Besides the higher-grade deities, whose worship is
enjoined and treated of in the Shāstras and Purānas, numerous
other minor deities, none of whom however find a place in the
Scriptures, are worshipped by the lower classes. The principle
underlying the whole fabric of the worship of these minor deities, who
for the most part are the spirits of dead ancestors or heroes, has more
in it of fear for their power of harming than of love for their divine
nature. All untoward occurrences in domestic affairs, all bodily
ailments and unusual natural phenomena, inexplicable to the simple mind
of the villager, are attributed to the malignant action of these
nameless and numerous spirits, hovering over and haunting the
habitations of men.1 The latent dread of receiving injuries from these evil
spirits results in the worship by the low-class people of a number of
devas and mātās, as they are called. The poor
villager, surrounded on all sides by hosts of hovering spirits, ready
to take offence, or even to possess him, on the smallest pretext,
requires some tangible protector to save him from such malign
influences.1 He sets up and
enshrines the spirit that he believes to have been beneficent to him,
and so deserving of worship, and makes vows in its honour, often
becoming himself the officiating priest. Each such deity has its own
particular thānak (sthāna) or locality. Thus
there is hardly a village which has not a particular deity of its own.
But in addition to this deity, others in far off villages are generally
held in high esteem.1
There are a number of ways in which these lower-class deities can be
installed. Their images are made either of wood, stone, or
metal.2 No temples or shrines are erected in their
honour.3 An ordinary way of representing them is by drawing a
trident, (trishūl, a weapon peculiar to god Shiva) in
red-lead and oil on an upright slab of stone
on a public road, on any dead wall, on the confines of a village, or a
mountain side, or a hill top, in an underground cellar, or on the bank
of a stream.4 Some people paint tridents in their own houses. The
trishūl, or trident, may also be made of wood, in which
case its three points are plastered with red-lead and oil and covered
with a thin coating of tin.5 Sometimes carved wooden images in human
shape, daubed over with red-lead and oil, are placed in a small wooden
chariot or in a recess about a foot square. In some shrines two brooms
or whisks of peacock’s feathers are placed on either side of the
image.6 A slight difficulty overcome or a disease remedied by
a vow in honour of any of these deities offers the occasion for an
installation, and in all future emergencies of the same kind similar
vows are observed. A mātā installed to protect a
fortress or a street is called a Gadheri Mātā, and the
worshippers of a fortress, or street, mother are known as
Pothias.7 At the time of installation flags are hoisted near the
dedicated places. A troop of dancers with jingling anklets recite holy
verses, while the bhuva, exorcist-priest, performs the
ceremonies. Generally installations are frequent during the
[16]Navarātra8 holidays when, if no human-shaped
image is set up, a trishūl at least is drawn in red-lead
and oil.9 Some of these evil deities require, at the time of
their installation, the balidān (sacrifice or oblation) of
a goat or a he-buffalo. Also, when a spirit is to be exorcised, the
symbol of the familiar spirit of the exorcist is set up and invoked by
him.9 After the
installation, no systematic form of worship is followed in connection
with them.10 Regular forms are prescribed for the real gods
of the Purānas. But upon these the low-caste people are not
authorised to attend.
Still, in practice there are two forms of worship: ordinary or
sāmānya-pūjā and special or
vishesha-pūjā.11 Ordinary worship is performed by
bathing the deity—which can be done by sprinkling a few drops of
water over it—burning a ghi, or an oil, lamp before it, and by
offering a cocoanut and a pice or a half-anna piece. The last is taken
away by the bhuva, or priest, who returns generally half or
three-quarters of the cocoanut as a prasād of the god.
There are no particular days prescribed for such worship, but
Sundays and Tuesdays would seem to be the most favoured.12 On such
days, offerings are made for the fulfilment of a vow recorded in order
to avoid a bādhā, or impending evil. In the observance
of this vow the devotee abstains from certain things, such as ghi,
butter, milk, rice, juvar, betelnut till the period of the vow expires.
When a vow is thus discharged, the devotee offers flowers, garlands,
incense, food or drink according to the terms of his vow.12 The dhūpa,
i.e., burning incense of gūgal (balsamodendron) is
one of the commonest methods of worship.
The days for special worship are the Navarātra holidays, the
second day of the bright half of Āshādh, the ninth month of
the Hindu Calendar,13 Divāsā14 or the fifteenth day of the dark
half of Āshādh, and Kālī-chaudas15 or the fourteenth
day of the dark half of Āshvin, the last month; besides other
extraordinary occasions when a spirit has to be exorcised out of a sick
person.
The Navarātra days are said to be the most auspicious days for
devī-worship. People believing in the power of the mātās
observe fast on these days. Most of them at least fast on the eighth
day of the Navarātra known as Mātā-ashtamī, taking
only a light meal which consists of roots, as a rule, especially the
suran (Amorphophallus campanulatus), and of
dates and milk.16 On the Navarātra days red-lead and oil are
applied to the images of the devis, and a number of oblations, such as
loaves, cooked rice, lāpsi17, vadān18 and
bāklā19 are offered.20 The utmost ceremonial cleanliness
is observed in the preparation of these viands. The corn is sifted,
cleaned, ground or pounded, cooked, treated with frankincense, offered
to the gods and lastly partaken of before sunset, and all these
operations must be performed on the same day; for the offerings must
not see lamp-light.21 Girls are not allowed to partake of these
offerings. All ceremonies should be conducted with much earnestness and
reverence; otherwise the offerings will fail to prove acceptable to the
mātās or devis.21
On Mātā-ashtamī and Kālī-chaudas devotees
sometimes offer rams, goats or buffaloes as victims to the devis or
devas in addition to the usual offerings of lāpsi,
vadān and bāklā.21 The night of Kālī-chaudas is believed
to be so favourable for the efficacious [17]recitation
(sādhana) of certain mantras, mysterious
incantations possessing sway over spirits, that bhuvas
(exorcists) leave the village and sit up performing certain rites in
cemeteries, on burning-ghats, and in other
equally suitable places where spirits are supposed to
congregate.22
On Divāsā, the last day of Āshādh, the ninth
month, low-caste people bathe their gods with water and milk, besmear
them with red-lead and oil, and make offerings of cocoanuts,
lāpsi, bāklā of adād
(Phaseoleus radiatus) or
kansār23. Particular offerings are believed to be favoured by
particular deities: for instance, khichdo (rice and pulse boiled
together) and oil, or tavo (flat unleavened loaves) are favoured
by the goddess Meldi, boiled rice by Shikotar and lāpsi by
the goddess Gātrād.24
On these holidays, as well as on the second day of the bright half
of Āshādh the devotees hoist flags in honour of the spirits,
and play on certain musical instruments producing discordant sounds.
Meanwhile bhuvas, believed to be interpreters of the wills of
evil spirits, undergo self-torture, with the firm conviction that the
spirits have entered their persons. Sometimes they lash themselves with
iron chains or cotton braided scourges.25 At times a bhuva places a
pan-full of sweet oil over a fire till it boils. He then fries cakes in
it, and takes them out with his unprotected hands, sprinkling the
boiling oil over his hair. He further dips thick cotton wicks into the
oil, lights them and puts them into his mouth and throws red-hot
bullets into his mouth, seemingly without any injury.26 This process secures
the confidence of the sevakas or followers, and is very often
used by bhuvas when exorcising spirits from persons whose
confidence the bhuvas wish to gain. A bowl-full of water is then
passed round the head of the ailing person (or animal) to be charmed,
and the contents are swallowed by the exorcist to show that he has
swallowed in the water all the ills the flesh of the patient is heir
to.26
In the cure of certain diseases by exorcising the process known as
utār is sometimes gone through. An utār is a
sacrificial offering of the nature of a scapegoat, and consists of a
black earthen vessel, open and broad at the top, and containing
lāpsi, vadān, bāklā, a yard of
atlas (dark-red silk fabric), one rupee and four annas in cash,
pieces of charcoal, red-lead, sorro (or surmo-lead ore used as
eye-powder), an iron-nail and three cocoanuts.26 Very often a trident is drawn in red-lead and oil
on the outer sides of the black earthen vessel.27 The bhuva
carries the utār in his hands with a drawn sword in a
procession, to the noise of the jingling of the anklets of his
companions, the beating of drums and the rattling of cymbals. After
placing the utār in the cemetery the procession returns
with tumultuous shouts of joy and much jingling of anklets.28
Sometimes bhuvas are summoned for two or three nights
preceding the day of the utār ceremony, and a ceremony
known as Dānklān-beswān or the installation of
the dānklā29 is performed. (A
dānklā30 is a special spirit instrument in the shape of a
small kettle-drum producing, when beaten by a stick, a most discordant,
and, by long association, a melancholy, gruesome and ghastly
sound—K. B. Fazlullah).
Many sects have special deities of their own, attended upon by a
bhuva of the same order.31 The bhuva holds a high position
in the society of his caste-fellows. He believes himself to be
possessed by the devi or mātā whose attendant he is, and
declares, [18]while possessed by her, the will of the
mātā, replying for her to such questions as may be put to
him.32 The devis are supposed to appear in specially
favoured bhuvas and to endow them with prophetic
powers.33
The following is a list of some of the inferior local deities of
Gujarat and Kathiawar:—
(1) Suro-pūro.—This is generally the spirit of some brave
ancestor who died a heroic death, and is worshipped by his descendants
as a family-god at his birthplace as well as at the scene of his death,
where a pillar (pālio) is erected to his memory.34
(2) Vachhro, otherwise known by the name of Dādā
(sire).—This is said to have been a Rajput, killed in rescuing
the cowherds of some Chārans, who invoked his aid, from a party of
free-booters.35 He is considered to be the family-god of the Ahirs of
Solanki descent, and is the sole village-deity in Okha and Baradi
Districts.36 Other places dedicated to this god are
Padānā, Aniālā, Taluka Mengani,37 Khajurdi,
Khirasarā and Anida.38 He is represented by a stone horse, and
Chārans perform priestly duties in front of him.39 Submission to, and
vows in honour of, this god, are believed to cure
rabid-dog-bites.40
(3) Sarmālio commands worship in Gondal, Khokhāri and many
other places. Newly-married couples of many castes loosen the knots
tied in their marriage-scarves as a mark of respect for him.41 Persons
bitten by a snake wear round their necks a piece of thread dedicated to
this god.40
(4) Shitalā is a goddess known for
the cure of small-pox.—Persons attacked by this disease observe
vows in her honour. Kālāvad and Syādlā are places
dedicated to her.40
(5) Ganāgor.—Virgins who are anxious to secure suitable
husbands and comfortable establishments worship this goddess and
observe vows in her honour.40
(6) Todāliā.—She has neither an idol nor a temple set
up in her honour, but is represented by a heap of stones lying on the
village boundary—Pādal or Jāmpā. All marriage
processions, before entering the village (Sānkā) or passing
by the heap, pay homage to this deity and offer a cocoanut, failure to
do which is believed to arouse her wrath. She does not command daily
adoration, but on occasions the attendant, who is a Chumvāliā
Koli, and who appropriates all the presents to this deity, burns
frankincense of gugal (balsamodendron) and lights a lamp before
her.42
(7) Buttāya also is represented by a heap of stones on a
hillock in the vicinity of Sānkā. Her worshipper is a
Talabdia Koli. A long season of drought leads to her propitiation by
feasting Brāhmans, for which purpose four pounds of corn are taken
in her name from each threshing floor in the village.42
(8) Surdhan.—This seems to have been some brave Kshatriya
warrior who died on a battlefield. A temple is erected to his memory,
containing an image of Shiva. The attending priest is an Atit.42
(9) Ghogho.—This is a cobra-god worshipped in the village of
Bikhijada having a Bajana (tumbler) for his attending priest.42
(10) Pir.—This is a Musalman saint, in whose honour no tomb is
erected, the special site alone being worshipped by a devotee.42
(11) Raneki is represented by a heap of stones, and is attended upon
by chamārs (tanners). Her favourite resort is near the
Dhedvādā (i.e., a quarter inhabited by sweepers). A
childless Girasia is said to [19]have observed a vow in
her honour for a son, and a son being born to him, he dedicated certain
lands to her; but they are no longer in the possession of the
attendants.43
(12) Hanuman.—On a mound of earth there is an old worn-out
image of this god. People sometimes light a lamp there, offer cocoanuts
and plaster the image with red-lead and oil. A sādhu of the
Māragi sect, a Koli by birth, acts as pujari.43
(13) Shaktā (or shakti).—This is a Girasia goddess
attended upon by a Chumvāliā Koli. On the Navarātra
days, as well as on the following day, Girasias worship this goddess,
and if necessary observe vows in her name.43
(14) Harsidh.—Gāndhavi in Bardā and Ujjain are the
places dedicated to this goddess. There is a tradition connected with
her that her image stood in a place of worship facing the sea on Mount
Koyalo in Gandhavi. She was believed to sink or swallow all the vessels
that sailed by. A Bania named Jagadusā, knowing this, propitiated
her by the performance of religious austerities. On being asked what
boon he wanted from her, he requested her to descend from her
mountain-seat. She agreed on the Bania promising to offer a living
victim for every footstep she took in descending. Thus he sacrificed
one victim after another until the number of victims he had brought was
exhausted. He then first offered his four or five children, then his
wife and lastly himself. In reward for his self-devotion the goddess
faced towards Miani and no mishaps are believed to take place in the
village.44
(15) Hinglaj.—This goddess has a place of worship a hundred
and fifty miles from Karachi in Sind, to which her devotees and
believers make pilgrimage.44
In the village of Jāsdān, in Kathiawar, there is an
ancient shrine of Kālu-Pīr in whose memory there are two
sepulchres covered with costly fabrics, and a large flag floats over
the building. Both Hindus and Musalmans believe45 in this saint, and
offer cocoanuts, sweetmeats and money to his soul. A part of the
offering being passed through the smoke of frankincense, burning in a
brazier near the saint’s grave in the shrine, the rest is
returned to the offerer. Every morning and evening a big kettle-drum is
beaten in the Pīr’s honour.46
Other minor deities are Shikotār, believed by sailors to be
able to protect them from the dangers of the deep;47 Charmathvati, the
goddess of the Rabarīs;48 Macho, the god of the
shepherds;48 Meldi, in whom
Vaghries (bird-catchers) believe;49 Pithād, the favourite god of
Dheds;50 Dhavdi, who is worshipped by a hajām
(barber);51 Khodiar;52 Géla,52 Dādamo,52 Kshetrapāl,52 Chāvad,53 Mongal,53 Avad,53
Pālan,53 Vir
[20]Vaital,54 Jālio,54 Gadio,54 Paino,54
Parolio,54 Sevalio,54 Andhario,54 Fulio,54
Bhoravo,54
Ragantio,54 Chod,55
Gātrad,55 Mammai and
Verai.56 There are frequent additions to the number, as any
new disease or unusual and untoward incident may bring a new spirit
into existence. The installation of such deities is not a costly
concern,57 and thus there is no serious check on their
recognition.
The sun, the beneficent night-dispelling, light-bestowing great
luminary, is believed to be the visible manifestation of the Almighty
God,58 and inspires the human mind with a feeling of
grateful reverence which finds expression in titles like
Savitā, Life-Producer, the nourisher and generator of all
life and activity59.
He is the chief rain-sender60; there is a couplet used in Gujarat
illustrative of this belief. It runs:—“Oblations are cast
into the Fire: the smoke carries the prayers to the sun; the Divine
Luminary, propitiated, responds in sending down gentle showers.”
“The sacred smoke, rising from the sacrificial offerings, ascends
through the ethereal regions to the Sun. He transforms it into the
rain-giving clouds, the rains produce food, and food produces the
powers of generation and multiplication and plenty. Thus, the sun, as
the propagator of animal life, is believed to be the highest
deity.60”
It is pretty generally believed that vows in honour of the sun are
highly efficacious in curing eye-diseases and strengthening the
eyesight. Mr. Damodar Karsonji Pandya quotes from the
Bhagvadgītā the saying of Krishna:
“I am the very light of the sun and the
moon.61” Being the embodiment or the fountain of light,
the sun imparts his lustre either to the bodies or to the eyes of his
devotees. It is said that a Rajput woman of Gomātā in Gondal
and a Brahman of Rajkot were cured of white leprosy by vows in honour
of the sun.62 Similar vows are made to this day for the cure of the
same disease. Persons in Kathiawar suffering from ophthalmic disorders,
venereal affections, leucoderma and white leprosy are known to observe
vows in honour of the sun.63
The Parmār Rajputs believe in the efficacy of vows in honour of
the sun deity of Māndavrāj, in curing hydrophobia.64
Women believe that a vow or a vrat made to the sun is the
sure means of attaining their desires. Chiefly their vows are made with
the object of securing a son. On the fulfilment of this desire, in
gratitude to the Great Luminary, the child is often called after him,
and given such a name as Suraj-Rām, Bhānu-Shankar,
Ravi-Shankar, Adit-Rām.65
Many cradles are received as presents at the temple of
Māndavrāj, indicating that the barren women who had made vows
to the deity have been satisfied in their desire for a son, the vows
being fulfilled by the present of such toy-cradles to the sun. In the
case of rich donors, these cradles are made of precious metal.66
At Mandvara, in the Muli District of Kathiawar, the Parmār
Rajputs, as well as the Kāthis, bow to the image of the sun, on
their marriage-day, in company with their newly-married
brides.66 After the birth
of [21]a son to a Rajputani, the hair on the
boy’s head is shaved for the first time in the presence of the
Māndavrāj deity,67 and a suit of rich clothes is presented
to the image by the maternal uncle of the child.68
The sun is सर्वसाक्षी
the observer of all things and nothing can escape his notice.69 His eye is
believed to possess the lustre of the three Vedic lores, viz.,
Rigveda, Yajurveda and Sāmaveda, and is therefore known by the
name of वेदत्रयी.
The attestation of a document in his name as
Sūrya-Nārāyana-Sākshi is believed to be ample
security for the sincerity and good faith of the parties.70 Oaths in
the name of the sun are considered so binding that persons swearing in
his name are held to be pledged to the strictest truth.71
Virgin girls observe a vrat, or vow, called the
‘tili-vrat’ in the sun’s honour, for attaining
अखंड
सौभाग्य—eternal
exemption from widowhood. In making this vrat, or vow, the
votary, having bathed and worshipped the sun, sprinkles wet red-lac
drops before him.72
According to Forbes’s Rāsmālā, the sun revealed
to the Kāthis the plan of regaining their lost kingdom, and thus
commanded their devout worship and reverence. The temple named
Suraj-deval, near Thān, was set up by the Kāthis in
recognition of this favour. In it both the visible resplendent disc of
the sun and his image are adored.73
People whose horoscopes declare them to have been born under the
Sūrya-dashā, or solar influence, have from time to
time to observe vows prescribed by Hindu astrology.74
Cultivators are said to observe vows in honour of the sun for the
safety of their cattle.75
The following are some of the standard books on
sun-worship:—
(1) Aditya-hridaya—literally, the Heart of the Sun. It treats
of the glory of the sun and the mode of worshipping him.
(2) Brihadāranyakopanishad and Mandula-Brahmans—portions
of Yajurveda recited by Vedic Brahmans with a
view to tender symbolic as well as mental prayers to the sun.
(3) Bibhrād—the fourth chapter of the Rudri.
(4) A passage in Brāhman—a portion of the Vedas,
beginning with the words स्वयंभूरसि
Thou art self-existent—is entirely devoted to
Sun-worship.76
(5) Sūrya-Purāna—A treatise relating a number of
stories in glorification of the sun.
(6) Sūrya-kavacha.77
(7) Sūrya-gīta.
(8) Sūrya-Sahasranama—a list of one thousand names of
Sūrya.78
It is customary among Hindus to cleanse their teeth every morning
with a wooden stick, known as dātan79 and then to offer
salutations to the sun in the form of a verse which means: “Oh
God, the dātans are torn asunder and the sins disappear. Oh
the penetrator of the innermost parts, forgive us our sins. Do good
unto the benevolent and unto our neighbours.” This prayer is
common in the mouths of the vulgar laity.80
Better educated people recite a shloka, which runs: “Bow unto
Savitri, the sun, the observer of this world and its quarters, the eye
of the universe, the inspirer of all energy, the holder of a three-fold
personality [22](being an embodiment of the forms of the
three gods of the Hindu Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and
Maheshvar)—the embodiment of the three Vedas, the giver of
happiness and the abode of God.81
After his toilet a high-caste Hindu should take a bath and offer
morning prayers and arghyas to the sun.82 The
Trikāla-Sandhyā is enjoined by the Shāstras on
every Brahman, i.e., every Brahman should perform the
Sandhyā thrice during the day: in the morning, at mid-day
and in the evening. The Sandhyā is the prayer a Brahman
offers, sitting in divine meditation, when he offers three
arghyas to the sun and recites the Gāyatrī mantra 108
times.83
The arghya is an offering of water in a spoon half filled
with barley seeds, sesamum seeds, sandal ointment, rice, and white
flowers. In offering the arghya the right foot is folded below
the left, the spoon is lifted to the forehead and is emptied towards
the sun after reciting the Gāyatrī mantra.84 If water is not
available for offering the arghyas, sand may serve the purpose.
But the sun must not be deprived of his arghyas.85
The Gāyatrī is the most sacred mantra in honour of the
sun, containing, as it does, the highest laudations of him.85 A Brahman ought to recite this
mantra 324 times every day. Otherwise he incurs a sin as great as the
slaughter of a cow.86 Accordingly a Rudrākshmālā, or a
rosary of 108 Rudrāksh beads, is used in connecting the number of
Gāyatrīs recited.87 It is exclusively the right of the
twice-born to recite the Gāyatrī. None else is authorised to
recite or even to hear a word of it. Neither females nor Shūdras
ought to catch an echo of even a single syllable of the
Gāyatrī mantra88.
A ceremony, called Sūryopasthān, in which a man has to
stand facing the sun with his hands stretched upwards at an angle
towards the sun, is performed as a part of the
sandhyā.89
Of the days of the week, Ravivar, or Sunday is the most suitable for
Sun worship90. Persons wishing to secure wealth, good-health and a
happy progeny, especially people suffering from disorders caused by
heat and from diseases of the eyes, barren women, and men anxious for
victory on the battlefield, weekly observe vows in honour of the sun,
and the day on which the vow is to be kept is Sunday.91 It is left to the
devotee to fix the number of Sundays on which he will observe the
vrat, and he may choose to observe all the Sundays of the
year.92 On such days the devotees undergo ceremonial
purifications by means of baths and the putting on of clean garments,
occupy a reserved clean seat, light a ghi-lamp and recite the
Aditya-hridaya-pātha, which is the prescribed mantra for Sun
worship.93 Then follows the Nyāsa, (न्यास) in the recitation of
which the devotee has to make certain gestures (or to perform physical
ceremonials). First the tips of all the four fingers are made to touch
the thumb as is done in counting. Then the tips of the fingers are made
to touch the palm of the other hand. Then one hand is laid over the
other. Then the fingers are made to touch the heart, the head, the
eyes, and the hair in regular order. The right hand is then put round
the head and made to smite the left.93 An ashtadala or eight-cornered figure is drawn
in gulal, [23](red powder) and
frankincense, red ointment and red flowers are offered to the
sun.94 Durvā grass is also commonly used in the process
of Sun-worship.95
Sometimes a hexangular figure is drawn instead of the
ashtadal, a copper disc is placed over it and the sun is
worshipped by Panchopachar or the five-fold ceremonials.96 Of all
ceremonials a namaskār is especially dear to the sun.97 It is
said:—
नमस्कारप्रियो
भानुर्जलधाराप्रियः
शिवः ।
परोपकारप्रियो
विष्णुर्ब्राह्मणो
भोजनप्रियः
॥
A namaskār or bow is dear to the sun; a stream of
water (pouring water in a small stream over Shiva’s idol) is dear
to Shiva: benevolence to Vishnu and a good dinner to a
Brahman.97
In observing vows in the sun’s honour on Sundays, the
following special foods are prescribed in particular months:98—
(1) In Kārtika, the first month, the devotee is to take only
three leaves of the Tulsi or the holy basil plant.
(2) In Mārgashīrsha, the devotee may only lick a few
pieces of candied sugar.
(3) In Pausha, the devotee may chew three stalks of green darbha
grass.
(4) In Māgha, a few seeds of sesamum and sugar mixed together
may be swallowed.
(5) In Phālguna, a consecrated draught of curds and sugar may
be drunk.
(6) In Chaitra, people should break their fasts with a little ghi
and molasses.
(7) In Vaishākha, the only satisfaction allowed to those
observing the vrat is to lick their own palms three times.
(8) In Jyeshtha, the fast is observed simply on three anjalis
or palmfuls of pure water.
(9) In Ashādha, three chillies may be eaten.
(10) In Shrāvana, only cow-urine and molasses are tasted.
(11) In Bhādrapada, cow-dung and sugar are partaken of.
(12) In Āshvina, the application of chandan (sandal wood)
either in the form of an ointment or of powder.
Only a few very pious and enthusiastic devotees observe all Sundays
in the above manner. In average cases, the devotee allows himself rice,
ghi, sugar, milk, i.e., white food, the restriction being only
as to colour.98
People observing vows in honour of the sun take food only once
during the day, and that too in bājas or dishes made of
khākhara (or palāsh) leaves. This is considered one of
the conditions of worship, there being some mysterious relation between
Sūrya and the khākhara.99
If the Pushya Nakshatra happens to fall on a Sunday, the worship of
the sun on that day is believed to be most efficacious in fulfilling
the desires of the devotees.100
Of the days of the month, the seventh day of both the bright and the
dark halves of each month101 and the Amāvāsyā day,
i.e., the last day of a Hindu calendar month,102 are set apart for
Sun-worship. The ceremonies of the worship are the same as those on
Sundays. In fact, in almost all the observances in connection with the
sun the same ceremonials are to be gone through. Very often a Brahman
recites the pātha directing [24]his hosts
or hostesses to perform certain ceremonial gestures. On the last of the
number of days which the devotee has decided to observe, the
vrat is celebrated and Brahmans are feasted. This celebration of
the vrat is known as vratujavavun.103
The special occasions for Sun-worship are the Sankrānti days
and the solar eclipses.
In each year there are twelve Sankrānti days on which the sun
moves from one sign of the zodiac to another. Sun-worship is performed
on all these Sankrāntis, but Makara-Sankrānti, which falls on
the 12th or 13th of January, is considered the most important.104 The
Uttarāyana-parvan falls on this day, i.e., the sun now
crosses to his northern course from his southern, and the time of that
Parvan is considered so holy that a person dying then directly attains
salvation.105 On this day, many Hindus go on a pilgrimage to holy
places, offer prayers and sacrifices to the sun, and give alms to
Brahmans in the shape of sesamum seeds, gold, garments and
cows.106 Much secret, as well as open, charity is
dispensed,107 grass and cotton-seeds are given to cows, and
lāpsi108 and loaves to dogs.107 Sweet balls of sesamum seeds and molasses are eaten as
a prasād and given to Brahmans, and dainties such as
lāpsi are partaken of by Hindu households, in company with
a Brahman or two, who are given dakshinā after the meals.109
On solar eclipse days, most of the Hindu sects bathe and offer
prayers to God. During the eclipse the sun is believed to be combating
with the demon Rāhu, prayers being offered for the sun’s
success. When the sun has freed himself from the grasp of the demon and
sheds his full lustre on the earth, the people take ceremonial baths,
offer prayers to God with a concentrated mind, and well-to-do people
give in alms as much as they can afford of all kinds of grain.110
The Chāturmās-vrat, very common in Kathiawar, is a
favourite one with Hindus. The devotee, in performing this vrat,
abstains from food on those days during the monsoons on which, owing to
cloudy weather, the sun is not visible. Even if the sun is concealed by
the clouds for days together, the devout votary keeps fasting till he
sees the deity again.111
Barren women, women whose children die, and especially those who
lose their male children, women whose husbands suffer from diseases
caused by heat, lepers, and persons suffering from ophthalmic ailments
observe the vow of the sun in the following manner.112 The vows are kept
on Sundays and Amāvāsyā days, and the number of such
days is determined by the devotee in accordance with the behests of a
learned Brahman. The woman observes a fast on such days, bathes herself
at noon when the sun reaches the zenith, and dresses herself in clean
garments. Facing the sun, she dips twelve red karan flowers in red or
white sandal ointment and recites the twelve names of Sūrya as she
presents one flower after another to the sun with a bow.113 On each
day of the vrat, she takes food only once, in the shape of
lāpsi, in bajas of khākharā or palāsh
leaves; white food in the form of rice, or rice cooked in milk is
sometimes allowed. She keeps a ghi-lamp burning day and night, offers
frankincense, and sleeps at night on a bed made on the floor.114
People who are declared by the Brahmans to be under the evil
influence (dashā) of Sūrya, observe vows in the sun’s
honour and go through the prescribed rites on Sundays. Such persons
take special kinds of food and engage the services of priests to recite
[25]holy texts in honour of the sun. If all goes
well on Sunday, Brahmans, Sādhus and other pious persons are
entertained at a feast. This feast is known as vrat-ujavavun.
Some persons have the sun’s image (an ashtadal) engraved on a
copper or a golden plate for daily or weekly worship.115
On the twelfth day after the delivery of a child, the sun is
worshipped and the homa sacrifice is performed.116
If at a wedding the sun happens to be in an unfavourable position
according to the bridegroom’s horoscope, an image of the sun is
drawn on gold-leaf and given away in charity. Charity in any other form
is also common on such an occasion.116
A Nāgar bride performs sun-worship for the seven days preceding
her wedding.117
In Hindu funeral ceremonies three arghyas are offered to the
sun, and the following mantra is chanted118:—
आदित्यो
भास्करो
भानू रविः
सूर्यो
दिवाकरः ।
षण्नाम
स्मरेन्नित्यं
महापातकनाशानम्
॥
It means—one should ever recite the six names of
the Sun, Aditya, Bhāskar, Bhānu, Ravi, Surya, Divākar,
which destroy sin.
The sun is also worshipped on the thirteenth day after the death of
a person, when arghyas are offered, and two earthen pots,
containing a handful of raw khichedi—rice and
pulse—and covered with yellow pieces of cotton are placed outside
the house. This ceremony is called gadāso bharvo.118
Rajahs of the solar race always worship the rising sun. They also
keep a golden image of the sun in their palaces, and engage learned
Brahmans to recite verses in his honour. On Sundays they take only one
meal and that of simple rice (for white food is most acceptable to the
sun).119
Circumambulations round images and other holy objects are considered
meritorious and to cause the destruction of sin.120 The subject has been
dwelt on at length in the Dharma-sindhu-grantha, Vratarāja, and
Shodashopachāra among the Dharma-Shāstras of the
Hindus.121
The object round which turns are taken is either the image of a god,
such as of Ganpati, Mahādev or Vishnu122 or the portrait of a
guru, or his footmarks engraved or impressed upon some
substance, or the agni-kunda (the fire-pit),123 or the holy
cow124, or some sacred tree or plant, such as the Vad
(banyan tree), the Pipal (ficus
religiosa),125 the Shami (prosopis
spicegera), the Amba (mango tree), the Asopalava tree
(Polyalthea longifolia),126 or the Tulsi (sweet
basil) plant.
It is said to have been a custom of the Brahmans in ancient times to
complete their daily rites before sunrise every morning, and then to
take turns round temples and holy objects. The practice is much less
common now than formerly.127 Still, visitors to a temple or an
idol, usually are careful to go round it a few times at least
(generally five or seven). The usual procedure at such a time is to
strike gongs or ring bells after the turns, to cast a glance at the
shikhar or the pinnacle of the temple, and then to
return.128
Women observing the chāturmās-vrat, or the monsoon
vow, lasting from the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashādh
(the ninth month) to the eleventh day of the bright half of Kārtik
(the first month) first worship the object, round which they wish to
take turns, with panchāmrit (a mixture of milk, curds,
sugar, ghi and honey). The number of turns may be either 5, 7, 21 or
108. At each turn they keep entwining a fine cotton thread and place a
pendā129 or a bantāsā130 or a betel-leaf or an
almond, a cocoanut, a fig or some [26]other
fruit before the image or the object walked round. These offerings are
claimed by the priest who superintends the ceremony.131 When a sacred tree
is circumambulated, water is poured out at the foot of the tree at each
turn.132
During the month of Shrāvan (the tenth month) and during the
Purushottama (or the intercalatory) month, men and women observe a
number of vows, in respect of which, every morning and evening, they
take turns round holy images and objects.133
People observing the chāturmās-vrat (or monsoon
vow), called Tulsi-vivāha (marriage of Tulsi), worship that plant
and take turns round it on every eleventh day of both the bright and
the dark halves of each of the monsoon months.133 The gautrat-vrat (gau = cow) necessitates
perambulations round a cow, and the Vat-Sāvitri-vrat round
the Vad or banyan tree. The banyan tree is also circumambulated on the
Kapilashashthi day (the sixth day of the bright half of
Mārgashīrsha, the second month) and on the
Amāvāsyā or the last day of Bhādrapada (the
eleventh month).134
Women who are anxious to prolong the lives of their husbands take
turns round the Tulsi plant or the banyan tree. At each turn they wind
a fine cotton thread. At the end of the last turn, they throw red lac
and rice over the tree and place a betelnut and a pice or a half-anna
piece before it.135
The Shāstras authorise four pradakshinās (or
perambulations) for Vishnu, three for the goddesses, and a half (or one
and a half)136 for Shiva.137 But the usual number of
pradakshinās is either 5, 7, 21 or 108. In taking turns
round the image of Vishnu, one must take care to keep one’s right
side towards the image, while in the case of Shiva, one must not cross
the jalādhari138 or the small passage for conducting water
poured over the Shiva-linga.137
Sometimes in pradakshinās the votary repeats the name of
the deity round which the turns are taken while the priest recites the
names of the gods in Shlokas.139 Sometimes the following verse is
repeated.140
पापोऽहं
पापकर्माऽहं
पापात्मा
पापसंभवः
।
त्राहि मां
पुण्डरीकाक्ष
सर्वपापहरो
भव ॥
यानि
कानि च
पापानि
जन्मांतरकृतानि
च ।
तानि
तानि
विनश्यन्तु
प्रदक्षिणपदेपदे
॥
‘I am sinful, the doer of sin, a sinful soul and
am born of sin. O lotus-eyed One! protect me and take away all sins
from me. Whatever sins I may have committed now as well as in my former
births, may every one of them perish at each footstep of my
pradakshinā.’
The recitation and the turns are supposed to free the soul from the
pherā of lakh-choryasi141. Alms are given many
times to the poor after pradakshinās.142
The reason why pradakshinās are taken during the day is
that they have to be taken in the presence of the sun, the great
everlasting witness of all human actions.143
[27]
As all seeds and vegetation receive their nourishment from solar and
lunar rays, the latter are believed in the same way to help embryonic
development.144
The heat of the sun causes the trees and plants to give forth new
sprouts, and therefore he is called ‘Savita’ or
Producer.145 Solar and lunar rays are also believed to facilitate
and expedite delivery.146 The medical science of the Hindus declares the
Amāvāsya (new-moon day) and Pūrnima (full-moon day)
days—on both of which days the influence of the sun and the moon
is most powerful—to be so critical for child-bearing women as to
cause, at times, premature delivery.147 Hence, before delivery, women are
made to take turns in the sunlight and also in moonlight, in order to
invigorate the fœtus, thus securing that their delivery may be
easy. [The assistance rendered by solar rays in facilitating the
delivery is said to impart a hot temperament to the child so born, and
that by the lunar rays a cool one.]148 After delivery, a woman should
glance at the sun with her hands clasped, and should offer rice and red
flowers to him.149 Sitting in the sun after delivery is considered
beneficial to women enfeebled by the effort.150 It is a cure for the
paleness due to exhaustion,151 and infuses new vigour.152
The Bhils believe that the exposure of a new-born child to the sun
confers upon the child immunity from injury by cold and heat.153
The practice of making recently delivered women sit in the sun does
not seem to be widespread, nor does it prevail in Kathiawar. In
Kathiawar, on the contrary, women are kept secluded from sunlight in a
dark room at the time of child-birth, and are warmed by artificial
means.154 On the other hand, it is customary in many places
to bring a woman into the sunlight after a certain period has elapsed
since her delivery. The duration of this period varies from four days
to a month and a quarter. Sometimes a woman is not allowed to see
sunlight after child-birth until she presents the child to the sun with
certain ceremonies, either on the fourth or the sixth day from the date
of her delivery.155
A ceremony called the Shashthi-Karma is performed on the sixth day
after the birth of a child, and the Nāmkaran ceremony—the
ceremony of giving a name—on the twelfth day. The mother of the
child is sometimes not allowed to see the sun before the completion of
these ceremonies.156 Occasionally, on the eleventh day after
child-birth, the mother is made to take a bath in the sun.157
Exactly a month and a quarter from the date of delivery a woman is
taken to a neighbouring stream to offer prayers to the sun and to fetch
water thence in an earthen vessel. This ceremony is known as
Zarmāzaryan.158 Seven small betel-nuts are used in the ceremony.
They are carried by the mother, and distributed by her to barren women,
who believe that, by eating the nuts from her hand, they are likely to
conceive.159 [28]
In difficult labour cases, chakrāvā water is
sometimes given to women. The chakrāvā is a figure of
seven cross lines drawn on a bell-metal dish, over which the finest
white dust has been spread. This figure is shown to the woman in
labour: water is then poured into the dish and offered her to
drink.160 The figure is said to be a representation of
Chitrangad.161 It is also believed to be connected with a story in
the Mahābhāarata.162 Subhadrā, the sister of god
Krishna and the wife of Arjuna, one of the five Pāndavas,
conceived a demon, an enemy of Krishna. The demon would not leave the
womb of Subhadrā even twelve months after the date of her
conception, and began to harass the mother. Krishna, the incarnation of
god, knowing of the demon’s presence and the cause of his delay,
took pity on the afflicted condition of his sister and read
chakrāvā, (Chakravyūha) a book consisting of seven
chapters and explaining the method of conquering a labyrinthine fort
with seven cross-lined forts. Krishna completed six chapters, and
promised to teach the demon the seventh, provided he came out. The
demon ceased troubling Subhadrā and emerged from the womb. He was
called Abhimanyu. Krishna never read the seventh chapter for then
Abhimanyu would have been invincible and able to take his life. This
ignorance of the seventh chapter cost Abhimanyu his life on the field
of Kuru-kshetra in conquering the seven cross-lined labyrinthine forts.
As the art of conquering a labyrinthine fort when taught to a demon in
the womb facilitated the delivery of Subhadrā, a belief spread
that drinking in the figure of the seven cross-lined labyrinthine fort
would facilitate the delivery of all women who had difficulties in
child-birth.162
The figure Swastika (literally auspicious), drawn as shown
below, is an auspicious sign, and is believed to be a mark of good luck
and a source of blessings. It is one of the sixteen line-marks on the
sole of the lotus-like feet of the god Ishwar, the Creator of the
Universe.163 The fame of the good effects of the Swastika figure
is said to have been first diffused throughout society by
Nārad-Muni, as instructed by the god Brahma.164
Various conjectures have been made concerning the origin of this
figure. The following explanation is found in a work named
Siddhāntsar. The Eternal Sat or Essence, that has neither
beginning nor end nor any maker, exhibits all the religious principles
in a chakra or a wheel-form. This round shape has no
circumference; but any point in it is a centre; which being specified,
the explanation of the whole universe in a circle is easy. Thus the
figure ☉ indicates the creation of the universe from Sat
or Essence. The centre with the circumference is the womb, the place of
creation of the universe. The centre then expanding into a line, the
diameter thus formed represents the male principle,
linga-rūp, that is the producer, through the medium of
activity in the great womb or mahā-yoni. When the line
assumes the form of a cross, it explains the creation of the universe
by an unprecedented combination of the two distinct natures, animate
and inanimate. The circumference being [29]removed,
the remaining cross represents the creation of the world. The Swastika,
or Sathia, as it is sometimes called, in its winged form (卍)
suggests the possession of creative powers by the opposite natures,
animate and inanimate.165
Another theory is that an image of the eight-leaved lotus, springing
from the navel of Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity, was formerly drawn
on auspicious occasions as a sign of good luck. The exact imitation of
the original being difficult, the latter assumed a variety of forms,
one of which is the Swastika.166
Some people see an image of the god Ganpati in the figure. That god
being the master and protector of all auspicious ceremonies has to be
invoked on all such occasions. The incapacity of the devotees to draw a
faithful picture of Ganpati gave rise to a number of forms which came
to be known by the name of Swastika.167
There are more ways than one of drawing the Swastika, as shown
below, but the original form was of the shape of a cross. The first
consonant of the Gujarati alphabet, ka, now drawn thus ક,
was also originally drawn in the form of a cross (+). Some persons
therefore suppose that the Swastika may be nothing more than the letter
ક (ka), written in the old style and standing for the word
kalyān or welfare.168
Though the Swastika is widely regarded as the symbol of the sun,
some people ascribe the figure to different deities, viz., to
Agni,169 to Ganpati,170 to Laxmi,171 to Shiva,172 besides
the sun. It is also said to represent Swasti, the daughter of Brahma,
who received the boon from her father of being worshipped on all
auspicious occasions.173 Most persons, however, regard the Swastika as
the symbol of the sun. It is said that particular figures are
prescribed as suitable for the installation of particular deities: a
triangle for one, a square for another, a pentagon for a third, and the
Swastika for the sun.174 The Swastika is worshipped in the Ratnagiri
district, and regarded as the symbol as well as the seat of the
Sun-god.175 The people of the Thana district believe the
Swastika to be the central point of the helmet of the sun; and a vow,
called the Swastika-vrat, is observed by women in its honour.
The woman draws a figure of the Swastika and worships it daily during
the Chāturmās (the four months of
the rainy season), at the expiration of which she presents a Brahman
with a golden or silver plate with the Swastika drawn upon it.176
A number of other ideas are prevalent about the significance of the
Swastika. Some persons believe that it indicates the four
directions;177 some think that it represents the four
mārgas—courses or objects of human
desires—viz., (1) Dharma, religion; (2) Artha, wealth; (3)
Kām, love; (4) Moksha, salvation.178 Some again take it to be an
image of the ladder [30]leading to the
heavens.179 Others suppose it to be a representation of the
terrestrial globe, and the four piles of corn placed in the figure, as
shown below (p. 16) represent the four mountains, Udayāchala,
Astāchal, Meru and Mandārāchala.180 The Swastika is also
believed to be the foundation-stone of the universe.181
The Swastika is much in favour with the gods as a seat or couch, and
as soon as it is drawn it is immediately occupied by some
deity.182 It is customary therefore to draw the Swastika on
most auspicious and festive occasions, such as marriage and thread
ceremonies, the first pregnancy ceremonies and the Divali
holidays.183 In the Konkan the Swastika is always drawn on the
Antarpāt, or the piece of cloth which is held between the
bride and the bridegroom at the time of a Hindu wedding.184 And at
the time of the Punyāha-wāchan, a ceremony which precedes a
Hindu wedding, the figure is drawn in rice and is worshipped.184 Throughout the
Chāturmās some persons paint the auspicious Swastikas, either
on their thresholds or at their doors, every morning.185
On the sixth day from the date of a child’s birth, a piece of
cloth is marked with a Swastika in red lac, the cloth is stretched on a
bedstead and the child is placed upon it.186 An account of this
ceremony is to be found in the treatises Jayantishastra,
Jātakarma, and Janakālaya.186
Before joining the village-school, little boys are made to worship
Saraswati, the goddess of learning, after having installed her on a
Swastika, in order that the acquisition of learning may be
facilitated.187
A Brahman host, inviting a party of brother-Brahmans to dinner,
marks the figure one (૧) against the names of those who are
eligible for dakshinā, and a Swastika against the names of those
who are not eligible. These latter are the yajamāns or
patrons of the inviting Brahman, who is himself their
pūjya, i.e., deserving to be worshipped by them. A
bindu or dot, in place of the Swastika, is considered
inauspicious.188
The Swastika is used in calculating the number of days taken in
pilgrimage by one’s relations, one figure being painted on the
wall each day from the date of separation.188
It is said that the Swastika when drawn on a wall is the
representation of Jogmāya. Jogmāya is a Natural Power,
bringing about the union of two separated beings.189
The Jains paint the Swastika in the way noted below and explain the
figure in the following manner:—The four projectors indicate four
kinds of souls: viz., (1) Manushya or human, (2) Tiryach or of
lower animals, (3) Deva or divine, (4) Naraki or hellish. The three
circular marks denote the three Ratnas or jewels, viz., (1)
Jnān or knowledge, (2) Darshana or faith, (3) Charita or good
conduct; and the semi-circular curve, at the top of the three circles,
indicates salvation.190
[31]
Every Jain devotee, while visiting the images of his gods, draws a
Sathia (Swastika)191 before them and places a valuable object over it.
The sign is held so sacred that a Jain woman has it embroidered on the
reticule or kothali in which she carries rice to holy
places.192
‘I am the very light of the sun and the moon,’ observes
Lord Krishna in his dialogue with Arjuna,193 and the moon also
receives divine honours like the sun. Moon-worship secures wealth,
augments progeny, and betters the condition of milch-cattle.194 The
suitable days for such worship are the second and the fourth days of
the bright half of every month (Dwitīya or Bīj and Chaturthi
or Choth, respectively) and every full-moon day (Purnima or Punema). On
either of these days the devotees of Chandra (the moon) fast for the
whole of the day and take their food only after the moon has risen and
after they have seen and worshipped her.195 Some dainty dish such
as kansār,196 or plantains and puris,197 is specially cooked
for the occasion.
A sight of the moon on the second day of the bright half of every
month is considered auspicious. After seeing the moon on this day some
people also look at silver and gold coins for luck.198 The belief in the
value of this practice is so strong that, immediately after seeing the
moon, people refrain from beholding any other object. Their idea is
that silver, which looks as bright as the moon, will be obtained in
abundance if they look at a silver piece immediately after seeing the
moon.199 Moon worship on this day is also supposed to
guarantee the safety of persons at sea.200 In the south, milk and sugar is
offered to the moon after the usual worship, and learned Brahmans are
invited to partake of it. What remains after satisfying the Brahmans is
divided among the community.199 On this day, those who keep cattle do not churn whey
nor curd milk nor sell it, but consume the whole supply in feasts to
friends and neighbours.201 The Ahirs and Rabaris especially are very
particular about the use of milk in feasts only: for they believe that
their cattle are thereby preserved in good condition.202
The fourth day of the dark half of every month is the day for the
observance of the chaturthi-vrat (or choth-vrat). This
vrat is observed in honour of the god Ganpati and by men only. The
devotees fast on this day, bathe at night after seeing the moon, light
a ghi lamp, and offer prayers to the moon. They also recite a
pāth containing verses in honour of Ganpati, and, after
worshipping that god, take their food consisting of some specially
prepared dish. This vrat is said to fulfil the dreams of the
devotees.203
The day for the chaturthi-vrat in the month of Bhādrapad
(the 11th month of the Gujarati Hindus) is the fourth day of the bright
half instead of the fourth day of the dark half,204 and on this day
(Ganesh [32]Chaturthi205) the moon is not
worshipped. The very sight of her is regarded as ominous, and is
purposely avoided.206 The story is that once upon a time the gods went out
for a ride in their respective conveyances. It so happened that the god
Ganpati fell off his usual charger, the rat, and this awkward mishap
drew a smile from Chandra (the moon). Ganpati, not relishing the joke,
became angry and cursed Chandra saying that no mortal would care to see
his face on that day (which happened to be the fourth day of the bright
half of Bhādrapad). If any one happens to see the moon even
unwittingly on this day, he may expect trouble very soon.207 There is
one way, however, out of the difficulty, and that is to throw stones on
the houses of neighbours. When the neighbours utter abuse in return,
the abuse atones for the sin of having looked at the moon on the
forbidden night. The day is therefore called (in Gujarat)
Dagad-choth, i.e., the Choth of stones.208
On the fourth day of the dark half of Phālgun (the 5th month of
Gujarati Hindus) some villagers fast for the whole of the day and
remain standing from sunset till the moon rises. They break their fast
after seeing the moon. The day is, therefore, called ubhi
(i.e., standing) choth.209
Virgins sometimes observe a vow on Poshi-Punema or the full-moon day
of Pausha (the 3rd month of the Gujarati Hindus). On this day a virgin
prepares her evening meal with her own hands on the upper terrace of
her house. She then bores a hole through the centre of a loaf, and
observes the moon through it, repeating while doing so a verse210 which
means: O Poshi-Punemadi, khichadi (rice and pulse mixed
together) is cooked on the terrace, and the sister of the brother takes
her meal.211 The meal usually consists either of rice and milk or
of rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar, or of
kansār. She has to ask the permission of her brother or
brothers before she may take her food; and if the brother refuses his
permission, she has to fast for the whole of the day.212 The whole ceremony
is believed to prolong the lives of her brothers and her future
husband. The moon is also worshipped at the time of
griha-shānti, i.e., the ceremonies performed before
inhabiting a newly-built house.213
If the moon is unfavourable to a man born under a particular
constellation, on account of his occupying either the 6th, the 8th or
the 12th square in a kundali214 (see below) prayers are offered
to the moon; and if the occasion is a marriage, a bell-metal dish, full
of rice, is presented to Brahmans.215
[33]
The appearance of the moon and the position of the horns of her
crescent at particular times are carefully watched as omens of future
events. Cultivators believe that if the moon is visible on the second
day of the bright half of Āshādh (the 9th month of Gujarati
Hindus), the sesamum crops of that season will be abundant; but if the
moon be hidden from sight on that day, the weather will be cloudy
during the whole of Āshādh, and will prove unfavourable to
vegetable growth.216 If the moon appears reddish on a Bīj day (or
the second day of the bright half of a month), and if the northern horn
of the crescent be high up, prices in the market are believed to rise;
if, on the other hand, it is low, it prognosticates a fall in prices.
If the two horns are on a level, current prices will continue.216
Similarly, the northern horn of the crescent, if it is high up on
the Bīj day of Āshādh, augurs abundant rainfall; if it
is low, it foreshadows a season of drought.217
If the moon presents a greenish aspect on the full-moon day of
Āshādh, excessive rains may be expected in a few days; if on
that day she rises quite clear and reddish, there is very little hope
of good rains; if she is partly covered by clouds when she rises and
then gets clear of the clouds, and then again disappears in the clouds
in three ghadis,218 three pohors,218 or three days, rain is sure to fall.219
If on the 5th day of the bright half of Chaitra, the moon appears to
the west of the Rohini constellation, the prices of cotton are believed
to rise; if to the east, they are said to fall; and if in the same
line, the current rates are believed to be likely to continue.220
The Bīj (2nd day) and the ninth day of Āshādh (the
9th month of the Gujaratis and the 4th month of the Hindus of the
Deccan) falling on a Sunday is a combination that foretells excessive
heat. If they fall on Wednesday, intense cold is said to be the result.
Their occurring on a Tuesday, threatens absence of rains, and on a
Monday, a Thursday or a Friday, foreshadows excessive
rainfall.221
Thunder on Jeth-Sud-Bīj, or the second day of the bright half
of Jyeshtha, is a bad omen and threatens famine.222
The spots on the moon have given rise to numerous beliefs,
mythological as well as fanciful. One of them is that they are the
result of a curse, pronounced by the sage Gautama on Chandra. Indra,
the god of rain, was infatuated with the charms of Ahalyā, the
wife of Gautama, and with the help of Chandra laid a cunning plot to
gain his ignoble object. Accordingly, one night, Chandra set earlier
than usual, when Indra assumed the form of a cock and crowed at
midnight in order to deceive Gautama into the belief that it was dawn,
and therefore his time for going to the Ganges to perform his religious
services. The trick was successful, and the holy sage being thus got
rid of, Indra assumed the form of Gautama himself and approached
Ahalyā, who was surprised to see her husband (as she thought) so
quickly returned. The wily god allayed her suspicions by explaining
that it was not yet time for the morning ceremonies, and thus enjoyed
the favours due to her husband. Gautama, in the meanwhile, finding the
water of the Ganges cool and placid, and discovering that it was not
yet dawn, returned to his hermitage. On reaching home he detected the
treachery of Indra, who tried to escape in the disguise of a tom-cat.
The exasperated sage then cursed Indra, Chandra and his wife: Indra to
have a thousand sores on his person, Ahalyā to turn into a stone,
and Chandra to have a stain on his fair face.223
Another mythological story is that Daksha Prajāpati, the son of
Brahmā, gave all his [34]twenty-seven daughters
in marriage to Chandra, who was inspired with love for one of them
only, named Rohini, the most beautiful of them all. The slighted
twenty-six sisters complained to their father, Daksha, of
Chandra’s preference for Rohini. Daksha in anger cursed Chandra
to be attacked by consumption (which is supposed to be the reason of
the waning of the moon) and his face to be marred by a stain.224
The curse of Gautama and the curse of Daksha are also supposed to be
reasons of the waxing and the waning of the moon.
Another belief regarding the moon-spots is that when the head of
Ganpati was severed by Shiva’s trident, it flew off and fell into
the chariot of the moon. The spots are either the head itself225 or are
due to drops of blood fallen from the flying severed head.226
The spots are also said to be explained by the fact of the image of
god Krishna or Vishnu227 residing in the heart of the moon who, as a
devotee of Vishnu, holds his image dear to his heart.228
The moon is often called mrigānka (lit. deer-marked) and
mriga-lānchhana
(lit.
deer-stained); and a further explanation of the spots in this
connection is that the moon-god took into his lap a strayed deer, out
of compassion, and thus his lap became stained.229 Jains believe that in
the nether parts of the moon’s vimān or vehicle,
there is an image of a deer whose shadow is seen in the spots.230
Some persons declare the spots to be a shami tree
(prosopis spicigera).231 The belief of the masses in Gujarat is
said to be that the spot on the moon’s disc is the seat of an old
woman, who sits spinning her wheel with a goat tethered near
her.232 If the droppings of the goat were to fall on earth,
departed souls would return to the earth.233
It is said that a child and a tree are never seen to grow except
during the night. Such growth is therefore held to be due to lunar
rays.234 As all trees, plants, etc., thrive owing to the
influence of the moon, the moon-god is called the lord of herbs. The
moon is also a reservoir of nectar and is called Sudhākar,
i.e., one having nectarine rays.235 As the lord of
herbs, the moon-god is supposed to have the power of removing all
diseases that are curable by drugs, and of restoring men to
health.236
Persons suffering from white leprosy, black leprosy, consumption and
diseases of the eyes are believed to be cured by the observance of the
Bīj and Punema vows.237 Consumption in its
incipient and latter stages is also said to be cured by exposure to the
rays of the moon.238 Constant glimpses of the moon add to the lustre of
the eyes.239 On the Sharad-Punema, or the 15th day of the
bright half of Ashvin (the last month of the Gujaratis and the 7th
month of the Deccani Hindus), tailors pass a thread through their
needles in the belief that they will thereby gain keener eyesight.240
A cotton-wick is exposed to the moon on Sharad-Punema, and is
afterwards lighted in oil poured over the image of Hanūmān.
The soot, which is thus produced, if used on the Kali-chaudas
day—the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin—is said
to possess much efficacy in strengthening the eyesight and also in
preserving the eyes from any disease during the ensuing year.241
Sweetened milk or water is exposed to moonlight during the whole of
the night of [35]Sharad-punema (the full-moon day of
Ashvin) in order to absorb the nectarine rays of the moon, and is drunk
next morning. Drinking in the rays of the moon in this manner is
believed to cure diseases caused by heat as well as eye-diseases, and
it similarly strengthens the eyesight and improves the
complexion.242 Sugar-candy thus exposed and preserved in an
air-tight jar is partaken of in small quantities every morning to gain
strength and to improve the complexion.243 The absorption of the lunar rays
through the open mouth or eyes is also believed to be of great effect
in achieving these objects.244
Once upon a time the gods and demons, by their united efforts,
churned the ocean and obtained therefrom fourteen ratnas or
precious things.245 These were distributed among them. Lakshmi, the
kaustubha jewel, the Shārnga bow and the conch-shell fell
to the share of Vishnu, and the poison, Halāhal visha, was
disposed of to Shiva. Only two things remained, sudhā, or
nectar, and surā or liquor. To both gods and demons the
nectar was the most important of all the prizes. A hard contest ensuing
between them for the possession of it, the demons, by force, snatched
the bowl of nectar from the gods. In this disaster to the gods, Vishnu
came to their help in the form of Mohini—a most fascinating
woman—and proposed to the demons that the distribution of the
immortalising fluid should be entrusted to her. On their consent,
Vishnu or Mohini, made the gods and the demons sit in opposite rows and
began first to serve the nectar to the gods. The demon Rāhu, the
son of Sinhikā, fearing lest the whole of the nectar might be
exhausted before the turn of the demons came, took the shape of a god
and placed himself amongst them between Chandra (the moon) and
Sūrya (the sun). The nectar was served to him in turn, but on
Chandra and Sūrya detecting the trick, the demon’s head was
cut off by Vishnu’s discus, the sudarshana-chakra.
Rāhu however did not die: for he had tasted the nectar, which had
reached his throat. The head and trunk lived and became immortal, the
former being named Rāhu, and the latter Ketu. Both swore revenge
on Chandra and Sūrya. At times, therefore, they pounce upon
Chandra and Sūrya with the intention of devouring them. In the
fight that ensues, Chandra and Sūrya are successful only after a
long contest, with the assistance of the gods, and by the merit of the
prayers that men offer.246
The reason of the eclipse is either that Chandra and Sūrya
bleed in the fight with Rāhu and their forms get
blackened247; or that the demon Rāhu comes between the two
luminaries and this earth, and thus causes an eclipse248; or because
Rāhu obstructs the sun and the moon in their daily course, and
this intervention causes an eclipse249; or because Rāhu swallows
the sun and the moon, but his throat being open, they escape, their
short disappearance causing an eclipse.250
Besides the mythological story, there is a belief in Gujarat that a
bhangi (scavenger or sweeper), creditor of the sun and the moon,
goes to recover his debts due from them, and that his shadow falling
against either of them causes an eclipse.251 [36]
A third explanation of the eclipse is that the sun and the moon
revolve round the Meru mountain, and the shadow of the mountain falling
upon either of them causes an eclipse.252
It is believed amongst Hindus that eclipses occur when too much sin
accumulates in this world.253 Most Hindus regard an eclipse as
ominous, and consider the eclipse period to be unholy and inauspicious.
The contact of the demon Rāhu with the rays of the sun and the
moon pollutes everything on earth. Great precautions therefore become
necessary to avoid pollution.254 A period of three
pohors255 (prahars) in the case of the moon, and of
four in the case of the sun, before the actual commencement of an
eclipse, is known as vedha, i.e., the time when the
luminaries are already under the influence of the demon. During this
period and during the time of an eclipse people observe a strict fast.
Anyone taking food within the prohibited period is considered
sutaki or ceremonially impure, as if a death had happened in his
family.256 An exception is, however, made in the case of
children, pregnant women and suckling mothers who cannot bear the
privation of a strict fast. From the beginning of an eclipse to its
end, everything in the house is believed to be polluted, if
touched.256
As the sun and the moon are believed to be in trouble during an
eclipse, people offer prayers to God from the beginning of the
vedha for their release. It is the custom to visit some holy
place on an eclipse-day, to take a bath there, and to read holy
passages from the Shāstras. Some people, especially Brahmans, sit
devoutly on river-banks and offer prayers to the sun.256 Much secret as well as open
charity is given at the time of an eclipse. But the receivers of
charity during the actual period of an eclipse are the lowest classes
only, such as bhangis, mahārs and māngs.
When an eclipse is at its full, these people go about the streets
giving vent to such cries as āpó dān
chhuté chānd (give alms for the relief of the
moon!).257
Among the gifts such people receive are cotton clothes, cash, grain
such as sesamum seeds, udad, pulses, and salt.258 The gift of a pair
of shoes is much recommended.259 Sometimes a figure of the eclipsed sun
or moon is drawn in juari seeds and given away to a
bhangi.260
Although the period of an eclipse is considered inauspicious, it is
valued by those who profess the black art. All mantras,
incantations, and prayogas, applications or experiments, which
ordinarily require a long time to take effect, produce the wished for
result without delay if performed during the process of an
eclipse.261
If a man’s wife is pregnant, he may not smoke during the
period of an eclipse lest his child become deformed.262 Ploughing a farm
on a lunar-eclipse day is supposed to cause the birth of
Chāndrā-children, i.e., children afflicted by the
moon.262
After an eclipse Hindus bathe, perform ablution ceremonies, and
dress themselves in clean garments. The houses are cleansed by
cowdunging the floors, vessels are rubbed and cleansed, and clothes are
washed, in order to get rid of the pollution caused by the
eclipse.263 Unwashed clothes of cotton, wool, silk or hemp,
according to popular belief, do not become polluted.263 The placing of darbha
grass on things which are otherwise liable to pollution is also
sufficient to keep them unpolluted.264
Brahmans cannot accept anything during the impious time of an
eclipse, but after it [37]is over, alms are freely
given to them in the shape of such costly articles as fine clothes,
gold, cattle and the like.265
After an eclipse Hindus may not break their fast till they have
again seen the full disc of the released sun or the moon. It sometimes
happens that the sun or the moon sets gherāyalā (while
still eclipsed), and people have then to fast for the whole of the
night or the day after, until the sun or the moon is again fully
visible.266
There is a shloka in the Jyotish-Shāstra to the
effect that Rāhu would surely devour Chandra if the
nakshatra, or constellation of the second day of the dark half
of a preceding month, were to recur on the Purnima (full-moon day) of
the succeeding month. Similarly, in solar eclipses, a similar
catastrophe would occur if the constellation of the second day of the
bright half of a month were to recur on the Amāvāsya (the
last day) of that month.267 The year in which many eclipses occur is
believed to prove a bad year for epidemic diseases.268
The Jains do not believe in the Hindu theory of grahana (or
the eclipse).269 Musalmans do not perform the special ceremonies
beyond the recital of special prayers; and even these are held to be
supererogatory.270
With the exception that some people believe that the stars are the
abodes of the gods,271 the popular belief about the heavenly bodies seems
to be that they are the souls of virtuous and saintly persons,
translated to the heavens for their good deeds and endowed with a
lustre proportionate to their merits.272 And this idea is illustrated in
the traditions that are current about some of the stars. The seven
bright stars of the constellation Saptarshi (or the Great Bear)
are said to be the seven sages, Kashyapa, Atri, Bhāradwāj,
Vishwāmitra, Gautama, Jāmadagni and Vasishtha, who had
mastered several parts of the Vedas, and were considered
specialists in the branches studied by each, and were invested with
divine honours in reward for their proficiency.273 Another story relates
how a certain hunter and his family, who had unconsciously achieved
great religious merit, were installed as the constellation
Saptarshi274 (or the Great Bear). A hunter, it is narrated in the
Shivarātri-māhātmya, was arrested for debt on a
Shivrātri275 day, and while in jail heard by chance the
words ‘Shiva, Shiva’ repeated by some devotees. Without
understanding their meaning, he also began to repeat the same words,
even after he was released in the evening. He had received no food
during the day, and had thus observed a compulsory fast. In order to
obtain food for himself and his family, he stationed himself behind a
Bel276 tree, hoping to shoot a deer or some other animal
that might come to quench its thirst at a neighbouring tank. While
adjusting an arrow to his bowstring, [38]he plucked
some leaves out of the thick foliage of the tree and threw them down.
The leaves, however, chanced to fall on a Shiva-linga which
happened to stand below, and secured for him the merit of having
worshipped god Shiva with Bel-leaves on a Shivrātri day. He
was also all the while repeating the god’s name and had undergone
a fast. The result was that not only were his past sins forgiven, but
he was placed with his family in heaven.277
Similarly, Dhruva, the son of king Uttānapād, attained
divine favour by unflagging devotion, and was given a constant place in
the heavens as the immovable pole-star.278
According to Hindu astrology, there are nine grahas279 or
planets, twelve rāshis280 or signs of the zodiac, and
twenty-seven nakshatras281 or constellations. Books on astrology
explain the distinct forms of the nakshatras. For instance, the
Ashvini constellation consists of two stars and presents the appearance
of a horse. It ascends the zenith at midnight on the purnima
(the 15th day of the bright half) of Ashvin (the first month of the
Gujarati Hindus). The constellation of Mrig consists of seven stars,
four like the legs of a sofa and three others under them in a line. All
these twenty-seven groups of stars reach the zenith at midnight on
particular days in particular months; and the months of the Hindu
calendar are named after them.282
All planets influence the life of a person, one way or the other,
according to their position in the heavens at the time of his birth. A
kundali, i.e., a figure like the one shown here, is drawn
by astrologers to illustrate the respective positions of the planets.
The twelve squares of the diagram represent the twelve signs of the
zodiac, and the positions of the planets in different squares influence
persons in different ways. Ravi (the Sun), Budha (Mercury) and Shukra
(Venus) occupy one rāshi for one month; Chandra (the Moon)
occupies a rāshi for 135 ghadis,283 i.e., two
days and a quarter; Mangal (Mars) for one month and a half; Guru
(Jupiter) for thirteen months; Shani (Saturn) for two years and a half,
and Rāhu for a year and a half. This is their normal and ordinary
motion. But if they take an abnormal course and move either too fast or
too slow, they finish their revolution through a rāshi
within a shorter or a longer period.284
If the planet Guru (Jupiter) occupies either the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 6th,
8th, 10th, or 12th, square of a kundali, it is said to bring
about a rupture with friends, pecuniary wants, and an increase in the
number of enemies.285 [39]
If Shani (Saturn) occupies the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th, 9th, or
the 12th square in a man’s kundali, it causes despondency
of mind, family quarrels, imminent injuries from foes, and pecuniary
wants.286
The presence of Mangal (Mars) in the 3rd, the 6th, or the 11th
square is auspicious.286
Of the nine planets, Budha, Guru, and Chandra are benevolent, Mangal
and Ravi are neither benevolent nor baneful; and Shani, Rāhu, and
Ketu are downright malevolent.287 Each planet has a story connected with
it concerning its benevolence or malevolence, and showing also the way
to secure its propitiation. For instance, the malevolence of Shani
drove King Vikrama to unknown countries, and subjected him to grave
calamities. On the advice of a wise man, however, he observed the
Saturday-vows and thus overcame his difficulties.288
When a planet is unfavourable to a person, it has to be propitiated
by vows, and the person who is under its evil influence often lays upon
himself the obligation of abstaining from particular articles of food
or from wearing certain articles of clothing for a certain number of
days.289 Particular days of the week are set apart as
appropriate for the worship of particular planets, and, on such days,
the person keeping the vow observes a fast and worships the planet
through the medium of a Brāhman.290 For instance, vrats or
vows are observed on Tuesdays in honour of Mangal (Mars), when an image
of the planet, engraved on a golden dish, is worshipped, and the person
observing the vow takes food consisting of wheat only, and that too,
only once during the day. This mode of fasting is followed for a number
of consecutive Tuesdays prescribed by an astrologer; and on the last
Tuesday, when pūrnāhuti291 is offered,
Brāhmans are feasted and dakshina is given to them. A piece
of red cloth and some corn are used in the installation of the planet;
these and the golden engraving are carried away by the priest.288
Similarly, in propitiating Rāhu and Ketu the same ceremonies
are gone through: only, instead of wheat, mug (Phaseolus mungo)
is eaten by the devotee. In the same way Shani (Saturn) is said to
favour the diet of adād (or lentils): Guru (Jupiter)
inclines to chana (or gram), while Shukra (Venus) favours
cholā (dolichos sinensis).288
Certain forms or figures, called mandals, are favoured by
particular grahās, and are drawn in their honour in
worshipping them. Different things, too, are given in charity in honour
of different planets.292
All the nine grahas and the twenty-seven nakshatras are
worshipped on the occasion of the Griha-Shanti ceremony, which
is performed before occupying a newly erected building.287
It is considered inauspicious to hold a marriage ceremony while
Shukra (Venus) is invisible. In such a case, however, the ceremony may
be performed after setting up and worshipping a small golden image of
the planet.
Of the stars, the constellation of saptarshi is perhaps the
one most often worshipped. Its worship forms a part of the ceremonies
performed on the occasion of investing boys with the sacred
thread293 and also of the ceremonies of marriage. The worship
of the saptarshi on marriage occasions is believed to be an
attestation of the marriage, and to secure the benign care of the
saptarshi for the couple. The form of worship is sometimes as
follows: a red and white piece of [40]cloth is
stretched on the ground, bearing an image of the saptarshi over
it; wheat and rice are scattered over the cloth, a ghi-lamp is lighted,
and red lac and flowers are offered to the image.294 Another form of
worship is to mark seven red-lac-dots on a pātla or a
wooden stool, and to place seven pice and seven betel-nuts thereon.
After worshipping the seven pice, the bridal pair are made to take four
turns round the stool, touching the stool with their great toes at
every turn. A proverb runs to the effect that, whatever may happen to
the couple, still the seven pice of satpati (i.e., the
ceremony described) are secure.295 A third process is to form seven small
piles of kamod,296 on each of which, successively, the bride
places her right foot while the bridegroom removes each pile one by
one.297
The fifth day of the bright half of Bhādrapad (the eleventh
month of the Gujarati Hindus) is observed as a day of worship in honour
of the saptarshi group. People observe a fast on that day.
Brāhmans set up seven chāts298 in honour of the seven
sages, adding an eighth in honour of Arundhatī, the wife of
Vasishtha, and worship them by shodashopachār (i.e.
sixteen-fold ceremonial). The worship is said to secure felicity for
departed souls.299
The saptarshi are also annually worshipped by Brāhmans
on cocoanut-day (the 15th day of the bright half of Shrāvan) on
the occasion of changing their sacred threads. Hindu seamen also
worship the constellation on the same day.300
In the performance of the Nīl-parvān ceremony,
which is held to propitiate the spirits of departed ancestors, and
which requires a calf and a heifer to be married, an entertainment
being simultaneously given to one hundred and eight Brāhmans, and
on the occasion of Vastu or the ceremonies performed before or at the
time of occupying a newly-built house, burnt offerings and worship are
offered to the saptarshi.301
Every Brāhman must offer arghyas302 to, and worship, the
agastya constellation, in a hut of darbha303 and
kāsada,303
within seven days from the date of its appearance. Failure to make this
offering brings pollution on him for seven months, and disqualifies him
from performing any of the rites or ceremonies prescribed by the
Shastras.301
Married couples are made to look at the Pole star immediately after
the Hymenal knot is tied by the priest, in the hope that they may be as
long-lived or as inflexible or unmoved by the ups and downs of
life.295
The twelfth day after the death of a person, known as
Tārā-bāras (or the star-twelfth) is kept as the
day of star-worship by the relatives of the deceased, when one member
of the family observes a fast on that day in honour of the deceased,
and takes food only after worshipping the stars at night. It is
customary on this day to give up the use of bronze vessels and to give
them away in charity.304
Just as persons carrying or accompanying a corpse to the cemetery
are considered sutaki (under ceremonial impurity), so those who
witness this rite are also considered unclean: but they are purified by
a sight of the stars.305
Young girls watching the starry sky at night recite a verse which
means, “I worshipped the star-spangled firmament first and
[41]then my lover Ābhlā dabhlā
Kankunā dābhlā306—“Ye stars! blind the
prowling thief and seize him if he tries to steal away, and your
blessings on my lord confer!”307
The Rohini and Krittika constellations, popularly
known as Gadli, are supposed to indicate the rise and fall in the
cotton-market.308
The dimmest star of the saptarshi group foretells the death
of a person within six months from the date on which it becomes
invisible to him.309 Again, if a man cannot perceive the saptarshi
or the galaxy in the sky, it is considered such a bad omen that his end
is believed to be near at hand.310
The rainbow is believed to be the bow of Indra,311 the god of rains,
and is therefore called ‘Indra-dhanushya.’ We see it
when Indra draws his bow to release the rains from the rākshasas
(demons);312 or, when successful in bringing down rain, Indra
manifests his glory by drawing a bow;313 or when in the struggle for
supremacy between Summer and the rainy season, Indra draws his bow to
defeat Summer.314
It is also believed that when Rāmachandra, the hero of
the Rāmāyana, adjusted an arrow to the bow of Shiva,
to compete for the hand of Sītā in the swayamvara (or
maiden’s-choice marriage) celebrated by her, the bow was split
into three pieces, which ever since present themselves as rainbows in
the sky.315
The rainbow is popularly regarded as an indication of good or bad
rainfall according as it appears at particular hours and in particular
directions. If a rainbow appears in the east a speedy rainfall is
expected; if on the other hand it is seen in the west, rainfall is
apprehended to be distant.316 Some people, however, believe the
contrary, i.e., they regard the appearance of a rainbow in the
west as an indication of good rains, and in the east as a sign of
scarce rainfall.317 Perhaps both ideas are reconciled by a third belief
according to which the appearance of a rainbow in a direction facing
the sun, indicates the proximity of rain.318
If a rainbow is seen at sunset or sunrise just before the
commencement of rain the fall of rain will be excessive; but if it
appears after rainfall, the rain will probably cease.319 According to
some persons the appearance of a rainbow in the morning portends a
drought.320 There is, however, a popular saying to the effect
that were the kachbi, i.e., the rainbow, to be seen at
sunrise in the west, it foretells great floods before
nightfall.314
The sight of a rainbow is sometimes regarded as a bad omen. Some
believe that it shortens a man’s life and brings misfortunes to
him.310 Others believe that
it is calamitous to a man’s relations by marriage, especially to
the mother-in-law, who is sure to lose her power of hearing.321 People
sometimes clash earthen vessels against one another to avert the evils
which are to be feared from a rainbow.322 It is also said that the sight
of the whole of the rainbow is a good omen: [42]but the sight of a part, however large, is
inauspicious.323
According to the Purānas, the milky way or
ākāsh-ganga is the celestial River Ganga which was
brought down by Bhagīrath to the earth.324 King Sagar once
performed an ashwa-medha325 sacrifice, when, according to custom,
he let loose a horse, and sent his sixty thousand sons with it. Indra,
jealous of the growing power of Sagar, stole the horse and concealed it
in the hermitage of Kapila, when the sage was deeply absorbed in
religious meditation. The sixty thousand sons of Sagar followed it to
this asylum, where they taunted and insulted the sage, believing him to
be the thief. Kapila, who was ignorant of the theft, opened his
long-closed eyes in anger, emitting sparks of flame from them, and
destroyed the sons of Sagar together with the whole of their army.
Bhagīrath, the grandson of Sagar, propitiated the sage, and on his
advice practised religious austerities in honour of Shiva for the
purpose of bringing down the River Ganga from heaven. Through the
kindness of God Shiva, Bhagīrath was at last successful in
bringing the celestial river down to this world; and with the water of
the river he revived the sons of Sagar. The River Ganga (i.e.,
the Ganges) in this world is therefore also known by the name of
Bhāgirathi. It is this heavenly river which we see as the milky
way.326 Like the sacred Ganges on the earth, the River Ganga
in the celestial regions is held in great respect by the gods327 and
purifies the heavenly bodies, just as the earthly Ganges washes away
the worst sins of mortals.323
Some people, however, believe the milky way to be the track by which
the holy Ganges descended from heaven to earth.328
Another belief is that the God Vishnu, at the time of his Vāman
(or Dwarf) incarnation, touched the ina (i.e., the Egg)
in his third footstep and thus caused a flow of waters, which is known
as ākāsh-ganga.329 Some suppose the milky way to be a
ladder leading to the heavens.330 Astrologers call it Vatsa, a
fictitious creature with numerous horns, mouths, and tails.331 According
to another belief, the milky way consists of two
rekhās—lines—one of sin and the other of good
and meritorious actions. The length of one line compared to the other
betokens the predominance of good or evil as the case may be.332 The milky
way is also supposed to be the track left by the rath or car of
Rāmachandra.333
Ākāsh-ganga or the milky way is said to consist of one
crore and eighty lacs of stars.334 If a man cannot perceive the milky
way in the sky, his end is believed to be near at hand.335
The Musalmāns declare the milky way to be the track formed by
the footstep of the horse of the Prophet Muhammad, on the occasion of
his night-journey to Heaven.330 [43]
The occasion for earth-worship most frequently arises when anything
is to be built upon its surface. At the time of setting the
manek-stambha, or the first pillar of a marriage-bower or a
bower for a thread-ceremony,336 before commencing the construction of
wells, reservoirs, and tanks336 and in laying the foundation-stone of a house, a
temple, or a sacrificial pit,337 or of a street, a fortress, a city, or
a village,338 or of any constructive work raised upon or made
under the ground, certain ceremonies, called khat-muhūrt or
khat-puja, are performed. The earth-mother is then worshipped in
the manner prescribed in the Shastras, to propitiate her against
interruptions in the completion of the work undertaken. The owner or
the person interested in the new construction pours a little water on
the earth where the foundation-pit is to be dug, sprinkles red lac and
gulal (red powder), places a betel-nut and a few precious coins,
and digs out the first clod of earth himself.339 Some of the things
offered to the earth at the time of khat-puja are
panchāmrit,340 betel-nuts, betel-leaves, pancha-ratna
(or the five kinds of precious things, namely, gold, silver, copper,
coral, and pearls), a bowl and green garments.337 Under the influence of particular
rāshis (signs of the zodiac), particular corners of the
building under construction are required to be dug in the
khat-muhūrt ceremonies.338 For instance, a little digging in the north-west
corner is believed to be favourable to the constructor who happens to
be under the influence of Sinha (Leo), Kanya (Virgo) and
Tula (Libra): in the north-east corner, if under the influence
of Vrishchika (Scorpio), Dhanu (Sagittarius) and
Makar (Capricornus): in the south-east corner if under the sway
of Kumbha (Aquarius), Mīn (Pisces) and Mesha
(Aries): in the south-west corner in the case of Vrishabh
(Taurus), Mithun (Gemini) and Kark (Cancer).338 After the worship of the
earth-mother, sugar or molasses is distributed among neighbours,
bystanders and relatives, in token of the auspiciousness of the
occasion.341 An image of Ganpati is worshipped in a copper-dish,
this is buried underground, and a brick is laid on it when starting the
work of construction.338 In
setting up the manek-stambha on marriage occasions, a small
earthen bowl is filled with milk, curds, turmeric,
dūrvā-sprouts342 and mag seeds (Phaseolus
mungo), and buried in the ground after being sprinkled over with red
lac and rice.343
The ceremonies appertaining to khat-muhūrt are treated
of at length in a book called Dharma-sindhu.344 They are believed
to secure durability of construction.339
On the Dasarā345 day or the 10th day of the bright half
of Ashvin (the last month), Rājās go out in state with their
ministers and subjects to worship the earth-mother and the holy
shami tree (prosopis spicegera). A wetted plot of ground is
first dug over with pikes, javālā (tender wheat
plants) and [44]shami leaves are then mixed with
the muddy earth, and small balls of the mixture are made. A pice and
betel-nut are placed in each ball, and they are presented to the
worshipper as a mark of good luck. Travellers carry such balls with
them on their journeys for luck. Kings carry the same to obtain success
on the battle-field. The Pāndavas had such balls with them on the
field of Kurukshetra when they obtained a victory over the
Kauravas.346 The balls are also used as
pastānā.347 The javālā in the balls are
taken out and allowed to grow in an earthen vessel filled with clay and
manure till they reach a span in height, when they are taken up and
used.348
Earth-worship is performed before burying treasure underground, and
also when a marriage-procession, at the time of returning, reaches the
limits of the bridegroom’s village.349
In some places, virgins worship the plot of ground on which the
Holi is lighted, for about ten or twelve days after the
Holi holiday.350
Another occasion for earth-worship is the third day of the bright
half of Chaitra (the sixth month), on which day Vishnu saved the earth
in his Varāha (or Boar) incarnation, when it was being carried to
the nether regions by the demon Shankhāsur.351
On the eighth day of the bright half of Māgh and also of
Āshvin (the fourth and the last month respectively),
naivedya (an oblation of food) is offered to the earth-mother,
and is then used as her prasād (gift). No cooked food is
allowed to fall on the ground on this day: even the leavings after
meals are given away to cows.352
When any ceremony is to be performed on the earth’s surface,
as much of the spot as is required for the ceremony is cleansed by
watering it and plastering it with cow-dung. A betel-nut and a pice are
then placed on it as the Chādā or rent of the
spot.353
On those occasions when dakshina is given to Brāhmans
outside the village limits, worship of the earth-mother is performed by
pouring milk on the ground, and by placing seven betel-nuts and seven
single copper-pieces thereon.354
Some ambitious Brāhmans dig earth from near the roots of a
banyan tree after offering prayer to the earth, and out of it, make an
image of Parthishwar—Lord of the Earth—hoping
thereby to obtain wealth. The same ceremony, if observed near the roots
of a pipal tree (ficus religiosa), is believed
to confer wealth and male issue.348
When Vishnu killed the demons Madhur and Kaitabha, the earth was
strewn with their flesh and marrow (meda). Therefore the earth
is called medini, and for the same reason is unclean, and no
holy objects are allowed to touch it.355 Another explanation is that the
earth was rendered unclean because blood was shed on its surface in the
combat of the demon Vritrāsur with the god Indra.356
The things polluted by a contact with the earth are either objects
which are to be [45]dedicated to gods, such as
sandal-wood ointment, panchāmrit,357 the leaves of the bel
tree (Aegle marmelos), tulsi leaves (leaves of the holy or sweet
basil plant), betel-leaves and flowers;358 or objects which are sacred
because of their having been dedicated to the gods, including
tīrtha359 or water used in bathing the images of gods360; or
things which are by nature so holy that it is improper to place them on
the bare earth; for instance, images of deities, water of the sacred
Ganges or the Jumna,361 any holy writ,362 a conch-shell and even
gold.363 Cooked food also deserves respect, as it supports
the lives of men, and it is sinful in a Hindu to let it lie on the bare
ground. Any irregular conduct in this respect arouses the wrath of the
Annadeva (or the food
deity).364
It is, however, maintained by some that the reason why certain
things, such as materials of worship, are not allowed to touch the
earth, is that the earth itself being a deity, such things would be
dedicated to this deity by a contact with the earth and would thus
become incapable of any further use, as things that are dedicated to
one deity cannot again be offered to another.365
During the course of the recitation of mantras (holy hymns) in
honour of Vishnu and Mahādeva; on the occasion of offering prayers
to the grahas (planets) for their propitiation; and on occasions
like Vishnuyāga,366 Mahārudra,366 Shatachandi366, Gāyatri-purashcharan367 and
Brāhmana-varana368 the devotee or the sacrificer and the
priest sleep on darbha grass or on clean woollen blankets,
spread on the bare ground.358
Other occasions for sleeping on the floor are the days of the
observance of certain vrats or vows; such as, the
Divāsa or the 15th day of the dark half of Āshādh
(the ninth month), the Janmāshtami or the 8th day
of the dark half of Shrāvana (the tenth month), the days of
Goatrad, a vrat lasting from the 11th day to the 15th day
of the bright half of Bhādrapad, Mahāshivarātri or the
14th day of the dark half of Māgh, the Ekādashi day or the
11th day of both the bright and dark halves of a month,362 the Navrātra days or
the first nine days of Āshvin, eclipse days, and the day of
Jāgran or the 15th day of the bright half of
Āshādh,364
besides, sometimes, the whole of the months of Shrāvana and the
Purushottam or intercalary month; and the chāturmās,
i.e., the four months of the rainy season.369
A Brāhman in his brahmacharya (or the period of his life
which, according to the Shāstras, should be devoted to the
acquirement of learning, and which commences from the date of his being
invested with the sacred thread and terminates at the age of
twenty-three) and a widow are not allowed by the Shāstras
to sleep elsewhere than on beds made on the ground.362
Women, while in menstruation, sleep on the floor for four
days.359 Some women, when
they are separated from their husbands, also sleep in this
fashion.369
A dying person, two or three minutes before his death, is placed on
the ground, which [46]is first purified with
cow-dung-plaster.370 For ten days after a death, the members of the
deceased’s household and his relatives sleep on beds spread on
the bare ground.371 If the demise be very affecting, the nearest
relatives sleep on the floor for periods which may extend to three
months, six months, or even for a year, and sometimes the penance lasts
for their whole lives.370
It is customary, among some sects, not to allow the
sātharā—i.e., the spot lately occupied by
a corpse in the house—to be suna or unoccupied for a
single night. Someone must sleep on the spot for twelve consecutive
days from the date of demise.372
Pilgrims,373 after pilgrimage, abandon sensual pleasures, take
their meals only once every day, and sleep on the floor.370 It is customary to sleep always
on the ground while in holy places. Devotees, ascetics,
sādhus, and their disciples sleep on the ground.371
The God Indra has twelve meghas or clouds under his control,
and he directs each of them to pour out their waters wherever he likes.
When in the least irritated in the execution of his orders,
Indra’s voice is heard in this world in thunder-claps which rise
to a terrible pitch if the deity becomes downright angry.370 Thunder is also said to be the
loud laughter of Indra when in a happy mood.374
Another belief is that during the rainy season, Indra plays
gedi-dānda375, and the strokes given to the gedi in
the course of the game, produce what we call thunder;376 or, that the clouds
are god’s footballs, and thunder is produced by his foot striking
them, while at play during the rainy season.371 Some believe thunder to be due to the loud sounds
produced by various musical instruments which are played upon the
occasion of the marriage-ceremony of Indra.377 According to others,
thunder is produced by the cannon of Indra;378 or, as some again say,
by the trumpetings of Airāvat, the elephant of
Indra379; or, we hear thunder when Indra draws his bow and
adjusts an arrow to the bow-string, in order to bring about the fall of
rain.380
A further belief attributes thunder to the very rapid pace of the
chariot of Bhagwān.381 Some people, however, say that it is
produced when Bhīma (one of the five Pāndavas) wields his
prodigious club or bludgeon.382 In the opinion of others, Vidyut or
Tanyatun, the offspring of Lambā, the daughter of Daksha, and the
wife of Dharmarāj thunders in the rainy season.383 It is also
suggested that the god of rains shakes the heavens and thus produces
thunder.372 The
Shāstras, it is said, declare that thunder is caused by the
sounds of the dundubhi—or [47]kettledrums—beaten by the gods in
delight at the sight of rain.384 There is also a popular belief in the
Surat district that an old hag causes thunder either when she grinds
corn or when she rolls stones in the clouds.385
The prevalent belief about lightning seems to be that it is the girl
whom Kansa tried to dash against a stone, but who escaped and went up
to the sky. Kansa, the tyrant king of Mathura, was informed by a
heavenly voice, by way of prophecy, that a son would be born to his
sister who would cause his destruction. Kansa thereupon confined his
sister Devaki and her husband Vasudeva in prison, loaded them with
fetters, and kept the strictest watch over them. He took from Devaki,
and slew, every child of hers as soon as it was born. In this way he
disposed of her first six children. On the seventh occasion, however,
on which Devaki gave birth to a son named Krishna, a girl was born at
the same hour to Nanda in Mathura; and Vasudeva secretly interchanged
the two children in spite of the vigilance of Kansa. When Kansa knew of
his sister having been delivered, he seized the infant girl and tried
to dash her against a stone. The little one immediately flew away to
the skies, where she still dwells in the form of Vijli or
lightning.386
The Shāstras describe Vijli as the distinctive
weapon of Indra, just as pashupatākā is peculiar to
Shiva and the Gāndīva bow to Arjuna.387
Other beliefs about lightning are that Vijli is the sister of
Megharāja, the god of rains, and appears to announce his
approach:388 that Vijli is a goddess who rests upon winds,
fire, and rains:389 that Vijli is but the thunderbolt of
Indra:390 that lightnings are the flashes of the bright weapon
of Indra:391 that lightning is the lustre of the fireworks and
the lamps lighted by the gods in honour of the nuptials of
Indra:392 that lightning is produced by the sparks caused by
the friction of the gedi and the dāndā of Indra
when the god plays the game.393 Vijli is also known as
Saudāmini, i.e., one residing on Mount
Sudāma.394
The occurrence of thunder and the appearance of lightning on
particular days and in particular directions are regarded as signs of
the abundance or scarcity of rain during the season.
Thunder during the Rohini nakshatra395 is a bad omen: it
foreshadows either a famine,396 or a Boterun, i.e.,
complete cessation of rains for seventy-two days after the
thunder-claps are heard.391
According to another view, if the Rohini nakshatra lasts for a
fortnight and if the sky is clear during the period and yet lightning
and thunder occur, a Boterun will be the consequence; but if
lightning and thunder were to accompany the clouds in the same
nakshatra, heavy and plentiful rains may be confidently
expected.397 Lightning without clouds in the same
nakshatra is believed to be the cause of what is popularly
called Rohinī-dāzi, i.e., the burning heat of
Rohini.398
Some persons expect a Boterun after kadakas or
crashing thunder. Others apprehend a famine if they hear thunder on the
second day of the bright half of Jyeshtha (the eighth month).391 [48]
Thunder or lightning in the Hasta399 nakshatra foretells good
harvests and a prosperous year.400 Thunder in the same nakshatra
is believed to muzzle the jaws of serpents and other noxious creatures,
and to achieve this object, also, a sāmelu (or a log of
wood) is struck against a mobhārā (or a hollow stone
used for threshing corn).401 If thunder is not heard during this
nakshatra, mosquitoes and other insects and vermin are believed
to be likely to multiply.402
If thunder is heard during the Ārdrā nakshatra, the
rainfall will be delayed for a month.403
Lightning is commonly seen on the second and the fifth day of the
bright half of Āshādh, and is considered a sign of good
rainfall, while its absence indicates a probable scarcity of
rain.404 Its appearance on the fifth day of Āshādh
is believed by some to foretell an early fall of rain.400 Since the rainfall, and therefore
the state of the crops during the ensuing year, are suggested by
lightning on this day, corn-dealers settle a rise or fall in the price
of corn according as lightning is or is not seen on that
occasion.405
Thunder in the east predicts a speedy fall of rain.400 If flashes of lightning are seen
in the north-east or the north, rain will fall within three
days.400 Lightning in the
south-east or the south foretells extreme heat.406
Long-continued thunder shows that the rainfall is distant.
Similarly, continued flashes of lightning intimate danger to the lives
and property of people.406
Sudden thunder portends an immediate cessation of rain.400 Thunder or lightning out of
season threatens calamity to the country.407
Vijli or lightning is said to be fettered on the fifth day of
the bright half of Āshādh—(or, as some say, on the
second day of Shrāvan)401—after which date no apprehensions of its
destructive powers need be entertained.408 Till then, however, it is free
and is likely to injure those persons409 who have not cut or shaved their
hair from their birth.410
The occurrence of lightning is believed to cause the delivery and
sometimes even the death of pregnant women.411
Any period marked by the occurrence of lightning is considered
inauspicious.412
The Puranas speak of fourteen worlds—the seven swargas
(celestial regions) and the seven pātāls (nether
regions)413. Underneath the seventh
pātāl414 lies Shesha (the divine cobra) who supports all
the fourteen worlds on one of his one thousand hoods. On account of the
heavy burden, the serpent-god sometimes gets tired, and tries to change
his position. The result of the movement is an earth-quake.408 According to another version, an
earthquake occurs when Shesha changes [49]his
posture in sleep,415 or is the result of a hair falling from the body of
Shesha.416 Some people say that ordinarily Shesha does not feel
the weight of the fourteen worlds on his head; he bears the load as if
it were only a single sesamum seed. But when too much sin accumulates
in any of the regions, the burden becomes unbearable for him: he begins
to shake under it, and an earthquake occurs.417
Some believe that there is a tortoise under the divine cobra who
supports the world;418 others go further, and add a frog below the
tortoise:419 and it is said that the slightest motion on the part
of either the tortoise or the cobra is the cause of an earthquake.
Another belief is that earthquakes occur whenever there is tyranny
or injustice on the part of a king, or whenever immorality spreads in
society, because the earth is unable to bear the sin, and trembles at
the sight of it.420
According to a different opinion, the earth is supported by the
Pothia or the favourite bull of Shiva on one of his horns. An
earthquake is caused whenever he transfers the earth from one horn to
another in order to relieve the former from the constant pressure of
the burden.421
There is also a belief that deities of some strange species reside
in the nether regions, and the earth is shaken whenever these beings
fight among themselves.419
According to the Varāha-sanhita, an earthquake is always the
precursor of some unprecedented calamity.422 The prevalent belief
in the popular mind seems to be that an earthquake is the result of
immorality and sin, and further that it forebodes some dire calamity,
such as famine, pestilence, an outbreak of fire, a revolution, or a
great war.423 The phenomenon is, therefore, regarded with great
fear; and when it occurs, people endeavour to avoid the contingent
evils by such meritorious acts as the giving of alms, and generally by
leading a virtuous life.424
The most popular of the holy rivers are the Ganges, the Jumna (or
Jamuna), the Narbadā, the Saraswati (near Sidhpur), the
Kāveri, the Godāvari, the Gandaki, the Sarayu, the
Dāmodari, the Sindhu (or Indus), the Mahānad, the Gomati
(near Dwārka), the Brahmaputra, the Sābarmati, the Ghels
(near Gaddheda), the Tungabhadra, the Suvarnabhadrā, the
Bhadrashitā, the Jambuvati, the Phalaku (or Phalgu), the Kaushiki,
the Tāmraparni, the Sita and the Alakanandā. Any point where
three rivers meet is also a sacred place. Most of the holy rivers are
the subject of many traditions, and books have been written to
celebrate their merits.
The Ganges, the Jumna, and the Godāvari are said to be the
holiest of all rivers.423
There are a number of beliefs about the origin of the Ganges. One of
them is that the Ganges is the stream caused by King Bali washing the
feet of Vāman (the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu).425 Another story
relates that the god Brahma was exhausted by overwork at the time of
the marriage of Shiva and Pārvati. The gods, therefore, created
water from their own lustres, and gave it to Brahma in a gourd, to be
used in a similar contingency. When Vishnu in his Vāman
avatār (or Dwarf incarnation) bestrode the heavens with a
single step, Brahma washed his toe in the water from this gourd. A
stream was thus created called Swarga-ganga [50]and brought down to the earth by
Bhagīrath, the grandson of Sagar. When the Ganges fell from the
heavens, it was supported and held fast by God Shiva in his
jatā or matted hair. It was released by his loosening the
hair, and in its course, inundated the sacrificial ground of King
Jahnu. The latter, being angry, drank up its waters. On the entreaties
of Bhagīrath, he released the stream by tearing off his
thigh.426 The river then flowed to the spot where the sixty
thousand sons of Sagar were burnt to ashes; and it is said by some that
one of the sixty thousand was saved at the end of each year up to the
year 1955 of the Samvat era (corresponding to A.
D. 1899), by the end of which period all the sixty thousand had
attained salvation. From the earth the Ganges went to the nether
regions. Thus flowing in the heavens, on the earth and in the
Pātāl, the Ganges is called Tripathaga (i.e., flowing
in three courses). In its divine form, the Ganges is the wife of Shiva.
Owing to the curse of Brahma, she was born in human form in this world
and was married to Shantanu, by whom she became the mother of Bhishma,
the heroic uncle of the Kauravas and the Pāndavas.427
It is customary among Hindu pilgrims, when they visit Kāshi
(Benares) to take with them copper-vessels filled with
Gangājal (water of the Ganges), and to worship the
Gangā when they reach their homes after the pilgrimage. A figure
is drawn in seven different kinds of corn; the bowl is placed on it;
abil gulāl (red powder), frankincense, and naivedya
(an oblation of food) are offered: a ghi lamp is lighted: a Brahman
woman is dressed as Uma, the wife of Shiva, and Brahmans are
entertained at a feast, dakshina being given to them.428
The water of the Ganges, as well as that of the Jumna, is believed
to be so pure that it cannot be affected by microbes, even if kept for
years in the house. This quality is believed to be a manifestation of
its divine nature. It is further called patit-pāvan (lit.
purifier of the fallen), and exculpates the sinful from their sins,
either by a single draught or by bathing in it.429 Gangājal
is kept in most Hindu families, a draught of it taken by a dying person
being believed to secure moksha or eternal salvation for the
soul.430
A vow is observed by women, in honour of the Ganges, for the first
ten days of the month of Jyeshtha. On these days they rise early in the
morning and bathe in the holy waters of the Ganges.431
Sometimes ghi lamps are placed upon the waters of the Ganges or the
Jumna, and vessels of metal, pice, and cocoanuts are cast into the
stream. At such a time, when many people are standing on the banks
offering prayers with folded hands, or engaged in the
arati,432 the river presents a very picturesque scene, the
numerous lights being reflected in the water.433
The Jamuna or Yamuna is the daughter of the Sun, and the sister of
Yama, the god of Death. The banks of the Jumna are well known as the
scene of the amorous sports of God Krishna.434 The story of the
defeat of the demon Kāliya Nāg who was ejected from the Jumna
by Krishna is well-known. [51]
It is said that those who have bathed in the Jumnā or have once
tasted its water, need not be afraid of Yama, the god of
Death.435 It is considered meritorious among the Hindus to
bathe the image of god Shiva in water from the holy Jumnā or the
Ganges or the Godāvari.436 There is a popular shloka in
honour of the Jumnā which runs:—“Victory to thee! Oh
Yamunā, flowing through the Madhu-vana (the Madhu woods), the
bearer of shining waters, the companion of Jāhnavi, the daughter
of Sindhu, the ornament of the enemy of Madhu (viz., Krishna),
the appeaser of Mādhava, the dispeller of the danger of Gokal, the
destroyer of the sins of the world, the giver of intellect, the scene
of the amorous sports of Keshava. Victory to thee! O remover of
difficulties, purify me.”437
The banks of the Godāvari are known as the site of the
hermitage of Gautama. When the planet Brihaspati (Jupiter) enters the
Sinha-rāshi (the constellation Leo)438 the holy Ganges goes
to the Godāvari, and remains there for one year. During that year,
all the gods are believed to bathe in this river. Thousands of pilgrims
visit Nasik to offer prayers to the Godāvari, and after bathing in
the river, give alms to Brahmans. Similarly, on the Kapilāshashti
day, on which six jogs or conjunctive incidents occur
simultaneously, the virtue of all tīrthas or holy places is
believed to be concentrated in the Godāvari at Nasik.437
The mere sight of the Narbadā has the same effect as a bath in
the Ganges or the Jumnā.439 It is said that the Narbadā is
the image of Shiva, and that fragments of the stony bow of Shiva are to
be found in its bed.440 The stones in the bed of this river have the
same sanctity as the images of god Shiva.441 Shāligram
stones, which are worshipped as the images of Vishnu, are found in this
river.441 It is an act of
high merit among Hindus to take a pradakshinā round the
Narbadā, i.e., to travel along the banks of the river,
inhabited as the region is by many Sādhus and other holy
persons.442 Ashvatthāmā, the immortal son of Drona, is
believed to reside on the banks of this river and to pay occasional
visits to the Bhils in the neighbourhood.442 The Shukla-tīrtha, situated on the
Narbadā, is visited by numerous pilgrims, and a fair is held there
on every sixtieth year.442
The sage Kapila instructed his mother Devahūti with divine
knowledge on the banks of the Saraswati. Since then, the river is held
sacred and funeral ceremonies—Shrāddhas—are
performed on its banks in honour of departed female ancestors.440 Similarly Shrāddhas
in honour of male ancestors are performed at the confluence of the
Ganges, the Jumnā, and the Saraswati at Allahabad.443444
Of the Gandaki it is said that it contains as many shankars
(images of Shiva) as there are sankars (stones). The
shāligram stone is found in this river also. The Saryu is
sacred as the scene of the childish sports of Rāmachandra, the
hero of the Rāmāyana. On the banks of the Phalaku or
Phalgu, Rāmachandra performed Shrāddha ceremonies in
honour of his father Dasharath.440 [52]
A bath in the waters of a holy river washes away the sins of the
bather.445 It is also meritorious to repeat the names of the
several holy rivers.446 The performance of Shrāddha
ceremonies on the banks of a holy river secures the felicity of
deceased ancestors in heaven.445 At the time of performing Shrāddhas at a
holy place, Hindus shave their moustaches, bathe in the sacred waters,
and then go through the necessary ceremonies, in the course of which
pindas are offered to the Pitars (spirits of dead
ancestors). Brahmans are feasted after the ceremonies, and
dakshinā is given to them.447 Tarpan or an offering of
water with flowers, ointment, red lac, cocoanuts, and betel, is
frequently made to the river on the banks of which the ceremonies are
performed.448 The bones of a deceased person, left unburnt after
cremation of the body, are gathered together and thrown into holy
rivers such as the Ganges, the Jumnā, and the Godāvari, for
the purification of his soul.449
When heavy floods threaten a village or a city with serious injury,
the king or the headman should go in procession to propitiate the river
with flowers, cocoanuts, and other offerings in order that the floods
may subside.450 A story is related of the occurrence of heavy floods
in a village in the Jatalpur taluka, when a certain lady placed an
earthen vessel (ordinarily used for curdling milk), containing a ghi
lamp, afloat on the floods, whereupon the waters were at once seen to
recede.451
Besides the holy rivers, there are numerous kunds or sacred
pools which are regarded with equal reverence, and in which a bath has
the same efficacy for destroying sin. Similarly, they are equally
suitable places for the performance of Shrāddha ceremonies.
These kunds are the subject of numerous beliefs, and each of
them has a certain māhātmya or peculiar merit of its
own. Six miles to the east of Dwārkā, near the sea-coast,
there is a kund called Pind-tārak, where many persons go to
perform the Shrāddha and the Nārāyan-bali
ceremonies. They first bathe in the kund: then, with its water,
they prepare pindas, and place them in a metal dish: red lac is
applied to the pindas, and a piece of cotton thread wound round
them; the metal dish being then dipped in the kund, when the
pindas, instead of sinking, are said to remain floating on the
water. The process is believed to earn a good status for the spirits of
departed ancestors in heaven.445 It is further said that physical ailments brought on
by the avagati—degradation or fallen condition—of
ancestors in the other world, are remedied by the performance of
Shrāddha on this kund.452
The Dāmodar kund is situated near Junāgadh. It is
said that if the bones of a deceased person which remain unburnt after
his cremation are dipped in this kund, the soul of that person
obtains moksha (or final emancipation).445
There is a vāv or reservoir on Mount Girnār, known
as Rasakūpikā-vāv. It is believed that the body of a
person bathing in it becomes as hard as marble, and that if a piece of
stone or iron is dipped in the vāv, it is instantly transformed
into gold. But the vāv is only visible to saints and sages
who are gifted with a supernatural vision.453
Kāshīpuri (Benares) contains a vāv called
Gyān-vāv, in which there is an image of Vishweshwar (the Lord
of the universe, i.e., Shiva). A bath in the water from this
vāv is believed to confer upon a person the gift of divine
knowledge.445 [53]
In the village of Chunval, a few miles to the north of
Viramgām, there is a kund known as Loteshwar, near which
stands a pipal tree. Persons possessed by ghosts or devils, are
freed from possession by pouring water at the foot of the tree and
taking turns round it, remaining silent the while.454
A bath in the Mān-sarovar near Bahucharāji is said to
cause the wishes of the bather to be fulfilled. There is a local
tradition455 that a Rajput woman was turned into a male Rajput of
the Solanki class by a bath in its waters.454
There is a kund called Zilāka near Zinzuwādā
with a temple of Naleshwar Mahādev near it. The kund is
said to have been built at the time of King Nala. It is believed
locally that every year, on the 15th day of the bright half of
Bhādrapad, the holy Ganges visits the kund by an
underground route. A great fair is held there on that day, when people
bathe in the kund and give alms to the poor.456 There is also
another kund close by, known as Bholava, where the river
Saraswati is believed to have halted and manifested herself on her way
to the sea.457
There is a kund in Baladāna near Wadhwan, dedicated to
Hol, the favourite mātā of the Chārans. In
this kund, black or red gagar bedinus—pieces of
cotton thread—are sometimes seen floating in the water. They
appear only for a moment, and sink if any one endeavours to seize them.
The appearance of black pieces forebodes famine: but the red ones
foretell prosperity.458
In Bhadakon near Chudā there is a kund called Garigavo.
The place is celebrated as the spot of the hermitage of the sage Bhrigu
and a fair is held there annually on the last day of
Bhādrapad.458
Persons anxious to attain heaven, bathe in the Mrigi kund on
Mount Girnār; and a bath in the Revati kund, which is in
the same place, confers male issue on the bather.459 There is also a
kund of the shape of an elephant’s footprint
Pagahein on Mount Girnār. It never empties and is held most
sacred by pilgrims.460 People bathe in the Gomati kund near
Dwārkā and take a little of the earth from its bed, for the
purification of their souls.461 In the village of Bābarā,
Babhruvāhan, the son of Arjun, is said to have constructed several
kunds, all of which are believed to be holy.460
The Lasundra kund near Lasundra in the Kaira
District462 and the Tulsi-shyāma kund on Mount
Girnār463 contain hot waters. There is also a hot kund
called Devki-unai, about thirty miles to the south of
Surat.462 There the waters
remain hot throughout the whole of the year, except on the fifteenth
day of the bright half of Chaitra. On this day, the waters cool,
and people can bathe in the kund. Many pilgrims visit the place
on this occasion, to offer money, cocoanuts, and red lac to the unai
mātā, whose temple stands near the kund. It is
said that King Rāma built this kund while performing a
local sacrifice, and brought water up from the pātāl (nether
regions) by shooting an arrow into the earth.464
Other holy kunds are: the Bhīm kund, the
Gomukhi-gangā, and the Kamandalu kund on Mount Girnār
near the temple of Bhimnāth Mahādeo; the Rādhā
kund, the Lalita kund, and the Krishna-sarovar in
Dwārkā; the Rāma-sarovar, the Sītā kund
and the Devki-unai kund in Ayodhya (Oudh);465 and the Suraj
kund466 and the Hanumāndhāra467 kund on
Mount Girnār. [54]
Waterfalls are not very familiar to the people of Gujarāt.
There is a belief, however, that barren couples obtain issue if they
bathe in a waterfall, and offer a cocoanut.468
If a river source issues from an opening, in the shape of a
go-mukh (cow’s-mouth), the stream is called dhodh,
and is considered as sacred as the holy Ganges. A bath in such a
dhodh has the same efficacy for absolving persons from their
sins.469
When a person dies an accidental death and before the fulfilment of
his worldly desires, his soul receives avagati (i.e.,
passes into a degraded or fallen condition), and it is not released
from this state till Shrāddhas have been duly performed in
its name, and the objects of its desire dedicated to it with proper
ritual. The same fate befalls those souls which do not receive the
funeral pindas with the proper obsequies. Such fallen souls
become ghosts and goblins,470 and are to be found where water is,
i.e., near a well, a tank, or a river.471
Those who meet death by drowning become goblins, residing near the
scene of their death, and are a source of danger to all who approach
the water; for instance, in Monāpuri and Sāsai, there are two
ghunas (mysterious watery pits) haunted by bhuts (ghosts)
which take the lives of one or two buffaloes every year.472
Mātās473 and Shankhinis also haunt wells,
springs, and tanks and either drown, or enter the persons of those who
go near their resorts.
Persons who are possessed in this manner, can be freed by
bhuvas,473 who give
them a magic thread to wear.474
There is a vāv called Nīlkanth vāv near
Movaiya, in which a Pinjari (a female cotton-carder) is said to have
been drowned, and to have been turned into a ghost, in which form she
occasionally presents herself to the people.475
Another ghost haunts an old vāv, called Madhā, in
Vadhwān and drowns one human being every third year as a victim.
But a male spirit named Kshetrapāl resides in the
kotha (or entrance) of the vāv, and saves those who
fall near the entrance. A person is, however, sure to be drowned if he
falls in any other part of the vāv.476 A ghost also resides
in the vāv at Hampar near Dhrāngadhrā and
terrifies the people at times.476
The goddess Rainadevi resides in water, and is worshipped by virgins
on the fifteenth day of the bright half of Āshādh,
when they grow javārās (tender wheat-plants) in an
earthen vessel and present them to her, remaining awake for the whole
of the night to sing songs in her honour.469
Daryā-Pir, the patron of Luvānās (merchants) and
Khārvās (sailors), resides in the sea; and vows are observed
in his honour by these people on the second day of the bright half of
every month, when they pass a little water through his sieve.477
[55]
It is well known that a drowning person clings fast to anyone who
tries to save him, and endangers the lives of both himself and his
saviour.478 It is also believed by some people that the
messengers of Varuna (the lord of all waters) seize those persons who
bathe in a river earlier than the usual hour in the morning; and the
act of saving a drowning person thus deprives Varuna of his victim, and
brings down the wrath of that deity.479
Sometimes, for the sake of moksha, a person takes
samādhi (i.e., drowns himself with a religious
motive) in a holy river, such as the Ganges or the Jumnā. In such
a case the relatives and other persons refrain from interference, and
do not try to rescue the person.478
When a well is to be dug, an expert is first called to select a
likely spot on which to dig. A Brahman is then consulted as to the
auspicious hour on which the work of digging should be
commenced.480 For this purpose, Tuesdays and those days on which
the earth sleeps are to be avoided. The earth is supposed to be asleep
on the following six days in every month, namely: the 1st, the 7th, the
9th, the 10th, the 14th and the 24th days following a
sankrānti (i.e., the day on which the sun crosses
from one constellation to another). Excluding these days, a date is
generally fixed on which the Chandra-graha (or the planet moon)
is favourable to the constructor of the well.481
On the appointed day, the expert, the constructor of the well, the
Brahman priest, and the labourers go to the place where the well is to
be dug, and an image of the god Ganpati—the protector of all
auspicious ceremonies—is first installed on the spot and
worshipped with panchāmrit.482483 A green coloured piece of
atlas (silk cloth), about two feet long, is then spread on the
spot, and a pound and a quarter of wheat, a cocoanut, betels, dates and
copper coin are placed on it. A copper bowl containing some silver or
gold coins and filled with water, is also placed there; the mouth of
the bowl is covered with the leaves of the Ashoka tree (Jinesia
Asoka) and a cocoanut is placed over the leaves. After this, the
priest recites sacred hymns and asks his host to perform the
khāt484 ceremonies.485 Among favourite offerings to Ganpati
and the earth in the course of worship and in the performance of the
khāt ceremonies are: curds, milk, honey, molasses,
cocoanuts, dhanā (a kind of spices), leaves of
nāgarvel (a kind of creeper) and red lac.480 The expert who is called to
choose a proper site for the well offers frankincense and a cocoanut to
the spot, and lights a lamp thereon. After the
khāt486 ceremonies are over, the host distributes sugar or
molasses among the bystanders, and offers a sum of money to the expert,
who usually refuses it, asking the host to spend it in charity. Those
who accept money give away a part of it in alms to the poor.480
Sometimes, to secure the unobstructed completion of the work, the
god Ganpati and the goddess Jaladevi are installed and worshipped
daily, till water appears in the well.481 Some people, however, install the goddess Jaladevi
after the appearance of water, when a stone is taken out from the
bottom of the well and is plastered with red-lead to represent the
goddess and is ceremoniously worshipped. When the construction of the
well is complete, vāstu, i.e., the ceremony in vogue
after the completion of a new building, or jalotsava (the
water-festival) is celebrated, Brahmans being entertained at a feast,
with dakshinā given.487 [56]
The water of the Krukalas well in the island of Shankhodwār is
believed to cure fever and diseases caused by morbid heat. A draught of
the water of the Gomukhi-gangā near Girnār, makes one proof
against an attack of cholera.488
The water of a gozarā well (i.e., a well which is
polluted on account of a person bring drowned in it) cures children of
bronchitis and cough.489490
There is a well near Ramdorana, of which the water is effective
against cough,491 and the water of the Bhamaria well near Vasāwad
possesses the same virtue.492
The water of the Mrigi kund near Junāgadh remedies
leprosy.491
The Pipli well near Zālāwād and the Detroja-vāv
near Kolki are well-known for the stimulative effect of their waters on
the digestion.493
If a dark stone is found in the course of digging a well, the water
of that well is believed to have medicinal properties.494
The birth of a child under the mul nakshatra endangers the
life of its father: but the misfortune is averted if the child and its
parents bathe in water drawn from one hundred and eight wells.488 Such water, if swallowed, is said
to cure sanipāt or delirium.495
In the island of Shial there is a vāv called
Thān-vāv, where mothers, who cannot suckle their
children for want of milk, wash their bodices. When they afterwards
wear these bodices, these are believed to be able to cause the due
secretion of milk.496
The most famous of the sacred lakes are Pampa497, Bindu498, Pushkar
and Sāmbhar near Ajmere, Mān-sarovar near Bahucharāji,
Nārāyan-sarovar in Cutch, Rāvanrhad in the
Himālayas, and Rāmarhad. The following popular myth is
related about Mān-sarovar.
Two kings once agreed that the two children that should first be
born to them should marry each other. But it happened that both the
kings had daughters. One of them, however, concealed the fact, and gave
out that the child born to him was a son. So that when the children
attained a marriageable age, they were married to
each other according to the agreement.
But the wife found out the secret when she went to stay with her
supposed husband, and disclosed it to her parents, who invited the
counterfeit son-in-law to their house with the object of ascertaining
the truth. The alleged son, however, suspected the design and fled,
with a mare and a bitch. On arriving near Mān-sarovar, the animals
went into the lake in order to refresh themselves, when there was an
immediate transformation; and the bitch and the mare came out a horse
and a dog. On observing this miracle, their mistress followed their
example and was also turned into a male. The story is still sung by
girls in a garabi (song) during the Navarātra
holidays.499
There is a belief that the ancient golden city of Dwārkā,
the capital of god Krishna, still exists in the sea, although it is
invisible to the eyes of mortals.494 A story is told of a man named Pipo Bhagat, who, once
perceiving a golden bowl floating in the sea, plunged into the water
and saw the golden palaces of Dwārkā and god Krishna resting
therein. It is said that he returned with the tide and related his
experience to several people.500 [57]
Similarly, the golden Lanka of Rāvan is still believed to exist
under the sea, ruled over by Bibhishan, the brother of Rāvan, and
visible only to the eyes of saints and holy persons.501 It is a common
belief that the nether regions are inhabited by a species of
semi-divine beings, half men and half serpents, called Nāgs, who
possess magnificent palaces under the water.502 The story of
Kāliya Nāg, who resided at the bottom of the Jumnā and
was driven from that place by Krishna, is well known.503 There are a number
of mythological traditions in the Purānas of kings and
princes having visited these palaces in watery regions, and of their
having brought back beautiful Nāgakanyās (daughters of
Nāgs) therefrom.504 For instance, Arjuna married a
Nāgakanyā named Ulupi when he was living in exile with
his brothers. He also stayed for some time with the Nāgs.
Ghosts and demons sometimes inhabit palaces under the water. Deep
waters, unfrequented by men, are the favourite resorts of such
beings.505
The god Varuna resides in the waters, and is said to have once
carried off Nand (the adoptive father of Krishna) to his watery abode,
for having bathed in the Jumnā before dawn.503
Kālindi, the daughter of the king of the Kalingas, practised
religious austerities in a palace under the waters of the Jumnā
with the object of securing a suitable husband. Krishna, on being
informed of this by Arjuna, went to the place and married her.506
There is a story in the Purānas that a king, named
Nandrāj, used to bury his treasures in the sea with the assistance
of a mani (jewel) which furnished a safe passage through the
water. The mani was in the end burnt by the queen of
Nandrāj and the treasure still lies hidden in the waters of the
sea.507
It is narrated in the fourth chapter of
Bhāgvat-purān that the ten thousand sons of Prachetas
used to reside in palaces built under water.508
Mountains are held to be sacred in a variety of circumstances; thus,
some are valued for possessing medicinal drugs: some are revered as the
birthplaces of the gods, or as the residences of saints: some for
possessing many tīrthas (holy spots): some because they
were visited by Rāma or the Pāndavas: some serve as guardians
of the four quarters: and some contain the sources of holy rivers.
Both the important ranges of the Presidency, the Sahyādri and
the Sātpuda, are subjects of veneration in the popular mind. The
Himālayas, the Vindhyā Mountains, and the Nilgiris command
special respect. Other sacred mountains are Girnār and Shetrunja
in Kāthiāwār, Mount Ābu, Pāvāgad near
Baroda, Brahmagiri Ārāsur, Tryambak near Nasik, Koyalo,
Govardhan near Mathurā, Revatāchal near Dwārkā, and
Hinglaj in Sind.
It is said that in ancient times there were deep miry ditches where
Girnār and Ābu stand at present. One day a cow belonging to
the sage Vasishtha fell into one of them and was found by Kacha, the
son of Brihaspati, after a long search. When the incident was brought
to the notice of Vasishtha, he requested Meru (a mythical mountain) to
send his two sons Girnār and Ābu to occupy and fill the
ditches. Girnār required sixty-eight tīrthas to
accompany him; and the boon was granted by the gods.509 [58]
Girnār is one of the seven great mountains which once possessed
wings.510511 It is also known as the place where the sage
Dattātraya performed religious austerities.512 The place is so holy
that any person dying within a radius of twelve gaus513 from it
is believed to attain moksha.514 A visit to the temples on
Girnār absolves one from all sins; and taking a turn round
Girnār and Shetrunja is said to bring good fortune.515
Bhagwān manifests himself to those who ascend the Bhairavajaya
summit on Girnār. There is a rock on this mountain of which it is
said that those who cast themselves from it directly attain
heaven.516
Pāvāgad is known for the temple of Mahākāli
Mātā. It is said that King Patai once propitiated her by
austerities, and on being desired to demand a boon, asked the goddess
to accompany him to his palace. The goddess was highly incensed at this
request, and promptly destroyed him.516
Hanūmān, the monkey-god, once promised to take the
Mountain Govardhan to meet Rāma. It is well known how the monkey
allies of Rāma constructed a bridge of rocks across the sea to
Laṅkā, and how
Hanūmān supplied the requisite material by fetching huge
mountains. Whilst engaged on this work, he was one day carrying the
Govardhan mountain to the site of the bridge, when Rāma issued an
order that all monkeys who were fetching mountains should deposit their
burdens at the spot where they stood at the moment of the order.
Hanūmān could not disobey the order of his lord, and he had
accordingly to drop the Govardhan mountain near Mathurā. In order
to fulfil Hanūmān’s promise, however, Vishnu held the
mountain over his head for seven days, at the time of his Krishna
incarnation.516
It is said that the inhabitants of the districts round Govardhan
formerly revered and adored Indra. But Krishna condemned this custom,
and introduced the worship of Govardhan. Indra was exasperated at this
conduct, and poured tremendous rains on Gokal in order to drown Krishna
and his followers. But Krishna held up the Govardhan mountain on his
little finger and sheltered all his people under its cover. The
mountain was supported in this manner for seven days, by the end of
which the rains subsided and Indra confessed himself vanquished. Even
now Vaishnavas form an image of Govardhan out of mud and worship it on
the Janmāshtamī day (i.e., the eighth day of
the dark half of Shrāvan).517
The Oshama Hill near Pātanvāv (in the jurisdiction of
Gondal) is noted for the beautiful temples of Tapakeshwar Mahādev,
and Mātari Mātā. It is said that Bhīma518 the
second of the five Pāndavas, first met the giantess Hidimbā,
on this hill.519 The charcoal-like stones which are dug out in
numbers from this hill are believed by the people to have been
blackened by the blood of the giant Hidimb, the brother of Hidimbā
who was killed by Bhīma.520 [59]
Mount Shetrunja (or Shatruñjaya) possesses
numerous Jain shrines and attracts thousands of pilgrims every year.
The hearts of all pilgrims are believed to be purified from the moment
they come within six miles of the mountain.521
Mount Ābu possesses the temple of Ambā Mātā
where Krishna’s hair was clipped for the first time.522 Tryambak
is known for the temple of Tryambakeshwar and the source of the holy
Godāvari.523 About Revatāchal, it is said that the mountain
was golden in ancient times.524 In the Vindhya Mountains is situated
the famous temple of Omkār Mandhātā.525 The hermitage of
Kākbhushundi in the Nilgiris was visited by Rāma when he
listened to the religious stories read out by that sage. The sage
Agatsya also is said to have resided in these mountains.526
The temple of Hinglaj stands on a hill, which is situated at a
distance of eighteen days’ journey by road from Karachi. The
Mātā is ministered to by a Musalman and the place is mostly
visited by Atits, Bāvās, Khatris,
Chhipās, Mochis, and other low-caste Hindus. On
occasions the doors of the temple spontaneously open, and after the
devotees have visited the Mātā, they again shut in the
same mysterious manner.525
As the abode of Shiva and as containing the sources of the holiest
of rivers, the Himālayas are the most sacred of all mountains, and
possess many holy places of pilgrimage, such as Badrinārāyan,
Kedārnāth, Hardwār, etc. Badrinārāyan is the
favourite resort of those who have relinquished the world and who only
wish to meditate on the Divine Being. The sages Nara and
Nārāyan are said to have performed religious austerities in
this place, and eighty-eight thousand rishis (sages) are
believed to be similarly occupied there to-day. Owing to the excessive
cold, the place is extremely difficult to reach. Pilgrims carry burning
hearths with them to protect themselves against cold. Besides, it is
necessary to cross the Pathar-nadi (or stony river), of which the
water, if touched, turns one into stone. The method of crossing this
river is to suspend sikāns or slings above its water and to
swing from one sling to another.527
A hill called Swargārohan is believed to be twenty miles to the
north of Badrikedārnāth and is said to lead to heaven. In
ancient times the Pāndavas had repaired to this place in order to
do penance for the sin of having killed their kinsmen in the Great War.
But when they tried to ascend to heaven by the Swargārohan Hill,
only Yudhishthir and his faithful dog were able to reach their goal:
the rest were frozen in the snow.527
Mount Kailāsa, the abode of Shiva, is supposed to be situated
in the northern part of the Himālayas. The mountain is described
as always covered with verdure and full of beautiful gardens and of
palaces made of jewels, with roads paved with golden dust and
sphatika-mani (crystal stone).527 It is said that Rāvan, the king of Lankā,
once uprooted this mountain and held it on the palm of his hand, in
order to display his prowess. The demon Bhasmāsur, who was
enamoured of the goddess Pārvati, is said to have performed the
same feat in order to frighten Shiva.523
Another mythical mountain is Meru, which is supposed to occupy the
centre of the earth.528 The sun, the moon, and all the planets revolve
round this mountain, and it therefore plays an important part in the
causation of day and night. For night falls on one side of the earth
when the sun goes [60]to the other side of Meru;
and the day begins when the sun emerges from that side of the mountain.
Meru is sixty-eight thousand yojans529 in height, and
penetrates the earth to the depth of sixteen thousand yojans.
Its eastern side appears white, the southern is yellow, the western is
black, and the northern red. The mountain is also believed to consist
of gold and gems. The Ganges, in her fall from the heavens, is said to
have descended first on the top of this mountain and then to have
flowed in four streams in four directions. The southern stream is known
as the Ganges; the northern, in Tartary, is called Bhadrasoma; the
eastern is the same as the Sitā; and the western is named Chax or
the Oxus. The top of this mountain is believed to be inhabited by gods,
gandharvas (celestial musicians) and rishis
(sages).530 According to the Yoga-vāsishtha, there
is a kalpa-vriksha531 on the Lalmani summit of Meru, where a
rishi named Bhushundkāk is engaged in devotional prayers
since time immemorial.532 The Purānas declare that Vaivaswat Manu,
the first man, resided near Meru, and that his descendants migrated to
Ayodhyā to found there a kingdom which was afterwards ruled over
by Rāma.530
It is believed by some people that mountain-tops are inhabited by a
class of recluses, called Aghori-bāvās, who devour human
beings.533 The Kālikā hill near Girnār is
believed to be frequented by Joganis (female harpies) who take
the lives of visitors to the hill, and it is said that none who visits
the place is ever known to return.534 Persons who visit the temple of
Kālikāmātā on Mount Girnār always lose one of
their party, who falls a victim to the goddess.535
The changes in the seasons are attributed by some to Brahma, Vishnu,
and Mahesha (Shiva), the gods of the Hindu Trinity. Brahma sends down
the rains and produces corn, grass, etc., Vishnu protects and nourishes
the harvests in winter, and Shiva causes the heat of the
summer.536 There is also a belief that these three gods go down
in turns to the pātāl (nether regions) and stay there
for four months. Vishnu descends on the eleventh day of the bright half
of Āshādh, and on that day the rainy season begins. When
Vishnu comes up and Shiva takes his place, people experience the cold
of winter: but as this god always keeps a dhuni537 burning
near him, the waters under the surface of the earth, such as those in
the wells, remain hot during this period. Such waters are cooled when
Shiva returns and Brahma goes down to the pātāl: but
the return of Shiva causes summer on the earth.538
According to another belief, the sequence of the seasons is
controlled by the sun-god.539 There are six ritus or seasons:
and the changes in the ritus depend upon the position of the sun
in the twelve rāshis or signs of the Zodiac.540 Each
ritu lasts for a period of two months, during which time the sun
travels through two rāshis. Vasant-ritu is the
period which the sun takes to pass through the Min (Pisces) and
Mesha (Aries) rāshis. Grishma-ritu
corresponds to the time during which the sun passes through
Vrishabha (Taurus) and Mithun (Gemini). During
Varshā-ritu the sun moves through the signs Karka
(Cancer) and Sinha (Leo), and during Sharad-ritu through
Kanyā (Virgo) and Tulā (Libra).
Hemant-ritu is the time which the sun takes to travel through
[61]Vrishchika (Scorpio) and Dhanu
(Sagittarius). Shishir-ritu occurs when the sun stands in the
Makar (Capricornus) and Kumbha (Aquarius)
rāshis.541
Indra (the god of rain), Varuna (the lord of all waters), Vāyu (the god of
wind), Agni (the god of fire), and the moon-god are also believed by
some to have power over the seasons.542
The belief is as old as the Vedas that demons sometimes
obstruct the fall of rain, and confine the waters of the clouds. It is
Indra who fights with them and breaks through their castles by means of
his thunderbolt, sending down showers of rain for the benefit of his
worshippers. So, whenever there is an unusual drought, people still
invoke the aid of this god, and celebrate a festival in his honour,
called Ujjani or Indramahotsava. Homas543 are
performed to propitiate the god, and Brahmans are entertained at a
feast. Sometimes the festival is celebrated outside the village, where
people go in large parties to dine together. The usual dish on such an
occasion is Meghlādu or sweet balls of wheat-flour fried in
ghi.
Another favourite ceremony supposed to cause rain to fall is the
submersion of the image of Shiva in water, by blocking up the
khāl or passage in the Shiva-linga by which water
poured over the image usually runs off.542 This ceremony is known as Jala-jātrā.
Rudrābhisheka, or the ceremony of pouring water in a
constant stream over the image of Shiva for eleven consecutive days and
nights, is sometimes performed with the same object.544
Sometimes the assistance of Shringhi rishi is invoked to
bring about a fall of rain. The rishi is installed in water,
mantras are recited, and prayers are offered before a sacrificial fire.
This ceremony, called Parjanya-shānti, is said to have been
performed within recent years in Bombay, and to have been successful in
bringing rain.545
It is also said that rainfall can be caused by singing a song or a
sacred hymn to the malār tune. There is a tradition that
the well-known saint Narsinha Mehta once sang this tune on the occasion
of the celebration of the first pregnancy of his daughter, and the
performance was immediately followed by a shower of rain. Rain, which
is brought down in this manner, can be put a stop to by singing to a
different tune.546
Low-caste women have recourse to the following expedient to bring
rain. Five or six of them place a quantity of muddy earth on a wooden
stool, which is carried by one of them. The lump of mud is covered with
leaves of the Gidotān or Tindotān creeper, and
is called mehulo or meghalo. The whole party then sing
songs, and visit every house in the village. A bowl of water is poured
over the mehulo and the women receive some corn for their
trouble.547
Some believe that when the worship of the village-gods is neglected
and when the people grow corrupt, ill-treat the saints and are given to
the killing of cows and Brahmans, Yama, the God of Death, directs his
colleagues, Indra and Varuna, to threaten the world with a drought. The
rainfall returns only when the people revert to righteous ways, and
after Indra and Varuna have been conciliated by offerings.
The lower classes of the people believe a prolonged cessation of
rain to be due to the wrath of local minor deities, aroused by the
neglect of their worship. In such a contingency, therefore, they
prepare bāklan548 of [62]uḍad (lentils),
lāpsi,549 vadān550 and other dishes, and offer them
to the local gods for their propitiation.551
To stop an incessant fall of rain, people often observe the
Āladrā vow. The patel or headman issues a proclamation
that on a particular day none should cook, or churn whey, or fetch
water, or wash clothes, or attend to any of the multifarious household
duties; but that all should pass the day in prayer. A complete
cessation from toil in favour of earnest devotion to divine powers are
the peculiar features of this vow. People do not abstain from food: but
food must be prepared on the previous day. If the rains do not cease in
spite of this vow, but threaten the village with inundation, the
headman leads a procession to the confines of the village and makes an
offering to the waters.552
In some places a spinning wheel, sometimes specially constructed of
human bones,553 is turned by a naked person in the reverse direction
to the usual one, with the object of causing the cessation of
immoderate rainfall.554
A cessation of rains is also believed to be brought about by
offering an oblation to the god Kasatia, and by the observance of the
vow called Kasatia gānth (or tying the knot of Kasatia).
The vow lasts for three weeks, and those who observe it do not partake
of anything except rice555 (or, according to others, jirān, a
kind of spice556).
Some persons attribute a heavy fall of rain to the wrath of Indra,
and offer ceremonious prayers to appease that god.557 In some places
people engage the services of magicians to restrain the fall of
rain.558 Farmers sometimes brand the rain by casting burning
sparks upon it in order to stop an incessant fall.559 Vows in honour of
samudra (the ocean) are also observed with the same
object.553
In the changing circumstances of life, women more readily have
recourse to religious vows for the fulfilment of their wishes than men.
This fondness of women for vows has brought into vogue a number of
vrats or religious observances which are practised by women only.
Gangigor or Ganāgor, Vat-Sāvitri,
Molākat, Goutrāt, Alavana or
Alunda, Eva-vrat, Tulsi-vrat, Umā
masheshwar-vrat, and Surya-vrat are instances of such
vows.551 The
Molākat-vrat is observed by virgins from the eleventh to
the fifteenth day of the bright half of
Āshādh.560 The Goutrāt-vrat is
believed to secure male progeny, as well as long life to the husband.
It is observed on the fourth day of the dark half of
Shrāvana, on which day women fast till the evening, and
then take food after worshipping a cow.561 The object of the
Eva-vrat (or Jiva-vrat) is to secure eternal exemption
from widowhood, the day for this vow being the last day of
Āshādh. It is then necessary to observe a fast till
the evening; and the only food allowed is a preparation of wheat, taken
at nightfall.562
On the fourth day of the dark half of Shrāvan, women
observe a vrat called Bolchoth. In the morning the woman
worships [63]a cow and her calf (which must both be
of the same colour), applies a little cotton to the horns of the cow,
and makes an auspicious mark on the foreheads of both with red lac. She
then places an offering of betel and rice before the cow, takes four
turns round the pair, and whispers in the ears of the cow the words
tārun satya mārun vritya (your truth and my devotion).
A Brāhman then recites the legend of the vrat.563
After narrating this story, the Brahman takes the betel and other
things placed before the cow. The woman then returns home and takes
food for the first time during that day, the meal consisting of loaves
of bājrā-flour and some preparation of mag
(phaseolus mungo). Some women take
ghi and khir: but any preparation of cow’s milk is
strictly forbidden. Similarly, there is a prohibition against using
things which have been cut by a knife or scissors.564
The worship of the goddess Rāndal is a favourite vrat
with Gujarati women. A bower is erected for the installation of the
goddess, and a bājat or a wooden stool is placed therein. A
piece of fine cloth is spread on the bājat, and a figure is
drawn in seeds of corn. A kalasio or bowl, with a cocoanut on
it, is placed over the figure. The cocoanut has two eyes painted on it
in black collyrium and a nose in red lac, and is decorated with rich
clothes and ornaments to represent the goddess Rāndal. Ghi lamps
are kept constantly burning before the goddess for three consecutive
days and nights. An invitation is sent to the neighbouring women, who
bring offerings of ghi to the goddess, and dance in a group at night to
the accompaniment of melodious garabis (songs).565
Sometimes, if a child is ill, or some misfortune is apprehended,
gorānis, i.e., a certain number of unmarried girls
and unwidowed women, are invited to a feast in honour of
Rāndal.
On the Nāgapanchami day, i.e., the 5th day of the
bright half of Shrāvan,566 women draw an image of a
nāg (cobra), and worship it with sprouts of
bājrā. In some places it is the custom to avoid all
food but khichedi567 on this day.
The wad (the banyan tree) is worshipped on the first day of
the dark half of Shrāvan. On that day the woman wears a
necklace of fifteen leaves of this tree and prepares a dish called
navamuthium.568 A dorā or piece of string is also worn
on the person to ward off evil.569
Rishi-panchami,570 Gauri-pujan, Shitalāi-pujan,
Shili-sātem are holidays observed only by women. On the
Rishi-panchami day only niar571 rice is allowed to
those who observe the vrat.572
Besides the observance of vrats, there are other ceremonies,
auspicious as well as inauspicious, in which women alone can take part.
Only women are concerned with all those ceremonies which are gone
through on the birth of a child. On the twelfth day after birth, a name
is given to the child by its aunt. The ceremony of making an auspicious
mark on the throne of a king is performed by an unwidowed woman or an
unmarried girl.573 [64]
At the time of a marriage, women make the auspicious mark on the
forehead of the bridegroom and carry a lāman-divo574 to fetch
ukardi.574 For nine
days preceding the date of marriage the bride and the bridegroom are
besmeared with pithi or yellow turmeric powder, when auspicious
songs are recited by a party of women invited to witness the ceremony.
When the bridegroom reaches the entrance of the marriage bower, he is
welcomed there by his mother-in-law, who carries him on her hip to his
seat in the marriage booth.575
It is necessary to make certain marks on the corpse of a woman, and
these marks are made by women only.576 Similarly, women alone take part
in the ceremony of getting a widow’s hair shaved on the ninth day
after her husband’s death.577
The Shāstras have enjoined the worship of certain
higher-grade deities, and have prescribed certain ceremonials for the
purpose. But women are not authorised to make use of these ceremonies.
The reason is that the Shāstras regard women as inferior to
men and do not grant them the privileges given to the latter. They are
not allowed to learn the Vedas nor can the
Gāyatri-mantra be taught to them. The result is that women
are not qualified to perform the ceremonial worship of such
higher-grade deities as Vishnu, Shiva, Durgā, Ganpati, and
Hanumān;578 similarly the sacrificial rites of
Vishnuyāg, Shaktiyāg, Ashvamedha,
Rāja-yajna, and Gāyatri-purashcharan can only
be performed by men.579
It is the duty of men only to worship the shami tree
(prosopis spicegera) on the Dasarā day, and the
Hutāshani fire on the day of Holi.579
Women are not allowed to worship the god Kārtikey, who is said
to shun women, and to have pronounced a curse against all who visit his
image.579
The fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra is the
anniversary of the birth of Hanumān, and a vrat called
Hanumān-jayanti is observed on this day. This
vrat,580 as well as the Ganesh-chaturthi-vrat581 are meant
only for men.
The ceremonies of Shrāddha582 and the
Baleva583 ceremonies can be performed by men only. The duty of
giving agni-sanskār575 to corpses, i.e., of performing the necessary
rites at a funeral, is also laid on men.
People who practise the art of attaining mastery over spirits and
fiends, usually remain naked while they are engaged in the performance
of their mysterious rites. There are many branches of this black art:
for instance, Māran,584 Uchchātan,585
Lamban, Vashīkaran,586 Mohan,587
Stambhan,588 etc., and although the meli
vidyā (sacrilegious art) is not held in respect by high-class
Hindus, it is popular among the lower [65]classes.
There is a belief that knowledge of this art dooms a person to hell;
but it secures to those who master it a position of much importance,
and therefore finds many followers. The art consists in the knowledge
of certain mysterious incantations, which enable a person to influence
the spirits and to bring about certain results through their agency.
Not only has every person when learning this art, to remain naked, but
all those who make prayogas or experiments in it afterwards must
observe the same precaution. The night of Kāli-chaudas or
the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvin, is considered to be the
most favourable time for the sādhan or accomplishment of
this secret art of remaining naked.589 On this day, it is the custom of
those who exercise the art, to go stripped to a cemetery in the dead of
night, and to cook food in a human skull as an offering to the spirits
residing in the neighbourhood. On the same night, some sorcerers, after
stripping themselves, are said to ride round the village on some
mysterious conveyance.590
A practice is noted among low-class people of performing a
sādhana before the goddess Jhāmpadi for the sake of
progeny. The man who performs the sādhana, has first to go
naked to a cemetery on a Sunday night, and to fetch therefrom the ashes
of a corpse. At the time of the sādhana, the man takes his
seat on a corpse, fills a madaliun or hollow bracelet with the
ashes brought from the cemetery, and puts it on his arm above the
elbow.591
Dhobis, Mālis, Vālands and other
low-caste people remain naked while worshipping Bhairav.592 In the
performance of the anushthān (propitiation) of such deities
as Kāl-Bhairav,593 Batuk,593 Mani,594 Griva,594 etc., the devotees keep their persons
uncovered. The worshippers of the goddess Jakshani also remain naked
when they attend upon her.595
Persons who practise the art of curing men from the effects of
serpent-bites by means of incantations, have to sit naked under water
in order to gain efficacy for their mantras.592
Followers of the Devi-panth, Shakti-panth and
Aghori-panth sects remain naked while worshipping or offering
victims to their gods.596 Vāma-mārgis worship a nude
image of the goddess Digambarā.591
The hook-shaped instrument, known as ganeshio, which is used
by thieves in boring a hole through the walls of a house, is sometimes
prepared by a blacksmith and his wife on the night of
Kāli-chaudas, both being naked at the time. Instruments
prepared in this fashion are believed to secure success for the thief,
who scrupulously sets aside the first booty acquired by the help of the
ganeshio for the blacksmith as a reward for his services. He
does not grudge the reward however large the booty may be.590
In making dice according to the directions of
Ramalashāstra, the workers should remain naked.595
There is a belief that granulations in the eyes of a child are cured
if the maternal uncle fetches naked the beads of the Arani tree,
and puts a circlet of them round the neck of the child.597
If a person uncovers himself on hearing the screech of an owl, and
then ties and unties seven knots in a piece of string, repeating the
process twenty-one times, the piece of string is believed to possess
the virtue of curing Taria Tāv or periodical
fever.598 Another remedy for the same ailment is to go to a
distance of three miles from the village and there to eat food which
has been cooked in a state of nudity.589 [66]
In the preparation of Nargudikalpa599 or Gujakalpa599, some drugs have to be procured
by a naked person.600
It is considered meritorious by some persons to rise early in the
morning and to bathe naked on the Makar Sankrānti day.601
A Brahman boy must be naked at the time of the performance of his
thread investiture ceremony. After the ceremony, the maternal uncle of
the boy presents garments to him, which he thereupon puts on.602
In Gujarat, for the most part, the people seem to be unacquainted
with the belief that certain stones possess the virtue of influencing
the rain. Some persons however attribute this quality to the stones on
such sacred mounts as Girnār, Ābu, and
Pāvāgadh.603 There is a point called Tonk, on mount Girnār,
of which it is said that rain is certain to fall whenever anyone
succeeds in climbing it.604 There is also a common belief that arasi
marble if heated has influence over rain.605
It is a common practice to submerge the image606 of Shiva in water with
the object of bringing rain. Similarly the image606 of the goddess Harshadh is
sometimes bathed when rain is desired.607 The bhuva or the
bhui, i.e., the male and the female attendants of the
goddess are at the same time given a bath, and an offering of
Khir608 is made to the goddess.607
There are two goals which a pious Hindu tries to attain by leading a
life of purity and virtue, viz., (i) moksha or final
emancipation, merging into the Eternal Spirit, and (ii) swarga
(heaven or paradise) where meritorious persons enjoy pure pleasures
unalloyed by earthly cares. The stars are the spirits of so many
righteous persons who are translated to swarga for their good
actions, and are endowed with a lustre proportionate to their
individual merits. But every moment of enjoyment in swarga
diminishes the store of merit: and those whose whole merit is thus
exhausted, on receiving their proportionate share of pleasures, must
resume their worldly existence. The Bhagavad-gītā says:
“क्षीणे
पुण्ये
मर्त्यलोकं
विशन्ति”
i.e., “they enter the mortal world when their merit is
expended.” Meteors are believed to be spirits of this description
who fall from their position as stars, to live again on this
earth.609
Another explanation of meteors is that they are the sparks produced
when the vimāns (or vehicles) of celestial people clash
against each other.610
Meteors are also held to be the agār or charak
(i.e., excreta) dropped either by a curious water-bird,600 or by Garud, the favourite eagle,
and vehicle of Vishnu,611 or by a fabulous bird Anal.612 The latter is
said to fly at an immeasurable height from the surface of the earth,
and to take food only once a day.612 It is almost impossible to catch the charak
when it falls to earth: but if ever it can be secured, the application
of it to the eyes of a blind man will restore his eyesight. It also
furnishes an effective remedy for leprosy, and gives a golden lustre to
the body of a person suffering from that disease.611
Some declare that meteors are stars which fall owing to the curse of
Indra, and subsequently assume the highest human form on
earth.613 [67]
It is also said that the stars descend to earth in human form when
sins accumulate in the celestial world.614
The influence of meteors on human affairs is treated at length in
the Varāhasanhitā.615 The phenomenon is popularly
regarded as an evil omen: it is supposed to portend devastation by
fire, an earthquake, a famine, an epidemic, danger from thieves, and
storms at sea.616 The appearance of a bright shooting star is supposed
to foretell the death of some great man;617 and on beholding one,
it is customary to repeat the words ‘Rām
Rām’618 several times.619 A shower of meteors is believed to
presage some civil commotion or a change in the ruling dynasties.
Some persons, however, regard the appearance of meteors as
auspicious or baneful, according to the mandal or group of
stars, from which they are seen to fall. Meteors from the
Vāyu-mandal, (or the group of stars known by the name of
Vāyu) portend the breaking out of an epidemic: those from
Varuna-mandal, are believed to be favourable to human happiness;
if they fall from Indra-mandal, they forebode danger to all
kings; those from Agni-mandal, threaten war between
nations.620
During the monsoons, rain is believed to fall in that direction in
which a meteor is seen to shoot.621 A meteor in the west is ominous to
kings, and if it falls into the sea, it forebodes evil to the dwellers
on earth.622
The appearance of a comet is believed to portend some dire calamity
to the king and the nation.622 It is said that if a heavenly body is seen, chhogālo,623 chhogālā kings (i.e., great and
celebrated kings) are in danger of their lives.624 A comet is also
believed to threaten all tailed animals with destruction.624 [68]
