow, only a mere husk without a backbone. In this
he resembles the Ellekone of Denmark, who is beautiful in front, but
hollow in the back like a kneading trough. [529] So the Hadal or Hedali
of Bombay is said to be plump in front and a skeleton behind. [530]

At midnight the Daitya shows himself in his tree in a flash of fire and
smoke, and sometimes flies off to another tree a short distance off.

In Mirzapur he is sometimes known as Daitra Bir and is associated
with two others named Akata Bir and Latora Bir, all of whom live
in trees and go out at night and dance for a while with torches
in their hands. They are worshipped with an offering consisting of
the Kalsa or holy water-pots and some greens. [531] In one village
the Daitya is known as Beohar Baba or the "father of merchandise,"
as he is supposed in some way to guard merchants. Col. Tod describes
a place in the table-land of Central India known as Daitya ka har or
"the demon's bone," on which those who are in search of ease jump from
above. Although most of the leapers perish, some instances of escape
are recorded. The hope of obtaining offspring is said to be the most
usual motive for the act. [532] Instances of religious suicides are
common. One of the most famous places for this is behind the peak
of Kedar, where the Pandavas devoted themselves and were carried off
to heaven. The practice seems to have almost completely ceased under
British rule.



The Headless Horseman.

At the present time the most dreaded of these creatures is, perhaps,
the Headless Horseman, who is popularly known as Dund, or "truncated."

He has many of his kindred in other lands. Sir Francis Drake used
to drive a hearse into Plymouth with headless horses and followed
by yelling hounds. Coluinn gun Cheann of the Highlands goes about
a headless trunk. A coach without horses used to career about the
neighbourhood of Listowel when any misfortune was about to take
place. A monster in one of the German tales carries about his head
under his arm. [533]

By one account the Dund took his origin from the wars of the
Mahabharata. However this may be, he appears periodically in the form
of a headless trunk seated on horseback, with his head tied before him
on the pommel of the saddle. He makes his rounds at night and calls
to the householder from outside; but woe to any one who answers him,
for this means death. The belief in these visionary death summonses is
very common. The Irish Banshee howls at night and announces death. In
Mirzapur, Baghesar, or the tiger demon, lives on the Churni Hill. He
sometimes comes down at night in human form, and calls people by name
at their doors. If any one answers him he becomes sick. The Bengali
personifies Nisi or Night as the Homeric Greeks did. [534] She often
comes at midnight, calls the house-master, who when he opens the door
falls senseless and follows her where she will. Sometimes she takes
him into a tank and drowns him, or leads him into a dense forest and
drops him among thorns or on the top of some high tree. In fact it is
always very dangerous to speak to these spirits or ghosts. Falstaff
knew this well when he said, "They are fairies; he that speaks to
them shall die."

The Dund makes occasional incursions throughout the country. He was
in the neighbourhood of Agra in 1882, and some twelve years after
appeared in Mirzapur. On both occasions the news of his arrival caused
considerable alarm. Every one shut up their houses at sunset, and
no one on any consideration would answer a call from outside after
nightfall. It was shrewdly suspected at the time that this rumour
was spread by some professional burglar who made a harvest while the
scare lasted.

Somewhat akin to the Dund is the spectral Raja of Bundi who
occasionally appears in the neighbourhood of Saharanpur. Some years
ago a Brahman astrologer heard some one calling him from outside
one night. When he answered the summons he was told that the Raja
of Bundi wanted to have his horoscope examined and was then encamped
near the town. The Pandit proceeded to the place with the guide and
saw a splendid encampment, and the Raja in his royal robes sitting
in a tent ornamented with pearls. When he saw him the unfortunate
astrologer knew that he was a Rakshasa, and he was the more convinced
of this when he examined his horoscope and found that he was fated
to live for ever. He told the Raja that his life would be long and
prosperous, and after receiving three gold coins as his fee went home
more dead than alive. Next morning he went to the place, but could
find no sign of the camp, and when he looked in his box the coins
were found to have disappeared.

There are numerous other versions of the Headless Horseman story
in Northern India. In a fight at Khandesh the Gaoli prince engaged
in personal conflict with the saint Sayyid Saadat Pir, and struck
off his head. The headless body continued to fight, and the Hindu
army fled in panic. The trunk then snatched up the head and led the
victorious troops to a neighbouring hill, where the earth opened
and swallowed it. [535] So, in Oudh, Malik Ambar, the companion of
Salar Masaud, was, it is said, killed with his master at Bahraich,
but wandering back from Bijnor, a headless trunk on horseback, he at
length reached the place where his tomb now stands, when the earth
opened and received him and his horse. [536]

The Dund is apparently a close relation of the Skandhahata of Bengal,
who goes about with his head cut off from the shoulders. He dwells in
low moist lands outside a village, in bogs and fens, and goes about
in the dark, rolling about on the ground, with his long arms stretched
out. Woe betide the belated peasant who falls within his grasp. [537]



The Ghostly Army.

Closely connected with this are the numerous legends of the Ghostly
Army. Thus, at Faizabad, the country people point out a portion of
the Queen's highway along which they will not pass at night. They say
that after dark the road is thronged with troops of headless horsemen,
the dead of the army of Prince Sayyid Salar. The great host moves on
with a noiseless tread; the ghostly horses make no sound; and no words
of command are shouted to the headless squadrons. Another version
comes from Ajmer. There for some time past a troop of four or five
hundred horsemen, armed and dressed in green, issue from a valley in
the neighbourhood of the city, and after riding about for some time,
mysteriously disappear. They are believed to be the escort of the
Imam Husain, whose tragical fate is commemorated at the Muharram.

The same idea prevails all through India, and indeed all the world
over. The persons killed at a recent disastrous railway accident haunt
the locality, and have caused the breakdown of other trains at the same
place. [538] The ghosts of the battle of Chilianwala began to appear
very shortly after the battle, and Abul Fazl mentions the ghosts of
Panipat in the days of Akbar. [539] In America the anniversaries of the
battles of Bunker's Hill, Concord, Saratoga, and even as late as that
of Gettysburg, are celebrated by spectral armies, who fight by night
the conflict o'er again. [540] If you walk nine times round Neville's
Cross, you will hear the noise of the battle and the clash of armour,
and the same tale is told of the battle of Marathon, which a recent
prosaic authority attributes to the beating of the waves on the shore,
while others say that these spectral armies of the sky are nothing more
than wild geese or other migratory birds calling in the darkness. [541]



Masan.

Masan, the modern form of the Sanskrit Smasana, "a place of cremation,"
is the general term for those evil spirits which haunt the place
where they were forced to abandon their tenements of clay. So the
modern Italian Lemuri are the spirits of the churchyard and represent
the Lemures or Larvae, the unhappy ghosts of those who have died evil
deaths or under a ban, to which there are innumerable allusions in
the Latin writers. [542] In India Masan is very generally regarded
as the ghost of a child, and we have already seen that some tribes
regard an infant as a Bhut. He is occasionally the ghost of a low-caste
man, very often that of an oilman, who, possibly from the dirt which
accompanies his trade, is considered ill-omened. By another account
such ghosts prowl about in villages in the Hills in the form of
bears and other wild animals. [543] Others say that Masan is of black
and hideous appearance, comes from the ashes of a funeral pyre, and
chases people as they pass by. Some die of fright from his attacks,
others linger for a few days, and some even go mad. "When a person
becomes possessed of Masan, the people invoke the beneficent spirit of
the house to come and take possession of some member of the family,
and all begin to dance. At length some one works himself up into a
state of frenzy, and commences to torture and belabour the body of the
person possessed by Masan, until at length a cure is effected, or the
patient perishes under this drastic treatment." Khabish resembles Masan
in his malignant nature and his fondness for burial grounds. He is
also met with in dark glens and forests in various shapes. Sometimes
he imitates the bellow of a buffalo, or the cry of a goatherd or
neatherd, and sometimes he grunts like a pig. At other times he
assumes the disguise of a religious mendicant and joins travellers
on their way; but his conversation is, like that of ordinary Bhuts,
always unintelligible. Like Masan, he often frightens people and
makes them ill, and sometimes possesses unfortunate travellers who
get benighted. [544]

Children afflicted by Masan are said to be "under his shadow" (chhaya),
and waste away by a sort of consumption. Here we have another instance
of the principle already referred to, that the shadow represents the
actual soul. [545] This malady is believed to be due to some enemy
flinging the ashes from a funeral pyre over the child. The remedy in
such cases is to weigh the child in salt, a well-known demon scarer,
and give it away in charity. The cremation ground and the bones
and ashes which it contains are constantly used in various kinds
of magical rites. It is believed when thieves enter a house, that
they throw over the inmates some Masan or ashes from a pyre and make
them unconscious while the robbery is going on. This resembles the
English "Hand of Glory," to which reference will be made in another
connection. As to the influence by means of the shadow, it may be
noted that a Nepal legend describes how a Lama arrested the flight
of a Brahman by piercing his shadow with a spear, and the Rakshasi
Sinhika used to seize the shadow of the object she desired to devour
and so drag the prey into her jaws. [546]



Tola.

Tola is a sort of "Will-o'-the-Wisp" in the Hills. According to one
account, he is, like the Gayal, of whom we have spoken already, the
ghost of a bachelor, and other ghosts refuse to associate with him;
so he is seen only in wild and solitary places. Others say that he
belongs to the class of children ghosts, who have died too young
to undergo the rites of tonsure or cremation. They are, as a rule,
harmless, and are not much dreaded. After a child undergoes the
specified religious ceremonies, its soul is matured, and fitted
either to join the spirits of the sainted dead or to assume a new
existence by transmigration. The estate of the Tola is only temporary,
and after a time, it, too, enters another form of existence. [547]



Airi.

Another famous Hill Bhut is Airi. He is the ghost of some one who
was killed in hunting. We have many instances of these huntsmen
ghosts, of which the most familiar example is the European legend of
the Wild Huntsman, who haunts the forest in which he used to hunt,
and is sometimes heard hallooing to his dogs. So in Cornwall Dando
rides about accompanied with his hounds. [548] The British fairies
ride at night on horses which they steal from the stables, and in the
morning the poor beasts are found covered with sweat and foam. [549]
In Southern India Aiyanar rides about the land at night on a wild
elephant, sword in hand, and surrounded by torch-bearers, to clear
the country from all obnoxious spirits. [550]

The companions of Airi are fairies, who, like the Churel, have their
feet turned backwards. He is accompanied by two litter-bearers
and a pack of hounds with bells round their necks. Whoever hears
their bark is certain to meet with calamity. Airi is much given to
expectoration, and his saliva is so venomous that it wounds those on
whom it falls. Incantations must be used and the affected part rubbed
with the branch of a tree. If this be not done at once, the injured
man dies, and in any case he must abstain from rich food for several
days. We shall meet again with the magical power of spittle. Here
it may be noted that in Western folk-lore it confers the power of
seeing spirits.

"Those who see Airi face to face are burnt up by the flash of his eye,
or are torn to pieces by his dogs, or have their livers extracted
and eaten by the fairies who accompany him. But should any one be
fortunate enough to survive, the Bhut discloses hidden treasures to
him. The treasure-trove thus disclosed varies in value from gold
coins to old bones. His temples are always in deserted places. A
trident represents the god, and a number of surrounding stones
his followers. He is worshipped once a year by lighting a bonfire,
round which all the people sit. A kettle-drum is played, and one after
another they become possessed, and leap and shout round the fire. Some
brand themselves with heated iron spoons, and sit in the flames. Those
who escape burning are believed to be truly possessed, while those
who are burned are considered mere pretenders to divine frenzy." [551]
This closely resembles the worship of Rahu already described.

"The revels usually last for about ten nights, and until they are
ended, a lamp is kept burning at the shrine of the god. Those possessed
dye a yard of cloth in red ochre and bind it round their heads, and
carry a wallet in which they place the alms they receive. While in this
state they bathe twice, and eat but once in the twenty-four hours. They
allow no one to touch them, as they consider other men unclean, and
no one but themselves is permitted to touch the trident and stones in
Airi's temple, at least as long as the festival lasts. The offerings,
goats, milk, etc., are consumed by the worshippers. The kid is marked
on the forehead with red, and rice and water are thrown over him. If he
shakes himself to get rid of it, the god has accepted the offering,
whereupon his head is severed with a knife. If he does not shake
himself, or bleats, it is a sign that the offering is not accepted,
and the victim escapes."

The same rule of testing the suitability of the sacrifice prevailed
among the Greeks. The same practice prevails among other tribes. Thus,
the Bawariyas, when they sacrifice a goat, take a little water in the
palm of the hand and pour it on the nose of the victim. If it shiver,
its head is cut off with a single blow of a sword. The rule has
elsewhere received a further development. Thus when the Rao of Cutch
sacrifices a buffalo, "as it stoops to eat, a few drops of water are
scattered between its horns. If it shake its head it is led away as
displeasing to the goddess; if it nods its head a glittering scimitar
descends on its neck." [552]



Hill Demons.

Other Bhuts in the Hills are Acheri, the ghosts of little girls,
who live on the tops of mountains, but descend at night to hold their
revels in more convenient places. To fall in with their train is fatal,
and they have a particular antipathy to red colour. When little girls
fall suddenly ill, the Acheri is supposed to have cast her shadow
over them. The Deo are the regular demons already described; some are
obnoxious to men, some to cattle. The Runiya moves about at night and
uses a huge rock as his steed, the clattering of which announces his
approach. He is the demon of the avalanche and landslip. Should he
take a fancy to a woman, she is haunted by his spirit in her dreams,
and gradually wasting away, finally falls a victim to her passion. He
thus resembles the Faun and the Satyr, the Incubus and Succubus,
against whose wiles and fascination the Roman maiden was warned. [553]



Birth Fiends.

Another of these night fiends is the Jilaiya of Bihar, which takes the
shape of a night bird, and is able to suck the blood of any person
whose name it hears. Hence women are very careful not to call their
children at night. It is believed that if this bird fly over the head
of a pregnant woman her child will be born a weakling. [554]

Hence it closely approximates to the birth fiends which beset the
mother and child during the period of impurity after parturition. Thus
the Oraons of Chota Nagpur believe that the fiend Chordevan comes
in the form of a cat and tears the mother's womb. [555] The Brahman,
Prabhu, and other high-caste women of Bombay believe that on the fifth
and sixth night after birth the mother and child are liable to be
attacked by the birth spirit Satvai, who comes in the shape of a cat
or a hen. Consequently they keep a watch in the lying-in room during
the whole night, passing the time in playing, singing and talking
to scare the fiend. The Marathas of Nasik believe that on the fifth
night, at about twelve o'clock, the spirit Sathi, accompanied by a
male fiend, called Burmiya, comes to the lying-in room, and making
the mother insensible, either kills or disfigures the child. The
Vadals of Thana think that on the fifth night the birth spirit Sathi
comes in the form of a cat, hen, or dog, and devours the heart and
skull of the child. They therefore surround the bed with strands of
a creeper, place an iron knife or scythe on the mother's cot, fire
in an iron bickern at the entrance of the lying-in room, and keep a
watch for the night. The customs all through Northern India are very
much of the same type. It is essential that the fire should be kept
constantly burning, lest the spirit of evil, stepping over the cold
ashes, should enter and make its fatal mark on the forehead of the
child. The whole belief turns on the fear of infantile lockjaw, which
is caused by the use of foul implements in cutting the umbilical cord
and the neglect of all sanitary precautions. It usually comes between
the fifth and twelfth day, and as Satvai, or the Chhathi of Northern
India, has been raised to the dignity of a goddess. All this is akin
to the belief in fairy changelings and the malignant influences which
surround the European mother and her child. [556]



The Pari and Jinn.

Little reference has yet been made to the Pari or fairies, or the
Jinn or genii, because they are, in their present state at least, of
exotic origin, though their original basis was possibly laid on Indian
soil. Thus we have the Apsaras, who in name at least, "moving in the
water," is akin to Aphrodite. They appear only faintly in the Veda
as the nymphs of Indra's heaven, and the chief of them is Urvasi, to
whom reference has been already made. Two of them, Rambha and Menaka,
are shown as luring austere sages from their devotions, as in the
Irish legend of Glendalough. They are the wives or mistresses of the
Gandharvas, the singers and musicians who attend the banquets of the
gods. Indra in the Rig Veda is the giver of women, and he provides
one of his aged friends with a young wife. [557] Rambha, one of the
fairies of his court, appears constantly in the tales of Somadeva, and
descends in human form to the arms of her earthly lovers, as Titania
with Bottom in the "Midsummer Night's Dream." Their successor in the
modern tales is Shahpasand, "The beloved of the king," who takes the
shape of a pigeon and kisses the beautiful hero. In one of the stories
which appears in many forms, the youth with the help of a Faqir finds
his way to the dance of Raja Indra, takes the place of his drummer,
and wins the fairy, whom he identifies in spite of the many schemes
which the jovial god invents to deceive him. These ladies are all of
surpassing beauty, skilled in music and the dance, with white skins,
and always dressed in red.

With the Jinn we reach a chapter of folk-lore of great extent and
complexity. They are probably in origin closely allied to the Rakshasa,
Deo and his kindred. [558] They are usually divided into the Jann,
who are the least powerful of all the Jinn, the Shaitan or Satan
of the Hebrews, the Ifrit and the Marid, the last of whom rules
the rest. The Jann, according to the Prophet, were created out of a
smokeless fire. The Jann is sometimes identified with the serpent,
and sometimes with Iblis, who has been imported direct from the Greek
Diabolos. The Jinn were the pre-Adamite rulers of the world, and for
their sins were overcome by the angels, taken prisoners and driven to
distant islands. They appear as serpents, lions, wolves or jackals. One
kind rules the land, another the air, a third the sea. There are forty
troops of them, each consisting of six hundred thousand. Some have
wings and fly, others move like snakes and dogs, others go about like
men. They are of gigantic stature, sometimes resplendently handsome,
sometimes horridly hideous. They can become invisible and move on
earth when they please. Sometimes one of them is shut up in a jar
under the seal of the Lord Solomon who rules them. They ride the
whirlwind like Indian demons, and direct the storm. Their chief home
is the mountains of Qaf, which encompass the earth.



The Ghoul.

Besides these there is a host of minor demons, such as the Ghul, the
English Ghoul, who is a kind of Shaitan, eats men, and is variously
described as a Jinn or as an enchanter. By one tradition, when the
Shaitan attempt by stealth to hear the words of men, they are struck
by shooting stars, some are burnt, some fall into the sea and become
crocodiles, and some fall upon the land and become Ghuls. The Ghul is
properly a female, and the male is Qutrub. They are the offspring
of Iblis and his wife. The Silat or Sila lives in forests, and
when it captures a man makes him dance and plays with him, as the
cat plays with the mouse. Similar to this creature is the Ghaddar,
who tortures and terrifies men, the Dalham, who is in the form of
a man and rides upon an ostrich, and the Shiqq or Nasnas, who are
ogres and vampires. But these are little known in Indian folk-lore,
except that directly imported from Arabic sources. [559]



The Baghaut.

As an instance of the respect paid to the ghosts of those who have
perished by an untimely death, we may mention the Baghaut. According
to the last census returns some eight thousand persons recorded
themselves as worshippers in the North-Western Provinces of Bagahu or
Sapaha, the ghosts of people killed by tigers or snakes. The Baghaut
is usually erected on the place where a man was killed by a tiger,
but it sometimes merges into the common form of shrine, as in a
case given by Dr. Buchanan, where a person received the same honour
because he had been killed by the aboriginal Kols. [560] The shrine
is generally a heap of stones or branches near some pathway in the
jungle. Every passer-by adds to the pile, which is in charge of the
Baiga or aboriginal priest, who offers upon it a pig, or a cock,
or some spirits, and lights a little lamp there occasionally. Many
such shrines are to be found in the Mirzapur jungles. In the Central
Provinces they are known as Pat, a term applied in Chota Nagpur to
holy heights dedicated to various divinities. [561] They are usually
erected in a place where a man has been killed by a tiger or by a
snake; sometimes no reason whatever is given for their selection. "In
connection with these shrines they have a special ceremony for laying
the ghost of a tiger. Until it is gone through, neither Gond nor
Baiga will go into the jungles if he can help it, as they say not
only does the spirit of the dead man walk, but the tiger is also
possessed, for the nonce, with an additional spirit of evil (by the
soul of the dead man entering into him) which increases his power of
intelligence and ferocity, rendering him more formidable than usual,
and more eager to pursue his natural enemy, man. Some of the Baigas
are supposed to be gifted with great powers of witchcraft, and it
is common for a Baiga medicine man to be called in to bewitch the
tigers and prevent them carrying off the village cattle. The Gonds
thoroughly believe in the powers of these men." [562]

I myself came across a singular instance of this some time ago. I
was asking a Baiga of the Chero tribe what he could do in this way,
but I found him singularly reticent on the subject. I asked the
Superintendent of the Dudhi Estate, who was with me, to explain the
reason. "Well," he answered, "when I came here first many years ago,
a noted Baiga came to me and proposed to do some witchcraft to protect
me from tigers, which were very numerous in the neighbourhood at the
time. I told him that I could look after myself, and advised him to
do the same. That night a tiger seized the wretched Baiga while he
was on his way home, and all that was found of him were some scraps
of cloth and pieces of bone. Since then I notice that the Baigas of
these parts do not talk so loudly of their power of managing tigers
when I am present."



The Churel.

More dreaded even than the ghost of a man who has been killed by
a tiger is the Churel, a name which has been connected with that
of the Chuhra or sweeper caste. The ghosts of all low-caste people
are notoriously malignant, an idea which possibly arises from their
connection with the aboriginal faith, which was treated half with fear
and half with contempt by their conquerors. The corpses of such people
are either cremated or buried face downwards, in order to prevent the
evil spirit from escaping and troubling its neighbours. So, it was
the old custom in Great Britain in order to prevent the spirit of a
suicide from "walking" and becoming a terror to the neighbourhood,
to turn the coffin upside down and thrust a spear through it and the
body which it contained so as to fix it to the ground. [563] Riots
have taken place and the authority of the magistrates has been invoked
to prevent a sweeper from being buried in the ordinary way. [564]

The Churel, who corresponds to the Jakhai, Jokhai, Mukai, or Navalai
of Bombay, [565] is the ghost of a woman dying while pregnant, or
on the day of the child's birth, or within the prescribed period
of impurity. The superstition is based on the horror felt by all
savages at the blood, or even touch of a woman who is ceremonially
impure. [566] The idea is, it is needless to say, common in India. The
woman in her menses is kept carefully apart, and is not allowed to do
cooking or any domestic work until she has undergone the purification
by bathing and changing her garments. Some of the Dravidian tribes
refuse to allow a woman in this condition to touch the house-thatch,
and she is obliged to creep through a narrow hole in the back wall
whenever she has to leave the house. Hence, too, the objection felt
by men to walk under walls or balconies where women may be seated and
thus convey the pollution. From Kulu, on the slopes of the Himalayas,
a custom is reported which is probably connected with this principle
and with the rules of the Couvade, to which reference will be made
later on. When a woman who is pregnant dies, her husband is supposed
to have committed some sin, and he is deemed unclean for a time. He
turns a Faqir and goes on pilgrimage for a month or so, and, having
bathed in some sacred place, is re-admitted into caste. The woman is
buried, the child having been first removed from her body by one of
the Dagi caste, and her death is not considered a natural one under
any circumstances. [567]

The Churel is particularly malignant to her own family. She appears
in various forms. Sometimes she is fair in front and black behind,
but she invariably has her feet turned round, heels in front and
toes behind. The same idea prevails in many other places. The Gira,
a water-spirit of the Konkan, has his feet turned backwards. [568]
In the Teignmouth story of the Devil he leaves his backward footsteps
in the snow. Pliny so describes Anthropophagi of Mount Imoeus, and
Megasthenes speaks of a similar race on Mount Nilo. [569]

She generally, however, assumes the form of a beautiful young woman and
seduces youths at night, especially those who are good-looking. She
carries them off to some kingdom of her own, and if they venture to
eat the food offered to them there, she keeps them till they lose their
manly beauty and then sends them back to the world grey-haired old men,
who, like Rip Van Winkle, find all their friends dead long ago.

So the Lady of the Lake won Merlin to her arms. [570] The same idea
prevails in Italy, but there the absence is only temporary. "Among the
wizards and witches are even princes and princesses, who to conceal
their debauchery and dishonour take the goat form and carry away
partners for the dance, bearing them upon their backs, and so they
fly many miles in a few minutes, and go with them to distant cities
and other places, where they feast, dance, drink, and make love. But
when day approaches they carry their partners home again, and when
they wake they think they have had pleasant dreams. But indeed their
diversion was more real than they supposed." [571] So, the Manxmen tell
of a man who was absent from his people for four years, which he spent
with the fairies. He could not tell how he returned, but it seemed as
if, having been unconscious, he woke up at last in this world. [572]
I had a smart young butler at Etah, who once described to me vividly
the narrow escape he had from the fascinations of a Churel, who lived
on a Pipal tree near the cemetery. He saw her sitting on the wall in
the dusk and entered into conversation with her; but he fortunately
observed her tell-tale feet and escaped. He would never go again by
that road without an escort. So, the fairies of England and Ireland
look with envy on the beautiful boys and girls, and carry them off
to fairyland, where they keep them till youth and beauty have departed.



Eating Food in Spirit Land.

The consequences of rashly eating the food of the underworld are well
known. The reason is that eating together implies kinship with the
dwellers in the land of spirits, and he who does so never returns to
the land of men. [573]

The Churel superstition appears in other forms. Thus, the Korwas of
Mirzapur say that if a woman dies in the delivery-room, she becomes
a Churel, but they do not know, or do not care to say, what finally
becomes of her. The Pataris and Majhwars think that if a woman
dies within the period of pregnancy or uncleanness, she becomes a
Churel. She appears in the form of a pretty little girl in white
clothes, and seduces them away to the mountains, until the Baiga is
called in to sacrifice a goat and release her victim. The Bhuiyars
go further and say that little baby girls who die before they are
twenty days old become Churels. They live in stones in the mountains
and cause pain to men. The remedy is for the afflicted one to put
some rice and barley on his head, turn round two or three times,
and shake off the grain in the direction of the jungle, when she
releases her victim. The idea seems to be that with these holy grains,
which are scarers of demons, the evil influence is dispersed. But
she continues to visit him, and requires propitiation. Among these
people the Churel has been very generally enrolled among the regular
village godlings and resides with them in the common village shrine,
where she receives her share of the periodical offerings. Any one
who sees a Churel is liable to be attacked by a wasting disease, and,
as in the case of the Dund, to answer her night summons brings death.



Modes of Repelling the Churel.

There are fortunately various remedies which are effective in
preventing a woman who dies under these circumstances from becoming
a Churel. One way is that practised by the Majhwars of Mirzapur,
which resembles that for laying the evil spirit of a sweeper, to
which reference has been made already. They do not cremate the body,
but bury it, fill the grave with thorns and pile heavy stones above
to keep down the ghost.

Among the Bhandaris of Bengal, when a pregnant woman dies before
delivery, her body is cut open and the child taken out, both corpses
being buried in the same grave. [574] In Bombay, when a woman dies
in pregnancy, her corpse, after being bathed and decked with flowers
and ornaments, is carried to the burning ground. There her husband
sprinkles water on her body from the points of a wisp of the sacred
Darbha grass and repeats holy verses. Then he cuts her right side
with a sharp weapon and takes out the child. Should it be alive,
it is taken home and cared for; should it be dead, it is then and
there buried. The hole in the side of the corpse is filled with curds
and butter, covered with cotton threads, and then the usual rite
of cremation is carried out. [575] In one of the tales of Somadeva,
Saktideva cuts the child out of his pregnant wife. [576]

In the Hills, if a woman dies during the menstrual period or
in childbirth, the corpse is anointed with the five products of
the cow, and special texts are recited. A small quantity of fire
is then placed on the chest of the corpse, which is either buried
or thrown into flowing water. [577] Here we have the three great
demon-scarers,--fire, earth and water, combined. In another device,
iron, which has similar virtue, is used. Small round-headed iron
spikes, specially made for the purpose, are driven into the nails
of the four fingers of the corpse, while the thumbs and great toes
are securely fastened together with iron rings. Most Hindus, it may
be remarked, tie the corpse to the bier, whatever may have been the
cause of death, and in parts of Ireland a thread is tied round the
toe of the corpse, the object apparently being to secure the body
and prevent an evil spirit from entering it. [578]

In the Hills the place where a pregnant woman died is carefully
scraped and the earth removed. The spot is then sown with mustard,
which is sprinkled along the road traversed by the corpse on its way
to the burial ground. The reason given for this is twofold. First,
the mustard blossoms in the world of the dead, and its sweet smell
pleases the spirit and keeps her content, so that she does not long to
revisit her earthly home; secondly, the Churel rises from her grave
at nightfall and seeks to return to her friends; she sees the minute
grains of the mustard scattered abroad and stoops to pick it up, and
while so engaged cock-crow comes, she is unable to visit her home,
and must return to her grave. This is another instance of the rule
that evil spirits move about only at night.



Counting.

This counting of the grains of mustard illustrates another principle
which is thus explained by Mr. Leland: [579] "A traveller in Persia
has observed that the patterns of carpets are made intricate,
so that the Evil Eye, resting upon them and following the design,
loses its power. This was the motive of all the interlaces of the
Celtic and Norse designs. When the witch sees the Salagrama, her
glance is at once bewildered with its holes and veins. As I have
elsewhere remarked, the herb Rosaloaccio, not the corn poppy, but
a kind of small house leek, otherwise called 'Rice of the Goddess
of the four Winds,' derives its name from looking, ere it unfolds,
like confused grains of rice, and when a witch sees it she cannot
enter till she has counted them, which is impossible; therefore it
is used to protect rooms from witchcraft." Sarson or mustard is,
it may be noted, used as a scarer of demons. In all the principal
Hindu ceremonies in Western India, grains of Sarshapa or Sarson
(Sinapts dichotoma) and parched rice are scattered about to scare
fiends. Akbar used to have Sipand or Sarson burnt on a hot plate to
keep off the Evil Eye--Nazar-i-bad--from his valuable horses. [580]

Though the Churel is regarded with disgust and terror, curiously
enough a family of Chauhan Rajputs in Oudh claim one as their
ancestress. [581]



The Couvade.

In connection with this subject of parturition impurity, the very
remarkable custom of the Couvade may be referred to here. This is
the rule by which at the birth of a child the father is treated as
an invalid, instead of or in addition to the mother:--


    When Chineses go to bed,
    And lie in in their ladies' stead.


Marco Polo, writing of Zardandan, gives a good example:--"When one
of their wives has been delivered of a child, the infant is washed
and swathed, and then the woman gets up and goes about her household
affairs, whilst the husband takes to bed with the child by his side,
and so keeps his bed for forty days; and all the kith and kin come to
visit her, and keep up a great festivity. They do this because they
say the woman has had a bad time of it, and it is but fair that the
man should have a share of suffering." [582] Professor Rhys remarks
that the gods of Celtic Ireland used to practise the Couvade. [583]

Professor Max Mueller thinks that it is clear that the poor husband
was at first tyrannized over by his female relations and afterwards
frightened into superstition. He then began to make a martyr
of himself, till he made himself really ill, or took to bed in
self-defence. The custom appears, however, to rest on a much more
primitive set of ideas. It partly implies, perhaps, the transition
from that social state in which, owing to the laxity of the connection
between the sexes, the only recognized form of descent was through
the mother, and partly, the kindred conception that the father has
more to do with the production of the child than the mother, and
that the father must, at the critical period of the baby's existence,
exercise particular caution that through his negligence no demoniacal
influence may assail the infant, [584]

It is curious that in India itself so few actual instances of the
Couvade have been discovered. This, however, as Mr. Hartland shows,
is not unusual, and the Couvade is not found in the lowest stage
of savagery. But that the custom once generally prevailed is quite
certain, and in Northern India, at least, it seems to have been masked
by special birth ceremonies of great stringency and elaborate detail,
but of distinctly later date than the very primitive usage with which
we are now concerned.

One instance of the actual Couvade is given by Professor Sir
Monier-Williams. [585] Among a very low caste of basket-makers in
Gujarat, it is the usual practice for a wife to go about her work
immediately after delivery, as if nothing had occurred. "The presiding
Mother (Mata) of the tribe is supposed to transfer the weakness to her
husband, who takes to his bed and has to be supported for several days
with good nourishing food." Again, among the Kols of Chota Nagpur,
father and mother are considered impure for eight days, during
which period the members of the family are sent out of the house,
and the husband has to cook for his wife. If it be a difficult case
of parturition, the malignancy of some spirit of evil is supposed to
be at work, and after divination to ascertain his name, a sacrifice
is made to appease him. [586] Among many of the Dravidian tribes of
Mirzapur, when the posset or spiced drink is prepared for the mother
after her confinement, the father is obliged to drink the first sup
of it. Among all these people, the father does not work or leave the
house during the period of parturition impurity, and cooks for his
wife. When asked why he refrains from work, they simply say that he
is so pleased with the safety of his wife and the birth of his child,
that he takes a holiday; but some survival of the Couvade is probably
at the root of the custom. The same idea prevails in a modified form in
Bombay. The Pomaliyas, gold-washers of South Gujarat, after a birth,
take great care of the husband, give him food, and do not allow him
to go out; and "when a child is born to a Deshasth Brahman, he throws
himself into a well with all his clothes on, and, in the presence of
his wife's relations, lets a couple of drops of honey and butter fall
into the mouth of the child." [587]



Various Birth Ceremonies.

The same idea that the infant is likely to receive demoniacal
influences through its father appears to be the explanation of another
class of birth ceremonies. In Northern India, in respectable families,
the father does not look on the child until the astrologer selects a
favourable moment. If the birth occur in the unlucky lunar asterism
of Mul, the father is often not allowed to see his child for years,
and has in addition to undergo an elaborate rite of purification,
known as Mula-santi. So, in Bombay, "the Belgaum Chitpavans do not
allow the father to look on the new-born child, but at its reflection
in butter. The Dharwar Radders do not allow the father to see the
lamp being waved round the image of Satvai, the birth goddess. If
the father sees it, it is believed that the mother and child will
sicken. The Karnatak Jainas allow anyone to feed the new-born babe
with honey and castor oil, except the father. Among the Beni Israels,
when the boy is being circumcised, the father sits apart covered
with a veil. Among the Puna Musalmans, friends are called to eat
the goat offered as a sacrifice on the birth of a child. All join in
the feast except the parents, who may not eat the sacrifice." [588]
Probably on the same principle, among most of the lower castes, the
father and mother do not eat on the wedding day of their children
until the ceremony is over.



Places Infested by Bhuts: Burial Places.

There are, of course, certain places which are particularly infested
by Bhuts. To begin with, they naturally infest the neighbourhood of
burial places and cremation grounds. This idea is found all over the
world. Virgil says:--


    Moerim, saepe animas imis excire sepulcris,
    Atque satas alio vidi traducere messes;


and Shakespeare in the "Midsummer Night's Dream,"--


    Now it is the time of night
    That graves all gaping wide,
    Every one lets forth its sprite,
    In the church-way paths to glide.



Deserts.

All deserts, also, are a resort of Bhuts, as the great desert of Lop,
where Marco Polo assures us they are constantly seen at night. In the
Western Panjab deserts, during the prairie fires and in the dead of
night, the lonely herdsmen used to hear cries arising from the ground,
and shouts of Mar! Mar! "Strike! Strike!" which were ascribed to the
spirits of men who had been killed in former frontier raids. Such
supernatural sounds were heard by the early settlers within the last
fifty years, and, until quite recently, the people were afraid to
travel without forming large parties for fear of encountering the
supernatural enemies who frequented these uninhabited tracts. [589]
So, among the Mirzapur jungle tribes, the wild forests of Sarguja
are supposed to be infested with Bhuts, and if any one goes there
rashly he is attacked through their influence with diarrhoea and
vomiting. The site of the present British Residency at Kathmandu in
Nepal was specially selected by the Nepalese as it was a barren patch,
supposed to be the abode of demons. So, in Scotland, the local spirit
lives in a patch of untilled ground, known as the "Gudeman's field"
or "Cloutie's Croft." [590]



Owls and Bats.

The goblins of the churchyard type very often take the form of owls
and bats, which haunt the abodes of the dead. "Screech owls are held
unlucky in our days," says Aubrey. [591]


    Sedit in adverso nocturnus culmine bubo,
    Funereosque graves edidit ore sonos.


The Strix, or screech owl, in Roman folk-lore was supposed to suck the
blood of young children. Another form of the word in Latin is Striga,
meaning a hag or witch. The Lilith of the Jews, the "night monster"
of our latest version of the Old Testament, becomes in the Rabbinical
stories Adam's first wife, "the Queen of demons" and murderess of
young children, who is the "night hag" of Milton. [592]

The Kumaun owl legend is that they had originally no plumes of their
own, and were forced to borrow those of their neighbours, who pursue
them if they find them abroad at daylight. Owl's flesh is a powerful
love philter, and the eating of it causes a man to become a fool and
to lose his memory; hence, women give it to their husbands, that as
a result of the mental weakness which it produces they may be able
to carry on their flirtations with impunity. On the other hand, the
owl is the type of wisdom, and eating the eyeballs of an owl gives
the power of seeing in the dark, an excellent example of sympathetic
magic. If you put an owl in a room, go in naked, shut the door and
feed the bird with meat all night, you acquire magical powers. I once
had a native clerk who was supposed to have gone through this ordeal,
and was much feared accordingly. Here we have another instance of
the nudity charm. In the same way in Gujarat, if a man takes seven
cotton threads, goes to a place where an owl is hooting, strips naked,
ties a knot at each hoot, and fastens the thread round the right arm
of a fever patient, the fever goes away. [593]



Ghosts and Burial Grounds.

To return to the connection of ghosts with burial grounds. At Bishesar
in the Hills, the Hindu dead from Almora are burnt. The spirits
of the departed are supposed to lurk there and are occasionally
seen. Sometimes, under the guidance of their leader Bholanath, whom
we have mentioned already, they come, some in palanquins and some
on foot, at night, to the Almora Bazar and visit the merchants'
shops. Death is supposed to follow soon on a meeting with their
processions. These ghosts are supposed to be deficient in some of
their members. One has no head, another no feet, and so on; but they
can all talk and dance. [594]



Mutilation.

This illustrates another principle about ghosts, that mutilation
during life is avoided, as being likely to turn the spirit into a
malignant ghost after death. This is the reason that many savages
keep the cuttings of their hair and nails, not only to put them out
of the way of witches, who might work evil charms by their means,
but also that the body when it rises at the Last Day may not be
deficient in any part. [595] This also explains the strong feeling
among Hindus against decapitation as a form of execution, and the
dread which Musalmans exhibit towards cremation. It also, in all
probability, explains the lame demons, which abound all the world
over, like Hephaistos, Wayland Smith, the Persian AEshma, the Asmodeus
of the book of Tobit, and the Club-footed Devil of Christianity. The
prejudice against amputation, based on this idea, is one of the many
difficulties which meet our surgeons in India.



Ghosts of Old Ruins.

Another place where ghosts, as might have been expected, resort is in
old ruins. Many old buildings are, as we have seen, attributed to the
agency of demons, and in any case interference with them is resented
by the Deus loci who occupies them. This explains the number of old
ruined houses which one sees in an Indian town, and with which no
one cares to meddle, as they are occupied by the spirits of their
former owners. The same idea extends to the large bricks of the
ancient buildings which are occasionally disinterred. Dr. Buchanan
describes how on one occasion no one would assist him in digging out
an ancient stone image. The people told him that a man who had made
an attempt to do so some time before had met with sudden death. [596]
The landlord of the village stated that he would gladly use the bricks
from these ruins, but that he was afraid of the consequences. So,
in Bombay, interference with the bricks of an ancient dam brought
Guinea worm and dysentery into a village, and some labourers were
cut off who meddled with some ancient tombs at Ahmadnagar. [597]
General Cunningham, in one of his Reports, describes how on one
occasion, when carrying on some excavations, his elephant escaped,
and was recovered with difficulty; the people unanimously attributed
the disaster to the vengeance of the local ghosts, who resented his
proceedings. The people who live in the neighbourhood of the old city
of Sahet Mahet are, for the same reason, very unwilling to meddle with
its ruins, or even to enter it at night. When Mr. Benett was there,
a storm which occurred was generally believed to be a token of the
displeasure of the spirits at his intrusion on their domains. [598]
The tomb of Shaikh Mina Shah at Lucknow was demolished during the
Mutiny, and the workmen suffered so much trouble from the wrath of
the saint, that when the disturbances were over they collected and
rebuilt it at their own expense.

The same theory exists in other countries. Thus, in the Isle of Man,
"a good Manx scholar told me how a relative of his had carted the
earth from an old burial ground on his farm and used it as manure
for his fields, and how his beasts died afterwards. It is possible
for a similar reason that a house in ruins is seldom pulled down
and the materials used for other buildings; where that has been done
misfortunes have ensued." [599]

In the Konkan it is believed that all treasures buried underground,
all the mines of gold, silver, and precious stones, all old caves and
all ruined fortresses, are guarded by underground spirits in the shape
of a hairy serpent or frog. These spirits never leave their places,
and they attack and injure only those persons who come to remove the
things which they are guarding. [600] In short, these places are like
the Sith Bhruaith mounds in Scotland, which were respected, and it
was deemed unlawful and dangerous to cut wood, dig earth there, or
otherwise disturb them. In the same way the sites of ancient villages
which abound in Northern India are more or less respected. They were
abandoned on account of the ravages of war, famine, or pestilence, and
are guarded by the spirits of the original owners, these calamities
being self-evident proofs of the malignity and displeasure of the
local deities.



Mine and Cave Spirits.

We have already mentioned incidentally the mine spirits. It is not
difficult to see why the spirits of mine and cave should be malignant
and resent trespass on their territories, because by the nature of
the case they are directly in communication with the under-world. In
the folk-tales of Somadeva we have more than one reference to a
cave which leads to Patala, "the rifted rock whose entrance leads to
hell." Others are the entrance to fairy palaces, where dwell the Asura
maidens beneath the earth. [601] Of a mine at Patna, Dr. Buchanan
writes: "A stone-cutter who was in my service was going into one of
the shafts to break a specimen, when the guide, a Muhammadan trader,
acquainted with the fears of the workmen, pulled him back in alarm,
and said, 'Pull off your shoes! Will you profane the abode of the
gods?'" Under the same belief, the Cornish miners will allow no
whistling underground. [602]

Mr. Spencer suggests that the respect for caves is based on the early
practice of burial in such places. [603] At any rate, the belief is
very general that spirits and deities live in caves. There is a whole
cycle of fairy legend centering round the belief that some of the
heroes of old live in caves surrounded by their faithful followers,
and will arise some day to win back their kingdom. Thus, Bruce and
his enchanted warriors lie in a cave in Rathlin Island, and one day
they will arise and win back the island for Scotland. [604] The same
tale is told of Arthur, Karl the Great, Barbarossa, and many other
heroes. The same tale appears in Oriental folk-lore in the shape of
the Ashabu-'l-Kahf, "the companions of the cave," the seven sleepers
of Ephesus. So the famous Alha of the Bundelkhand epic is said to be
still alive. He makes regular visits on the last day of the moon to
Devi Sarad's temple on the Mahiyar Hill, where he has been repeatedly
seen and followed. But he sternly warns any one from approaching him,
and the main proof of his presence is that some unknown hand puts a
fresh garland on the statue of the goddess every day. [605]



Cave Deities.

In India many deities live in caves. There are cave temples of Kali,
Annapurna, and Suraj Narayan, the Sun god, at Hardwar. Kumaun abounds
in such temples. That at Gauri Udyar is where Siva and Parvati once
halted for the night with their marriage procession. Their attendants
overslept themselves and were turned into the stalactites for which the
cave is famous. Another is called from its depth Patala Bhuvaneswar,
from the roof of which a white liquid trickles. The attendant of the
shrine says that this was milk in the olden days, but a greedy Jogi
boiled his rice in it and since then the supply has ceased. Another
is called Gupta Ganga or "the hidden Ganges," whose waters may be
heard rushing below. Hence bathing there is as efficacious as in the
sacred river itself. [606] Among the Korwas of Chota Nagpur, their
bloodthirsty deity has a cave for her residence. Mahadeva, say the
Gonds, shut up the founders of their race in a cave in the Himalayas,
but Lingo removed the stone and released sixteen crores of Gonds. Talao
Daitya, a noted demon of Kathiawar, lives in a cave where a lamp is
lit which never goes out, however violently the wind may blow or the
rain may fall. Saptasri Devi, a much dreaded spirit in the Konkan,
lives in a cave; such is also the case with the eight-armed Devi
at Asthbhuja, in the Mirzapur District. Her devotees have to creep
through a narrow passage into what is now the shrine of the goddess,
but is said to have been, and very probably was, a cave. [607]

When the Korwas of Mirzapur have to enter a cave, they first
arm themselves with a rude spear and axe as a protection against
Bhuts. There are two haunted caves in the Mircha and Banka Hills
in Sarguja. The Mircha cave is inhabited by a demon called Mahadani
Deo, who is much feared. Not even a Baiga can enter this cave, but
many of them have seen his white horse tied up near the entrance,
and green grass and horsedung lying there. In the cave on the Banka
Hill lives a Dano, whose name either no one knows or dares to tell. No
one ventures to enter his cave, and he worries people in dreams and
brings sickness, unless a Baiga periodically offers a cock with black
and white feathers below the cave, makes a fire sacrifice and throws
some grains of rice in the direction of the mountain. When this Deo
is enraged, a noise which sounds like Gudgud! Gudgud! comes from the
cave. He is also heard shouting at night, and when cholera is coming
he calls out Khabardar! Khabardar! "Be cautious! Be cautious!" Any
one who goes near the cave gets diarrhoea. Captain Younghusband has
recently solved the mystery of the famous Lamp Rock cave of Central
Asia, which is simply the light coming through a concealed aperture
at the rear of the entrance. [608]

Many caves, again, have acquired their sanctity by being occupied by
famous Hindu and Muhammadan saints. Such are some of the Buddhistic
caves found in many places, which are now occupied by their successors
of other faiths. There is a cave at Bhuili, in the Mirzapur District,
which has a very narrow entrance, but miraculously expands to
accommodate any possible number of pilgrims. They say that when the
saint Salim Chishti came to visit Shah Vilayat at Agra, the stone seat
in front of the mosque of the latter was large enough to accommodate
only one person, but when Salim Chishti sat on it its length was
miraculously doubled. [609]

These cave spirits are common in European folk-lore. Such are the
Buccas and Knockers of the Cornwall mines, [610] and the Kobolds of
Germany. Falstaff speaks of "learning, a mere hoard of gold kept by
a devil." Burton thus sums up the matter: "Subterraneous devils are
as common as the rest, and do as much harm. These (saith Munster)
are commonly seen among mines of metals, and are some of them noxious;
some, again, do no harm. The metal men in many places account it good
luck, a sign of treasure and rich ore, when they see them. Georgius
Agricola reckons two more notable kinds of them, Getuli and Kobali;
both are clothed after the manner of mortal men, and will many times
imitate their works. Their office is, as Pictorius and Paracelsus
think, to keep treasure in the earth, that it be not all at once
revealed." [611]



Bhuts Treasure Guardians.

This leads us to the common idea that Bhuts, like the Cornwall
Spriggans, [612] guard treasure. Ill luck very often attaches
to treasure-trove. Some years ago a Chamar dug up some treasure
in the ancient fort of Atranji Khera in the Etah District. He did
his best to purge himself of the ill luck attaching to it by giving
away a large portion in charity. But he died a beggar, and the whole
country-side attributes his ruin to the anger of the Bhuts who guarded
the treasure. Some time ago an old man came into my court at Mirzapur
and gave up two old brass pots, which he had found while ploughing
about a year before. Since then he had suffered a succession of
troubles, and his son, who was with him when he found the property,
died. He then called a conference of sorcerers to consider the matter,
and they advised him to appease the Bhut by giving up the treasure. He
further remarked that the Sarkar or Government doubtless knew some
Mantra or charm which would prevent any harm to it from taking over
such dangerous property. Occasionally, however, the Bhut is worsted,
as in a Kumaun tale, where an old man and his daughter-in-law tie up
a Bhut and make him give up five jars full of gold. [613]

Treasure is often thus kept guarded in sacred caves. In Jaynagar is
said to be the treasury of Indradyumna, sealed with a magic seal. He
was king of Avanti, who set up the image of Jagannatha in Orissa. The
spot presents the appearance of a plain smooth rock, which has been
perhaps artificially smoothed. It is said that Indradyumna had
a great warrior, whom he fully trusted and raised to the highest
honours. At last this man began to entertain the idea of asking his
master's daughter in marriage. The king, hearing this, was sorely
wroth, but his dependent was too powerful to be easily subdued. So
he contrived that a cavern should be excavated, and here he removed
all his treasure, and when all was secured he invited the warrior to
the place. The man unsuspectingly went in, when Indradyumna let fall
the trap-door and sealed it with his magic seal; but he was punished
for his wickedness by defeat at the hands of the Muhammadans. [614]

In Ireland the Leprehaun, a little cobbler who sits under the hedge
and whose tapping as he mends his shoes may be heard in the soft
summer twilight, is a guardian of treasure, and if any one can seize
him he will give a pot of gold to secure his escape. [615]



Fairy Gifts.

In connection with these treasure guardians, we reach another
cycle of folk-lore legends, that of gifts or robberies from
fairy-land. Professor Rhys, writing of the Celts, well explains the
principle on which these are based. [616] "The Celts, in common with
all other peoples of Aryan race, regarded all their domestic comforts
as derived by them from their ancestors in the forgotten past, that
is to say from the departed. They seem, therefore, to have argued
that there must be a land of untold wealth and bliss somewhere in
the nether world inhabited by their dead ancestors; and the further
inference would be that the things they most valued in life had
been procured from the leaders of that nether world through fraud
or force by some great benefactor of the human race; for it seldom
seems to have entered their minds that the powers below would give
up anything for nothing." Hence the many tales which thus account
for the bringing of fire and other blessings to man.

Of the same type are the usual tales of the fairy gifts. Thus, in
one version from Patna we read that one day a corpse came floating
down the river, and a Faqir announced that this was Chan Haji. He
was duly buried and honoured, and in many places he used to keep
silver and gold vessels for the use of travellers. If anyone wanted
a vessel, he had only to say so, and one used to float out of the
water. But a covetous man appropriated one, and since then the supply
has ceased. [617] The same legend is told of the great Karsota lake
in Mirzapur, and of numbers of others all over the country. The
culprit is generally a Banya, or corn-chandler, the type of sneaking
greediness. The same story appears constantly in European folk-lore,
as is shown by Mr. Hartland's admirable summary. [618]

Another version current in India also corresponds with the Western
tradition. This is where a person receives a gift from the fairies,
which he does not appreciate, and so loses. Thus, in a tale from
Raepur, in the Central Provinces, the goatherd used to watch a
strange goat, which joined his flock. One day it walked into the
tank and disappeared. While the goatherd was looking on in wonder,
a stone was thrown to him from the water, and a voice exclaimed,
"This is the reward of your labour." The disappointed goatherd knocked
the stone back into the water with his axe. But he found that his axe
had been changed by the touch into gold. He searched for the stone,
but could never find it again. [619]

In another tale of the same kind, the cowherd tends the cow of the
fairy, and, following the animal into a cave, receives some golden
wheat. In a third version, the fool throws away a handful of golden
barley, and only comes to know of his mistake when his wife finds
that some fuel cakes, on which he had laid his blanket, had turned
into gold. [620] So, at Pathari, in Bhopal, there lived a Muni, or
a Pir, in a cave unknown to any one. His goat used to graze with the
herdsman's flock. The shepherd, one day, followed the goat into the
cave and found an old man sitting intent in meditation. He made a
noise to attract the saint's attention, who asked the object of his
visit. The herdsman asked for wages, whereupon the saint gave him a
handful of barley. He took it home, and, in disgust, threw it on fire,
where his wife soon after found it turned into gold. The herdsman
went back to thank the old man, but found the cave deserted, and its
occupant was never heard of again. The shepherd devoted the wealth,
thus miraculously acquired, to building a temple. [621]



Underground Treasure.

This underground kingdom, stored with untold treasure, appears in other
tales. Thus, Kafir Kot, like many other places of the same kind, is
supposed to have underground galleries holding untold treasures. One
day a man is said to have entered an opening, where he found a flight
of steps. Going down the steps, he came to rooms filled with many
valuable things. Selecting a few, he turned to go, but he found the
entrance closed. On dropping the treasure the door opened again, and
it shut when he again tried to take something with him. According to
another version he lost his sight when he touched the magic wealth,
and it was restored when he surrendered the treasure. [622]

Another tale of the same kind is preserved by the old Buddhist
traveller, Hwen Thsang. [623] There was a herdsman who tended his
cattle near Bhagalpur. One day a bull separated from the rest of the
herd and roamed into the forest. The herdsman feared that the animal
was lost, but in the evening he returned radiant with beauty. Even his
lowing was so remarkable that the rest of the cattle feared to approach
him. At last the herdsman followed him into a cleft of the rock, where
he found a lovely garden filled with fruits, exquisite of colour and
unknown to man. The herdsman plucked one, but was afraid to taste it,
and, as he passed out, a demon snatched it from his hand. He consulted
a doctor, who recommended him next time to eat the fruit. When he
again met the demon, who as before tried to pluck it out of his hand,
the herdsman ate it. But no sooner had it reached his stomach than it
began to swell inside him, and he grew so enormous, that although his
head was outside, his body was jammed in the fissure of the rock. His
friends in vain tried to release him, and he was gradually changed into
stone. Ages after, a king who believed that such a stone must possess
medical virtues, tried to chisel away a small portion, but the workmen,
after ten days' labour, were not able to get even a pinch of dust.

These treasure rocks, which open to the touch of magic, are common
in folk-lore. [624]



Ghosts of Roads.

Bhuts are also found at roads, cross-roads, and boundaries. It is
so in Russia, where, "at cross-roads, or in the neighbourhood of
cemeteries, an animated corpse often lurks watching for some unwary
traveller whom it may be able to slay and eat." [625] Thus, in the
Hills, and indeed as far as Madras, an approved charm for getting
rid of a disease of demoniacal origin is to plant a stake where four
roads meet, and to bury grains underneath, which crows disinter
and eat. [626] The custom of laying small-pox scabs on roads has
been already noticed. The same idea is probably at the root of the
old English plan of burying suicides at cross-roads, with a stake
driven through the chest of the corpse. In the eastern parts of the
North-West Provinces we have Sewanriya, who, like Terminus, is a
special godling of boundaries, and whose function is to keep foreign
Bhuts from intruding into the village under his charge. For the same
reason the Baiga pours a stream of spirits round the boundary. This
is also probably the basis of a long series of customs performed,
when the bridegroom, with his procession, reaches the boundary of the
bride's village. Of the Khandh godling of boundaries, we read:--"He
is adored by sacrifices human and bestial. Particular points upon the
boundaries of districts, fixed by ancient usage, and generally upon
the highways, are his altars, and these demand each an annual victim,
who is either an unsuspecting traveller struck down by the priests,
or a sacrifice provided by purchase." [627]



Ghosts of Empty Houses.

Bhuts particularly infest ancient empty houses. If a house be
unoccupied for any time, a Bhut is sure to take up his quarters
there. Such houses abound everywhere. The old Fort of Agori on the
Son is said to have been abandoned on account of the malignancy
of its Bhuts. Not long ago a merchant built a splendid house in the
Mirzapur Bazar, and was obliged to abandon it for the same reason. The
Collector's house at Saharanpur is haunted by a young English lady;
there is one in the Jhansi cantonment, where a Bhut, in the form of
a Faqir, dressed in white clothes, appears at night. Fortunately he
is of a kindly disposition.



Ghosts of Flowers.

Bhuts occasionally take up their abode in flowers, and hence it is
dangerous to allow children to smell them. In Kumaun the Betaina
tree (Melia sempervivens) is supposed to be infested by Bhuts, and
its flowers are never used as offerings to the gods. [628] But,
on the other hand, as we shall see elsewhere, flowers and fruits
are considered scarers of demons. Bhuts, it is believed, do their
cooking at noon and evening, so women and children should be cautious
about walking at such times, lest they should tread unwittingly upon
this ghostly food and incur the resentment of its owners. [629] In
the same way the Scotch fairies are supposed to be at their meals
when rain and sunshine come together. In England, at such times the
devil is said to be beating his wife, and in India they call it the
"Jackal's wedding." [630]



The Hearth.

Among the many places where Bhuts resort comes the house hearth. This
probably in a large measure accounts for the precautions taken by
Hindus in preparing and protecting the family cooking-place, and
smearing it with fresh cowdung, which is a scarer of demons. The
idea was common among all the Aryan races, [631] but it is found
also among the Dravidian tribes, who perform much of the worship
of Dulha Deo and similar family guardians at the family hearth. In
Northern India, when a bride first goes to the house of her husband
she is not permitted to cook. On an auspicious day, selected by
the family priest, she commences her duties, and receives presents
of money and jewellery from her relations. Among the low castes,
at marriages a special rite, that of Matmangara, or "lucky earth,"
is performed, when the earth intended for the preparation of the
marriage cooking-place is brought home. The women go in procession
to the village clay-pit, accompanied by a Chamar beating a drum,
which is decorated with streaks of red lead. The earth is dug by the
village Baiga, who passes five shovelfuls into the breast-cloth of
a veiled virgin, who stands behind him. So, in Bihar, after bathing
the bride and bridegroom, the mother or female guardian brings home
a clod of earth, out of which a rude fireplace is prepared. On this
butter is burnt, and paddy parched on the threshold of the kitchen,
where the spirit is supposed to dwell. A goat is sacrificed at the
same time, and some of this parched paddy is reserved, to be flung
over the pair as they make the marriage revolutions. [632]

For the same reason great care is taken of the ashes, which must be
removed with caution and not allowed to fall on the ground. We have
seen that it is used to identify the spirits of the returning dead,
and ashes blown over by a holy man are used to expel the Evil Eye. In
Bombay a person excommunicated from caste is re-admitted on swallowing
ashes given him by the religious teacher of the caste.

Most Hindus particularly dislike being watched at their meals,
and make a pretence of eating in secret. If on a walk round your
camp you come on one of your servants eating, he pretends not to
recognize his master, and his hang-dog look is the equivalent of the
ordinary salaam. This is an idea which prevails in many parts of the
world. The Vaishnava sect of Ramanujas [633] are very particular in
this respect. They cook for themselves, and should the meal during its
preparation, or while they are eating, attract the looks of a stranger,
the operation is instantly stopped, and the food buried in the ground.



Ghosts of Filthy Places.

Bhuts, again, frequent privies and dirty places of all kinds. Hence
the caution with which a Hindu performs the offices of nature, his
aversion to going into a privy at night, and the precaution he uses of
taking a brass vessel with him on such occasions. Mr. Campbell supposes
this to depend on the experience of the disease-bearing properties
of dirt. [634] "This belief explains the puzzling inconsistencies
of Hindus of all classes that the house, house door, and a little in
front is scrupulously clean, while the yard may be a dung-heap or a
privy. As long as the house is clean, the Bhut cannot come in. Let
him live in the privy; he cannot do much harm there."



The House Roof.

Lastly comes the house roof. We have already seen that the Dravidian
tribes will not allow their women to touch the thatch during a
whirlwind. So, most people particularly object to people standing on
their roof, and in a special degree to a buffalo getting upon it. It
is on the roof, too, that the old shoe or black pot or painted tile
is always kept to scare the Bhuts which use it as a perch.



                             END OF VOL. I.







NOTES


[1] On the assimilation by Rome of Celtic faiths, see Rhys, "Origin
and Growth of Religion as illustrated by Celtic Heathendom," 2 sq.

[2] Lang, "Custom and Myth," 178.

[3] Leland, "Etruscan Remains," 9.

[4] At Pushkar and Idar. Monier Williams, "Brahmanism and Hinduism,"
566 sqq.

[5] Devata in Sanskrit properly means "the state or nature of a deity,
divinity," without any very decided idea of inferiority. In modern
usage it certainly has this implication.

[6] "Panjab Ethnography," 113.

[7] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," ii. 114, 342, 353; iii. 110,
112; xiii. 63; "Rajputana Gazetteer," ii. 160; Fuehrer, "Monumental
Antiquities," 6, 50, 145, 286.

[8] Hunter, "Orissa," i. 188; Jarrett, "Ain-i-Akbari," ii. 128.

[9] "Asiatic Quarterly Review," ii. 236.

[10] Sherring, "Sacred City of the Hindus," 59, 157; Bholanath Chandra,
"Travels," ii. 384.

[11] Monier-Williams, "Brahmanism and Hinduism," 342.

[12] Wilson, "Essays," ii. 384.

[13] Growse, "Mathura," 180. The story of Joshua (x. 12-14) is an
obvious parallel.

[14] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 25.

[15] Blochmann, "Ain-i-Akbari," i. 200-266.

[16] Max Mueller, "Ancient Sanskrit Literature," 53, note.

[17] Hall, "Vishnu Purana," ii. 150; "Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal,"
1862, p. 112.

[18] Tod, "Annals," i. 597.

[19] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 130, 132, 133, 141, 157, 159,
186, 223; Elliott, "Hoshangabad Settlement Report," 255; Hislop,
"Papers," 26.

[20] "Folk-lore," iv. 358.

[21] Gordon Cumming, "From the Hebrides to the Himalayas," ii. 164;
Brand, "Observations," 126; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern
Counties," 61; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 98, 573.

[22] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 234; Grimm, "Household Tales,"
ii. 493, 524; Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 160; Hartland,
"Legend of Perseus," i. 99, 139, 170.

[23] Knowles, "Kashmir Folk-tales," 3; fire is used in the same way;
Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 32, 271; "Legends of the Panjab," i. 42;
"Folk-lore Journal," ii. 104.

[24] Campbell, "Notes," 70.

[25] i. 50.

[26] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 415.

[27] x. 85, 5.

[28] "Bombay Gazetteer," xiii. 93.

[29] "Merchant of Venice," v. 1; "Hamlet," iv. 7.

[30] "Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry, February;" see other
references collected by Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 318.

[31] Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali, "Manners and Customs of the Muhammadans of
India," i. 275.

[32] "Folk-lore," ii. 222; iv. 355.

[33] "Institutes," vi. 9; Wilson, "Vishnu Purana," 145, 275 note.

[34] Ewald, "Antiquities of Israel," 349 sq.; Goldziher, "Mythology
among the Hebrews," 63.

[35] "Odes," iii. 23, 1, 2, and compare Job xxxi. 26, 27; Psalm
lxxxi. 3.

[36] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 205 sq.

[37] Campbell, "Notes," 187.

[38] Sherring, "Sacred City," 221; "Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 42.

[39] Hunter, "Orissa," ii. 140.

[40] Sarat Chandra Mitra, "Vestiges of Moon-worship in Bihar and
Bengal," in the "Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay," 1893.

[41] "Folk-lore," ii. 221; Monier Williams, "Brahmanism and Hinduism,"
343.

[42] Hardy, "Eastern Monachism," 149.

[43] "Folk-lore," ii. 228.

[44] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa," 97, 98, 40.

[45] Ovid, "Fasti," iv. 728; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 113; "Folk-lore,"
ii. 128; Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 326; "Indian Antiquary,"
ii. 90; iii. 68; vii. 126 sqq.; Wilson, "Essays," s.v. "Holi;"
Leviticus xviii. 21; 2 Kings xxiii. 10; Herklot, "Qanun-i-Islam,"
s.v. "Muharram."

[46] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvi. 28.

[47] "Lear," i. 2.

[48] "Brihat Sanhita." Manning, "Ancient India," i. 371.

[49] "Demonology," i. 45.

[50] Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali, "Observations," i. 297 sq.

[51] "Travels," 301.

[52] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 913 sq.

[53] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 38.

[54] Brand, "Observations," 665; Aubrey, "Remaines," 37, 85.

[55] The Celtic form of the myth is given by Rhys, "Lectures," 140 sq.;
the Indian legend in Muir, "Ancient Sanskrit Texts," ii. 23.

[56] "Golden Bough," i. 331 sq.; and see Lang, "Custom and Myth,"
ii. 262.

[57] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnology," 114.

[58] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 291, with note ii. 543.

[59] For instances, see Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 179.

[60] "Bombay Gazetteer," xi. 55.

[61] Campbell, "Notes," 79.

[62] "Folk-lore," ii. 298.

[63] "Bombay Gazetteer," xxii. 790.

[64] Fryer, "Travels," 418; Campbell, "Notes," 81.

[65] "Custom and Myth," i. 285; ii. 229, note.

[66] Campbell, "Notes," 78 sqq.

[67] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 206; Aubrey,
"Remaines," 37; Ewald, "Antiquities of Israel," 34; Spencer,
"Principles of Sociology," i. 259, 314; Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology,"
ii. 643.

[68] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 261.

[69] Elliott, "Settlement Report," 125.

[70] "Settlement Report," 168.

[71] "Folk-lore," i. 153.

[72] Virgil, "Georgics," i. 487; "AEneid," vii. 141; Horace, "Odes,"
i. 34, 5.

[73] "Descriptive Ethnology," 229.

[74] "Peri Potamon."

[75] i. 3888 sqq.

[76] "Mathura," 179 sq.

[77] Duncker, "History," iv. II, note; Romesh Chandra Datt, "History
of Civilization," i. 94.

[78] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 41.

[79] Jarrett, "Ain-i-Akbari," ii. 224; "Rajputana Gazetteer," iii. 219.

[80] "Karnal Gazetteer," 31.

[81] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. II; Madden, "Journal Asiatic
Society, Bengal," 1847, 228, 400; Wright, "History of Nepal," 154, 163.

[82] Madden, loc. cit., 233.

[83] Loc. cit., i. 14.

[84] Sleeman, "Rambles," i. 17.

[85] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 264.

[86] "Folk-lore," iii. 32.

[87] "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 374.

[88] "Odyssey," v. 450; and for other instances see Tylor, "Primitive
Culture," ii. 213; Campbell, "Notes," 325 sqq.

[89] Growse, "Mathura," 55; Tod, "Annals," i. 675; Oldfield, "Sketches
from Nepal," ii. 204.

[90] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 788, 832.

[91] "Berar Gazetteer," 35.

[92] "Folk-lore," i. 152, 209; iii. 72.

[93] Rhys, "Lectures," 123.

[94] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 313.

[95] "Folk-lore," ii. 284, 509; Hunt, "Popular Romances," 194;
Campbell, "Popular Tales," ii. 205; Conway, "Demonology," i. 110 sq.;
Sir W. Scott, "Letters on Demonology," 85; Spencer, "Principles
of Sociology," i. 219; Farrer, "Primitive Manners," 366; Aubrey,
"Remaines," 30; Gordon Cumming, "From the Hebrides to the Himalayas,"
i. 139; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 109 sq.; ii. 208; Gregor,
"Folk-lore," 66 sq.; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 216; Tawney, "Katha Sarit
Sagara," i. 58.

[96] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 109.

[97] "Descriptive Ethnology," 188.

[98] "Primitive Culture," i. 108 sq.; "Demonology," i. 205.

[99] "Folk Medicine," 28 sq.

[100] "Legends," 82 sq.

[101] Brand, "Observations," 480.

[102] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 242.

[103] Herklots, "Qanun-i-Islam," 21, 66 sq, 292; Hughes, "Dictionary
of Islam, s.v.

[104] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 185.

[105] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography," 114; "Panjab Notes and Queries,"
ii. 1; iii. 7; iv. 68.

[106] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 102.

[107] "Sirsa Settlement Report," 178.

[108] "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 258; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 118.

[109] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 124.

[110] Ball, "Jungle Life in India," 531; "Panjab Notes and Queries,"
ii. 166; Temple, "Legends of the Panjab," i. 2; Lady Wilde, "Legends,"
236 sqq.

[111] Campbell, "Notes," 404.

[112] Forbes, "Settlement Report," 41.

[113] Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmir," 504, with note; "Katha Sarit
Sagara," i. 499.

[114] Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities," 80, 134.

[115] "Eastern India," ii. 43.

[116] Rhys, "Lectures," 184.

[117] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 292.

[118] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 793, 798.

[119] Ibid., iii. 38.

[120] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," iii. 26.

[121] Tod, "Annals," i. 814 sq.; Conway, "Demonology," i. 113;
"Berar Gazetteer," 169.

[122] From the "Manasa Khanda"; Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer,"
ii. 308.

[123] "Rajputana Gazetteer," ii. 131.

[124] "Science of Fairy Tales," chapter vi.; "Berar Gazetteer," 148.

[125] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 194.

[126] "Bareilly Settlement Report," 20; Fuehrer, "Monumental
Antiquities," 26; "Bhandara Settlement Report," 47; Temple, "Legends
of the Panjab," i. 39.

[127] Oppert, "Ancient Inhabitants," 467; Grimm, "Household Tales,"
ii. 466.

[128] Fuehrer, loc cit., 290.

[129] "Himalayan Gazetteer," iii. 27.

[130] "Archaeological Reports," iv. 192.

[131] Ibid., viii. 39.

[132] Ibid., xxi. 175.

[133] Ibid., xiv. 76.

[134] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 289.

[135] "Popular Tales," i. 176.

[136] Lal Bihari De, "Folk-tales of Bengal," 281; "Berar Gazetteer,"
158, 176; "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 42; Wright, "History
of Nepal," 135; "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 440; "Rajputana Gazetteer,"
ii. 220.

[137] i. 17.

[138] "Manasa Khanda"; Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 271.

[139] See the remarks by Lassen, quoted by Muir, "Ancient Sanskrit
Texts," ii. 337.

[140] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 200 sq., 210, 336.

[141] "Remaines," 18; Sir W. Scott, "Lectures on Demonology," 135.

[142] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 188, 210, 223, 230, 135, 186;
Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 306.

[143] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 832.

[144] "Settlement Report," 121, 254.

[145] Atkinson, loc. cit., ii. 792; Hislop, "Papers," 14; Leland,
"Etruscan Roman Remains," 139.

[146] Atkinson, loc. cit., iii. 48.

[147] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 252.

[148] Human sacrifice to the Durga of the Vindhyas occurs often in
Indian folk-lore. See Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 64.

[149] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 24; Wright, "History of Nepal,"
178.

[150] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 51 sq.; Tawney, "Katha Sarit
Sagara," ii. 333.

[151] Griffin, "Rajas of the Panjab."

[152] Growse, "Mathura," 278, where all the local legends are given
in full.

[153] "Anatomy of Melancholy," 123.

[154] "Primitive Culture," ii. 261.

[155] Growse, "Ramayana," 318.

[156] "History of India," chapter iii. 21, 330.

[157] Sherring, "Sacred City," 129.

[158] Hislop, "Papers," 18.

[159] "Folk-lore," iii. 541.

[160] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 292, 301; Oldfield, "Sketches from Nepal,"
ii. 6.

[161] "Notes and Queries," v. Ser. iii. 424; Farrer, "Primitive
Manners," 70; Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 16.

[162] Conway, "Demonology," i. 267.

[163] Ibid., 224.

[164] "Science of Fairy Tales," 71 sqq.

[165] Campbell, "Notes," 101 sq.

[166] "Bombay Gazetteer," xviii. 416; xxi. 180; "Journal Ethnological
Society," N. S. i. 98. In the "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 154, the queen
Kavalayavali worships the gods stark naked.

[167] Wright, "History," 10.

[168] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 148, 301.

[169] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 31, 35.

[170] "Golden Bough," i. 17; "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 41,
115; Hartland, "Science of Fairy Tales," 84.

[171] "Settlement Report," 207.

[172] I cannot procure this book. The quotation is from "Calcutta
Review," xv. 486.

[173] "Settlement Report," 135.

[174] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," vii. 162.

[175] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 210.

[176] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 476, quoting Mr. Fawcett.

[177] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 134.

[178] "Bombay Gazetteer," iii. 221.

[179] "Indian Antiquary," v. 5.

[180] "Bombay Gazetteer," iv. 114.

[181] Jarrett, "Ain-i-Akbari," ii. 408, quoting Alberuni, chapter viii.

[182] "Ethnology in Folk-lore," 94.

[183] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 102.

[184] Ibid., ii. 41; Lyall, "Asiatic Studies," 136.

[185] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 369.

[186] "Golden Bough," i. 14.

[187] Brand, "Observations," 753.

[188] Beal, "Fah Hian," 78.

[189] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 218.

[190] Turner, "Samoa," 45.

[191] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 101; Aubrey, "Remaines,"
180; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 24.

[192] Aubrey, "Remaines," 180; Henderson, "Folk-lore," 24; "Panjab
Notes and Queries," i. 65, 75, 109, 126.

[193] "Etruscan Roman Remains," 217.

[194] Brand, "Observations," 431.

[195] "Archaeological Reports," v. 136.

[196] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 13.

[197] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 135.

[198] "Folk-lore," i. 162.

[199] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 106.

[200] "Folk-lore," i. 149.

[201] Ibid., iv. 173.

[202] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 128; "Folk-lore," i. 149, 153; iv. 351.

[203] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 79.

[204] Temple, "Legends of the Panjab," ii. 104 sqq.; iii. 301.

[205] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 39; Forbes, "Oriental
Memoirs," i. 205.

[206] Leland, loc. cit., 272.

[207] "Archaeological Reports," xvi. 32.

[208] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 762.

[209] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvii. 141.

[210] Barth, "Religions of India," 265.

[211] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 99 sq.

[212] See instances collected by Tylor, "Primitive Culture,"
i. 376 sqq.

[213] "Asiatic Studies," 13 sq.

[214] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 467; Dalton, "Descriptive
Ethnology," 147.

[215] Campbell, "Notes," 260.

[216] "Legend of Perseus," i. 173.

[217] "Descriptive Ethnology," 140.

[218] "Journey through Oudh," ii. 133.

[219] Campbell, "Notes," 260.

[220] Buchanan, "Eastern India," ii. 141 sq.; "Panjab Notes and
Queries," iv. 9.

[221] Dowson, "Classical Dictionary," s.v.

[222] "Gazetteer," 323.

[223] "Papers," 16.

[224] Ibid., 23 sq.

[225] Madden, "Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," 1848, p. 600; Hunt,
"Popular Romances," 73.

[226] Buchanan, "Eastern India," iii. 38.

[227] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 225 sqq.; "Panjab Notes and Queries,"
iii. 181 sq.

[228] Knowles, "Folk-tales from Kashmir," 10.

[229] "Original Inhabitants," 455.

[230] "Central India," ii. 206.

[231] Tod, "Annals," i. 67; for other examples see Buchanan, "Eastern
India," ii. 131, 352, 478; "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 110.

[232] "Panjab Ethnography," 114.

[233] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 83.

[234] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 8.

[235] "Bombay Gazetteer," iii. 220; "Rajputana Gazetteer," iii. 65.

[236] Gomme, "Ethnology in Folk-lore," 34 sq.

[237] Frazer "Golden Bough," ii. 233.

[238] "Bhandara Settlement Report," 51.

[239] Ganga Datt Upreti, "Folk-lore of Kumaun," Introduction, vii.

[240] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 220, 281.

[241] "Settlement Report," 257.

[242] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 268.

[243] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," ii. 58.

[244] Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 399.

[245] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography," 114; "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 518.

[246] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 825.

[247] Channing, "Settlement Report," 34.

[248] Maclagan, "Panjab Census Report," 103 sq.

[249] Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities," 146.

[250] Sir W. Scott, "Letters on Demonology," 143.

[251] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 147.

[252] Wilson, "Essays," i. 21; "Bombay Gazetteer," xvi. 568.

[253] Jarrett, "Ain-i-Akbari," ii. 159; Fuehrer, "Monumental
Antiquities," 153.

[254] "Annals," ii. 15.

[255] "Notes," 147.

[256] MacIagan, "Panjab Census Report," 107.

[257] Sherring, "Sacred City," 119.

[258] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 35.

[259] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 259.

[260] For the Celtic Mothers see Rhys, "Lectures," 100, 899; for
Arabia, Robertson-Smith, "Kinship," 179.

[261] Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 146; Starke, "Primitive
Family," 17 sqq.; Letourneau, "Sociology," 384.

[262] Benfey, "Panchatantra," i. 41-52; quoted by Tawney, "Katha
Sarit Sagara," ii. 638.

[263] Monier-Williams, "Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. Matri"; for the Nepal
enumeration, Oldfield, "Sketches," i. 151; for Bombay, "Gazetteer,"
xvii. 715. In the "Katha Sarit Sagara" (i. 552), Narayani is their
leader. There is a very remarkable story of the gambler who swindled
the Divine Mothers (ibid., ii. 574 sqq.).

[264] Campbell, "Notes," 311; "Athenaeum," 6th December, 1879;
"Folk-lore Record," iii. Part i. 117 sqq.

[265] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 432 sq.

[266] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 884.

[267] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," vii. 158.

[268] Growse, "Mathura," 116, 125; Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities,"
27, 132.

[269] Bholanath Chandra, "Travels of a Hindu," i. 38.

[270] "Rig Veda," viii. 23, 25.

[271] Brand, "Observations," 331.

[272] "Border Minstrelsy," 466.

[273] Tod, "Annals," ii. 363 sq., 763; Conway, "Demonology," i. 54.

[274] Campbell, "Notes," 145.

[275] Tod, "Annals," i. 708; ii. 670.

[276] Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," i. chap. iv.

[277] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 232.

[278] "Gazetteer," 276.

[279] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 123.

[280] Stokes, "Indian Fairy Tales," 140 sqq.; Temple, "Wideawake
Stories," 109, 302; "Indian Antiquary," iv. 57; Grimm, "Household
Tales," ii. 400.

[281] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 64; other instances in
Westermarck, "History of Human Marriage," 158 sq.

[282] "Gazetteer," i. 175.

[283] "Bombay Gazetteer," xvii. 200; xxiii. 12; Campbell, "Notes,"
12 sqq.

[284] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 97, 60, 46.

[285] "Bombay Gazetteer," xix. 465.

[286] Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology," ii. 1161; Tylor, "Early History,"
143; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 229; Sir W. Scott,
"Lectures on Demonology," 105.

[287] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," i. 179.

[288] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 153.

[289] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography," 114.

[290] "Indian Antiquary," viii. 211.

[291] Chevers, "Medical Jurisprudence for India," 415 sq.

[292] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," ii. 62.

[293] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 115; Frazer, "Golden
Bough," i. 141 sqq.

[294] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 207.

[295] Nur Ahmad Chishti, Yadgar-i-Chishti.

[296] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 42, 167.

[297] "Asiatic Studies," 57 sq.

[298] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 208.

[299] "Calcutta Review," xviii. 68.

[300] Hoshangabad "Settlement Report," 119, 255.

[301] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 833, 816 sq.

[302] "Settlement Report," 254 sq.

[303] Sultanpur, "Settlement Report," 42.

[304] Blochmann, "Ain-i-Akbari," Introduction, xxiv.

[305] The chief authorities for Hardaul are Cunningham, "Archaeological
Reports," xvii. 162 sqq.; V. A. Smith, "Journal Asiatic Society of
Bengal," 1875.

[306] "Settlement Report," 451 sq.

[307] Ferrier, "Caravan Journeys," 451 sq.

[308] "Allahabad Pioneer," 10th March, 1891.

[309] "Bombay Gazetteer," xxii. 155.

[310] "Annals," ii. 744.

[311] "Bombay Gazetteer," xvi. 520; Campbell, "Notes," 96.

[312] Wright, "History," 221, 267, 268.

[313] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 276.

[314] "Gurgaon Settlement Report," 37.

[315] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," i. 132.

[316] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 1; iv. 51; "Oudh Gazetteer,"
i. 355, 517; Tod, "Annals," ii. 75.

[317] Campbell, "Notes," 192 sqq.

[318] "Brahmanism and Hinduism," 201.

[319] Numbers of such charms are to be found in vols. i., ii., iii.,
"North Indian Notes and Queries."

[320] "Settlement Report," 256.

[321] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 188, 257.

[322] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 85.

[323] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 71 sq., with note; Tylor, "Primitive
Culture," i. 127; Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 237; Farrer,
"Primitive Manners," 159 sq.

[324] "Descriptive Ethnology," 232.

[325] Campbell, "Notes," 72 sq.

[326] Cooper, "Flagellation and the Flagellants," passim; Dalton,
loc. cit., 256; Campbell, loc. cit., 44 sq.; for restoration to life
by beating, Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," ii. 245.

[327] "Nineteenth Century," 1880.

[328] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 833, 823.

[329] "Hindu Tribes and Castes," i. 36.

[330] "Settlement Report," 256 sq.

[331] "Primitive Culture," i. 134; and compare Lubbock, "Origin of
Civilization," 251.

[332] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 232.

[333] "Himalayan Gazetteer," iii. 38.

[334] Ferrier, "Caravan Journeys," 113.

[335] "Travels in the Himalayas," i. 428.

[336] O'Brien, "Multan Glossary," 218.

[337] Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 191.

[338] "Gazetteer," 191.

[339] Campbell, "Notes," 239.

[340] "Folk-lore," iii. 13, 380; iv. 410; Hartland, "Legend of
Perseus," ii. chap. xi.

[341] "Annals," ii. 717.

[342] Gregor, "Folk-lore of N.E. Scotland," 46, 157.

[343] "Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 42.

[344] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 293.

[345] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 330; for other instances,
see Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. 101.

[346] Madden, "Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal," 1848, p. 583.

[347] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 64.

[348] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 203.

[349] "Penseroso," 83, 84.

[350] Brand, "Observations," 424.

[351] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 16.

[352] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 187.

[353] Hislop, "Papers," 6, 47.

[354] "Popular Tales," Introduction, lxviii.; "Calcutta Review,"
April, 1884.

[355] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 81.

[356] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 27.

[357] "Settlement Report," 155.

[358] Brand, "Observations," 447.

[359] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 86, ii. 93.

[360] With this compare the Karnigor of Sindh--Hartland, "Legend of
Perseus," ii. 295.

[361] "Journey through Oudh," ii. 39.

[362] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 170.

[363] "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 851 sq.

[364] Ibid. ii. 871.

[365] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 113.

[366] Hearn, "Aryan Household," 18; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology,"
i. 270 sq; Whitney, "Oriental and Linguistic Studies," 1st Ser. 59;
Mommsen, "History of Rome," i. 73.

[367] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 132, 133, 139, 160, 229;
Campbell, "Notes," 2 sqq.; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 117.

[368] Hislop, "Papers," 16 sq.

[369] Dalton, loc. cit., 158.

[370] Campbell, "Notes," 5; Tylor, loc. cit., ii. 116.

[371] E.g. Monier-Williams, "Brahmanism and Hinduism," 278 sqq.

[372] See Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 177.

[373] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," i. 279.

[374] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 95.

[375] "Bombay Gazetteer," vii. 16 sq.

[376] Malcolm, "Central India," i. 144.

[377] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 148.

[378] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 269 sqq.

[379] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," Introduction, cxxi.

[380] "Berar Gazetteer," 191.

[381] For an account of this worthy see "North Indian Notes and
Queries," i. 163.

[382] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 187; Lubbock, "Origin
of Civilization," 284; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 458 sq.

[383] Ralston, "Songs of the Russian People," 327.

[384] Hislop, "Papers," 19; Appendix, iii.

[385] "Panjab Ethnography," 115.

[386] "Annals," i. 79.

[387] Ferguson, "History of Indian Architecture," 470; "Rajputana
Gazetteer," iii. 46; Growse, "Mathura," 138.

[388] "Berar Gazetteer," 191.

[389] "Descriptive Ethnology," 138.

[390] Tod, "Annals," ii. 544, 546, 676; Wright, "History of Nepal,"
159, 212.

[391] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 199; "Panjab Notes and
Queries," iv. 44 sq. In the "Katha Sarit Sagara" (Tawney, ii. 254),
a mother proposes to go into the fire with her dead children.

[392] "Institutes," xi. 84.

[393] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 8.

[394] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 202.

[395] Tod, "Annals," ii. 430 sq.

[396] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvii. 160 sqq.; Buchanan,
"Eastern India," i. 488; "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 38.

[397] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 540 sq.

[398] Oldham, "Memoir of Ghazipur," i. 55 sq.

[399] Baillie, "N.-W.P. Census Report," 214.

[400] Tod, "Annals," ii. 40.

[401] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 817; "North Indian Notes
and Queries," iii. 5.

[402] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 284.

[403] Tod, "Annals," i. 659 sq.

[404] Sherring, "Sacred City," 118, 174; Moorcroft, "Journey to
Ladakh," i. 190.

[405] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 1; "Indian Antiquary," xi. 290;
"Gazetteer, N.-W.P.," vi. 634; "Dabistan," ii. 24 sq.

[406] Atkinson, loc cit., ii. 805; "Bombay Gazetteer," xi. 300, 302.

[407] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvi. 28; Grierson, "Behar
Peasant Life," 407; "Maithili Chrestomathy," 3 sqq.

[408] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 256.

[409] "Berar Gazetteer," 199 sq.

[410] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 83.

[411] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xi. 129.

[412] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 517.

[413] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 116.

[414] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 200.

[415] "Berar Gazetteer," 195.

[416] The Persian version of the play has been translated by Sir
Lewis Pelly. See Hughes' "Dictionary of Islam," 185 sq.

[417] The five Pirs give their name to the Pir Panjal pass in Kashmir
(Jarrett, "Ain-i-Akbari," ii. 372, note). For another list of the
Pirs see Temple's "Legends of the Panjab," ii. 372, note.

[418] See Brand, "Observations," 197.

[419] For a very complete account of the cultus, see Mr. R. Greeven's
articles in Vol. I. "North Indian Notes and Queries," afterwards
republished as "Heroes Five."

[420] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 64.

[421] For instances see Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 279.

[422] Briggs, "Farishta," i. 587.

[423] For the history of Masaud, see "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 111 sqq.;
Sleeman, "Journey through Oudh," i. 48; Elliot, "Supplementary
Glossary," 51.

[424] Maclagan, "Panjab Census Report," 132; "North Indian Notes
and Queries," ii. 182; "Calcutta Review," lx. 78 sqq.; Ibbetson,
"Panjab Ethnography," 115; Oldham, "Contemporary Review," xlvii. 412;
"Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 181 sq.; Temple, "Legends of the
Panjab," i. 66 sqq.

[425] Ibbetson, loc. cit. 115 sq.

[426] Temple, "Legends of the Panjab," i. 121 sqq.; iii. 261 sqq.; Tod,
"Annals," ii. 492.

[427] "Indian Antiquary," xi. 33 sq.; Cunningham, "Archaeological
Reports," xvii. 159; "Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 1.

[428] Rhys, "Lectures," 502.

[429] Campbell, "Popular Tales," i. 72.

[430] "Rajputana Gazetteer," ii. 37.

[431] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 218; Risley, "Tribes and Castes of
Bengal," i. 41.

[432] Miss Roalfe Cox, "Cinderella," 484; Temple, "Wideawake Stories,"
423; Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmir," 21; Clouston, "Popular Tales,"
i. 117; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 14, note, 571.

[433] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 132 sq.

[434] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography," 115.

[435] "Annals," ii. 199, note.

[436] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 197 sq., 515.

[437] For the History of Farid, see "Indian Antiquary," xi. 33 sq.;
Thomas, "Chronicles of the Pathan Kings," 205; Ibbetson, "Panjab
Ethnography," 115; Sleeman, "Rambles and Recollections," ii. 165;
Maclagan, "Panjab Census Report," 193.

[438] Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities," 69, 270; "North Indian Notes
and Queries," ii. 21, 56, 155, 189.

[439] "Karnal Settlement Report," 153.

[440] "Karnal Gazetteer," 103.

[441] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 17.

[442] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 92.

[443] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 81.

[444] Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali, "Observations on the Muhammadans of India,"
ii. 324.

[445] Maclagan, "Panjab Census Report," 198.

[446] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 18.

[447] "Berar Gazetteer," 192.

[448] O'Brien, "Multani Glossary," 146.

[449] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 334; Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports,"
xvi. 5. For the Chanod shrine, "Bombay Gazetteer," vi. 160.

[450] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 367.

[451] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 144.

[452] "Eastern India," i. 82 sq.

[453] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 143.

[454] "Reports," i. 98, 130; xiv. 41; xxiii. 63.

[455] "Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal," xiii. 205; "Panjab Notes
and Queries," i. 109.

[456] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 11 sq.

[457] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 175.

[458] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 777; Wright, "History,"
114, 124.

[459] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 38.

[460] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 210 sq.

[461] Ibid., i. 8 sq.

[462] Campbell, "Notes," 366.

[463] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 50.

[464] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 378.

[465] Forbes, "Ras Mala," ii. 332, quoted by Campbell, "Notes," 15.

[466] "Legend of Perseus," i. 72, 207.

[467] Lal Bihari De, "Folk-tales of Bengal," 1, 117, 187; Tawney,
"Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 52, 172, 355, 382; ii. 216; Knowles,
"Folk-tales of Kashmir," 131, 416.

[468] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 246.

[469] "Observations," 625; and see Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 150;
Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 220; Tylor, "Primitive Culture,"
ii. 27; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 215 sq.; Sir W. Scott,
"Letters on Demonology," 90.

[470] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 166.

[471] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 21, 420; Miss Cox, "Cinderella,"
489; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 437.

[472] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 31; Clouston, loc. cit.,
ii. 228; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," ii. 588.

[473] Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities," 144.

[474] "Panjab Ethnography," 116.

[475] Ibbetson, loc. cit., 117.

[476] Aubrey, "Remaines," 121; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 44, 233.

[477] Campbell, "Notes," 171.

[478] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 13; "North Indian Notes and
Queries," i. 4.

[479] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 57.

[480] See Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvii. 147.

[481] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 261.

[482] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 51; Lal Bihari De, "Folk Tales,"
199; "Govinda Samanta," i. 109, 152 sq., 157; "North Indian Notes
and Queries," i. 83.

[483] "Bombay Gazetteer," xv. 150; Campbell, "Notes," 172.

[484] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 5; "North Indian Notes and
Queries," ii. 9; iii. 74.

[485] Hislop, "Notes," i. 3.

[486] "Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 114, 167; Tylor, "Primitive
Culture," i. 102; Aubrey, "Remaines," 177, 194; Campbell, "Notes," 177.

[487] Fausboell, "Jataka," ii. 15 sq.; Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography,"
118.

[488] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 254.

[489] Campbell, "Notes," 177.

[490] "Odyssey," xvii. 541 sq.; Yule, "Marco Polo," ii. 351; Aubrey,
"Remaines," 177.

[491] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 117.

[492] "Folk-lore," ii. 289.

[493] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 109.

[494] Lal Bihari De, "Gobinda Samanta," i. 115 sqq.

[495] Ralston, "Russian Folk-tales," 306.

[496] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 231, 543.

[497] Ibid., ii. 208.

[498] Wilson, "Essays," i. 26.

[499] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 65, 166.

[500] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 256 sqq.

[501] Knowles, "Kashmir Folk-tales," 43; Clouston, "Popular Tales,"
i. 135.

[502] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 210; ii. 318.

[503] "Journal Royal Asiatic Society," N.S. ii. 300; "Ancient Sanskrit
Texts," iv. 247; Wilson, "Rig Veda," i. 107.

[504] Manu, "Institutes," iii. 90; Haug, "Aitareya Brahmanam," ii. 87,
90 sq.

[505] "Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 132; Lai Behari De, "Govinda
Samanta," i. 117; Campbell, "Notes," 24 sqq.

[506] "Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," 1847, p. 582.

[507] "Folk-lore," iii. 323.

[508] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 381.

[509] Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," i. 16.

[510] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 75, 270.

[511] Miss Frere, "Old Deccan Days," 41, 198; Wright, "History of
Nepal," 175; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 257.

[512] Miss Frere, loc. cit., 82, 58, 62, 208, 268 sqq.; Knowles,
"Kashmir Folk-tales," 47.

[513] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 352, note; Cunningham,
"Archaeological Reports," ii. 21.

[514] Tylor, "Early History," 316; Herodotus, i. 68.

[515] Campbell, "Popular Tales," ii. 95; "Wideawake Stories," 404 sqq.;
Miss Stokes, "Fairy Tales," 261; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 161;
Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 300; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 42,
47; Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. chap. viii.

[516] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 428; Cunningham, "Archaeological
Reports," ix. 142; xviii. 5; "Indian Antiquary," vi. 360; "Bombay
Gazetteer," xii. 449; compare Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 394 sq.;
Wright, "History of Nepal," 175; "Folk-lore," i. 524.

[517] Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities," 7, 40, 103.

[518] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 43, 75.

[519] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 88; iii. 56.

[520] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 413; Hunt, loc. cit., 136.

[521] Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmir," 423.

[522] Annals, ii. 382, note; Wright, "History of Nepal," 86.

[523] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 71.

[524] Lal Bihari De, "Folk-tales," 257; Miss Stokes, "Fairy Tales,"
273, 291; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 98 sq., 378; Hunt, "Popular
Romances," 55.

[525] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvii. 1.

[526] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 1.

[527] "Gazetteer," xi. 308.

[528] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," i. 303.

[529] Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology," ii. 449.

[530] Campbell, "Notes," 150.

[531] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 57, 80, 130.

[532] "Annals," ii. 681.

[533] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 145, 244; Campbell, "Popular Tales,"
ii. 101; "Folk-lore," iv. 352; Grimm, "Household Tales," i. 346.

[534] Lal Bihari De, "Govinda Samanta," i. 9; "North Indian Notes
and Queries," iii. 199.

[535] "Bombay Gazetteer," xxv. 457.

[536] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 308, 311.

[537] Lal Behari De, "Govinda Samanta," i. 158.

[538] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 180.

[539] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xx. 96.

[540] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 213.

[541] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 308; Grote,
"History of Greece," iv. 285; "Folk-lore," i. 167.

[542] Leland, loc. cit., 95.

[543] Traill, "Asiatic Researches," xvi. 137 sq.

[544] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 820.

[545] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 428 sq.

[546] Wright, "History," 153; Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 142.

[547] Traill, "Asiatic Researches," xvi. 137 sq.; "North Indian Notes
and Queries," ii. 27.

[548] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 223.

[549] Brand, "Observation," 571.

[550] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 505.

[551] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 825 sqq.; Madden, "Journal
Asiatic Society Bengal," 1847, p. 599 sqq.

[552] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 120; iii. 171.

[553] Traill, "Asiatic Researches," xvi. 137; Atkinson, loc. cit.,
ii. 831; Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 101.

[554] Grierson, "Behar Peasant Life," 408.

[555] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 251.

[556] Campbell, "Notes," 387; Hartland, "Science of Fairy Tales,"
93 sqq.

[557] "Rig Veda," iv. 17, 16; i. 51, 13.

[558] Burton, "Arabian Nights," i. 9, note.

[559] Hughes, "Dictionary of Islam," s.v. Genii; Burton, "Arabian
Nights," passim.

[560] "Eastern India," i. 106.

[561] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 132.

[562] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 280.

[563] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 253.

[564] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography," 117.

[565] Campbell, "Notes," 149.

[566] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 185, 187; ii. 238.

[567] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 204.

[568] Campbell, "Notes," 156.

[569] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 307; Pliny, "Natural History,"
vii. 2.

[570] Rhys, "Lectures," 156.

[571] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 158.

[572] "Folk-lore," ii. 288; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 7, 39.

[573] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," ii. 198; Hartland, "Science of
Fairy Tales," 42.

[574] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 94.

[575] Campbell, "Notes," 488.

[576] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 227.

[577] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 932.

[578] "Folk-lore," iv. 363.

[579] "Etruscan Roman Remains," 337.

[580] Blochmann, "Ain-i-Akbari," i. 139.

[581] "Oudh Gazetteer," ii. 418.

[582] Yule, "Marco Polo," ii. 70, with note.

[583] "Lectures," 626 sq.

[584] The most recent authority on the subject, Mr. Hartland, sums
up the matter thus: "It is founded on the belief that the child is
a part of the parent; and, just as after apparent severance of hair
and nails from the remainder of the body, the bulk is affected by
anything which happens to the severed portion, so as well after as
before the infant has been severed from the parent's body, and in our
eyes has acquired a distinct existence, he will be affected by whatever
operates on the parent. Hence whatever the parent ought for the child's
sake to do or avoid before severance it is equally necessary to do or
avoid after. Gradually, however, as the infant grows and strengthens
he becomes able to digest the same food as his parents, and to take
part in the ordinary avocations of their lives. Precaution then may
be relaxed, and ultimately remitted altogether,"--"Legend of Perseus,"
ii. 406.

[585] "Brahmanism and Hinduism," 229.

[586] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 191; Risley, "Tribes and
Castes," i. 323; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 84.

[587] Campbell, "Notes," 410.

[588] Ibid.

[589] "Sirsa Settlement Report," 32.

[590] Wright, "History," 15; Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 203; Spencer,
"Principles of Sociology," i. 249 sq.; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the
Northern Counties," 278.

[591] "Remaines," 109 sq.; Spencer, loc. cit., i. 329; Farrer,
"Primitive Manners," 24, 225 sq.

[592] Isaiah xxxiv. 14; Mayhew, "Academy," June 14th, 1884; Conway,
"Demonology," ii. 91 sqq.; Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 202.

[593] Campbell, "Notes," 59.

[594] "Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," 1848, p. 609; Benjamin,
"Persia," 192; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 451.

[595] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 204; Tylor, loc. cit., ii. 230;
"Early History," 358; Cox, "Mythology of the Aryan Nations," ii. 327;
Conway, "Demonology," i. 18.

[596] "Eastern India," i. 414.

[597] "Bombay Gazetteer," xii. 13; xvii. 703.

[598] "Oudh Gazetteer," iii. 286.

[599] "Folk-lore," iii. 83.

[600] Campbell, "Notes," 150 sq.

[601] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 446, 558; ii. 197.

[602] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 431.

[603] "Principles of Sociology," i. 201.

[604] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 86.

[605] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 27.

[606] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 106; iii. 147.

[607] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 321 sq.; "Bombay Gazetteer,"
viii. 660; xi. 383.

[608] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 103 sq.

[609] Ibid., ii. 3.

[610] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 82.

[611] "Anatomy of Melancholy," 126.

[612] Hunt, loc. cit., 81.

[613] Ganga Datt Upreti, "Folk-lore," 10.

[614] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," x. 117.

[615] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 56; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern
Counties," 320 sq.; "Folk-lore," iv. 180.

[616] "Lectures," 265.

[617] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 58.

[618] "Science of Fairy Tales," chap. vi.

[619] "Archaeological Reports," xxiii. 91.

[620] Ibid., xvii. 31; x. 72.

[621] "North Indian Notes and Queries," II. 174.

[622] Ibid., II. 29.

[623] Julien's "Translation," i. 179.

[624] Miss Cox, "Cinderella," 498.

[625] Ralston, "Russian Folk-tales," 311.

[626] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 100.

[627] Macpherson, "Khonds," 67 sq.

[628] Ganga Datt, "Folk-lore," 97.

[629] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 132.

[630] Campbell, "Popular Tales," ii. 63.

[631] Hearn, "Aryan Household," 55 sq.

[632] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 456.

[633] Wilson, "Essays," i. 39.

[634] "Notes," 169.





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