The Project Gutenberg EBook of An Account of the Late Improvements in
Galvanism, by John Aldini
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
Title: An Account of the Late Improvements in Galvanism
With a Series of Curious and Interesting Experiments
Performed Before the Commissioners of the French National
Institute and Rep
Author: John Aldini
Release Date: June 4, 2018 [EBook #57267]
Language: English
Character set encoding: UTF-8
*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GALVANISM ***
Produced by Sonya Schermann, Carol Brown and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
file was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)
AN ACCOUNT
OF
THE LATE IMPROVEMENTS
IN
GALVANISM,
WITH A SERIES OF CURIOUS AND INTERESTING
EXPERIMENTS
PERFORMED
BEFORE THE COMMISSIONERS OF THE FRENCH NATIONAL INSTITUTE,
AND REPEATED LATELY IN THE
ANATOMICAL THEATRES OF LONDON.
By JOHN ALDINI,
PROFESSOR OF EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA, MEMBER OF THE MEDICAL AND GALVANIC
SOCIETIES OF PARIS, OF THE MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, ETC.
TO WHICH IS ADDED,
AN APPENDIX,
CONTAINING THE AUTHOR’S EXPERIMENTS
ON THE BODY OF A MALEFACTOR EXECUTED AT NEWGATE.
&c. &c.
ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR CUTHELL AND MARTIN, MIDDLE-ROW, HOLBORN,
AND J. MURRAY, NO. 32, FLEET-STREET,
BY WILKS AND TAYLOR, CHANCERY-LANE.
1803.
EDITOR’S PREFACE.
Few discoveries in modern times have excited so
much curiosity as that of Galvanism. Ever since it
was first made known by its celebrated Author, it has
engaged the attention of the most eminent philosophers
in Europe; and various researches have been undertaken
to ascertain the principles on which it depends;
and the laws to which it is subject.
Though some of its singular properties are fully
established, it must be allowed that the discovery is
still in its infancy; but enough of it is known to prove
its importance, and to induce philosophers to continue
their researches, which there is every reason to suppose
may lead to some very curious results.
The experiments, indeed, which have already been
made, seem to indicate that it may open a new field in
the healing art; and it appears by a late report presented
to the Class of the Exact Sciences of the Academy
of Turin, that the medical application of it has been
attended with the most beneficial effects in a case of
confirmed hydrophobia.
While Galvanism, independently of other advantages,
holds out such hopes of utility in regard to objects
so interesting to mankind; a work containing a
full account of the late improvements which have been
made in it, illustrated by a complete course of experiments,
cannot fail of being acceptable to the public in
general, and in particular to medical men, to whose
department, in one point of view, it more essentially
belongs.
When Professor Aldini left this country, the manuscript,
written in French, together with two printed
Latin Dissertations, was put into the Editor’s hands,
in order that they might be prepared for the press. A
translation of these forms the principal part of the
work: and an Appendix has been added, containing
the author’s experiments on the body of a malefactor
executed at Newgate; experiments of a similar kind
on the bodies of three criminals decapitated at Bologna;
and an experiment lately made at Calais, which
seems to show that Galvanism is susceptible of being
conveyed to a very considerable distance through the
water of the sea.
The Editor thinks it necessary to observe, that the
principal experiments, of which an account is given
in this work, are illustrated by proper engravings, and
that the title page is embellished with a representation
of the gold medal presented to the Author, as a mark
of their respect, by the medical professors and pupils
of Guy’s and St. Thomas’s Hospitals.
London,
May 12th, 1803.
CONTENTS.
| PART I. |
| PAGE |
| OF THE NATURE AND GENERAL PROPERTIES OF GALVANISM. |
| Proposition I. Muscular contractions are excited by the
development of a fluid in the animal machine, which is
conducted from the nerves to the muscles without the concurrence
or action of metals |
3 |
| Prop. II. The Galvanism excited, in the preceding experiments,
is not owing to the communication nor to the transfusion
of the general electricity, but to an electricity peculiar
to animals, which acts a very distinguished part in the
animal economy |
6 |
| Prop. III. Galvanism develops itself in a powerful manner,
independently of metals, by means of the human animal
machine |
8 |
| Prop. IV. Muscular contractions can be excited, under
certain conditions, without establishing a continued arc
from the nerves to the muscles |
11 |
| Prop. V. The effects of Galvanism, in the preceding experiments,
do not depend on the action of any stimulant,
which occurs in performing the experiments, and ought not
to be confounded with the effects of that action |
12 |
| Prop. VI. Galvanism is excited in the animal machine without
any intermediate body, and merely by the application
of the nerves to the muscles |
14 |
| Prop. VII. The heterogeneity of metals contributes, in a
great degree, to excite muscular contractions with more
facility, but is not absolutely necessary to their production |
19 |
| Prop. VIII. The Leyden flask, the Voltaic pile, and animal
substances, have the faculty of absorbing principles from
the atmospheric air in an insulated plenum |
21 |
| Prop. IX. Flame prevents the action of the Leyden flask,
as well as that of the pile, and also muscular contractions |
27 |
| Prop. X. Certain fluids, applied to the whole surface of
the pile, or of animal parts, do not prevent the action of
Galvanism |
29 |
| Prop. XI. Mere electrization, by means of the common
kinds of apparatus, does not increase the action of Galvanism |
32 |
| Prop. XII. The Galvanic action is increased by employing
as part of the arc the apparatus of Volta, or the
electrified Leyden flask |
34 |
| Prop. XIII. Galvanism, in animals and in the pile, traverses
large spaces with the same rapidity as the electric
fluid |
36 |
| Prop. XIV. The muscular contractions, which, according
to the observations of Galvani, are produced by an electric
atmosphere whether natural or artificial, correspond entirely
with those produced by the pile, or by similar kinds
of apparatus |
37 |
| Prop. XV. Opium, cinchona, and other stimulants of a
similar kind, which exercise a powerful action on the animal
machine, contribute also to excite the action of the
pile |
41 |
| Prop. XVI. If the general relation between Galvanism and
electricity be examined, such a correspondence will be found
between them, as tends to confirm the analogy already
stated |
44 |
| Prop. XVII. The hypothesis of an animal pile, analogous
to that formed artificially, seems well calculated to explain
the sensations and contractions in the animal machine |
47 |
| PART THE SECOND. |
| ON THE INFLUENCE WHICH GALVANISM HAS ON THE
VITAL POWERS |
53 |
| Section I. Galvanism applied to various quadrupeds,
birds, and other warm-blooded animals |
54 |
| Section II. Experiments made on human bodies after
death |
67 |
| PART THE THIRD. |
| ON THE POWER OF GALVANISM AS APPLIED TO MEDICINE |
97 |
| Sect. I. Advantages which the medical administration of
Galvanism has over that of common electricity |
99 |
| Sect. II. Application of Galvanism to the organs of hearing
and of sight |
101 |
| Sect. III. Application of Galvanism in cases of asphyxia
and drowning |
110 |
| Sect. IV. Galvanism applied to the cure of melancholy
madness |
113 |
| Sect. V. General reflections on the action and influence
which Galvanism, considered in a medical point of view,
exercises on the animal œconomy |
123 |
| Dissertation on animal electricity, read in the Institute
of Bologna in the year 1793 |
133 |
| Second Dissertation on animal electricity, read in the
Institute of Bologna in the year 1794 |
155 |
| Conclusion |
186 |
APPENDIX |
189 |
| No. I. An account of the experiments performed, by
J. Aldini, on the body of a malefactor executed at
Newgate Jan. 17, 1803 |
ib. |
| No. II. Report presented to the Class of the Exact Sciences
of the Academy of Turin, 15th August 1802, in regard
to the Galvanic experiments made by C. Vassali-Eandi,
Giulio, and Rossi, on the 10th and 14th of
the same month, on the bodies of three men a short time
after their decapitation. By C. Giulio |
204 |
| No. III. Account of an experiment made at Calais, on the
transmission of Galvanism through an arm of the sea |
217 |
Pg 1
AN ACCOUNT
OF THE LATE
IMPROVEMENTS IN GALVANISM.
A just tribute of applause has been bestowed on the celebrated
Professor Volta for his late discovery; and I have no
desire to deprive him of any part of that honour to which he
is so justly entitled; but I am far from entertaining an idea
that we ought, on this account, to neglect the first labours of
Galvani. Though these two philosophers pursued different
routes, they concurred to throw considerable light on the
same points of science; and the question now is, to determine
which of them deduced the most just consequences from the
facts he observed; and then to ascertain whether the facts
established by Galvani lead to the theory of Volta, or whether
those discovered by Volta are connected with the theory of
Galvani. For my part, I am of opinion that these two theories
may serve in an eminent degree to illustrate each other.
Last year Professor Volta announced to the public the
action of the metallic pile. I here propose to exhibit, according
Pg 2
to the principles of Professor Galvani, the action of the
animal pile.
Such is the plan I have conceived in order to reconcile the
systems of these two illustrious philosophers: it forms the
object of the present work, which is divided into three parts.
In the first I shall exhibit the action of Galvanism independently
of metals, and explain some of its general properties.
The second will contain experiments on the power
of Galvanism to excite the vital forces. In the third I shall
propose some useful applications of it to medicine, and explain
the principles on which the new medical administration
of Galvanism is founded. To render the work as methodical
as possible, I have endeavoured to arrange the experiments in
such a manner that they may serve as proofs to a series of
general propositions, which, it is hoped, will be of use to
physiology and to the doctrine of the animal economy.
Pg 3
PART THE FIRST.
OF THE NATURE AND GENERAL PROPERTIES OF
GALVANISM.
PROPOSITION I.
Muscular contractions are excited by the development of a
fluid in the animal machine, which is conducted from the nerves
to the muscles without the concurrence or action of metals.
EXPERIMENT I.
Having provided the head of an ox, recently killed, I
thrust a finger of one of my hands, moistened with salt
water, into one of the ears (Plate I. fig. 1.), at the same time
that I held a prepared frog in the other hand, in such a manner
that its spinal marrow touched the upper part of the
tongue. When this arrangement was made, strong convulsions
were observed in the frog; but on separating the arc all
the contractions ceased.
This experiment will succeed still better if the arc be conveyed
from the tongue of the ox to the spinal marrow of the
frog. This method was found to be exceedingly convenient
for trying the effect of Galvanism on several calves.
Pg 4
EXPERIMENT II.
Having provided the trunk of a calf, I conveyed the arc
from the muscles of the abdomen to the spinal marrow of a
frog, prepared and arranged in the usual manner. The frog
seemed much affected, and the contractions were exceedingly
violent when the arc was composed of a chain of different
persons, united together by the hands moistened with salt
water.
EXPERIMENT III.
I connected, by means of one chain of moisture, the
heads of two or three calves, and observed that by this
combination the force of the Galvanism was exerted with more
energy: a frog, which was not affected by touching one head,
experienced violent contractions when applied to a series of
several heads connected together.
EXPERIMENT IV.
I think it proper here to mention a very curious observation
which I made lately at Paris, in company with professor
Huzzard, and in the presence of the Commissioners of the
National Institute. On applying the spinal marrow of a prepared
frog to the cervical muscles of a horse’s head, separated
from the body, no muscular convulsions took place; but if,
at the same time, another person touched with his hand,
Pg 5
moistened by a solution of muriate of soda, the spinal marrow
of the horse, convulsions were always produced in the frog,
though there was no communication between the persons,
except that formed by a floor on which they stood.
Pg 6
PROPOSITION II.
The Galvanism excited, in the preceding experiments, is not
owing to the communication nor to the transfusion of the general
electricity, but to an electricity peculiar to animals, which acts a
very distinguished part in the animal economy.
EXPERIMENT I.
Having placed the trunk of a calf (Plate I. fig. 2.) on an insulated
table, I made a longitudinal incision in the breast, in
order to obtain a long series of muscles uncovered. I then
arranged two insulated persons in such a manner that the one
with a finger, moistened by salt water, touched the spinal marrow
of the calf, while the other applied the spinal marrow of
a frog to the muscles of the trunk. Every time this arc was
formed, muscular contractions were produced in the frog.
When the two persons let go each other’s hands, the contractions
ceased. I repeated this experiment, with the same success,
on the insulated head of an ox, conveying the arc from
the spinal marrow of the frog to the tongue. Frogs were as
violently affected when the experiment was made with the
insulated trunks of different kinds of birds.
This experiment, in my opinion, affords a decisive proof
that the Galvanic fluid is peculiar to the animal machine,
independently of the influence of metals, or of any other
Pg 7
foreign cause. In these experiments, indeed, we have some
animal machines, so combined that the result is strong contractions
in the frog. All the bodies were insulated; and,
therefore, it cannot be supposed that the contractions were
occasioned by the direct influence of that general principle,
which pervades every body in nature. Hence it is evident,
whether it be ascribed to the action of the animal chain, formed
by the arms of the persons, or to the animal pile, formed
by the trunk of the calf, that we shall still be obliged to
acknowledge the action of a principle which belongs to the
organization of the animal machine, without having any
dependence on metals.
To prove in the animal body the existence of a principle
which philosophers can by certain means excite and direct
at pleasure in their experiments, is a matter of the greatest
importance; though the manner in which it is put in action
by nature, however wonderful, is unknown to us. Here
then we have developed a very energetic fluid, capable
of transmission, and deriving its origin from the action of the
animal forces; since the parts of bodies separated from the
common reservoir of general electricity have still of themselves
the faculty of reproducing it, and of causing it to circulate
in a manner proper for exciting muscular contractions.
Pg 8
PROPOSITION III.
Galvanism develops itself in a powerful manner, independently
of metals, by means of the human animal machine.
EXPERIMENT I.
If you hold in your hand, moistened with salt water, the
muscles of a prepared frog, and apply the crural nerves to the
tip of your tongue, you will immediately see violent contractions
produced in the frog. All suspicion of any stimulant
exerting an action in this case, may be removed by repeating
the experiment with the frog held in the dry hand: the
muscular contractions will then cease, unless the action of
Galvanism in the frog, or in the animal machine, be uncommonly
powerful; in which case contractions may be produced
without establishing an arc from the nerves to the
muscles.
EXPERIMENT II.
I held the muscles of a prepared frog in one of my hands,
moistened by salt water, and brought a finger of the other
hand, well moistened, near to the crural nerves. When the
frog possessed a great deal of vitality the crural nerves gradually
approached my hand, and strong contractions took
Pg 9
place at the point of contact. This experiment proves the
existence of a very remarkable kind of attraction, observed
not only by myself, but also by those whom I requested to
repeat the experiment.
EXPERIMENT III.
The above experiment requires great precision in the preparation,
and a considerable degree of vital power in the frog.
I have been informed by Professor Fontana, in a letter lately
received from him, that this phænomenon depends on very
delicate circumstances, which he proposes to explain. He
assures me, at the same time, that he has twice seen the nerve
attracted, in this manner, by the muscle. Being desirous to
render this phænomenon more evident, I formed the arc, by
applying one of my hands to the spinal marrow of a warm-blooded
animal, while I held a frog in the other, in such a
manner that the crural nerves were brought very near to the
abdominal muscles. By this arrangement the attraction of
the nerves of the frog became very sensible. I performed
this experiment for the first time, at Oxford, before Sir Christopher
Pegge and Dr. Bancroft, and repeated it in the anatomical
theatres of St. Thomas’s and Guy’s hospitals.
Pg 10
EXPERIMENT IV.
I made the same observations on the body of a man as I
had before made on the head and trunk of an ox. Having
obtained the body of an executed criminal, I formed an
arc from the spinal marrow to the muscles, a prepared frog
being placed between, and always obtained strong contractions
without the aid of the pile, and without the least influence
from metals. I obtained the same result, in a certain
degree, from the bodies of men who had died a natural
death.
EXPERIMENT V.
Let four or more persons hold each other by the hands,
moistened by a solution of muriate of soda, so as to form a
long animal chain. If the first hold in his hand the muscles
of a prepared frog; and if the last, at the other end of the
chain, touch the spinal marrow or the crural nerves, contractions
will be produced: if the animal chain be broken, the
contractions will immediately cease. I performed this experiment,
making the animal chain to consist of two persons,
before the Galvanic Society at Paris, and in Mr. Wilson’s
anatomical theatre, Windmill-street.
Pg 11
PROPOSITION IV.
Muscular contractions can be excited, under certain conditions,
without establishing a continued arc from the nerves to the
muscles.
EXPERIMENT.
Having obtained the body of an executed criminal, I
caused the biceps muscle to be laid bare, and brought near
to it the spinal marrow of a prepared frog. By these means
contractions were produced in it much stronger than I had
ever obtained in warm-blooded animals. I repeated the experiment,
being myself insulated, and observed no signs of
contraction. The same phænomena were exhibited with the
head of an ox, which possessed an extraordinary degree of
vitality.
Pg 12
PROPOSITION V.
The effects of Galvanism, in the preceding experiments, do
not depend on the action of any stimulant, which occurs in performing
the experiments, and ought not to be confounded with
the effects of that action.
EXPERIMENT I.
In the experiment of the frog applied to the uncovered
biceps muscle of the body of the malefactor, if any other
body be made to touch the frog it will remain motionless.
This proves that the contractions produced in the frog do not
arise from the impulse of the mere contact of the spinal
marrow with the muscle of the human animal machine.
EXPERIMENT II.
To remove still further all suspicion of the action of
stimulants, in the preceding experiments, I prepared two
frogs, and connected the extremities of one with the spinal
marrow of the other. I then held in my hand the extremities
Pg 13
of one of the frogs, and applied the spinal marrow of the
other to the uncovered muscles of the head of an ox, which
possessed a great degree of vitality. By these means contractions
were produced in both the frogs. It is evident, in
this experiment, that the force of the stimulant, if there
were any, might act on the second frog, but not on the
first.
Pg 14
PROPOSITION VI.
Galvanism is excited in the animal machine without any intermediate
body, and merely by the application of the nerves to the
muscles.
Several philosophers have endeavoured to obtain this interesting
result. Professor Volta, in a letter which he addressed
to me, in Brugnatelli’s Journal, observed, “that
various parts of animals can excite Galvanism, independently
of metals.” Galvani, a short time before his death, proposed
two ingenious methods of obtaining this result, and gave me
a description of them. This, however, has not been able to
destroy the incredulity of some philosophers, who hitherto
have confounded Galvanism with metallic electricity, under
an idea that all contractions proceed from irritation, produced
by the action of metals. For this reason I have, with confidence,
announced my method, which enables any one to
observe this important result.
EXPERIMENT I.
Having prepared a frog in the usual manner, I hold the
spinal marrow in one hand (Plate I. fig. 3.), and with the
other form an angle with the leg and foot, in such a manner
that the muscles of the leg touch the crural nerves. On this
Pg 15
contact strong contractions, forming a real electrico-animal
alarum (carillon), which continue longer or shorter according
to the degree of vitality, are produced in the extremity left to
itself. In this experiment, as well as in the following, it is
necessary that the frogs should be strong and full of vitality,
and that the muscles should not be overcharged with blood.
EXPERIMENT II.
By observing the directions already given, very strong convulsions
will be obtained; but they must not be ascribed to
the impulse produced by bringing the nerve into contact with
the muscle. If the experiment be repeated, covering the muscle,
at the place of contact, with a non-conducting substance, the
contractions will entirely cease; but they will be re-produced
as soon as the nerve is made to touch the muscular substance.
In performing this experiment, in public, I obtained several
times more than two hundred successive contractions; but
this was never the case when I formed the same contact with
the muscle by means of a conducting substance, and even
with a plate of metal.
To ensure the success of this interesting experiment, the
nerves must be prepared as speedily as possible, by disengaging
them from every foreign substance. It will be
proper also to apply the nerves not to one but to several
points of the muscle, throughout its whole length. It is
observed, that the contact of the nerves with the tendinous
parts which communicate with the muscles, often serves to
Pg 16
increase the muscular contractions. I performed the above
experiment before several able professors, among whom were
the celebrated Brugnatelli and Carcano, who, with that
modesty peculiar to them, made several ingenious observations
on the precision which might be given to it. Professor
Brugnatelli was apprehensive that, as I had accidentally
touched some metals before I performed the experiment,
metallic particles might have adhered to my fingers,
and thus have served, in some measure, as invisible arming,
sufficient of itself to excite muscular contractions. This
suspicion, however, I removed, by immersing my hands in
water, to detach every foreign substance. He then observed
that animal moisture, independently of the circulation of the
Galvanic fluid from the nerves to the muscles, might also
excite muscular contractions; and he requested that the
crural nerves might be washed in common water. This was
accordingly done; and the humidity of the nerves being thus
externally removed, very strong contractions were still produced,
as the professor found, to his full conviction, on repeating
the experiment himself several times[1].
Pg 17
EXPERIMENT III.
The Commissioners of the French National Institute remarked,
that, in order to give the greatest precision possible
to these experiments, it would be necessary to insulate entirely
the nervous and muscular systems. For this purpose, I
applied these parts to each other by means of glass rods, and
each time they were brought into contact I obtained muscular
contractions. The case was the same when an animal
arc was applied to two insulated frogs: contractions were
produced in them both. The apparatus employed for this
purpose may be seen in Plate I. fig. 5 and 6.
Pg 18
EXPERIMENT IV.
Having prepared a frog according to the usual method,
I cut one of its crural nerves in such a manner that the trunk
was united to the spinal marrow by means of the other
nerve, which remained uncut, and also by a blood-vessel
contiguous and parallel to the cut nerve. I then repeated
the above experiment; and, though only one nerve was in
contact with the muscles, I obtained the same results.
EXPERIMENT V.
A ligature was placed loosely around the middle of the
crural nerves, and one of these nerves at the ligature applied
to the corresponding muscles: strong contractions ensued;
which, however, did not take place, when the ligature
was drawn tight, at the insertion of the nerves into the
muscles of the thigh.
Pg 19
PROPOSITION VII.
The heterogeneity of metals contributes, in a great degree,
to excite muscular contractions with more facility, but is not absolutely
necessary to their production.
This proposition I could demonstrate in a direct manner,
by means of experiments, which I published formerly, on
the contractions excited by very pure mercury, and which
were repeated, in different ways, by the celebrated Humboldt.
I am, however, happy to have an opportunity of examining
the influence of arming with heterogeneous substances; and
I shall endeavour to prove that it cannot, of itself, produce
the effect of muscular contractions.
EXPERIMENT I.
If several prepared frogs, ten or more for example, be
placed on a table (Plate I. fig. 7.), and arranged parallel to
each other, in such a manner that the whole system of the
nerves shall be at one end, and that of the muscles at the
other,—on applying two armatures and a metallic arc to the
first of these frogs, muscular convulsions will be immediately
excited, not only in the first frog, but in all the rest.
Pg 20
EXPERIMENT II.
If the experiment be repeated with the frogs arranged in
such a manner that the spinal marrow and muscles are not each
at one end (Plate I. fig. 8.), but disposed alternately so that the
spinal marrow of one touches sometimes the muscles of another,
or vice versa, convulsions will then be produced only in
some of the frogs, and not in the whole series. This experiment
proves that the effect does not, in any manner, depend
on the action of metals; because metallic electricity in the
first experiment ought to exercise an action only on the first
frog, and not on the rest; and, in the second, ought to cause
them all to move together, or to leave them motionless.
I shall now proceed to those experiments which appear
to be best calculated to support the opinion of the great
analogy between electricity and Galvanism.
Pg 21
PROPOSITION VIII.
The Leyden flask, the Voltaic pile, and animal substances,
have the faculty of absorbing principles from the atmospheric air
in an insulated plenum.
EXPERIMENT I.
By means of a metallic point, I electrified the interior
side of a glass jar, which I inverted and placed on a plate
of metal, so as to form an insulated plenum. In a little
time, I saw the water rise in the glass several lines; and I
then flattered myself with the hopes of obtaining some remarkable
effects by another method.
EXPERIMENT II.
I provided for this experiment a Leyden flask, seven
inches in height and about three in diameter, coated in the
usual manner with tin foil: the exterior end of the wire
terminated in a sharp point, so that the electric fluid
which escaped from it could easily combine with the principles
of the atmospheric air, with which it had a greater
affinity. I then electrified the jar, and covered it with a
glass receiver of such a size that its electricity could not be
Pg 22
weakened by the sides of the latter. I thus formed an insulated
plenum, and at the end of half an hour I saw the
water ascend in the receiver in a very sensible manner.
EXPERIMENT III.
Having made the wire to terminate, not in a point, but
in a metallic knob, as usual, I again charged the jar,
and having placed it under a common receiver, at the end
of about half an hour I found that the elevation of the
water was much greater. To remove every suspicion that
this might arise from the water employed in the preceding
experiment, to insulate the plenum, I substituted mercury
in its stead; and though the elevations were less, they
were, however, analogous to those which had been observed
a little before with water. By repeating this experiment
with a similar jar, not electrified, one may be easily convinced,
that the elevation of the water in the bell ought not
to be ascribed to a difference in the temperature of the air
within it.
EXPERIMENT IV.
I placed under a bell-glass, forming an insulated plenum,
a pile consisting of fifty plates of silver and zinc. Next
morning I observed that the water had risen some inches,
indicating that a great absorption of air had taken place.
Having then introduced a taper into the receiver, it was
Pg 23
immediately extinguished. The pile, without being arranged
anew, was placed under the same receiver; and
on forming an insulated plenum, I observed, after twenty-four
hours had elapsed, a sensible absorption of air. A
taper was then introduced, and I obtained the same result.
I replaced the pile under the receiver, and found, on the
third and following days, that the pile retained its moisture,
so that till the tenth day it gave analogous results. I
repeated the same experiment with oxygen gas, and found,
six days after, that the water in the bell had risen a foot.
EXPERIMENT V.
The same results may be obtained without employing
large piles and large receivers. In general, it will be sufficient
to arrange, in alternate strata, some plates of heterogeneous
metals. If two plates of copper and zinc be placed
under a bell an inch and a half in diameter, and three
inches in height, and if an insulated plenum be then formed,
two days after the water will have risen about half an inch.
Having repeated the experiment with different metals, I
found that a greater or less absorption of air had taken
place, according to the difference of their nature and combination.
This inspired me with the idea of making a series
of experiments with different metals; and I hope to be able,
at some future period, to form a table of the different heights
of the fluid, which may serve to determine how far they are
Pg 24
respectively susceptible of oxidation. However, to ascertain
the oxidation of metals with precision, pieces of coin mixed
with alloy ought not to be employed. Pure metals, formed into
small piles, must be subjected to observation, and ought to
be placed under equal bells, at the same temperature as
that of the atmosphere. Until it be proved that the absorption
of oxygen in the above experiments is merely a chemical
effect, altogether unconnected with the action of Galvanism,
I think I may be allowed to avail myself of it to
prove the proposed analogy.
EXPERIMENT VI.
The ingenious theory of Girtanner, who ascribes the cause
of muscular contractions to oxygen, the curious experiments
by which Professor Humboldt revives the muscular force, by
means of oxygenated muriatic acid, and those made by the
celebrated Fourcroy on the same subject, induced me to
examine the effect resulting from a combination of oxygen
with muscular fibres, in a state of the greatest vitality.
For this purpose, I adapted to a bell-glass a bent metallic
wire, from which were suspended fourteen frogs, prepared
with the utmost dispatch, and almost at the same instant,
by myself and several of my pupils; and having formed an
insulated plenum, I found, at the end of twenty-four hours,
that the water had risen in the bell to the height of about
half an inch.
Pg 25
EXPERIMENT VII.
I repeated this experiment, with the same success, on
warm-blooded animals. I provided, for that purpose, the
extremities of different pullets from which the crural nerves
had been previously separated, and found that the elevations
of the water, in the insulated plenum, were much less when
I employed the fibres of these animals after their vitality had
been weakened.
EXPERIMENT VIII.
Having obtained the bodies of some executed criminals,
I exposed to the action of an insulated plenum the nervous
and muscular fibres, and the substance of the brain.
The elevations of the water were remarkable, in consequence
of the different substances subjected to experiment,
which, according to their different characters, exercised a
different action on the oxygen. This fact ought to induce
physiologists to undertake experiments of a similar kind
with other gases, to enable them to determine the strength
of the affinity exerted by animal substances to combine with
oxygen.
EXPERIMENT IX.
As fishes, and in particular the torpedo, furnish a large
quantity of animal or Galvanic electricity, I was inclined to
Pg 26
think they would exhibit the before-mentioned effects in a
very striking manner in an insulated plenum. I mentioned
to Professor Mojon of Genoa the experiment I proposed to
make; and, in a letter which I lately received from him, he
informed me of the result, as follows:
“I took a strong torpedo, and, as soon as it was dead,
armed its nerves with the usual armature. Having then
placed it on an insulating stool, a little elevated above water,
I covered it with a bell-glass the content of which was equal
to 432 cubic inches. At the end of some hours I observed,
with great surprise, that the water under the insulated plenum
began to rise progressively during about ten hours; and
at the end of forty-eight I found that it had risen an inch;
so that it occupied a ninth part of the capacity of the bell,
that is to say, forty-eight cubic inches. I analysed the remaining
air, and found that the bell contained no more than
80 cubic inches of oxygen gas, and 324 of azotic gas; and
that, during the above period, more than two-fifths of the
oxygen gas contained in the bell had been absorbed.”
I propose going to the sea-coast, in order that I may repeat
the experiment on the torpedo without any armature; and I
shall embrace that opportunity of making various researches
in regard to the new theory of Galvanism. I think it necessary,
in general, to submit to new experiments the different
animal parts immersed in the different aëriform fluids, fixing
their various combinations according to the degrees of Galvanic
force which they may possess.
Pg 27
PROPOSITION IX.
Flame prevents the action of the Leyden flask, as well as
that of the pile, and also muscular contractions.
EXPERIMENT I.
I placed a lighted taper on an insulating stool; and
having made the wire, proceeding from the interior coating
of a charged Leyden flask, to pass through the flame, I found
that, without forming an arc, it lost a portion of its electricity.
If the experiment be repeated in such a manner that the
flame makes a part of the arc between the two coatings, the
flask is entirely discharged, without the arms of the person
who forms part of the arc experiencing the least shock.
EXPERIMENT II.
I adapted to the summit of the pile a circular brass vessel,
containing spirit of wine. By these means the pile was
made to terminate in a strong flame, to which I applied a
metallic conductor, while with the other hand I touched the
bottom of the pile. The Galvanic fluid still withstood my
efforts; and the case was the same when I substituted for
the spirit of wine the flame of a common candle. It is
Pg 28
proper here to remark, that the flame did not lessen the
action of the Galvanism when the conductor, instead of being
applied to the flame, was applied to the plate at the summit
of the pile.
EXPERIMENT III.
I have already proved by a series of experiments, addressed
to C. Lacepede, that flame made to form part of the
arc applied to the nerves and muscles of a frog, prevents
muscular contractions. I repeated the experiment, with the
same result, on several warm-blooded animals. I observed
that the flame interposed in the arc, which touched the back
and belly of the torpedo, prevented the electric shocks.
Pg 29
PROPOSITION X.
Certain fluids, applied to the whole surface of the pile, or of
animal parts, do not prevent the action of Galvanism.
EXPERIMENT I.
Two years ago, I made various experiments on this subject
at Florence, with the celebrated Fontana; and we found
that a pile, composed of a hundred plates of zinc and silver,
after being immersed some time in common water, still exercised
a very strong action. Professor Fontana informs me,
in a letter, that he has performed the same experiment several
ways, and always with the same success.
EXPERIMENT II.
Being desirous to examine the nature of the element
inhabited by the numerous family of fishes, which are also
subject to the influence of the Galvanic processes, I filled
with sea-water thirty earthen vessels; and having formed a
communication between them, by means of heterogeneous
arcs, composed of brass and zinc, I obtained a shock, which
appeared to me stronger than that obtained with artificial
salt water. By establishing an arc with only five of these vessels,
Pg 30
the action was very sensible. A pile composed of pieces
of pasteboard, moistened with sea-water, and entirely immersed
in the same water, gave, when tried, very strong
shocks.
EXPERIMENT III.
I was able to prove the action of the Galvanic pile and
of metals under water, by the following simple experiment:
I placed a plate of zinc at the bottom of a vessel filled with
salt water, (Plate II. fig. 6.). A person then brought the
spinal marrow of a frog into contact with the surface of the
salt water; and another person, absolutely insulated, touched
with a silvered copper wire the plate of zinc. Every time
that the wire was brought into contact with the zinc, muscular
contractions took place. I am well aware, that the
advocates for metallic electricity will deduce from the plain
statement of this fact, an induction contrary to Galvanism;
but my candour, on this occasion, will show how much I
am attached to the cause of truth.
EXPERIMENT IV.
Among animal bodies, the torpedo is one of those which
produce the most powerful Galvanic action. In the autumn
of 1801, I made some experiments on this animal at Genoa,
in conjunction with Professor Mojon and his brother, who
gave me every assistance in their power. When I touched
Pg 31
the torpedo, under water, at the moment when it gave the
shock, it contracted itself, and two jets of water proceeded
from the two holes in its head. To obtain the shock, it was
not necessary to touch two distinct parts of its body: in
many cases, the application of the hand to the electric organ
was sufficient.
Pg 32
PROPOSITION XI.
Mere electrization, by means of the common kinds of apparatus,
does not increase the action of Galvanism.
EXPERIMENT I.
Artificial electricity was communicated to an apparatus,
composed of a hundred cups, care being first taken to insulate
the table and the persons who were afterwards to receive the
action of it. If we suppose that the heterogeneous arcs were
charged with different kinds of electricity, it would seem
that, by communicating to them any electricity, the electricity
of the whole apparatus ought to have been reduced to
the same kind; consequently that no shock ought to have
been produced. The contrary, however, was the case. We
experienced very strong shocks, very little different from
those which would have been obtained without artificial
electricity. I observed the same result with the pile.
EXPERIMENT II.
An insulated torpedo being electrified, the shocks it gave
were not increased. The torpedo was killed, and then armed,
according to the method of Galvani, for the purpose of trying
Pg 33
whether metallic electricity, in this case, would have any
influence over it. After this arrangement was made, every
time that the conducting arc was applied to it strong contractions
were produced; but very little different from those
remarked in other animals. This observation is agreeable to
those made at Naples by the celebrated Abilgaard, who,
having subjected the torpedo to the Galvanic processes,
found no extraordinary contractions.
Pg 34
PROPOSITION XII.
The Galvanic action is increased by employing as part of
the arc the apparatus of Volta, or the electrified Leyden flask.
EXPERIMENT I.
In the hall of the Institute, I placed on a large table a
hundred glass cups, and arranged them in such a manner as
to form two rectangles, each composed of fifty. I established
a communication between the first of these cups and the
apparatus of Volta, by means of a metallic wire, which
proceeded from one of the interior chambers of the Cabinet
de Physique, and terminated at the place where the experiment
was performed. I then tried this arrangement several
times; and, however different opinions might be in regard
to the precise increase of the action of the Galvanism, all
constantly agreed in considering the shock as stronger. Some
even went so far as to assert that it was increased a third.
It gave me great satisfaction to be able, on this occasion,
to confirm the last discovery of Professor Volta, as well as
one of those which he had made before. One observation,
well attested, which tends to establish the truth of this proposition,
is, that if a person touch the summit and base of
the pile with two large metallic conductors, the shocks he
receives will be much stronger.
Pg 35
EXPERIMENT II.
Electricity, concentrated in the Leyden flask, contributes
also to increase the action of Galvanism. Having prepared
a pile, composed of fifty plates of copper and zinc, I formed
an arc by interposing a charged jar, and obtained an explosion
much stronger than that obtained by the Leyden flask
charged with an equal quantity of the electric fluid, and discharged
independently of the pile.
EXPERIMENT III.
I took the same flask, after it was discharged, and having
formed a portion of an arc, applied to the two extremities
of the pile, I observed that the Galvanism refused to pass the
obstacle presented to it by the stratum of glass interposed
between the two coatings; consequently I received no shock.
EXPERIMENT IV.
I repeated the second experiment, insulating the pile,
and at the same time the person who touched the pile with
the charged flask. By these means I obtained a much
stronger explosion than could have been produced separately
by the Leyden flask or the pile. In this experiment I observed
that the repeated passage of the electricity of the
flask throughout the whole extent of the pile, did not deprive
it of the property of exciting Galvanism.
Pg 36
PROPOSITION XIII.
Galvanism, in animals and in the pile, traverses large spaces
with the same rapidity as the electric fluid.
EXPERIMENT.
I extended an iron wire, two hundred and fifty feet in
length, around my chamber, taking great care that it should
not any where touch itself, and made its extremities to terminate
at a table which I had prepared for the experiment.
One of these extremities being brought into communication
with a pile composed of fifty plates of copper and zinc, I
held the other in my left hand, and with my right touched
the summit of the pile. The Galvanism then proceeded
from the bottom of the pile to the summit, traversing a
portion of the arc formed by the animal machine. By the
effect of this passage, we may therefore form some opinion
of the celerity of the Galvanic current. Its rapidity was
such, that neither I nor any of those who repeated the
experiment publicly, were able to determine the degree.
The truth of this proposition is confirmed by experiments
lately made by the celebrated Van Marum, who charged
large batteries by means of Galvanism.
Pg 37
PROPOSITION XIV.
The muscular contractions, which, according to the observations
of Galvani, are produced by an electric atmosphere whether
natural or artificial, correspond entirely with those produced by
the pile, or by similar kinds of apparatus.
When a change of equilibrium takes place in those systems
of bodies which communicate with the nerves and the muscles
of the animal machine, it is always sensible of this change,
and muscular contractions are produced.
EXPERIMENT I.
It is curious to see an animal, placed at the extremity
of an apartment, experience a shock, when the electric
spark is extracted at a considerable distance. I performed
this experiment several times in the Cabinet de Physique of
the Institute of Bologna, by means of a metal wire, not insulated,
which was at the distance of four feet from the conductor
of a common electrical machine. I repeated the
experiment with crural nerves, having a ligature in the
middle; and on extracting the spark, I observed violent
contractions, which ceased when the ligature was formed at
Pg 38
the place of their insertion into the muscles. I then performed
with the new apparatus of Volta the experiments
which Galvani had made with artificial electricity alone.
At first I employed several glass cups and piles of from one
to two hundred plates of metal; which proved to me that
similar results might be obtained with the following simple
apparatus.
EXPERIMENT II.
Having placed upon a table two glass vessels filled with
salt water, (Plate II. fig. 5.) which I connected by means of
an arc composed of brass and zinc, I applied to the surface
of the water, in one of the vessels, the spinal marrow of
a prepared frog, the corresponding muscles of which I held
in one of my hands. Another person with his hand, or a
plate of metal, then touched the water contained in the other
vessel, and, at each contact, the muscles experienced violent
contractions. To remove all idea of the contractions being
produced by the action of the salt water, I connected with
the spinal marrow a part of the muscles of another animal,
which, instead of the spinal marrow, was made to touch the
salt water, and obtained the same result.
Pg 39
EXPERIMENT III.
The same apparatus being retained, if either the person
who touches the surface of the water in the first glass vessel,
or the part of the frog immersed in the second, be insulated,
no muscular contractions are produced; but they again take
place when the insulation is removed. The violence of the
contractions is increased by increasing the number of the glass
vessels. If these vessels are made to communicate by means
of arcs, formed of one homogeneous metal, the results are
not different from those observed when heterogeneous metals
are employed.
EXPERIMENT IV.
Being desirous to confirm the theory of the Galvanic atmosphere,
I placed in it the body of an executed criminal.
I removed the pile to the distance of a foot from the trunk,
without the usual communication of metallic arcs; and
having made an incision in each ancle, two persons held two
frogs prepared in the usual manner, in such a position
that the spinal marrow rested on the incisions. When matters
were thus arranged, every time that a third person
touched the summit of the pile, both the frogs experienced
violent contractions, and to such a degree, that, leaving free
one of the extremities, a real electrico-animal alarum was obtained,
perfectly similar in its effect and identity to that
described by Galvani in his Commentary. When the metallic
Pg 40
apparatus is employed, if one of the persons who holds a
frog be insulated, the frog will remain motionless, while
the other will experience the usual effect. I had an opportunity
of confirming the truth of this observation, on
the trunk of a dog, during a course of experiments made
in the Hôpital de la Charité, at Paris, and at St. Thomas’s
Hospital, London.
Pg 41
PROPOSITION XV.
Opium, cinchona, and other stimulants of a similar kind,
which exercise a powerful action on the animal machine, contribute
also to excite the action of the pile.
EXPERIMENT I.
In the last sitting of the Institute of Bologna, at which
I was present, I constructed two piles, each composed
of fifteen pieces of silver and zinc, employing for the
one an extract of opium, and for the other an infusion
of cinchona in alcohol. I covered the piles with two
equal receivers; formed an insulated plenum, by pouring
mercury around the bottoms of them; and placed weights
on the receivers sufficient to prevent the mercury from
raising them. At the end of some hours, I found a
remarkable elevation of the surface of the mercury, so
that the receivers remained fixed without requiring any
weight to keep them down. In the bell which covered the
pile where extract of opium had been employed, the mercury
rose more than an inch; but in that covering the other,
where cinchona had been used, the elevation of the mercury
was scarcely three lines.
Pg 42
EXPERIMENT II.
Having successively introduced a taper into each of the
two receivers before mentioned, it was immediately extinguished
in that containing the pile with the extract of opium;
but in the other containing the pile with the infusion of cinchona,
it continued burning for some time. I found also
that four of the plates, at the bottom of the pile where I
employed opium, had suffered from the action of the mercury;
and that some others, to the height of about three
inches and a half, exhibited a few globules of that metal.
The pile in which I employed infusion of cinchona showed
scarcely any signs of the action of the mercury.
EXPERIMENT III.
As I concluded that the pile in which I had employed
the alcoholic extract of opium possessed more activity than
the other, I examined it for four or five days successively.
I tried the flame of a taper with the same result as before,
and assured myself that this pile retained the Galvanic power,
though a little weakened, even till the eighth day. On the
other hand, twenty-four hours had scarcely elapsed, when
the pile in which alcohol and cinchona had been employed
exhibited no signs of activity.
Pg 43
EXPERIMENT IV.
I constructed two piles, in the same manner, with pieces
of pasteboard interposed, which had been previously moistened
with strong solutions of camphor and of castor oil,
in pure alcohol. In these two piles the Galvanic effects
were much weaker in every respect than those observed in
the preceding experiment; for, besides the explosion being
less, the elevation of water in the insulated plenum was very
small, and the alteration of the flame was scarcely sensible.
EXPERIMENT V.
I was able to convince myself that the effects of the two
piles, before mentioned, were the immediate result of the
substances dissolved, and not of the alcohol; for, having
constructed a pile of thirty plates of silver and zinc, with
pieces of pasteboard interposed, moistened with pure alcohol,
I observed no signs of Galvanism; and the case was
the same when I employed a pile of zinc combined with
copper and other metals.
Pg 44
PROPOSITION XVI.
If the general relation between Galvanism and electricity be
examined, such a correspondence will be found between them, as
tends to confirm the analogy already stated.
To illustrate this proposition, I shall here take a view
of the particular properties of electricity and Galvanism,
which, if considered separately, would not be sufficient
for my object. I am, however, of opinion, that when combined
together they will serve to prove it in a satisfactory
manner.
1st, Galvanism, like artificial electricity, emits sparks,
fuses metals, and can even be employed to charge armed
non-conducting bodies. I have proved the last-mentioned
property, discovered by the celebrated Van Marum, with a
new apparatus, composed of a pile with a hole in the middle,
in which I place the flask I intend to charge.
2dly, The influence of artificial electricity tends to accelerate
the putrefaction of animal parts; and the same phænomenon
Pg 45
may be produced by communication with the Voltaic
pile, or by the first processes of Galvani.
3dly, The electricity of the Leyden jar is renewed in part
immediately after its discharge. A similar phænomenon is
exhibited by the pile; and it is observed, if the common
Galvanic armatures be employed, that the vital force in animals
is almost revived, when the arcs are applied different
times.
4thly, As the action of common electricity and of the
pile is suspended, when the combination of the metallic pieces
is changed; in like manner, in a system of several animal
machines, if their combination be changed, muscular contractions
entirely cease.
5thly, Water may be decomposed by common electricity,
as well as by the Galvanic pile, according to the ingenious
method proposed by Dr. Wollaston. I lately saw, with the
greatest pleasure, experiments on this subject performed by
himself with the utmost neatness and precision. It is much
to be wished, that the same result could be obtained by animal
Galvanism alone; as it might tend to throw great light
on some important points in physiology. For my part, I entertain
no doubt that, after repeated trials, it may one day
be effected, by means of large animals possessing a great
abundance of animal electricity.
Pg 46
To conclude: I think I may venture to assert, that the
correspondence between the properties of Galvanism and
common electricity might be carried to a much greater extent,
in confirmation of the analogy which I proposed to
prove in this proposition.
Pg 47
PROPOSITION XVII.
The hypothesis of an animal pile, analogous to that formed
artificially, seems well calculated to explain the sensations and
contractions in the animal machine.
It seems to be proved by the observations of Mr. Davy,
Professor in the Royal Institution of Great Britain, and
those of M. Gautherot at Paris, that a pile may be composed
without any metallic substances whatever. We are
therefore naturally led to suppose, that one may be composed
also of animal substances alone. Though this has
never yet been obtained by art, we behold it with admiration
constructed by nature in various animals. If we examine,
indeed, the structure of the regular bodies which
succeed each other in the torpedo, the electrical eel of Surinam,
and in the silurus, we shall find them to be real animal
piles, differently arranged: and if an animal pile, exceedingly
strong, be capable of communicating a shock, why
should not one of a more moderate nature excite that activity
which is necessary to produce muscular convulsions?
I have already proved, that the system of the nerves and
that of the muscles possess different Galvanic powers, or, as
it were, different kinds of electricity, to which the animal
moisture serves as a conductor. In this point of view,
the discovery of the pile of the celebrated Volta, instead of
Pg 48
destroying the principle of Galvanism, tends rather in a
powerful manner to support it. The object of Galvani’s system
is to prove the existence of an animal electricity, and
then to explain how its action operates in producing muscular
sensations and contractions. The first part of his system
rests upon facts, the truth of which neither time, nor the
different experiments made by philosophers, have been able
to weaken. The second presents an hypothesis which, perhaps,
may be further illustrated when the physiology of the
human body is better known. Galvani, to explain the activity
of animal electricity, supposes the nerves and muscles
to be like the Leyden jar; and this idea I confidently adopted.
But by the expression ‘Leyden flask’ he meant nothing
else than that in the animal machine there are two opposite
kinds of electricity, resulting from the nervous and the muscular
systems, to which animal moisture continually serves
as a vehicle. It was in this sense that he announced his
theory of the Leyden flask, in his public lectures, and in his
last works. No better comparison was then known, in the language
of philosophy, to express this action. It however affords
me great pleasure, that I can now substitute for it the
pile discovered by Volta, which is perfectly consistent with
the system of Galvani; and since I am ready to allow that
the invention of the metallic pile gives Volta a title to the
discovery of metallic electricity, I hope the discovery of
animal electricity, properly so called, will be allowed to
Galvani, as similar phænomena are exhibited by the nervous
and muscular systems, independently of common electricity.
Pg 49
But some important questions in regard to Galvanism
still remain to be answered, such as the following: whether
the action of chemical combinations be the cause of Galvanism,
or whether Galvanism be the cause of chemical
combinations. In my opinion, we have not yet a sufficient
number of data to determine this point. It may also
be asked, whether Galvanism be of the same nature as electricity,
but differently modified by the animal organization.
For my part, until their identity be proved by further researches,
I shall be contented with admitting that there is a
great analogy between them.
But leaving these questions, the discussion of which might
be premature, it will be better to deduce general corollaries
from the series of experiments already detailed.
COROLLARY I.
It is found that there is a real attraction between certain
parts of animals; and this tends to confirm the idea of a sort of
atmosphere peculiar to parts of animals, as has been suggested
by Humboldt. By these means it will perhaps be one day
possible to explain, with less difficulty, the correspondence
of some sensations in the animal machine.
COROLLARY II.
The action of Galvanism on the aëriform fluids may serve
to explain its influence over the animal fluids by the oxidation
Pg 50
of the humours, and other phænomena which hitherto
have been explained only in a hypothetical manner.
COROLLARY III.
Fishes, and several amphibious animals which live under
water, sometimes approach the surface on certain changes
of the atmosphere. When the before-mentioned experiments
on the Galvanic atmosphere are considered, we may
easily explain, why those changes which take place in distant
parts of the atmosphere are communicated to the element
in which these animals reside.
COROLLARY IV.
It has been ascertained, that water saturated with salts,
and in particular with muriate of soda, contributes a great deal
to increase the effects of Galvanism. It is well known also,
that fishes, as compared with other animals, possess a very
high degree of vitality; and hence we have reason to admire
the wisdom of nature in making the sea, which is destined
for the abode of fishes, to be abundantly saturated with muriate
of soda.
COROLLARY V.
As Galvanism possesses great activity in chemical decompositions,
it cannot remain in a state of inaction; but must
Pg 51
necessarily produce great changes in the animal fluids and
functions.
COROLLARY VI.
This principle, to which some of the grand operations of
nature have been entrusted, is not hypothetical; since it has
been proved, that as there is a metallic arc and a metallic pile
in the mineral kingdom, there is also an animal arc and an
animal circle in the animal kingdom; which may one day
throw great light on the progress of medicine, and be productive
of considerable benefit to the human race.
Pg 53
PART THE SECOND.
ON THE INFLUENCE WHICH GALVANISM HAS ON THE
VITAL POWERS.
To conduct an energetic fluid to the general seat of all
impressions; to distribute its influence to the different parts
of the nervous and muscular systems; to continue, revive,
and, if I may be allowed the expression, to command the vital
powers; such are the objects of my researches, and such the
advantages which I purpose to derive from the action of
Galvanism.
The discovery of the Galvanic pile by the celebrated Volta
has served as a guide to enable me to obtain the most interesting
results; and to these I have been conducted by numerous
researches and a long series of experiments. I have
examined the whole range of nature, and the grand family
of animals has afforded me the means of making observations,
highly interesting to physiology, on the whole œconomy
of the vital powers. My experiments on this subject I shall
divide into two Sections.
Pg 54
SECTION I.
Galvanism applied to various quadrupeds, birds, and other
warm-blooded animals.
EXPERIMENT I.
The head of an ox, recently killed, was subjected to
the action of a pile (Plate II. fig. 1.) composed of fifty
plates of copper and zinc, separated, as usual, by small
pieces of pasteboard moistened with a solution of muriate
of soda. Having moistened one of the ears with the same
solution, by means of a syringe, I introduced into it one extremity
of a metallic wire. I then formed an arc with this
wire to the summit of the pile, and by means of another
wire made a communication between the bottom of the pile
and the nostrils. When this apparatus was applied, the eyes
were seen to open, the ears to shake, the tongue to be agitated,
and the nostrils to swell, in the same manner as those
of the living animal, when irritated and desirous of combating
another of the same species.
I then moistened both the ears with salt water, by the
same method as before, and inserted into each an extremity
of one of the arcs. When the Galvanism was communicated,
Pg 55
the movements already described were reproduced; but they
appeared to be much more violent.
EXPERIMENT II.
A pile composed of a hundred pieces of silver and zinc
(Plate II. fig. 2.) being employed, the tongue issued from the
mouth four inches, and re-entered it an inch, on each application
of the arc; notwithstanding the resistance opposed
by the teeth which pressed against it: so that after four or
five applications of the arc it was entirely restored to its
usual situation.
I repeated this curious experiment several times at Bologna
and Turin, and lately at London before their Royal
Highnesses the Prince of Wales, the Duke of York, the Duke
of Clarence, and the Duke of Cumberland, who seemed to
be much interested in my researches. I showed them that the
tongue returned without being touched, merely by forming
an arc between distant parts, such as the spinal marrow and
the cervical or nasal muscles. A person who held the extremity
of the tongue with a pair of pincers felt the effort it
made to return every time that the Galvanism was applied.
EXPERIMENT III.
With the same apparatus I suspended from the extremity
of the conducting arc the posterior half of a frog,
Pg 56
by bending the iron wire at right angles into a small elbow;
and then, instead of making the tongue touch the extremity
of the arc, I brought it into contact with one of the paws
of the frog, while the other extremity of the wire rested on
the summit of the pile.
When this arrangement was made, I not only obtained
the same contractions in the head of the ox, but I observed
also that when the paw of the frog ceased to be in contact
with the tongue, it was attracted by the latter, which produced
in it oscillations, so that it formed a kind of Galvanometer;
for the thighs of the small animal diverged more or less
according to the intensity of the fluid which passed through
them, and were restored to their former position when the
paw of the frog and the tongue of the ox were again brought
into contact. These oscillations continued about six minutes.
Suspecting, however, that the crural nerves might have
some share in these phænomena, independently of the pile,
I cut these nerves, and under similar conditions I obtained
the same results.
EXPERIMENT IV.
Being desirous to repeat the above experiments on the
heads of other oxen, and on those of sheep and lambs, varying
the pile, both in regard to its nature and the number of
pieces, I constructed three piles of twenty-five, fifty, and
Pg 57
a hundred and twenty pieces of silver and zinc. The results,
however, differed from the preceding only in the
greater or less intensity of the contractions, according as one
or the other apparatus was applied to the same animals. I
remarked in particular, that the combination most favourable
to muscular contractions is obtained, when the arc is
established from the ears to the spinal marrow. In this
case the eye is so much affected, that the eye-lids open
entirely while the eye-ball turns round, and projects somewhat
from its socket, as sometimes happens in the most
violent madness.
EXPERIMENT V.
Having provided an ox recently killed, the head of which
was not cut off, I formed an arc from one ear to the other,
interposing the pile. The immediate result was a commotion
so violent in all the extremities of the animal, that
several of the spectators were much alarmed, and thought it
prudent to retire to some distance. I then cut off the head,
and formed an arc from the spinal marrow, first to the diaphragm,
and then to the sphincter ani. In the first case,
the diaphragm experienced violent contractions; in the other
I obtained a very strong action on the rectum, which even
produced an expulsion of the fæces.
EXPERIMENT VI.
To give more extent to my experiments, I thought proper
Pg 58
to repeat them on lambs, chickens, and other warm-blooded
animals; and without enumerating such phænomena as are
common, I shall only observe, that the tongue, which was
projected beyond the lips, again returned into the cavity of
the mouth, after several applications of the arc, as was the
case in the second experiment. The movements of the ears
and eye-lids were stronger than in the other parts. Comparative
anatomy must explain why this phænomenon, so
striking in animals of this kind, is not observed in man.
EXPERIMENT VII.
The observations which I had made on the Galvanism of
the pile excited my curiosity so much, that I was induced
to try some comparative experiments by means of common
electricity. With this view I placed an iron wire in each ear
of a lamb, and discharged through it twice in succession a
Leyden flask, the two coatings of which were in communication
with the wires applied to the ears. By these means
I obtained contractions, but weaker than those produced
by the pile; and I always observed the same result in other
warm-blooded animals.
EXPERIMENT VIII.
Having repeated the same experiments on live chickens,
I found, to my great surprise, notwithstanding the weakness
of their organization, that they sustained with firmness the
Pg 59
strongest shocks, communicated several times, with a pile
composed of fifty plates of silver and zinc. Though apparently
dejected, and almost on the point of expiring,—as soon
as I interrupted the action of the pile, they fluttered their
wings, and seemed to congratulate themselves on their escape
from danger.
The curiosity natural to a philosopher induced me to
subject these birds to anatomical dissection, that I might examine
what effects had been produced on the animal machine
by these convulsions. The principal phænomena which I
observed were extravasated blood in the muscles; a derangement
of the humours in different parts; the intestines removed
from their usual seat, and thrown towards the pelvis.
At some future period, I purpose to examine how long these
animals are capable of living under the continued action of
Galvanism, applied to them in different ways.
EXPERIMENT IX.
I applied the Galvanic action to a pullet just killed,
forming an arc from one of the ears to the other. When
this arrangement was made, I observed contractions not only
in the feet, but also in the wings and the whole animal
machine. The same phænomena were produced by the same
means in two other pullets. I then combined the different
parts of these three pullets in such a manner, that the head
of the second was joined to the foot of the first, and
Pg 60
the head of the third to the head of the second. An arc
being then formed to the two extremities of this chain of
animal parts, I was much pleased to see the three pullets
move their wings and their feet at the same time.
EXPERIMENT X.
The results of the preceding experiments led me to examine
the power of an arc formed by animal moisture. For
this purpose, having connected the heads of two oxen, (Plate
II. fig. 3.) by bringing near each other the sections of the
neck, I established an arc from the summit of the pile to
one of the ears of one head, and another from the base of
the pile to one of the ears of the other. When this arrangement
was made, I observed that both the heads exhibited
evident signs of muscular contractions.
EXPERIMENT XI.
The trunks of two calves being united by the sections of
the neck, and an arc being established by the interposition
of the pile from the anus of the one to that of the other, both
the trunks received, at the same time, a commotion, but not
very violent. I repeated this experiment on the trunks of
two lambs, but with a more striking result, as all the extremities
and muscles experienced violent convulsions. A glass
vessel, employed for the experiments, which stood on the
Pg 61
table, was overturned by one of the extremities, and thrown
to the distance of about two feet. I tried other combinations,
but the contractions were weaker.
EXPERIMENT XII.
Having sawn open the skull, I directed the action of the
pile to different parts of the brain, in the same order as they
occurred in the course of anatomical dissection. All these
parts appeared to be affected by the Galvanic force; but its
action was stronger on the corpus callosum and the cerebellum.
The same result nearly was obtained, when I repeated
the experiment on the heads of different calves and lambs.
EXPERIMENT XIII.
The heart of an ox, removed from the body, being exposed
to the action of Galvanism, though the pile was very
powerful, exhibited no signs of muscular contraction. I
repeated the same experiment on the heart of an ox, without
removing it from the body, and on the hearts of several
dogs, one arc being applied to the spinal marrow, while the
other touched sometimes the surface of the heart, and sometimes
penetrated into its substance; but with the same result:
no muscular convulsions were produced.
Pg 62
EXPERIMENT XIV.
I prepared some frogs; and having waited till the motion
of the ventricles of the heart had become very slow, and almost
imperceptible, I communicated to them the Galvanic
influence, and it appeared to me that some movements were
produced in the ventricles. I repeated this experiment lately
on the heart of a rabbit, and with the same success. Having
tried the hearts of several calves and dogs, I could not observe
any decided motion in the ventricles; but I remarked
that the Galvanic power exercised a strong action on the
auricles.
EXPERIMENT XV.
Without taking into consideration the differences in
the action of Galvanism on the heart, according to the
different applications and the different kinds of animals
subjected to experiment, I observed, that after this muscle
has lost its susceptibility to the action of Galvanism, the
other muscles still retain it in a very high degree. This
effect is very striking in regard to the heart and the muscles
of oxen and dogs; and this corresponds with what has been
stated by the Commissioners of the French National Institute
in their Report. Speaking of the anomalies found in this
respect in the heart, they conclude that it is at any rate certain
that this organ loses, in a very short time, and much sooner
than the other muscles, the faculty of being agitated by Galvanism.
Pg 63
EXPERIMENT XVI.
All the observations I was able to make on the involuntary
muscles will be found in the same Report, from which
the following is an extract: “Dr. Grapengiesser says, that
he saw the vermicular motion of the intestines increased by
the action of Galvanism in a living subject, whose large intestines
protruded beyond the abdomen, in consequence of a
scrotal hernia. Professor Aldini made us observe the same
effect on the intestinal canal of a dog. We perceived also
very evident contractions in a portion of the stomach, separated
from the animal. We saw the auricles of the heart contract;
but never found this to be the case with the ventricles.”
EXPERIMENT XVII.
As I found it difficult, in the course of my travels, to obtain
large animals for my experiments, a desire of prosecuting
my researches induced me to be satisfied with such small
animals as were easiest to be procured. I therefore declared
war against the dogs, which exhibited the same phænomena
as oxen, and with the greatest energy, as may be seen by the
following extract from the before-mentioned Report of the
Commissioners of the French National Institute: “The head
of a dog being cut off, Aldini subjected it to the action of
a strong pile, by which means the most frightful convulsions
were produced. The mouth opened, the teeth gnashed, the
Pg 64
eyes rolled in their orbits; and, if the imagination had not
been restrained by reason and reflection, one might have
almost believed that the animal was restored to life, and in
a state of agony.”
EXPERIMENT XVIII.
The head and trunk of a dog, separated from each other,
and placed in such a manner as to leave an interval of about
a foot between them (Plate II. fig. 4.), were made to move
simultaneously by applying the Galvanic action to one of
the ears, and to a small incision made in one of the extremities
of the trunk. I saw the same effect produced in a
public sitting held at the Hôpital de la Charité at Paris. In
this case, the distance between the head and trunk was a
foot and a half.
EXPERIMENT XIX.
In the preceding experiments, it is always necessary that
the part of the table which forms the interval between the
head and trunk should be moistened with salt water, or some
other conducting fluid. Considered in this point of view, the
head and trunk mutually form an arc which conducts the
Galvanic action; so that the contractions excited at the same
time do not depend on the particular organization of the
animals subjected to experiment. This I confirmed by producing
simultaneous contractions in the trunk of a dog combined
with the head of a rabbit, and vice versa.
Pg 65
EXPERIMENT XX.
At the School of Medicine at Paris, in presence of the
Commissioners of the French National Institute, and of Professor
Huzzard, I tried the action of Galvanism on a horse
which had been killed by the insufflation of air into the jugular
veins. The trunk exhibited no extraordinary motion;
but the head was violently agitated. A very sensible gnashing
of the teeth was produced, and all the muscles performed,
in a surprising manner, the same motion as is exerted
during the time of mastication. There was even a visible
excretion of the saliva. Of all the heads hitherto tried,
that of the horse exhibited the most violent motion by the
action of Galvanism.
EXPERIMENT XXI.
Having performed this series of experiments, it was necessary
that a comparison should be made, cæteris paribus,
between the action of those stimulants proposed by the
celebrated Haller, and the means here used to excite the
action of Galvanism. For this purpose I employed a
head weakened to such a degree that it was no longer sensible
to the action of the Hallerian stimulants applied to
the muscles and nerves, and then to different parts of the
Pg 66
brain laid bare, and separated one from the other. I tried
the action of the sulphuric and nitric acids, and the effect of
the bistouri, but without ever producing the smallest contraction
in warm-blooded animals: on the other hand, the action
of Galvanism, on these parts, in the above state, occasioned
very powerful muscular contractions.
Pg 67
SECTION II.
Experiments made on human bodies after death.
From the experiments already described, one might by
analogy conjecture what effect the action of Galvanism would
produce on that noble being man, the sole object of my researches.
But to enable philosophers to judge with more
certainty respecting the effects of this wonderful agent, it
was necessary to adhere to certain conditions, and to apply
it immediately after death. The bodies of persons who had
died of disease were not proper for my purpose; because it
is to be presumed, that the development of the principle
which occasions death destroys the elasticity of the fibres,
and that the humours are changed from their natural to a
corrupted state. It was therefore necessary to obtain the
human body while it still retained, after death, the vital powers
in the highest degree of preservation; and hence I was
obliged, if I may be allowed the expression, to place myself
under the scaffold, near the axe of justice, to receive
the yet bleeding bodies of unfortunate criminals, the only
subjects proper for my experiments. In consequence of an
application made for that purpose, I obtained from Government
the bodies of two brigands, who were decapitated at
Bologna in the month of January 1802. As both these individuals
Pg 68
had been very young, and of a robust constitution,
and as the parts exhibited the utmost soundness, I entertained
strong hopes of obtaining the happiest results from
my proposed researches. Though accustomed to a more tranquil
kind of operations in my closet, and little acquainted
with anatomical dissections, the love of truth, and a desire to
throw some light on the system of Galvanism, overcame
all my repugnance, and I proceeded to the following experiments.
EXPERIMENT XXII.
The first of these decapitated criminals being conveyed
to the apartment provided for my experiments, in the neighbourhood
of the place of execution, the head was first subjected
to the Galvanic action. For this purpose I had constructed
a pile consisting of a hundred pieces of silver and
zinc. Having moistened the inside of the ears with salt
water, I formed an arc with two metallic wires, which, proceeding
from the two ears, were applied, one to the summit
and the other to the bottom of the pile. When this communication
was established, I observed strong contractions
in all the muscles of the face, which were contorted in so
irregular a manner that they exhibited the appearance of the
most horrid grimaces. The action of the eye-lids was exceedingly
striking, though less sensible in the human head
than in that of the ox.
Pg 69
EXPERIMENT XXIII.
Having established an arc from the top of the left ear,
and then from the bottom of that ear to the tongue, drawn
about an inch without the mouth, contractions were observed
in the face, and the tongue sensibly returned into the
mouth. I then touched the upper or lower lips, and obtained
contractions, which were remarkable chiefly in all the
muscles of the left part of the face; so that the mouth
appeared as if distorted by a partial kind of palsy. On
the first application of the arc, a small quantity of saliva
was discharged from the mouth.
EXPERIMENT XXIV.
I caused the head to be shaved exactly above the parietal
protuberance on the right side; and having moistened
the integuments, armed with silver and zinc, I established a
communication by means of the pile between the parietal
bone and one of the ears. I obtained contractions, but
weaker than those observed when the arcs were formed according
to the different methods already described.
EXPERIMENT XXV.
Having formed an arc from the ears to different parts of
Pg 70
the face, moistened with a solution of muriate of soda, such
for example as the nose and forehead, I always observed
violent contractions. But the contractions were stronger
when, instead of the first-mentioned pile, I employed another
consisting of fifty plates of copper and zinc. I even
still decreased the number of plates, in order that I might
try, in the course of these experiments, the different degrees
of activity which the pile would exhibit.
EXPERIMENT XXVI.
The head of the other criminal being brought to me
after I had employed about half an hour in these experiments,
I repeated them on this second head, and found the
results to be analogous to those before obtained. But the
contractions produced in the second head were stronger in
consequence of its greater vitality: the vitality of the first
seemed to have been nearly exhausted.
EXPERIMENT XXVII.
Being desirous to examine, according to the principles of
Galvani, the power of an arc of animal moisture in warm-blooded
animals, I recollected that I had several times observed
simultaneous convulsions produced by these means in
two frogs, and recently in the heads of two oxen, the arc
being conveyed from the one to the other in different ways.
Pg 71
I placed the two heads in a straight line on a table, in
such a manner that the sections of the neck were brought
into communication merely by the animal fluids. When
thus arranged, I formed an arc from the pile to the right
ear of one head, and to the left ear of the other, and saw
with astonishment the two heads make horrid grimaces; so
that the spectators, who had no suspicion of such a result,
were actually frightened. It was however observed, that
the convulsions excited in the heads disposed in this manner,
were not so strong as those produced when I performed the
experiment on each head separately. It is certain that, in
this experiment, the arc of animal moisture supplies the place
of a continuation of the nervous and muscular fibres.
EXPERIMENT XXVIII.
Having tried the effect of Galvanism on the exterior part
of the head, I proceeded to examine the phænomena exhibited
by the interior organs when treated in the same manner.
I therefore removed the upper part of the cranium by
a section parallel to its base, uncovered the pia mater, and
established an arc from one of the ears to the medullary
substance. On the application of the arc strong convulsions
were observed in the face. While preparing the brain for
my experiments, I remarked that, in dividing the muscles of
the forehead, at each stroke of the dissecting knife, very
strong contractions, which continued after the dissection
Pg 72
was finished, were excited in the muscles of the face. I was
informed that this is an uncommon phænomenon in anatomical
dissections; and therefore I shall leave it to anatomists
to determine whether it was occasioned, either in whole or in
part, by the preceding action of the pile.
EXPERIMENT XXIX.
Having then separated the lobes of the brain, I applied
the arc to the corpus callosum, to the ears or to the lips,
and found that the whole osseous box and the muscles of
the face were violently agitated. Some of the spectators
even imagined that the corpus callosum itself was affected
by a peculiar convulsion; but it is possible that this emotion
was owing to a mechanical impulse which shook the whole
head. New experiments will, therefore, be necessary before
any thing further can be said in regard to this observation.
EXPERIMENT XXX.
Having carried the dissection to the olfactory nerves, and
even to the crossing of the optic nerves, I formed an arc
from these parts to the lips and the eyes, and obtained contractions,
but very weak in comparison of the preceding. I
observed that on touching the optic nerves with one of the
arcs no sensible convulsions were produced in the eye-lids.
Pg 73
EXPERIMENT XXXI.
This mutilated head, which had been so long the subject
of observation, was united by the plane of the section to that
of the other criminal, which had not been subjected to anatomical
dissection. I then applied two arcs, making one of them
to communicate with the summit of the pile and the right ear
of one head, and the other with the bottom of the pile and
the left ear of the second head. Both heads experienced contractions
similar to those described in the 27th experiment;
but in the head which had already been employed they
appeared to be weaker.
EXPERIMENT XXXII.
After these experiments on the head, I proceeded to the
trunk of the second criminal, which I conceived to be most
proper for my purpose.
I think it necessary here to observe, that the body had
been exposed for about an hour, in an open court, where the
temperature was two degrees below zero. The muscles of
the fore-arm and the tendinous parts of the metacarpus
being laid bare, an arc was established from those muscles
to the spinal marrow. In consequence of this arrangement,
the fore-arm was raised, to the great astonishment of those
who were present.
Pg 74
EXPERIMENT XXXIII.
Having established an arc between the biceps muscle of
each arm, which I had laid perfectly bare, I obtained similar
contractions, but somewhat weaker than in the preceding
case.
EXPERIMENT XXXIV.
Having laid bare the tendons of the fingers, on the back
of the hand, I established an arc between that region and
the spinal marrow, and obtained strong contractions in the
fingers and in the whole hand.
EXPERIMENT XXXV.
Proceeding to the lower extremities, I formed an arc from
the spinal marrow to the vastus internus, vastus externus, sartorius,
and other muscles, and obtained strong contractions
in all these muscles. Having removed the arcs and the pile,
the muscles retained a small oscillatory motion, which continued
for ten minutes. I observed the same phænomenon in
the muscles of the neck, when I established an arc between
the spinal marrow and various other parts of the trunk.
Pg 75
EXPERIMENT XXXVI.
Having applied the arc to the spinal marrow and the uncovered
muscles of the under part of the tarsus of the right
foot, the extensor muscles of all the toes, and particularly
of the great toe, experienced very sensible contractions. I
repeated the experiment with the arc applied, not to the spinal
marrow, but to the uncovered muscles of the thigh, employed
in the preceding experiment, and found the contractions
excited to be much stronger. In like manner, the
muscles of the soles of the feet, when I established an arc
between them and the muscles of the thigh, manifested
much stronger contractions than when the arc extended to
any other distant part.
EXPERIMENT XXXVII.
Having examined the force of the contractions, when the
arcs were applied to the surface of the muscles of the extremities,
I tried what effect would be produced by introducing
them into their substance. In this case, the energy of the
contractions was much increased.
EXPERIMENT XXXVIII.
After trying the action of Galvanism on the extremities,
Pg 76
I resolved to examine the trunk. With this view, having established
an arc from the spinal marrow to the muscles of
the diaphragm, I obtained very sensible contractions every
time the arc was applied.
EXPERIMENT XXXIX.
I then caused the thorax to be opened, that I might try
the effects of Galvanism on the most important of all the
muscles, the heart. The pericardium having been detached,
I applied the conductor to the principal organ of life, and I
even caused it to be opened, to examine whether there existed
in any of its folds some fibre susceptible of oscillation;
but my researches were fruitless. This insensibility ought,
perhaps, to be ascribed to the want of a certain degree of
heat and of animal moisture, not to be found in a body two
hours after death. It will, therefore, be proper to repeat
this experiment, taking care to observe all those conditions
which may be necessary to ensure its success.
EXPERIMENT XL.
In the preceding experiment I observed that the diaphragm
contracted, and that the blood, which after this
phænomenon I supposed to be coagulated, flowed on the
contrary from the vena cava inferior, and the jugular veins,
the moment the arc was applied, and appeared of a bright red
Pg 77
colour. Is there reason to conjecture that, though great contractions
cannot be produced, it is possible to excite in the interior
parts of the heart some oscillations analogous to those
which I observed in the muscles of the thigh and neck? This
question can be determined only by new experiments.
EXPERIMENT XLI.
I observed in these experiments, that the more the points
of contact of the arc with the biceps muscle were multiplied,
the more the motion of the arm was extended; especially
when care was taken to insulate the muscle by
removing the integuments, and surrounding it with the wire
bent in the form of a ring. Having applied arcs to the biceps
muscle of each arm, I was much surprised to see the
fore-arm and hand of the extremity, where the before-mentioned
ring was placed, rise quickly to the height of about
six inches.
EXPERIMENT XLII.
I repeated the experiment, forming the arc from the biceps
muscle of the fore-arm to the spinal marrow. By these
means contractions so violent were excited, that the anterior
part of the arm, the whole of which lay extended in a
horizontal position, rose seven inches above the plane of
the table. Having placed on the palm of the hand a metallic
body, such as a piece of money, the hand at first supported
Pg 78
it for a little time; but at a certain degree of elevation
it projected it to some distance. I then substituted
for the piece of money a pair of iron pincers, about
half a pound in weight; the hand rose up and seemed to
seize them; but at the highest degree of elevation the contraction
ceased, and the pincers fell. I observed that the
weight with which the hand was loaded, diminished the elevating
power of the arm very little. It may be proper to
remark, that the last two experiments were performed an
hour and a quarter after the execution, and those on the
lower extremities almost two hours.
If this experiment were speedily repeated, in order to
take advantage of the highest degree of vitality, loading the
hand with different weights in succession, till the motion of
the hand should be totally impeded, I am of opinion that
an estimate might be formed of the elevating force, according
to the different degrees of vitality.
In the preceding experiments I have omitted certain observations,
which did not agree with those made on other
warm-blooded animals. But my silence deranges no theory;
and, besides, facts not sufficiently confirmed would have
led me into physiological discussions of little utility, as these
points can be determined only by new experiments.
It is painful to a philosopher to reflect, that his doubts
cannot be cleared up until new victims shall fall under the
sword of justice; but the hope that his researches may lead
Pg 79
to some new discovery beneficial to mankind, in a physiological
point of view, lessens in a certain measure the disagreeable
sensations excited by these melancholy scenes.
An assassin decapitated at Bologna, in the month of January
1802, afforded me an opportunity of verifying the
truth of my former observations. In my first experiments on
the human body, the dura and pia mater had been so little
affected, that several of those present concluded that these
parts were absolutely insensible to the action of the Galvanic
pile; and this opinion was still further strengthened by the
authority of several able anatomists. On the other hand, many
warm-blooded animals, as will be seen hereafter, afforded
contrary results. It is certain that nature, which is always
consistent with itself in the action of that general principle
which excites the muscular forces, ought to exhibit in the
human body the same phænomena as those which constantly
occur in other warm-blooded animals. I mentioned this
anomaly to several of my colleagues, and particularly to
that able anatomist Mondini, who, having made researches
on this subject, communicated to me the result of them,
and directed all the preparations necessary for the following
experiments, modified according to the general views collected
in the preceding observations.
EXPERIMENT XLIII.
The body of the criminal having been removed from the
Pg 80
place of execution to a neighbouring apartment, the trunk
was placed on one table, and the head on another. On the
latter stood a pile, composed of a hundred plates of zinc
and copper, and on the former, a pile of a hundred plates
of silver and zinc. This apparatus tended greatly to facilitate
the rapid performance of the experiments, which were
made at the same time on all the parts of the body, and enabled
us to take advantage of its great vitality. I had with
me a select company of young physicians and surgeons, who,
being much interested in the progress of Galvanism, assisted
me with great ardour. They were divided into two parties,
each of which was stationed around one of the tables, in
order that the operations performed at the one might not
interrupt those at the other. To gratify Professor Mondini,
who was desirous of seeing the muscular action in the whole
head, an arc was established from the spinal marrow to one
of the ears, the pile being interposed between them, and
strong contractions were produced in the whole face, as had
been the case in all the other animals.
EXPERIMENT XLIV.
Having sawn through the scull with every possible precaution,
and an arc being established from the dura mater
to one of the ears, the usual contractions ensued. The pia
mater was then uncovered, and, by employing the same
means, the same results and the same effects were produced
as had been obtained in other animals.
Pg 81
EXPERIMENT XLV.
The cortical substance in the left hemisphere was uncovered,
and an arc being extended from it to the right ear,
the movements of the face were exceedingly sensible in the
part opposite to the uncovered hemisphere. I repeated the
experiment different ways with the same results, and found,
as I suspected, that this process put an end to the anomaly
observed in regard to the membranes and cortical substance,
which at first seemed to withstand the general action of
the Galvanic fluid, though it produced an effect on the other
parts of the brain. Dr. Mondini took care to remove the
superfluous moisture, both from the membranes and cortical
substance, in order to prevent all suspicion that it might facilitate
a communication, in any manner, with the medullary
substance.
EXPERIMENT XLVI.
Dr. Mondini, with his usual ability, having exposed in
the brain the medullary substance, the corpora striata, the
corpus callosum, the thalami nervorum opticorum, and the
cerebellum, and an arc being formed of all these parts, we
fully confirmed the results of the experiments which had been
before made on the bodies of other criminals.
Pg 82
EXPERIMENT XLVII.
Having observed these phænomena in the head, we proceeded
to the trunk, which gave us results no less interesting.
The body was sound and robust, and indicated a constitution
replete with vital energy. By forming an arc from the
spinal marrow to the biceps muscle, very strong movements
were produced throughout the whole body, and particularly
in the arm, which could not be bent without very great
exertion.
EXPERIMENT XLVIII.
By again applying the arc, according to the method detailed
in the 41st experiment, the violence of the contractions
was much increased. The trunk was thrown into
strong convulsions; the shoulders were elevated in a sensible
manner; and the hands were so agitated that they beat
against the table which supported the body.
EXPERIMENT XLIX.
A silver probe was inserted into the spinal marrow, and
one of the hands immersed in a solution of muriate of soda.
I then applied one extremity of the arc to the most distant
part of the probe, and the other to the surface of the water,
by which means the Galvanism was made to exercise its action
Pg 83
without any immediate contact of the animal parts.
When this arrangement was formed, the arm, which hung
over the edge of the table, moved towards the breast, passing
over the space of about a foot and a half. By employing,
at the same time, the two piles composed of a hundred
plates of copper and zinc, the contractions were much increased.
But this augmentation of force did not exactly
follow the ratio of the combined activity of the two piles
united.
EXPERIMENT L.
By forming an arc from the feet to the spinal marrow,
first applying armatures, and then employing a solution of
muriate of soda as in the preceding experiments, I obtained
contractions, but weaker than those in the upper extremities.
As there was reason to suspect that this diminution
arose in part from the position of the trunk, I placed the
body in such a manner, that, while the thighs rested on the
edge of the table, the legs, which hung over it, were at full
liberty to move. This difference in position produced a difference
in the results; and I intend to repeat the experiment,
according to this arrangement, applying the arc directly
to the crural nerves.
EXPERIMENT LI.
A small portion of the great pectoral muscle being detached
Pg 84
from the ribs, and exposed to the action of the
pile, exhibited strong contractions, and the motion of the
diaphragm was also very remarkable. The heart alone,
though carefully subjected to all the operations detailed in
the 47th experiment, remained perfectly motionless.
EXPERIMENT LII.
Having brought the separated head near to the neck of
the trunk, I established a communication between it and
the trunk by means of the animal moisture alone; and an
arc being then formed from the head to different parts of
the trunk, sensible contractions were produced, and particularly
in the latter. This observation seems still further to
prove that an arc of moisture has power to excite muscular
contractions. In this, as well as in the preceding experiments,
if any of the spectators, while an arc was established by
means of the pile, brought a frog prepared in the usual
manner near to the human body, the frog experienced
strong contractions, though at a distance from the place to
which the action of the Galvanism was determined.
EXPERIMENT LIII.
After three hours had been employed in these experiments,
I conceived the idea of trying the action of Galvanism
on some parts of the body separated from the trunk.
Pg 85
One of the legs, therefore, was amputated six inches above
the joint of the knee; and an arc being established from a
point in the plane of the section to the knee, I obtained
contractions similar to those which had been produced before
the limb was separated from the body. I then formed
an arc of moisture, by applying the amputated limb to the
trunk; and having determined the action of the pile to the
spinal marrow and the foot, I obtained very sensible contractions.
I observed, on this occasion, that a frog, prepared
some time before, and which was accidentally lying
on the table, at each application of the metallic arcs moved
like an electrometer, and thus confirmed the action of an
arc of moisture.
EXPERIMENT LIV.
After a considerable time had been employed in the preceding
experiment, I endeavoured to revive the action of
the Galvanism by moistening the muscles with a solution of
opium. By these means the contractions seemed to be increased;
and the case was the same in other warm-blooded
animals. A series of similar experiments, if carefully made,
would no doubt be attended with important results; as
they might enable us to ascertain the action of the different
stimulants proposed by Dr. Brown. But I must, in
the mean time, observe, that the before-mentioned effects
of opium fully correspond with those long ago observed
by Galvani.
Pg 86
It results, in general, from my experiments, that moisture
performs a conspicuous part in producing contractions; and
that it is even of more importance than animal heat. I indeed
find that muscular contractions may be obtained after
the body has thrown out a great deal of its heat, even when
it has cooled for several hours, and when it has been exposed
to a temperature below zero; for, if Galvanism be communicated
to a body in that state, muscular contractions
will be immediately excited; but they soon cease by the
privation of animal moisture. If a muscle, indeed, which
has been laid bare resists the Galvanic influence, its action
may be speedily renewed by making an incision into
it, or into some of the muscles which surround it. I can
assert, that by this process partial contractions were produced
in the human body five hours after death, every time
that the arcs were applied to the muscular fibres.
Being worn out with this long series of experiments,
I found it necessary to abandon them; but, from the force
of the contractions, it could easily be seen that they might
have been produced much longer.
Having communicated these results to the celebrated
Caldani, Professor of Anatomy in the University of Padua,
he requested that I would confirm the observations I had
made by again applying Galvanism to the membranes and to
the cortical substance of the brain. He was unwilling to give
up the system of Haller without very positive proofs; and his
doubts were to me of great utility, as they induced me to
Pg 87
establish the action of Galvanism on these parts by the following
experiments:
EXPERIMENT LV.
As these doubts related to a delicate point, which would
have produced some variation in the theory of a celebrated
physiologist, I repeated the experiment on the head of an
ox newly killed, in the presence of Professor Mondini, who
made the necessary preparations. The dura mater was laid
bare; and the action of the Galvanism being conducted to
it, strong contractions were immediately produced. The
same phænomenon took place when the cortical substance
was brought into contact with one of the arcs. I repeated
this experiment with the same success on the heads of several
oxen and lambs.
EXPERIMENT LVI.
When I passed through Turin, Professors Vassalli, Giulio,
and Rossi requested me to perform, in their presence, my
principal experiments, and those in particular which related to
the membranes and the cortical substance of the brain. They
observed, at the same time, that in uncovering the brain of
an ox with a cleaver, some derangement, in consequence of
the agitation, might be effected in that organ, which would
perhaps produce an alteration in the results. Professors
Giulio and Rossi proposed therefore to uncover the brain
by the trepan, which gave a greater degree of precision to
Pg 88
the experiment. The dura mater of an ox being uncovered
in this manner, it was subjected to the action of
Galvanism, and even with this mode of preparation the muscular
contractions every time the arc was applied were pretty
strong. The arc being determined to the cortical substance,
the force of the contractions seemed to be increased; and in
general they appeared to be more considerable in proportion
as the arc was plunged to a greater depth into the substance
of the brain.
These gentlemen, in whose presence I performed my
principal experiments, having pursued my method after my
departure, made some observations which may be of great
use to physiology. They had before entertained strong doubts
whether the heart was susceptible of the Galvanic action, by
means of simple armatures applied to the different parts of
that muscle; and such irregularity had been observed in the
results, that it appeared difficult to determine the question.
I was therefore exceedingly happy that I had had an opportunity
of exciting in others a desire to make new researches
in regard to this point, of so much importance. Professors
Vassalli, Giulio and Rossi repeated and modified my experiments
on the heart in such a manner, that they obtained
in man, and warm-blooded animals, contractions similar
to those which I had observed only in cold-blooded
animals. I wait for a detailed account of these experiments,
as well as of others made on decapitated criminals[2], which
Pg 89
were subjected to my processes. The bodies were removed
to the large hospital; and notwithstanding the long period
which had elapsed between the time of the execution and
that when the experiments were performed, they observed
almost the same phænomena.
The observation made on this criminal, that the vital
powers exist so long in the body after death, induces me to
hope that I shall be able to obtain similar results by the
application of my method, in common cases of suspended
animation. But when employed for this laudable purpose it
should be modified in such a manner as to render unnecessary
those operations which are so painful to humanity. On
this account, I have invented a method by which muscular
contractions may be produced without the least incision
or separation of the muscles. It is so combined,
that it cannot be rejected by the most rigorous medical
jurisprudence.
EXPERIMENT LVII.
In order to try the vital force existing in the human body
after death, I immerse the hand in a solution of muriate of
soda, and establish an arc, one of the extremities of which
is made to pass round the fore-arm, while the other is
brought into contact with the bottom of the pile. I adapt
to the extremity of another arc an elastic probe, which is
applied to one of the ears, moistened by means of a syringe
Pg 90
with the same solution, and connect the other extremity
of the arc with the summit of the pile. By this arrangement
various contractions, according to the different degrees
of vitality in the bodies, are observed, sometimes in the
fingers, sometimes in the hand, and sometimes in the whole
arm. The fingers bend, and move in a sensible manner;
and sometimes the whole of the fore-arm proceeds towards
the breast. The importance of this method for determining
the duration of the vital powers after death may be readily
comprehended. Should means be found hereafter to make
further discoveries in regard to this interesting point, physiologists
may then be able to determine with certainty those
cases when interment ought to be retarded; and those where
the good of society requires that every possible means of
resuscitation should be employed. In the large hospital of
Bologna, I made several observations on this subject; and
remarked in particular, how much the nature of the disease
contributes, cæteris paribus, to produce a difference in the
duration of the muscular contractions. I tried the case of
death produced by putrid fevers, by pleurisies, by wounds
in the pericardium, by the scurvy, and by the consequences
of parturition; and I found a great difference in the degrees of
vitality, according to the circumstances of the disease, the
age and temperament of the individual; which confirms me
in the opinion I entertain, that these experiments, if long
continued without intermission by able physiologists, might
be of the greatest benefit to medicine.
Pg 91
These researches are not an object of mere curiosity;
they seem to open an extensive field for promoting the welfare
of the human race, and may be of service in cases of
apparent death, occasioned by an alteration of the brain,
and sometimes in cases of asphyxia. Various learned academies
are entitled to great praise for having turned their attention
to this subject, and for having already recommended
different stimulants as proper for being used on such occasions.
But I must take the liberty of requesting that in
similar cases the action of Galvanism maybe tried, by employing
the new method here proposed. It is of great importance
that the means of affording relief to the sufferings
of mankind should be multiplied, and especially in cases in
which the old system of medicine presents to us so few
resources. In the mean time I conceive it may be useful to
make some trials on animals thrown into a state of asphyxia
different ways. These researches may lead to valuable discoveries,
and produce some light to direct us in our attempts
to save the lives of men. If the encouragement I have received
from the medical and philosophical world, in general,
induce others to pursue the same path, it will give me great
satisfaction. Galvanism is yet in its infancy; and when we
reflect on the slow progress which many other branches of
science have made, and how long they remained almost stationary
before the full importance of them was known, it
would be presumption to set bounds to that which is the
subject of the present work. For my part, I spared no pains
during my short stay at Paris to exhibit my method, and
Pg 92
to make it publicly known. Dr. Pinel assisted at my experiments
with the utmost zeal, and was witness to muscular
contractions excited in the body of an old woman, who had
died of a malignant putrid fever. The interest which he
took in my researches induced me to communicate to him
several plans I had formed for giving relief to some of those
unfortunate beings committed to his skill and beneficent care
in the Hôpital des Foux. I pointed out to him some particular
cases where the individuals, in consequence of a deep
rooted melancholy, were reduced almost to a state of idiotism,
and in which Galvanism seemed likely to be attended with
the greatest benefit. In the last public sitting of the Institute
of Bologna, at which I was present, I announced the
complete cure of two lunatics performed in the Public Hospital,
in the presence of many of the medical pupils, and
with the assistance of the professors who superintend that
establishment, and who are now employed in confirming my
method on other patients. I am well aware that two cures
are not sufficient to make operations of this kind be admitted
as general remedies; but they ought to encourage physicians
to prosecute this subject in order to ascertain how far Galvanism
can be considered as of utility in such cases, and to
endeavour by their labours to fill up the vacuity which still
exists in this part of medicine. I am ready to acknowledge
that great caution ought to be employed in performing such
experiments; and for this reason I purpose, in the third
part of the present work, to lay before the reader the reflections
and observations of various ingenious men who
Pg 93
have made this department of Galvanism an object of their
researches.
But before I proceed further, I think it necessary to deduce
from what has been already said a few general corollaries.
COROLLARY I.
The muscles are affected by the action of the pile in a
much more powerful manner when they are laid entirely
bare, and when the arc is made to penetrate to a considerable
depth in their substance.
COROLLARY II.
These convulsions are increased in proportion to the
number of the points of contact between the arc and the
muscle.
COROLLARY III.
In many cases, muscular contractions are obtained by
forming an arc from one muscle to another.
COROLLARY IV.
Muscular contractions are almost always speedily obtained
by the pile, even when the means proposed by Haller fail to
produce them.
Pg 94
COROLLARY V.
The heart, which, according to Haller’s principle, is the
first muscle that receives life and the last to lose it, in comparison
of the other muscles, can with difficulty be made to
feel the influence of the Galvanic action; while the other
muscles always retain, a long time after death, that vital
force which it has never been found possible to excite but
by the impulse of Galvanism.
COROLLARY VI.
The partisans of Haller, to excite these contractions, often
employ stimulants, which alter the texture of the muscular
fibre, and destroy its continuity; an inconvenience which
may be avoided by applying Galvanism.
COROLLARY VII.
As the kinds of apparatus before mentioned are not applied
to the spinal marrow alone, but to the different nerves
of the animal machine, they may afford to the anatomist an
experimental myology; by means of which he can render
sensible to the eye the fixed and moveable points of the muscles,
and the real extent of their action.
Pg 95
COROLLARY VIII.
The experiments made on the bodies of persons who
died a natural death, are of the greatest importance to physiology.
I am strongly inclined to think that, by pursuing
these researches more in detail, they will one day make us
better acquainted with the character of the vital powers, and
the difference of their duration, according to diversity of sex,
age, temperament and disease, and even according to diversity
of climate and to the nature of the atmosphere.
Pg 97
PART THE THIRD.
ON THE POWER OF GALVANISM AS APPLIED TO
MEDICINE.
If the doctrine of Galvanism have thrown considerable
light on various parts of philosophy and chemistry, it gives
us reason to hope that it may also be of benefit to medicine.
The labours indeed of Galvani, whose most ardent desire was
that his discovery might be rendered useful to mankind, were
at length directed to this object, and his wishes now begin
to be realized; but I must request the reader not to be
too sanguine in his expectations, or to imagine that I here
mean to entertain him with a long series of wonderful or extraordinary
cures performed by means of Galvanism. I have
no intention to decorate the discovery of my late uncle with
false glory. Though I possess neither the same depth of
knowledge, nor the same superiority of talents, I have always
endeavoured to imitate his moderation and prudence in the
application of his theory. I am fully convinced that much
still remains to be done, in order to discover the best methods
of employing this new agent; and that the facts respecting
Pg 98
it, though numerous, have not been reduced to principles
sufficiently certain and satisfactory. There are, nevertheless,
some results and observations exceedingly curious,
which, if confirmed by new experiments and researches, may
enable us to obtain convincing proofs of its utility. New facts,
however surprising, are not to be despised merely on account
of their being different from any before observed. Those who
reject them, as some have done, ought first to show that they
are inconsistent with the principles of sound philosophy.
Guided by these reflections, and desirous of contributing,
as far as possible, towards the illustration of a new and very
obscure subject, I shall lay before the reader the result of
my researches in the following articles.
Pg 99
SECTION I.
Advantages which the medical administration of Galvanism
has over that of common electricity.
Several reasons have induced me to prefer the medical
administration of Galvanism by means of the pile, to that
of artificial electricity. In regard to the action of the common
electric machine, the difficulty of calling it forth properly
during damp weather; the time required for exciting
it; the necessity of charging the jar every time it is applied
to the patient, are so many obstacles which render the administration
of common electricity inconvenient; and on this
account it is now much less used than formerly. On the
other hand the pile, according to the observations which I
have had an opportunity of making, acts in a uniform manner;
is not sensible to the effects of moisture; and forms a
sort of Leyden flask, which has a continued action that
may be a long time employed. It may be considered as an
apparatus, which in itself contains a series of jars charged in
succession with different degrees of electricity.
I might here enumerate many differences which are
found between the administration of Galvanism and that of
electricity. If electricity be administered to a patient directly
Pg 100
from the conductor, he receives very little of its action;
if a shock be given with the Leyden flask, the action
is exceedingly strong, but not permanent. On the other
hand, the pile has a strong and continued action, and occasions
a powerful circulation of the Galvanic matter, which
after some time produces very striking effects on the animal
fluids. I might here refer, by way of example, to the experiments
made with Galvanism on the blood, the bile, and the
urine, which gave results I was never able to obtain by common
electricity. I shall mention, in the last place, the great
convenience of the pile, and the short space of time in which
Galvanism may be administered by it to a great number of
persons; and this advantage is sufficient, cæteris paribus, to
render it preferable in this respect to common electricity.
Pg 101
SECTION II.
Application of Galvanism to the organs of hearing and of
sight.
By applying Galvanism to different parts of the face, a
flash of light is excited in the eyes, which is stronger or
weaker according to the nature of the parts to which it is directed.
These organs, though delicate, are always affected
in such a manner that the mechanism of the eye sustains
no injury from the metallic arcs when they are made to communicate
with only two plates of different metals. I received
an account of this phænomenon at Milan, several years ago,
from the celebrated Volta, who produced it by applying a
conductor of zinc in such a manner, that one end of it
touched the bulb of the eye, and the other the tip of the
tongue armed with a plate of tin. In administering Galvanism
for diseases of the eyes, it is much better to employ the
pile. To excite the appearance of a flash of light, it is not
necessary that the eyes should be open; it takes place even
if they are shut, and covered with a bandage in a darkened
apartment. Some of the partisans of Euler, perhaps, may
here maintain, that this phænomenon of Galvanism is a deception,
and that no light can be really excited in such
cases, as the production of light depends on the emanation
Pg 102
of rays from a luminous body which penetrate into the interior
part of the eye. But without entering into the examination
of this question, which is foreign to my principal object,
I shall only observe, that long before the theory of Galvanism
was known, the celebrated Darwin had found that
when the eyes are shut, there are certain internal stimulants
which are capable of producing the appearance of light and
of colours.
In no case is the difference between Galvanism and electricity
more apparent than in the application of the former
to the sight. Very little benefit had been obtained by means
of a metallic point inclosed in a glass tube, which directed
the electric charge from a jar to the cornea; and besides,
the shock of a Leyden jar applied directly to so delicate an
organ as the eye could not but be attended with danger.
Galvanism applied to the exterior part of the eye, in the
same place where a stream of electricity would have had no
influence whatever, has always produced a certain effect on
the organ of sight, as is proved by the following experiments.
EXPERIMENT I.
If you touch with one hand the bottom of the pile, and
at the same time apply to the summit different parts of the
face moistened with salt water, a flash of light will be excited
in the eyes. The same result will be obtained, if instead
of touching the bottom of the pile with the hand you touch
Pg 103
it with the sole of your foot. No flash of light is observed
when the Leyden flask is employed in the same manner.
EXPERIMENT II.
Having observed the preceding phænomenon in myself,
and excited it in others, I was desirous of proving it in regard
to several persons at the same time during the course
of my public lectures, and for that purpose I made use of
the following apparatus. I arranged two metallic plates in a
horizontal position, at the distance of nine inches from each
other, so that six persons with their hands dipped in salt
water could touch the lower plate, and the upper one with
the tips of their tongue. A charged Leyden flask placed
between the two plates being then discharged, the whole
of the persons experienced a violent shock, but perceived no
flash of light. It is well known however that, when a similar
arc is formed with the interposition of a very strong pile, a
flash of light is constantly observed; though the force in the
second case is much less than that excited by the explosion of
the Leyden flask. The same result will be obtained by bringing
the upper plate into contact with the nose.
EXPERIMENT III.
As my pupils took much interest in this research, some of
them suspected that the light of the apartment might perhaps
Pg 104
have effaced that excited by the electricity. I therefore
made the apartment entirely dark; and one of them taking
a Leyden flask applied it to the point of the nose of another
person with whom he was in communication, by laying
hold of him with the other hand. By these means a very
strong shock was given, but no flash of light was observed.
This experiment was repeated, making the person who received
the shock of the Leyden flask to remain some time
before in the dark, that his eyes might be better enabled
to perceive any faint light that might be excited: but the
result was still the same. To those who refer Galvanism to
the common laws of electricity, it will be difficult to comprehend
the cause of the different action exercised by the
latter on the organ of sight. But as it is not my intention at
present to enter into any discussion on this subject, I shall
leave it to philosophers to assign a reason for this phænomenon,
and only observe, that the properties above indicated
will be sufficient to authorize medical practitioners to prefer,
in certain cases, the administration of Galvanism by the pile
to that of common electricity.
Before I proceed directly to the medical administration
of Galvanism to the organ of sight, I think it necessary to
distinguish four classes of blind persons whose cases ought to
be considered separately.
The first belongs to those who from their birth have been
deprived of the valuable blessing of sight.
Pg 105
The second comprehends those become blind in consequence
of some great læsion, or some derangement in the
solids or in the fluids which constitute the mechanism of
the eye.
The third, those who have become blind by some morbid
action, though the mechanism of the eye has been little
affected, and though no impediment has occurred but in regard
to the action of the optic nerve.
The fourth class comprehends those who, though not actually
deprived of sight, have it much weakened in consequence
of disease, or of some other cause.
The administration of Galvanism does not hold forth much
hope of a cure to persons belonging to the first two classes. I
however resolved to attempt some experiments on this subject
at Bologna; but though there were a great many blind in that
city, I found that they had become so by the malignant influence
of the small pox. This observation will, I hope, be
of service to the pursuits of the celebrated Dr. Jenner, and
of all those who exert themselves to promote the beneficial
practice of vaccine inoculation.
Being deprived, at Bologna, of any opportunity of trying
the effects of Galvanism in cases of persons born blind,
I galvanised several who had lost their sight at a very early
age. I first applied the Galvanism to the arms of five blind
Pg 106
persons, some of whom had lost their sight thirty, and others
forty years and even more. By this method they were familiarised
with the idea of its mechanical action, and learned
to distinguish it from every other sensation. I then applied
Galvanism to the lips, and to the tip of the nose, in a
darkened apartment; but in three instances only the patients
had a real perception of light, to which they had been
so long strangers. I then applied it to cases of amaurosis, and
at first had confident expectation of effecting a perfect cure.
One of my patients was a woman, whom this disorder had deprived
of the sight of one eye, while that of the other was
much weakened. After administering the Galvanism different
ways, I observed that the eye totally blind began to have
a perception of light, and that the sight of the one which
was weakened became much stronger. I then took a book,
which I held at a considerable distance from her; and removing
it gradually further as the Galvanism was administered, I
observed, in consequence of this method, that the patient’s
sight daily improved. But I must freely confess that the
success obtained, though at first flattering, was not of long
duration; and that when the Galvanism was discontinued a
great deal of the benefit which had been obtained was again
lost. On this account, I was discouraged from administering
Galvanism any more in such cases. I am however of
opinion, that by varying the method of administration it
may be attended with some utility. I shall here observe,
that having once had occasion to administer common electricity
in a similar case of amaurosis, I was never able to
Pg 107
excite the perception of a flash in the eyes of the patient,
though the electricity was applied directly to the eye itself.
I have had few opportunities of applying Galvanism in
diseases of the organs of hearing. Besides, I thought it almost
needless to try a method which had been already brought
to a state of perfection by some of the most celebrated professors
of Germany and Berlin. I admired in particular a
very ingenious machine, invented for that purpose by a German
philosopher, and lately constructed in England by Mr.
John Cuthbertson, an eminent philosophical and mathematical
instrument maker, and celebrated for having constructed
the large electrical machine of Harlem. The apparatus
consists of a metal lever, which by means of certain
wheels and machinery rises and falls every minute or second,
and at each time of falling forms a communication between
certain parts of the patient and the pile. In consequence
of this arrangement, the interrupted action of the Galvanism
is renewed every time that the communication between
the patient and the pile is re-established. Before my departure
from London, I made several changes and improvements
in the usual construction of this apparatus, in order
to give it as much simplicity as possible. The following is
the manner in which I caused it to be constructed lately for
my own use. One extremity of the lever which forms the
communication (Plate III. fig. 1.), is fixed to the base or
negative end of the pile, and the other terminates in a small
hammer, so placed as to strike a bell, which by means of a
Pg 108
bason of water is in communication with certain parts of
the patient, while an arc extends from the patient to the
summit or positive end of the pile. In consequence of this
arrangement, every time that the small hammer strikes the
bell the Galvanic action of the pile is repeated. In cases
of deafness, I cause the patient to hold in one hand an insulated
metallic arc, one end of which is brought into contact
with the affected ear, and the other with the positive
end of the pile; and to immerse the other hand in a bason
of salt water placed above the bell. When this disposition
has been made, the wheel-work is turned round,
which gives motion to the lever; and every time that the
hammer strikes the bell, a communication is formed between
the positive and negative ends of the pile: consequently
there will then be a circulation of the fluid, and the Galvanism
will exercise a direct action on the organ of hearing.
The apparatus, constructed in this manner, appears to me
to be reduced to great simplicity: and therefore I propose
to extend the use of it, by employing it to administer medical
Galvanism to other diseased parts of the body.
Before I conclude this article, I must suggest a hint respecting
the application of Galvanism to diseases of the
teeth, founded on information communicated to me on this
subject by Mr. Fowler, an eminent dentist of London. When
the caries is concealed from the sight, Mr. Fowler employs the
following method to discover the affected tooth. He first
insulates the patient; and having put into his hand the electric
Pg 109
chain, he applies a small piece of wire to the dens sapientiæ,
drawing it gradually over its surface: he then applies it
to the next tooth, repeating the operation, and proceeds in
like manner with the rest till he comes to the diseased tooth,
which discovers itself by a violent pain producing an involuntary
commotion in the body. It is always remarked, that
when this tooth is extracted it exhibits a carious part not
before visible. This method, therefore, is of great importance,
as it frequently happens in such cases that the dentist,
not being able to distinguish the diseased tooth from the rest,
is obliged to draw some that are sound before he can discover
it.
Pg 110
SECTION III.
Application of Galvanism in cases of asphyxia and drowning.
I mentioned in the second part of this work the great
influence which Galvanism has in cases of asphyxia, and
the preference which ought to be given to it in comparison
of other stimulants. Though the observations offered in that
part are sufficient to prove my proposition, I shall add to
them the following experiments:
EXPERIMENT I.
Some dogs and cats were immersed in a large pond till
they gave no external signs of respiration, or of muscular
motion; and Galvanism being immediately administered to
them, according to the methods already described, they were
sometimes restored to life. I make use of the term ‘sometimes,’
because, if animals are immersed in water for a longer
period than their organization can bear, and if the vital
powers are really destroyed, it is evident that it will be impossible
to restore them to life by any physical process whatever.
I obtained the same results from to animals thrown into
a state of asphyxia in different ways.
Pg 111
EXPERIMENT II.
Having applied Galvanism to the trunk of a dog, in the
Hôpital de la Charité at Paris, air seemed to escape from the
tracheal artery on every application of the arc. Being requested
to repeat and confirm this interesting experiment,
I found myself under the necessity of sacrificing a new victim
to my Galvanic researches. As it was necessary to examine
the phænomenon while the body was in that state of vitality
most proper for the observation, I exposed the trunk
of another dog recently killed to the Galvanic action; and
having placed a taper near to the tracheal artery, it was extinguished
twice in succession by two applications of Galvanism.
By repeating this experiment, in Mr. Wilson’s anatomical
theatre, Great Windmill-street, and in the theatres
of Guy’s and St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, I found that
the taper could be extinguished a greater number of times.
These experiments give me sufficient reason to hope that
Galvanism may be administered with some advantage in
cases of drowning. But as I never had an opportunity of
trying the effects of this stimulant in such cases, I have requested
several medical practitioners to pay attention to this
application of Galvanism, which may be of the utmost importance
to the cause of humanity. I have already mentioned
that the method which I propose is exceedingly simple;
that no anatomical operation whatever is required; that it
is attended with no danger; and that the possibility of saving
Pg 112
the life is in every case respected. Nothing is necessary but
to immerse in salt water one of the hands of the person subjected
to the operation, and then to apply the Galvanic current
to one of the ears and to the surface of the salt water.
Dr. Lettsom, a very zealous member of the Humane
Society, having been present at some of my experiments, I
requested that he would recommend the application of
Galvanism in cases of drowning. He assured me that he
would use his endeavours to cause my method to be tried,
and I had several conferences with him on the subject, that I
might communicate to him such information as might tend
to facilitate the application of it. As the Galvanism in such
cases ought to be administered with great promptitude, we
agreed that the apparatus of the trough is preferable to that
of the pile; and we contrived the plan of a portable box to
contain a trough, two arcs, and a solution of common salt.
Such an apparatus will be exceedingly convenient, and may
easily be employed in all cases of drowning and of asphyxia.
Pg 113
SECTION IV.
Galvanism applied to the cure of melancholy madness.
Hospitals for lunatics present a spectacle which must
excite compassion in every breast not void of humanity, as
they are in general crowded with unfortunate beings, useless
to themselves and dangerous to others; while little hope is
left of their being ever restored to society. This is the case
in particular with persons subject to melancholy madness;
on some of whom I tried last year the effects of Galvanism.
In consequence of a long series of painful and disagreeable
experiments made on myself, I was induced to entertain
great hopes from this remedy. I applied it to my ears
and to different parts of the head, in order that I might
form a just estimation of its power and influence on the
brain. It is well known that the strength and energy of
the operations of the mind depend on the state of the functions
of the brain. It is well known also, that a violent fall,
or strong impression on the head, has often occasioned great
variations in the intellectual faculties. By such accidents
some have entirely lost the power of imagination; while, on
the other hand, some have acquired very great talents, or
emerged from a state of complete stupidity. These considerations
gave me reason to hope that the power of Galvanism
Pg 114
might perhaps be able to produce a salutary change
in the brain in cases of melancholy madness. I communicated
my thoughts on this subject to the physicians who
superintend the hospital for lunatics at Bologna. They
approved of my ideas, and gave me every assistance in their
power to enable me to prosecute my researches. In their
presence, and under their direction, I administered Galvanism
to several lunatics, applying it different ways; and
the result was the complete cure of two who had laboured
under melancholy madness. As the method I followed in
both cases was nearly the same, I shall here give a description
of it, as it may serve as a general rule for the administration
of this remedy under similar circumstances.
Louis Lanzarini, of a phlegmatic temperament, twenty-seven
years of age, and a farmer by profession, fell into a
state of deep melancholy, which first announced itself by an
attack of fever; in consequence of which he was conveyed
to the public hospital of St. Ursula on the 17th of May
1801. When he arrived there, he began to complain of the
treatment he had received, and to show great uneasiness; by
which means his melancholy increased so much, that it at
length degenerated into real stupidity. While in this state,
Professors Gentilli and Palazzi were so kind as to allow me
to administer Galvanism to him; which I did in the presence
of these physicians, and of several medical students who attended
the hospital.
Pg 115
I had provided for this purpose a pile composed of eighty
pieces of silver and zinc, and I at first administered the Galvanism
gradually, forming the arc by means of the hands.
Lanzarini, in a state of the utmost dejection, viewed the apparatus
and the company present with his eyes fixed and
motionless. When interrogated by the physicians and myself
in regard to the origin of his malady, he gave laconic and
confused answers, which seemed to indicate a great degree
of stupidity and derangement. I first moistened his hands,
and formed an arc with the pile at different heights, to accustom
him to endure the action of the apparatus. No
change, however, was produced in the patient by this operation.
I then repeated the experiment, placing his hands,
moistened with salt water, at the bottom of the pile; and
conveying an arc from the summit of the pile to different
parts of his face, moistened with the same solution. A
change was soon observed in the patient’s countenance, and
his whole demeanour seemed to indicate that the degree of
his melancholy was somewhat lessened. The experiment was
repeated several times with the same success; which seems
to prove that Galvanism absolutely exercises an action in
such diseases. The patient being interrogated next day,
asserted that he had felt no inconvenience from the application
of the Galvanism; and this account was confirmed by
the keepers, who had been desired to give a report of the
least change that might take place. Similar results were obtained
by gradually administering the action of the pile
with greater force for several days successively, and we soon
Pg 116
began to observe that it produced a very striking effect.
The patient, on touching the apparatus, seemed to acquire
new spirits; a smile appeared on his countenance, and a
complete change took place in his eyes as well as in every
feature of his face. Instead of showing any aversion to the
pile, he readily obeyed whenever he was called to undergo
the operation; and his whole conduct indicated that he
found relief from the influence of the unknown agent which
it excited. He began to converse with more readiness, sometimes
respecting the machine, and sometimes on the flash of
light which appeared in his eyes when the arc was applied;
and on that account we conceived the most flattering hopes
of a complete cure. The result of this operation induced me
to administer the Galvanism even to the substance of the brain;
being convinced, as I have already remarked, that the Galvanic
fluid by this method of application exercises its action
with greater energy. I communicated my design to the Professors
of the hospital, and with their approbation began to
try the effects of a pile composed of fifteen plates of copper
and zinc. I formed an arc from one of the hands to one of
the ears, and then from one ear to another, having first
moistened them with a solution of muriate of soda. I increased
the number of plates of which the pile was composed,
and found that the patient was always more or less affected
with a momentary impression exceedingly painful, which
however seemed in the end to produce a good effect. When
Galvanism was administered in this manner, I did not
neglect to continue the application of the other method at
Pg 117
the same time; and I found that the progress of the cure
became more rapid. But as I observed that the action of
Galvanism on the ears was sometimes too violent, we thought
proper to apply it in a more moderate and less dangerous
manner. Several persons having been induced through curiosity
to try this action, the result, besides a violent commotion
of the whole substance of the brain against the skull,
was a state of watchfulness which continued several days
running, and which I experienced myself as well as others.
We then conceived the idea of shaving the head above the
suture of the parietal bone (Plate III. fig. 3.); and having
moistened the shaven part with salt water, a piece of gold
or silver coin was placed over it. The patient then touched
with one of his hands the bottom of the pile, and at the
same time an arc was established from the summit of the
pile to the metallic armature placed on the head. By this
arrangement the action of the Galvanism was rendered more
moderate; the patient endured it for a long time, and seemed
to be greatly relieved by it. I have always united this method
with external application to different parts of the face,
and have observed such sudden changes in the looks as
seemed to announce a considerable abatement of the disease.
Some of the physicians of Bologna, Professors Brugnatelli
and Zola of Pavia, and several other foreigners, examined
and confirmed the permanency of this effect. The patient,
therefore, not only got the better of his melancholy, but
began to relish his food, and at length recovered so much
Pg 118
strength that the physicians of the hospital thought nothing
further was necessary to complete the cure.
No other remedy besides Galvanism was administered to
him, lest the effects should be so confounded as to render it
impossible to tell to which the cure ought to be ascribed.
Two days, however, before he left the hospital a little blood
was taken from him; as it was conceived that this operation
might contribute to render the cure more certain.
On his leaving the hospital I carried him to my house,
that he might be fitted by proper nourishment for resuming
his former occupations. He remained with me eight days
in the quality of a domestic, during which time he was exceedingly
tractable, and performed his duty with great care
and attention. I had several conversations with him, in the
course of which I learned that his father, Fabian Lanzarini,
had been attacked by the same disease, and that he had been
admitted into the same hospital, where he died on the 12th
of June 1790. By inspecting the registers of the hospital,
I found this account to be perfectly correct.
Agreeably to the principles already established, in regard
to the treatment of madness, I advised Lanzarini to spend
the rest of his life at a distance from his native country, lest,
having continually before his eyes those objects which had
occasioned his disease, it might recur with double violence.
Pg 119
But though he had given me several proofs of his docility, I
found it impossible to persuade him to make this sacrifice.
A kind of nostalgia, perhaps, attached him to his former
master, to whom he returned, after paying a visit to the
curé of the parish. The latter, when he first saw him, imagined
he had run away from the hospital; but by his conversation
he was soon convinced of his being completely
cured. After this period, I obtained a regular report respecting
his behaviour and the state of his health, from the
above curé, and from the person who had paid all the expenses
of his residence in the hospital; and I learned, with
great satisfaction, that he continued to enjoy good health,
and to exercise his usual employment.
By the same treatment I cured, of a similar disorder,
Charles Bellini, a labourer, who was restored to society in
a shorter space of time, because the affection was not so
violent as in the preceding case. The phænomena which
took place when the patient was subjected to the action of
the pile, when the Galvanism was applied to the brain, and
during the whole progress of the cure, were nearly the same.
I must, however, freely acknowledge, that two cures are
not sufficient to establish the application of Galvanism as
an universal remedy in such cases. But on this account it
ought not to be rejected: at any rate it deserves further examination;
for it is well known that all remedies require certain
conditions before they can perform their effect. I have
therefore several times found it impossible to obtain the same
Pg 120
result in other patients afflicted with melancholy madness,
to whom I administered Galvanism; and in cases of raving
madness I have even found it dangerous. In some instances,
melancholy madness derives its origin from a certain
general constitution of the animal machine, or from
some great alteration in the brain; and it is evident that in
such cases the action of Galvanism would be of no avail.
But if the derangement of the intellectual functions depend
only on some humour intercepted between the membranes and
other parts of the brain, there is reason to hope that Galvanism,
if prudently administered, may be attended with great
benefit. The real cases in which it may be administered
with success, can be ascertained only by experience. I must
observe also, that the method of administering it is not yet
reduced to that state of simplicity, which is necessary before
it can be brought into regular use in large hospitals.
The physicians, under whose care they are placed, have in
general a great deal of private practice, and cannot conveniently
attend to operations which require a continued labour
for several months. Besides, the novelty of the remedy
is sufficient to excite a clamour against it, and to
awaken the prejudice of the assistants, who will even wish
to proscribe it before it has been tried. For this reason, I
think it necessary here to request, that those who preside
over establishments destined for the reception of such patients
would turn their attention to this subject, and endeavour
to reduce the method of applying Galvanism to the
utmost simplicity of which it is susceptible, in order that it
Pg 121
may be fit for being introduced into large hospitals. As the
patient often shows an aversion to this strange remedy, it
will be necessary to encourage him by every means possible.
Sometimes on observing the flash of light, when the Galvanism
is communicated, he cries out and is frightened;
imagining that he sees a devouring fire ready to consume
him, and on this account refuses to submit again to the operation.
It will, therefore, be proper to conceal from him
the apparatus, or to make a person show him the pile some
time before as an object of amusement, and in this manner
to prepare him for receiving its action. It will be of benefit
also sometimes to modify the action of the pile, and to render
it more moderate by a different method of application.
In the case of female patients I have found the result the
same, when the Galvanism, instead of being applied directly
to the interior part of the ears, was directed externally to
the gold pendents (Plate III. fig. 4.).
By considering the course generally pursued in curing
melancholy madness, hints may be suggested for an useful
application of Galvanism in that disease, and data may be
obtained sufficient to establish the different modes of application
best fitted to the different cases. These ideas have
engaged a good deal of my attention; and when I have
finished the observations I have been for some time collecting,
I flatter myself that I shall be able to communicate to
the public some interesting information on the subject.
In some cases of madness, as I found it impossible to apply
Pg 122
Galvanism to the hands, which were confined, I employed
the action of an arc directed to the mouth (Plate III. fig. 2.),
while another proceeded to one of the ears; or I applied a
piece of money to the head, and communicated the Galvanism
by the method already described (Plate III. fig. 3.).
It will even be necessary to try the effect of the Galvanic
current, sometimes continued, and sometimes interrupted by
means of the apparatus employed for diseases of the organs
of hearing. It will be proper, in many cases, to combine
moral with physical treatment, and not to neglect the other
methods already known and practised, which may be used as
very convenient auxiliaries.
Pg 123
SECTION V.
General reflections on the action and influence which Galvanism,
considered in a medical point of view, exercises on the
animal œconomy.
I shall not here speak of the variation in insensible perspiration,
and of the increase of circulation, which, according
to the observations of several physicians, are found to be
produced by Galvanism. Similar phænomena, as is well
known, take place during the administration of common
electricity. I shall therefore confine myself to those effects
which hitherto have been produced only by the action of
Galvanism. I shall observe in the first place, that Galvanism,
as already shown in the Experiments detailed in the Second
Part, is capable of effecting a separation of the fluids,
and even sometimes of protruding the fæcal matters from
the body. In the case of the decapitated malefactor, I
found that when the arc was applied to one ear and to the
lips, a very sensible portion of saliva was discharged from
the mouth. This observation was confirmed at Genoa on the
head of an ox, and in several other places on the heads of
sheep. The phænomenon of the extrusion of the fæcal matters
from the trunk of an ox, by means of Galvanism, was
Pg 124
observed also by Professor Mojon of Genoa, and his brother,
to take place in human bodies. Considering the animal
fluids separately, I have found that very great variations
are produced in them by Galvanism. But before I give an
account of the experiments which I made on this subject, I
shall describe the apparatus I employed.
The animal fluid destined to be exposed to the action
of Galvanism is put into a glass vessel (Plate III. fig. 6.)
covered by a wooden lid, having in it two holes equally distant
from the centre. Two wires, one of brass and the other
of plated copper, the upper extremities of which are bent
into the form of a hook, pass through these holes in such a
manner, that the lower extremities of them reach nearly to
the bottom of the vessel, where they are bent at right angles,
so that only a very small interval is left between them. The
upper extremity of one is made to communicate with the
bottom of the pile, and the other with the summit. In consequence
of this arrangement the Galvanic fluid is obliged to
traverse the animal fluid, by which means it exercises an
action on it according to the distance of the wires, and by
its action separates from its different strata sometimes one
principle and sometimes another; and this secretion will be
effected with more ease and in greater abundance, according
as the action of the pile is stronger, and the capacity of
the conductors more considerable.
Pg 125
EXPERIMENT I.
Having put into glass vessels four ounces of blood recently
drawn from the vein of a person in good health, I
left one of them exposed to the contact of the atmospheric
air, and subjected the other to the action of the pile. In
both these portions I observed a speedy coagulation of the
crassamentum, and at the end of twenty-four hours the
serous part was separated. The blood exposed to the action
of the pile adhered so strongly to the two wires immersed
in it, that it was difficult to separate them from the clot
which was thus suspended in the aqueous fluid, but in the
other vessel the clot remained at the bottom.
EXPERIMENT II.
I put two equal portions of bile, still warm, taken from
the gall-bladder of an ox, into two glass vessels, exposed one
of them to the contact of the air, and subjected the other to
the action of the pile. After ten hours had elapsed, I observed
that the bile in the latter had become so opake as no
longer to afford a passage to the light; while the other portion,
exposed to the atmosphere, retained its transparency
and colour. I observed also a considerable disengagement
of air, the nature of which I have not yet had an opportunity
of examining.
Pg 126
EXPERIMENT III.
I took four ounces of urine, voided by a man in good
health, exposed it to the action of the pile, and at the end of
twenty-four hours found that the greater part of its constituent
principles was separated. A portion of them was collected
around the wires in such a manner as to form cylindric
bodies of a considerable diameter, of which the wires were
the axes. As the mass of the attracted matters increased, a
portion fell to the bottom by its own weight. The cylinders
were soon entirely destroyed, and the substances which formed
them were precipitated by the least shock given to the vessel.
I repeated this experiment lately in Mr. Wilson’s anatomical
theatre in Windmill-street; and I observed, at the end of
eighteen hours, a great quantity of the moleculæ furnished by
the urine adhering to the two wires. But at length, not being
able to withstand the effect of its gravitation, it began
to fall down, forming a sort of wedge, the apex of which was
at the surface of the urine, and the base at the bottom of the
vessel.
EXPERIMENT IV.
Instead of putting the urine into a common apparatus,
if a glass syphon with two platina wires be employed (Plate
III. fig. 5.), the urine becomes limpid on the one side, and
turbid on the other. The substance detached from the urine
Pg 127
afterwards appears in the form of flakes, which are attracted
by the platina wires. I observed this phænomenon for the
first time in the company of those celebrated chemists Fourcroy
and Vauquelin, while they were performing Galvanic
experiments in their own laboratory.
EXPERIMENT V.
The substance above mentioned, which was precipitated
to the bottom, when separated by filtration and dried, weighed
about the fourth of a grain, and the fluid separated from
it was of a greenish colour. On examining the earthy deposit
of this urine, we obtained sulphate of lime by adding
to it sulphuric acid.
EXPERIMENT VI.
Having exposed to the action of the pile, in the same manner,
four ounces of urine voided by a person with jaundice, I
obtained an earthy sediment, the weight of which was nearly
equal to that above mentioned. The liquor separated from
it was transparent, inclining a little to black. By the same
chemical process I obtained sulphate of lime, though the
sediment of the urine was somewhat dark, and afforded a
portion of carbon and bile which inflamed in the fire.
Pg 128
EXPERIMENT VII.
Having repeated the above experiments with different
kinds of urine, I observed in general, that Galvanism, by a
peculiar attraction, separates from urine the sulphates and
muriates united to a portion of the bile, and also to carbon,
which in a great part are precipitated to the bottom of the
vessel: the other part, which remains attached to the wires,
exhibits a regular saline crystallization, of so singular a form
that it seems worthy of becoming an object of further research
to chemists.
The examination of urine voided by persons labouring
under different kinds of disease, seems to be an object sufficient
to excite the curiosity of physicians. To expose to
the action of Galvanism artificial aëriform fluids, analogous
to those which act a part in the animal œconomy, might
also be attended with advantage. For this purpose it will be
convenient to employ the apparatus represented in Plate III.
fig. 7, which was lately constructed, with great precision,
by M. Dumoutier at Paris. The whole artifice consists in a
vertical metal tube, which can be raised up or pushed down.
It is furnished with a stop-cock, and the tub in which the
apparatus is placed has another. If the inverted bell be
filled with water, and connected, by means of the vertical
tube, with the apparatus which is to supply the gas, on
opening the lower cock, the water will descend in the bell,
Pg 129
and its place be supplied by the gas intended to be subjected
to experiment.
From all the observations hitherto made, there seems to
be reason to conclude, that the effects produced on the animal
œconomy by common electricity and by the Galvanic
pile are different. The phænomena of artificial Galvanism
give us some right to suppose, that a similar action is exercised
by the Galvanic fluid circulating in the fluids and
in the organs of living animals. In this point of view Galvanic
researches may one day throw great light on the nature
of secretion; and it may perhaps be found necessary,
when remedies are administered, to take its influence into
consideration: for it is possible that the action of these remedies
in the animal œconomy may depend on the establishment
of such an arc between the system of the nerves and
that of the muscles, as may not alter the natural state of
the Galvanic fluid proper for the constitution of the individual
to whom these remedies are administered. All this
however is mere conjecture, and must be classed with many
other things in the theory of Galvanism which are still involved
in obscurity, and which we can hope to see explained
only by new researches and new experiments.
Taking a general view of this Third Part, I must observe
that the administration of Galvanism, when the above experiments
are carefully examined, seems to appear in a much
Pg 130
more advantageous point of view than before. I have indeed
proved:
1st. That Galvanism, on many occasions, exercises an
influence different from that of common electricity, and
that it may be administered in various cases with great ease
and safety.
2d. That the action of Galvanism manifests itself by a
sensible attraction between the nervous and muscular parts;
which seems to confirm the hypothesis of Humboldt, who
supposes a Galvanic atmosphere peculiar to these parts when
in a state of perfect vitality.
3d. That the strong impression made by Galvanism on
the brain seems to explain its power on the organ of hearing;
and therefore the physicians of Berlin, and other parts
of Germany, are entitled to great praise for their researches
on this subject.
4th. That though medicine is capable of affording considerable
aid in cases of drowning and of asphyxia, it presents
us with no means so powerful as Galvanism. The experiments
made at London, Jan. 17, 1803, on the body of
Forster, executed for murder, have fully convinced me of
the activity of this stimulant.
5th. That in cases of melancholy madness, when other
Pg 131
remedies fail, Galvanism may be employed with the greatest
hopes of success, provided the disease does not proceed
from a vitiated constitution, or a general derangement in the
animal machine.
6th. That the current of the Galvanic fluid produces a
great alteration in the animal fluids; separates a great
many of their principles, and produces this effect in a particular
manner in urine.
It is however much to be wished, that in addition to the
knowledge already acquired in regard to Galvanism, some
convenient method could be discovered of increasing or lessening
its action on the animal fluids; by which means the
advantages of the medical administration of this subtle agent
would be rendered more certain and more effectual.
Pg 133
DISSERTATION
ON
ANIMAL ELECTRICITY:
READ IN THE
INSTITUTE OF BOLOGNA,
IN THE YEAR 1793,[3]
By J. ALDINI.
I. While our Academy was congratulating itself on the
progress made by the doctrine of animal electricity, its exultation
was in some measure checked by an objection brought
against it, which did not attack any one part of it, but the
whole theory. If the contractions in animal bodies, said its
opponents, are produced merely by the electricity of metals,
how degraded is that electricity which at first was supposed
Pg 134
to reside in animal bodies, since it is now found to be subservient
to the electricity borrowed from metals! I heard repeated
objections of this kind while labouring under a severe
indisposition; but being restored to health by the skill and
attention of Galvani, I took the earliest opportunity to inquire
after the success of his animal electricity, and at the
same time promised him every assistance in my power in the
prosecution of his researches, for which I always entertained
a great fondness. He accepted my offer; and as I had now
recovered my former strength and vigour, I was anxiously
desirous to defend the cause of animal electricity, attacked and
almost exploded, amidst a variety of contradictory opinions,
and with this view to undertake a new series of experiments.
II. The theory of animal electricity had scarcely been
proposed, when a suspicion was entertained that it might be
produced by some external agent excited by the arming or
by the arc. This suspicion Galvani endeavoured to obviate
in various ways. By using an insulated arc, it was impossible
that the person who performed the experiment could
communicate any of his electricity to the animals. In preparing
the frogs he employed no conducting bodies; he
neither touched them with his fingers nor with a knife; he
uncovered the muscles and nerves with idio-electric bodies,
and still the usual contractions took place. Nay, Galvani
carried his attention so far as to exclude even the air. Having
immersed a frog with an insulated arc in a glass vessel filled
with oil, and having made a communication by means of an
Pg 135
arc between the muscles and nerves, muscular contractions
were immediately produced. This electricity, the animal
being thus surrounded by idio-electric bodies, could not certainly
be furnished by the atmosphere, from which it was entirely
separated. While engaged in these experiments, the celebrated
Spallanzani stopped a few days at Bologna on his way to
Pavia, and during a short conversation which he had with
Galvani on his new system, expressed some suspicion that
the electricity observed in animals might be acquired from
external bodies. After some discussion however on this subject,
Spallanzani acknowledged that the experiment made on
the frog immersed in oil was so conclusive, that nothing
could be better calculated to satisfy all his doubts. I mention
this circumstance, because the approbation of so eminent
a man was of the utmost importance to the cause of the
theory of animal electricity.
III. Having proposed the before-mentioned series of experiments,
I was led into various reflections on this subject.
As the same electricity exercises an extensive action in the
different parts of animals—some becoming electric through
an excess, and others through a deficiency of it—I could not
comprehend why there should not be an electrical movement
even when the end of a very long arc was covered by a non-conducting
body; and why the same arc touched by the
same person, in the same atmosphere, should sometimes become
charged with a very small quantity of electricity, only
capable of exciting motion in the legs of a frog, and sometimes
Pg 136
with a large quantity sufficient to produce contractions
in the leg of a lamb or a calf. This circumstance appeared
to me to be involved in a considerable degree of obscurity.
I conjectured also that internal electricity might have been
implanted in animal bodies for the purpose of defending the
animal œconomy, and protecting it against any injury which
it might sustain from an excess of the external atmospheric
electricity. Were not this the case, there might be reason
to apprehend that the electricity of the clouds, in the time
of storms, might attack the human body and destroy it.
IV. But though the suspicion of electricity being communicated
from the air, or from the person who performed
the experiment, was lessened or removed, there were still
some who thought that the objection in regard to metals
could not be obviated in the same manner. The idea generally
entertained, that all the contractions ascribed to animal
electricity were to be ascribed only to external electricity,
proceeding from the armatures, and not to any electric virtue
in the animals, seemed to be strengthened. Carradori, who
had made this objection, afterwards altered his opinion, and
became a strenuous advocate for animal electricity; but the
celebrated Volta still entertained great doubts. These he
communicated to me in a long letter, and they were afterwards
published in the Pavian Journals. All his doubts
were founded on this circumstance: heterogeneous metals are
required to produce contractions; one of which becomes
charged positively and the other negatively; and it is only
Pg 137
in the act of restoring an equilibrium between them that
muscular contractions are excited.
V. This simple and ingenious idea was no doubt highly
captivating; but the experiments made by Galvani and by myself
prevented me from adopting it entirely; for it is evident
from Galvani’s Dissertation, and from my own observations,
that if the muscles and nerves of a frog be immersed in two
vessels filled with water, contractions will be produced on the
application of a metallic arc. Here then we have muscular
contractions with one arc and with one metal. Living frogs
subjected to the action of rarefied or of condensed air, and
afterwards dissected in the usual manner, exhibit contractions
without any armature, and merely by a silver arc applied to
the muscles and nerves; and this is always the case, whether
the frogs be large and strong, or small and weak. While engaged
with these experiments, Galvani informed our academy
that he had obtained contractions in large and vigorous frogs,
which had been recently dissected, without the help of the
air pump and without armatures, merely by the application
of an arc. The same thing occurred to Carradori, who,
though he at first entertained doubts on this subject, was
afterwards convinced of the truth of the phænomenon. It
still however appeared to me, notwithstanding the results
obtained by Galvani and Carradori, that the animal electricity
of frogs was excited in more abundance by the action
of the air pump, even without the application of armatures.
Pg 138
VI. But that the series of experiments I had undertaken
might be better calculated to establish the theory of animal
electricity, and as it was difficult to find any of the solid
metals homogeneous throughout, I had recourse to mercury,
which, by the help of chemistry, may be brought to a very
considerable degree of purity. For the greater convenience
in the employment of this substance, I invented the following
apparatus:—Two glass vessels are so arranged (Plate
IV. fig. 1.) that the one stands above the other: the upper
one is filled with mercury, and the spinal marrow of a prepared
frog is placed in it; and by means of a hole in the
bottom of it, which may be opened at pleasure, the mercury
can be made to fall on any part of the muscles of the same
animal placed in the lower vessel. The stream of mercury
occasions convulsive movements to take place in the muscles;
and yet in this case the mercury forms both the armature
and the arc: consequently the electricity in both is the same,
and can exercise no action. When contractions therefore
take place, they cannot be ascribed to the electricity of the
metal. Should it be said that the mercury as it runs down
may excite electricity from the sides of the glass vessel, as is
the case with the mercury in the upper part of a barometer,
which, when in the least agitated, shines with an electric
light, any doubt on this subject may be easily removed by
substituting vessels of wood instead of those of glass.
VII. When these vessels are used, care must be taken
to pay attention to one circumstance, which may prevent
Pg 139
the success of the experiment. As the spinal marrow is exceedingly
light, it will float on the surface of the mercury;
whereas it ought to be immersed in that metal. It will be
necessary therefore to press down the spinal marrow below
the surface of the mercury, by means of a glass rod, or any
other non-conducting body, so that it may be entirely immersed;
otherwise some irregularity may take place, and
the experiment fail. To perform it with the greatest convenience,
provide a glass vessel consisting of two branches
in the form of a syphon, as represented in Plate IV. fig. 2., one
of which is wide, and has its edges reflected inwards, so as
to form an inverted cone, ending in an aperture that can be
opened and shut at pleasure. If mercury be poured into
the narrower branch, so as to fill the interior part of the vessel
around the inverted cone, it will not be able to rise up
into the latter, until the aperture in its apex be opened.
When this arrangement has been made, immerse the spinal
marrow of a frog in the mercury contained in the smaller
branch of the vessel, and place the muscles in the conical
part, which is empty: if the aperture be then opened,
the mercury, endeavouring to bring itself into a state of
equilibrium, will come in contact with the muscles, and contractions
will be produced; as an arc of quicksilver will thus
be speedily formed between the nerves and the muscles.
VIII. But the experiment may be performed in a manner
still more simple. Provide a glass vessel (Plate IV. fig. 10.)
filled with mercury, and let the muscles of a prepared frog
Pg 140
be laid to float on the surface of the metal; then suspend the
spinal marrow by a silk thread in such a manner, that by
letting down the thread the marrow can be made to touch
the mercury at pleasure. As soon as the spinal marrow is
brought into contact with the surface of the metal, contractions
will take place in the muscles; and the same will be observed
if a plate of gold or silver be substituted in the room of
the mercury. This phænomenon will be exhibited not only
by a whole frog, but by half a frog divided longitudinally;
which, as soon as it touches the mercury, by the method
above described, will be violently convulsed. Having mentioned
these experiments to Galvani, to whom I often had
recourse for instructions, he regretted that I had confined
my researches to frogs only, and advised me to try warm-blooded
animals. I therefore took the leg of a lamb or a
chicken, and holding it in my hand in a vertical position, in
such a manner that the bare muscles were in communication
with the mercury, I then raised the crural nerve without
any armature, so that, by being left to itself, it could be
made to touch the mercury at pleasure. As soon as it did
so, I observed a violent agitation and contraction in the
whole limb, and likewise when I used the before described
apparatus, Plate IV. fig. 2.
IX. While I made these experiments, I was well aware
that the contractions produced in the limb might by some
be ascribed to the impulse of the mercury, acting on it like
a kind of stimulus, or to electricity received from the surrounding
Pg 141
bodies, rather than to the innate electricity of
animals. I would advise those who entertain such an opinion
to hold the hind legs of a frog in their hand, in a vertical
position, and to press only the spinal marrow against the
surface of the mercury. Let them immerse also the spinal
marrow in salt water, or in vinegar: no contraction will take
place, though in this case there is still a mechanical impulse;
and though the saline or acid quality of these liquids is exceedingly
proper for acting as a stimulus. To this I may add,
that in the apparatus already described (Plate IV. fig. 2.)
there is no impulse from the mercury, which acquires only
that gentle motion necessary to enable it to put itself into a
state of equilibrium. In a word, I have observed (Plate IV.
fig. 1.) that when both the upper and lower vessels are filled
with mercury, if the aperture be opened so that the metal
which falls down shall not strike against the muscles; yet
the same contractions take place: which indeed ought to
serve as a proof that mechanical impulse has no share in producing
the effect.
X. But I had no reason to apprehend the action of any
stimulus, as I had before found by experience, that a very
strong impulse applied to the nerves or to the muscles excited
no contractions. I made experiments for this purpose, not
on living but on dead animals, when the irritability was feeble
and almost extinct; and I found that it could be excited
neither by pricking with a needle, by acids, nor by the most
powerful stimulants. It seemed to be entirely dead; but I
Pg 142
observed both in cold and in warm-blooded animals, provided
the experiment was performed within a certain period, that the
irritability was always obedient to the power of the Galvanic
arc, though no effect was produced by any mechanical impulse.
As frogs were most convenient for my experiments,
I tried them with every possible kind of mechanical stimulants.
I immersed the spinal marrow or the nerves in
acids; pierced them with a needle; cut the nerves, and even
sometimes scooped out the whole medullary substance from
the vertebral canal; still no motion was produced. But the
same nerves and muscles which had withstood such powerful
mechanical stimulants, when metallic armatures and an arc
were applied in the gentlest manner, immediately exhibited
contractions.
XI. Having obviated every objection that might be made
in regard to the action of stimulants, I shall now endeavour
to remove any doubt that may remain of external electricity.
Provide a glass cylinder terminating in a neck, and introduce
into it a prepared frog with a little mercury; incline
the cylinder in such a manner, that the mercury may occupy
the lower part of it, and form an armature to the muscles.
If the extremity of the neck of the cylinder be applied to an
enameller’s lamp, and sealed hermetically, all communication
between the inclosed frog and the external air will be cut off.
Now, if the cylinder be removed from its inclined to a horizontal
position, the mercury, which was in contact only with
the muscles, must touch also the spinal marrow; and a mercurial
Pg 143
arc being thus formed, contractions will immediately
follow. If the experiment be repeated with the glass cylinder
immersed in oil, the same contractions will take place;
but in this case it will be necessary to remove the immersed
cylinder a little from its position by means of a silk thread,
in order that you may be enabled to make the mercury flow
from the nerves to the muscles at pleasure.
XII. There is no reason, therefore, in this case, for ascribing
the contractions either to the arc or to the armatures, which,
as they consist of mercury alone, cannot produce the two
kinds of electricity necessary for exciting contractions. But
even if we should allow, with those who form the most absurd
suppositions, that mercury alone possesses both kinds of
electricity, one contraction only could be expected, and not
several in succession. In a word, there is no reason to apprehend
that any external electricity is obtained either from
the glass vessel which receives the mercury, or from the surrounding
atmosphere, which is separated from the spinal
marrow by three strata of non-conducting bodies; namely,
air, glass, and oil. The simplicity of this process may not
be fully apparent to the reader; but I can with truth assert,
that simplicity was an object which I had always in view.
Having prepared a frog, I laid it to float in mercury immersed
in oil, and then endeavoured to excite contractions by
the application of an insulated arc. Owing to some inaccuracy
in the experiment, however, it did not succeed; and my
attachment to simplicity, while endeavouring to discover the
Pg 144
least complex method of exciting contractions, was the cause
of my not obtaining the desired result. This want of success
was perhaps owing to the mercury not being in proper contact
with the nerves, in consequence of the oil adhering to
them. That I might exclude all suspicion of atmospheric
air having any share in the phænomenon, I was obliged to
adopt that method of performing the experiment which I have
already described.
XIII. I however readily foresaw, that the advocates of
external metallic electricity might object, that no contractions
were obtained but by the application of armatures, or,
when armatures were excluded, by using in their stead an
arc, which is itself an armature. And I must indeed acknowledge
that we are as yet acquainted with no substances
but metals capable of exciting animal electricity,
though nature, so abundant in resources, may no doubt furnish
a great many[4]. But I shall here observe that metals
are not the cause of the contractions produced in animal
bodies, but merely a condition requisite for calling forth the
latent innate animal electricity which exists in them. For
though armatures are necessary to render non-conducting
bodies electric, there is no reason why the shock given by
the Leyden flask should be ascribed to the arc or to the armatures;
as a charged magic square, or a Leyden flask,
Pg 145
when freed from the armatures, exhibits a great quantity
of electricity. If you charge a Leyden flask filled with
water, pour the water from it, then pour in other water,
and form a communication by an arc between the opposite
surfaces, you will experience a shock. This very simple experiment
agrees with some made by Mr. Wilson, Mr. Cavallo,
and others. Armatures, therefore, have a powerful effect in
attracting electricity, and confining it in non-conducting
bodies; but they do not supply electricity themselves.
XIV. If this mode of reasoning be admitted in regard to
common electricity, it ought not to be rejected when applied
to the phænomena of animal electricity. For, as an explosion
is produced by a magic square, or Leyden flask, even when the
armatures are removed, the case is the same in regard to the
contractions in animals. But to prove in a more evident manner
that metals have no action in such cases, the following experiment
was made. An insulated person, holding in his hand
a metallic arc, and a prepared frog, furnished with heterogeneous
armatures, was electrified, as well as every thing about
him, by means of an electrical machine. The person, the
frog, the armatures, and the arc, being all electrified positively,
none of the metals employed in this experiment, as their
electricity was reduced to a state of equilibrium, could produce
contractions. As these are produced only by applying
the arc to the armatures, they cannot be ascribed to external
electricity, but to the innate electricity of the frog. If
only one of the armatures be touched, no contractions take
Pg 146
place; but if the arc be applied to both, they are immediately
produced; which is a strong proof that the arc possesses the
power of exciting the electricity inherent in animal bodies.
Those philosophers would reason very incongruously who should
ascribe the cause of these contractions to electricity communicated
from the person, since they would thus allow to the
person that animal electricity which they deny to the frog; a
conclusion which few will admit. But in attempting to remove
every suspicion of communicated electricity, it was necessary
that the experiments undertaken should be free from all influence
of artificial electricity.
XV. I therefore endeavoured to obtain an equilibrium
in the armatures by mutual contact. This simple method
was borrowed from the principles adopted by philosophers,
who, while they endeavour to produce an equilibrium, are
accustomed to apply a body electric by excess to one in
a contrary state. Immerse in water the spinal marrow of a
prepared frog, without armature, and let the muscles rest on
a non-conducting body. The vessel must be somewhat in the
form of a syphon, and the spinal marrow introduced into the
smaller branch must not float on the liquid, but be totally
immersed in it: this arrangement is of great importance in
regard to the success of the experiment: a small piece of tin
foil must be made to float on the surface of the water at a
considerable distance from the spinal marrow: if you then
touch the muscles with one of your hands moistened a little
with water, and with the other apply a silver arc to the tin
Pg 147
foil, a contraction will immediately take place. While struck
with the constancy of this phænomenon, I could not help
reasoning in the following manner: Muscular motion is produced
though the frog is in contact with no metallic body:
every thing metallic is separated from the frog; and even if
it possessed contrary kinds of electricity, they are in a state
of equilibrium. What then is the external agent which produces
contractions in the frog? Though the metals, while
they acquire an equilibrium, come into contact, which is followed
by contractions, there certainly can be no fear of external
electricity from them. This is sufficiently proved by
the metals themselves being brought into equilibrium before
the contractions take place. If you touch the muscles with one
hand moistened with water, and with the other immerse into
water a piece of gold coin, a small part of which is covered
with tin foil, contractions will immediately ensue. Yet
both the metals, before the contraction, were brought to a
state of equilibrium by being in contact: they can therefore
have no share in the contractions, which must arise from innate
electricity. If salt water, milk, serum, or the crassamentum
of the blood, be substituted for common water, there
will still be contractions; and the case will be the same if a
bit of gold, silver, or brass, or even iron, covered with tin
foil be employed. Here then we have tin brought into a
state of equilibrium with various metals before the contractions
take place, without these contractions being impeded.
Nor is it of any consequence that the metals be touched with
Pg 148
the hand. For, if the tin foil be applied to the tip of the
tongue, or to the lips, and if a piece of silver wire be made
to touch the tin foil on the one side, and the spinal marrow
covered by no metal on the other, contractions will be produced
as often as an arc is made to the muscles by means of
the moistened hand.
XVI. The object of our researches hitherto has been
muscular motion; we shall now direct them to the phænomena
of the senses. Let an insulated person be electrified by
means of a common electrical machine, and let him apply a
silver arc to the tip of his tongue covered with tin foil. The
armature and the arc will both become electrified by this
new accession of electric matter. We cannot therefore suppose
one armature to be positively and the other negatively
so; and for this reason no transmission of electricity, and no
sensation of taste, can be expected. As the tongue, however,
experiences a sensation of acidity, it must have been excited
not by the armatures or by the arc, but by the innate electricity
of the muscles and nerves. But the necessity of an
internal arc, which appears in the above phænomena, is an
argument in favour of innate electricity. In order, however,
to excite the taste by animal electricity, the application of
different metals to the tongue is not sufficient: the arc must
be conveyed to the muscles of the tongue, or to others at
a distance from it. When I first made this experiment, it
gave me no small pleasure to find that it was confirmed
Pg 149
and enriched with new observations by the celebrated
Volta[5].
XVII. That the phænomena already mentioned arise from
an interior arc, will be proved, in my opinion, by the following
experiment: If an insulated metallic arc, or a piece of
charcoal, be applied to the tip of the tongue with the moistened
hand, no taste will be produced; but if the same hand
be applied to the same metallic arc or charcoal, a taste will be
experienced. In both cases of this experiment dissimilar armatures
were brought into contact, and reduced to that state
of equilibrium to which they tended. Why then should the result
Pg 150
of the experiment be so different? When the metals or
charcoal touch the moistened hand, a speedy and uninterrupted
communication is formed even between the remote
muscles and the nerves of the tongue, which when intercepted
by the non-conducting body prevents all sensation of taste.
It may therefore be established as a principle, that to excite
a sensation of taste, it is necessary besides the application of
external armatures to have an internal arc, which may bring
the internal electricity to a state of equilibrium. This observation
is confirmed by Carradori, who, while endeavouring to
excite a sensation of taste in two persons at the same time,
found that it was necessary to establish an arc between them,
either by making them join hands, or by moistening the plane
on which they stood[6].
XVIII. I shall conclude this dissertation with an account
of some later experiments on this subject. Volta, in a letter
which I received from him, requested I would try to produce
contractions without any metallic application, and recommended
Pg 151
charcoal, which in his first experiments he had found
to be the best armature for animal electricity. I therefore
took the earliest opportunity of attempting to produce contractions
in the beforementioned manner without the aid of
metals. I was encouraged in this design by Aloysius Laghi,
professor of chemistry; who having analysed our fossil coal
in consequence of a public decree for that purpose, was desirous
that chemical processes might be made subservient to
my researches. It was well known, that every kind of vegetable
charcoal formed the best armature, so that when this
coal was used there was no need for metallic armatures.
Hence, in that Galvanic experiment called the animal alarum,
a charcoal plane substituted for one of silver produced the
same effect: charcoal arcs also were used instead of metallic.
The coal employed in this manner was vegetable coal: but the
English fossil coal, and that dug up in our territories, did not
produce the same effect. I employed the different principles
extracted from our fossil coal, namely, calcareous earth saturated
with the acetous acid, siliceous earth semi-vitrified
by fixed alkali, and argillaceous earth. All these, however,
formed bad armatures for animal electricity; and the case was
the same with the ashes of our fossil coal, and of the English
coal.
XIX. None of these phænomena, however, afforded any
grounds for objecting against the theory of electricity in general;
as that bituminous substance which is always found combined
with fossil coal, deprives it of the power of being a conductor
Pg 152
of animal electricity. This conjecture was confirmed
by experience; for, having employed our own fossil coal and
the English in the state of coke, they formed excellent armatures,
as by the action of the fire they had been freed from
those idio-electric principles which opposed the development
of animal electricity, A phænomenon in the mean time occurred,
which tended to throw great light on the nature of
this electricity. Having placed the spinal marrow upon a
piece of coke, and formed an arc from the muscles to the coke,
contractions always took place in certain parts, while in others
there was no appearance of them. The reason of this seemed
to be, that the action of the fire had made some parts of the
same coal conductors, and left others idio-electric, in consequence
of the large quantity of the bituminous principle
which they contained. But though torrified fossil coal acquired
a conducting property, vegetable charcoal was still
found to be much fitter for conveying animal electricity.
Hence I conceived a hope, that I should be able to excite
contractions, in the manner before described, without any
metallic arc, and by the application of charcoal alone. For
these new experiments, I employed the largest frogs, and I
selected on purpose such pieces of charcoal as seemed the
least fitted for being conductors of animal electricity. I placed
the prepared muscles of a frog on the charcoal, and suspended
the unarmed spinal marrow, by a silk thread, in such a manner
that the marrow could be made to touch the charcoal at
pleasure. When large frogs were employed, contractions always
took place; and Galvani found the case to be same in
Pg 153
his experiments. Here then we have contractions produced
without the intervention of any metallic substances: why then
ascribe to the different power of metals, effects which can be
produced by bodies which certainly have nothing of the metallic
quality? If the spinal marrow or muscles be made to
communicate separately with the charcoal, there will be no
contraction; and it appears that to produce contractions, the
arc and the armature must consist of homogeneous charcoal.
Having given an account of my experiments, it remains that
I should collect in a few words the inferences which may be
deduced from them.
XX. In the first place, it is certain that to produce contractions
it is not necessary to employ two different kinds of
metal, and that one is sufficient. In vigorous animals this
result may be obtained by silver, and particularly by gold.
2d. If any suspicion of heterogeneity should arise, in regard
to the solid metals, this difficulty may be easily obviated
by employing a fluid metal, that is to say, mercury purified
by chemical means.
3d. Contractions are excited when one of the armatures
and the arc consist of mercury, by making the mercury to run
down on the muscles placed below it. There is no reason here
to suspect that the stimulus produced by the impulse of the
mercury has any share in the phænomenon, as it is sufficiently
proved by experiments that this is not the case.
Pg 154
4th. That when there is no reason to suppose a want of
equilibrium in the electricity of the armatures and of the arc,
animal electricity is excited, and produces contractions.
5th. That when the armatures and arc are formed of charcoal,
the same results will be obtained; which evidently proves
that the animal electricity is not produced by the metals.
Pg 155
SECOND DISSERTATION
ON
ANIMAL ELECTRICITY:
READ IN THE
INSTITUTE OF BOLOGNA,
IN THE YEAR 1794,
By J. ALDINI.
I. The philosophers of the present period are so sanguine
in their expectations, that when a new theory is proposed, unless
it be presented to them perfect and fully proved, they
either attack it in part, or entirely reject it. Such has been
the case with animal electricity, discovered by Galvani. It
is urged against it by its opponents, that it is subject to variations;
and because they do not find it obedient to all those
laws established by the laborious researches of a Franklin, a
Beccaria and an Æpinus, they assert either that it has no
foundation, or that it is contrary to nature. It has therefore
Pg 156
been conceived that an accurate comparison of animal and
common electricity, in order to ascertain whether there be any
difference between them, might be the best means of obviating
such objections. For this purpose I made various experiments
in animal electricity under the air pump, employing
proper conductors, and I compared its phænomena with those
exhibited by the Leyden flask. In a word, while I endeavoured
to pursue my researches agreeably to the general theory
of common electricity, my principal object was to prove
the constancy of animal electricity, by discovering, if possible,
an agreement in the physical laws of both.
II. As it had been proved by a great many experiments,
that common electricity could be obtained from non-conducting
bodies in the most perfect vacuum possible to be formed
by means of an air pump, experiments were undertaken in
order to ascertain whether the same phænomenon was common
also to animal electricity, and with this view attempts were
made to excite the latter in vacuo[7]. Muscati indeed had
deprived animals of life in vacuo, and afterwards found them
susceptible of Galvanism in the open air; but he made no attempt
to determine whether the animal electricity could be
manifested in vacuo. I employed for my experiments a glass
vessel; Plate IV. fig. 6., furnished with a metallic rod, which
could be, raised up or pushed down at pleasure. To the extremity
Pg 157
of the rod, within the receiver, was affixed at right
angles a metallic wire, from one end of which an armed frog
was suspended by the muscles, and from the other a small
metallic chain a little longer than the frog, a plate of silver
being placed below both the frog and the chain. When as
perfect a vacuum as possible had been obtained, the metallic
rod was pushed down, so that the small chain and the spinal
marrow of the suspended frog were made to touch the silver
plate, and by these means the latter formed an arc in the exhausted
receiver. In this experiment, the power of Galvanism
was found to be the same as in the open air, so that as
often as the rod was pushed down contractions were excited
in the frog. By this method it was easy to ascertain what
repeated contact could produce by forming new arcs: for
though the small chain and the extremity of the spinal marrow
touched the silver plate; yet, when removed from that position
ever so little, by moving the rod new contractions took
place, which could not have been expected unless new contact
on moving the rod had produced as it were new arcs. This
kind of apparatus seemed the most convenient for performing
in vacuo all those experiments which Galvani had performed
in the open air.
III. But it was as yet difficult to determine, whether the
contractions which took place were stronger in rarefied than
in common air; for the difference between the electricity was
so small, that it was impossible to say which was the more
powerful. I therefore resolved to clear up this point by other
Pg 158
experiments. For this purpose, having cut in two a prepared
frog, I placed in vacuo one part of it, by means of the above
apparatus, and after a short period drew it out, and compared
it with the half which had not been subjected to the action of
a vacuum. On applying an arc, the one exhibited strong and
the other faint contractions; from which it appeared that the
vacuum had occasioned some loss of the animal electricity;
as the muscular and nervous parts subjected to experiment
belonged to the same frog, this evidently showed that the
whole difference arose from the action of the vacuum.
IV. It is well known that a vacuum absorbs common electricity;
and therefore it need not excite any wonder that in the
present experiment it should have dispersed some of the animal
electricity. As this loss took place by insensible degrees,
strong contractions were not to be expected; and the case is
nearly the same in a Leyden flask loaded with aqueous vapours,
which produces no remarkable explosion. But though
convinced of the truth of this circumstance, I resolved to confirm
it by a new experiment. I therefore charged two Leyden
flasks armed in the same manner, applying them at the
same time to the same conductor, and by the same number
of turns of the machine. One of these flasks was introduced
into the glass receiver of the air-pump, and the other was exposed
to the atmosphere. At the end of five minutes after the
air had been exhausted as much as possible, the flask in the
receiver was taken out, and, being discharged by a metallic
arc, emitted a weak spark, while the other flask exhibited
Pg 159
strong signs of electricity. I again charged two flasks by the
same turns of the machine till the electrometer indicated in
both the same degree of electricity, and kept one of them for
half an hour beneath the receiver. When the latter was taken
out, it afforded a weak and almost exhausted spark; while
the other, which had remained in the open air, emitted a strong
one. Had the first flask remained longer under the receiver,
it would no doubt have entirely lost its electricity; while the
other without the machine retained that with which it was
charged.
V. In this experiment every possible care was taken to
observe the variations produced by the vacuum. The receiver
which covered the Leyden flask was of a large size, and the
flask, being placed in the middle of it, was at a considerable
distance from its sides: the receiver was well fitted to the plate
of the machine, and not by means of moist leather, as is usual,
so that all communication with the external air was prevented;
and therefore there is no reason to suppose that any aqueous
vapour introduced into the machine, when the pressure
of the air was withdrawn, could perform the office of an arc.
That the electricity might not immediately bring itself to a
state of equilibrium, the conductor of each flask terminated
in a ball: had not this been the case, the whole electricity
would soon have been dispersed; for, when the conductors terminate
in a point, if the chamber be darkened, coruscations of
light will every where be seen on the glass receiver, and afford
a most agreeable spectacle. A conductor terminating in a
Pg 160
ball seemed therefore to be most convenient for my purpose,
that, by rendering it more difficult for the electricity to bring
itself to an equilibrium, I might be able to produce a greater
imitation of the intimate manner in which animal electricity
adheres to the animals. But though in the above experiments
I ascribe some part of the phænomena to the animal electricity
being weakened in vacuo, I am of opinion that more is
to be ascribed to the violent perturbation of the principles
which the vacuum must have excited in the muscular and nervous
parts.
VI. As it was now established, that animal electricity
could be excited in vacuo, I endeavoured to ascertain whether
that excited without the vacuum, and conveyed to the
receiver, could be made to pass through a very small space in
vacuo. For this purpose I placed the metallic rod at a small
distance from a silver plate resting on the bottom of the air pump:
the limbs of a chicken or lamb, prepared in the usual
manner, were then deposited near it; and the muscles, by
means of a metallic chain, were made to communicate with
the plate of the machine, while an armed nerve was made to
communicate by means of an insulated arc with the metallic
rod. The air being exhausted, the rod was pushed down,
and gradually brought as near as possible to the plate without
coming into actual contact with it. In this state no contractions
were produced; but they immediately took place
when the rod was brought into contact with the plate. It appears
therefore that animal electricity is considerably impeded
Pg 161
in its progress by a vacuum; and that, like artificial electricity,
it does not readily suffer itself to be dissipated, unless
transmitted through good conducting bodies. For, when a
small quantity of the electric fluid is accumulated in the Leyden
flask, either none of it proceeds from the metallic wire to
a less perfect conductor, or, if any is transmitted, it must be
with difficulty, and with great violence. Common electricity,
indeed, is seen to pass quietly through metals or water separately;
but a strong electric spark, in proceeding from one
metallic conductor to another, if it pass through water interposed
between them, does so with such violence, that the
glass vessel which contains the water is in danger of being
broken to pieces. That electricity, therefore, may be conveyed
from a conducting body, to one less endowed with that
property, it must be in such abundance as to be able to
overcome the resistance of the body through which it has to
pass: hence, it need excite no surprise, that the small quantity
of electricity which produces contractions should not be
able to pass over a very small space in vacuo. Here then we
have a proof that animal electricity is not only subject to the
laws of non-conducting bodies, but that it is affected different
ways by the smallest obstacles of conducting bodies, and by
different kinds of them. It is indeed so evident that a vacuum
from its nature is unfit for conveying electricity, that, even
if one be produced, not by the usual method, which is always
attended with some defects, but in the most accurate
manner possible, it is totally improper for being a conductor
Pg 162
of the electric fluid. This is sufficiently proved by the following
experiment of Walsh: If two barometers be joined,
and the upper part or bend be carefully deprived of air, when
one of these barometers is electrified, the electric fluid will
not be communicated to the other, in consequence of the resistance
opposed by the intervening vacuum. Adams, however,
exhibited by means of a single barometer the same
phænomenon as Walsh did with a double one[8]; for, having
extracted the air entirely from the upper part of the barometer,
no electric light was observed; but on introducing a very
small quantity of air the whole barometer became luminous.
These observations are sufficient to show that animal electricity,
in regard to the property of not being able to pass
through a small space in vacuo, is subservient to the general
laws of common electricity. But let us proceed to other
phænomena respecting animal electricity excited in vacuo.
VII. If a prepared frog, furnished with two armatures,
Pg 163
be placed in a horizontal position on a non-conducting body,
under a glass receiver, (Plate IV. fig. 11.) and if an arc be
formed by pushing down a rod, so as to join both the armatures
without touching the frog, contractions will immediately
take place; but if the smallest non-conducting body intervene,
none will be produced. I found it no very difficult matter to
exhibit in vacuo, by an apparatus somewhat similar, what
may be called an animal alarum. A horizontal arm fixed to
a vertical moveable rod (Plate IV. fig. 5.) was adapted to the
inside of a glass receiver, in such a manner that, when the receiver
was exhausted, any body resting on the horizontal arm
could be made to fall down. The leg of a prepared frog was
then fixed to the vertical rod; while the other rested on the
horizontal arm, and the spinal marrow, with an armature of
tin foil, touched a silver plate in the bottom of the receiver.
The horizontal arm being turned round a little, by means
of the vertical rod, the leg of the frog resting on the arm
fell down on the plate below: an arc being thus formed,
contractions immediately took place, and were incessantly
repeated, until all the animal electricity was restored to an
equilibrium.
VIII. These experiments were made on dead frogs; but
I shall here show that living ones also may be made to exhibit
signs of electricity under the same circumstances. A piece of
tin foil was applied to the back of a frog tied to a silver plate
by means of silk strings, (Plate IV. fig. 4.) and two metallic
chains were suspended in such a manner, that by pushing
Pg 164
down the rod the extremity of the one chain could be made
to touch the silver plate, and the extremity of the other the
tin armature: when an arc was by these means formed, contractions
instantly took place. The frog began to breathe with
difficulty, to be agitated with convulsive movements, and to
be seized with an universal tremor, so that its last moment
seemed to be approaching; but on air being admitted into
the receiver, it recovered and appeared as lively and active
as before. On examining more closely the changes which
had taken place in the animal while in this state, which was
certainly contrary to nature, I found the muscles red with a
superabundance of blood: but when dissected in the usual
manner, they exhibited strong signs of animal electricity; for,
on applying an arc to the nerves or muscles, without any armature,
violent contractions were produced, and continued
for a long time, provided care was taken that there should be
no deficiency of animal moisture. That such a quantity of
electricity should be excited, will not seem astonishing to
those who have seen more violent electric commotions excited
in the animal machine by the action of a needle. This indeed
has been placed beyond all doubt by an observation of
Gardini, who says “that having made some experiments with
a large torpedo, he remarked that stronger convulsions were
produced when the animal was subjected to great pain by any
means, such as pricking it with a needle[9].” The phænomena
Pg 165
exhibited by a vacuum or rarefied air, were exhibited also by
condensed air, so that very powerful contractions were produced
by one homogeneous arc. For, if the same apparatus
described in Plate IV. fig. 4. be adapted to a condensing machine,
a dead frog introduced into it will readily be contracted.
Live frogs also, after being kept for half an hour or
a whole hour in air twice as dense as that of the atmosphere,
exhibited strong signs of electricity without any armature, and
merely by the application of a silver arc to the nerves and
muscles.
IX. Having made these experiments in vacuo and condensed
air, it was of some importance to try also what
effect would be produced on animal electricity by the action
of the aëriform fluids. The apparatus employed for this
purpose was as follows: I provided a glass vessel (Plate IV.
fig. 3.), terminating at the upper extremity in a neck, to
which could be closely fitted, when necessary, a metallic
cover, having a perforation in the centre to receive a moveable
rod, which was connected with a transverse metal conductor
supporting a frog prepared in the usual manner. Having
filled the vessel with water, or mercury, which was still better,
I placed it on the shelf of a pneumatic tub, and introduced
into it, according to Priestley’s method, any particular
gas. Some water or mercury was put into the dish to
which it was afterwards removed; and the metal cover, having
a frog suspended from it, being then fitted to the neck of the
vessel, the frog by means of this apparatus could be immersed
Pg 166
at pleasure in carbonic acid gas, hydrogen, or any other kind
of gas; so that the constancy of animal electricity might be
tried in either. It is evident that, by letting down the spinal
marrow of the frog, and the end of the conductor to the
surface of the water or mercury, by means of the rod, an
arc will be formed, and that muscular contractions must
then be produced. The same experiment may be performed
by means of a bottle (Plate IV. fig. 6.) furnished with a
cover like the former. After being filled with water or mercury,
it is inverted on the shelf of the pneumatic tub, and
the gas is then introduced in the usual manner; but care
must be taken not to displace the whole of the water or mercury,
as a portion must be left to cover the bottom when the
jar is turned up. This experiment I tried only with oxygen
gas, reserving the other kinds of air till a more convenient
opportunity.
X. To give more weight to these experiments in vacuo, I
endeavoured to prevent all those errors which arose, or might
be suspected to arise, from the introduction of air; for I supposed
that some opponent of the theory of animal electricity,
while endeavouring to find out objections against it, since
there was no foundation for asserting that the vacuum afforded
any electricity to the animals, might pretend that, the
plate of the pneumatic machine being metal, according to
custom, some electricity from the atmosphere might be attracted
by it, and be thus conveyed even through a vacuum
to the animals. On this account it was necessary that a
Pg 167
vacuum should be formed, without placing the receiver on a
metallic plate; without the contact of any conducting bodies,
and in such a manner as to show that the electricity excited
was that really existing in the animals. I therefore employed a
glass receiver (Plate IV. fig. 9.) cut into two parts above its
middle, between which was placed a horizontal partition, in
order that the upper part might be filled with oil, or some
non-conducting body. The partition was perforated with a
large aperture, the superior edges of which projected a little
upwards; and the lower, projecting downwards, were furnished
with small circular grooves, so that the hole could
be shut by a piece of bladder tied over it with thread. A
sharp-pointed rod was placed over the hole, so that, being
let down by a non-conducting handle, it could be made to
pierce the bladder. This, however, was to be done only
when the lower part of the receiver was exhausted of air; for
the oil, when the air is withdrawn, speedily falls down: by
these means a vacuum is formed in the upper part, and, in
consequence of the interposed stratum of the oil, remains insulated,
as it can receive no electricity from the metallic
plate of the machine, nor from other conducting bodies. But
it will be in vain to attempt to form a vacuum in this manner,
unless the parts of the cut glass be so fitted as to prevent
entirely the admission of external air. A very simple and
ingenious apparatus, for the same purpose, was invented by
F. Borelli: in order to stop the efflux of the oil at pleasure,
he adapted to the hole a glass cone, by which means he was
enabled to produce an insulated vacuum of greater or less
Pg 168
capacity in the upper part of the receiver. Here then I had
a vacuum every where surrounded with non-conducting
bodies, so that, if animal electricity were excited in it, there
could be no reason for ascribing it to electricity borrowed
from the atmosphere.
XI. I adapted to a glass rod, in a longitudinal direction,
a metallic plate, (Plate IV. fig. 7.) which at the upper extremity
was bent into a right angle, and supported the spinal
marrow of a frog, so that it might be considered as a lengthened
conductor of the nerves. This plate was inserted into a
glass receiver, so as to move in it with ease; and by means of
a screw could be fixed at any altitude whatever. An accurate
representation of this apparatus, with the glass rod annexed,
is seen in Plate IV. fig. 8. Iron hooks fixed to the feet
of the suspended frog acted the part of a conductor to the
muscles; and the upper part of the receiver being exhausted of
air, as above described, a stratum of oil was still left to separate
the frog from the partition. To guard against all danger
from the action of any internal metallic body, a strong magnet
was applied to the iron conductor of the muscles, which,
immediately obeying the power of attraction, fell upon the
conductor of the nerves; and thus a circuit of animal electricity
from the muscles to the nerves being speedily effected[10],
contractions were immediately produced. When I communicated
Pg 169
this experiment to the Institute, I was extremely
desirous that the apparatus I had here invented for the purposes
of animal electricity might be of some advantage to
the science of philosophy in general, of which I was always
fond, and which formed the chief object of my study. But
it is necessary that I should mention to what I more particularly
allude.
XII. Such bodies as had hitherto been put into the air
pump were gradually subjected to the action of a vacuum.
Hence it appeared that the apparatus above described
might be attended with a considerable degree of utility;
as in future, any body whatever, whether solid or fluid,
might be subjected to this action at once. For, the lower
part of the receiver being deprived of its internal air, if the
bladder be burst by means of the glass rod, the fluid will
run down and occupy the space emptied of air, leaving a
vacuum in the upper part. When the fluid has thus fallen
to the lower part of the receiver, solid bodies even, if any were
immersed in it while in the upper part of the receiver, will
also experience the action of the vacuum. But liquid bodies
are of such a nature, that they have united with them certain
aëriform fluids, which, when the pressure of the air is
removed, readily expand. A fluid, therefore, when it has
fallen to the lower part of the receiver, being agitated and
thrown into a state of perturbation by the motion, its most
subtle principles will be extricated, and fill the capacity of
the bell. The vacuum will then be disturbed by the evaporation,
Pg 170
which, acting on the mercury in the barometer connected
with the air pump, will cause it to fall. But every
one acquainted with the principles of philosophy must know,
that the depression of the mercury in the barometer will be
greater, according as a greater quantity of aëriform fluids
has been disengaged in the receiver; and if the degree of
pressure in the barometer varies according to the variety of
aëriform principles, it may be readily seen, that this method
may be employed to determine the quantity of them, or their
elasticity, since they are cut off from all communication with
the surrounding atmosphere, though it still exercises its pressure
upon them.
XIII. The vacuum here obtained in the upper part of
the bell, seems to be far superior to that produced in the
lower part, according to the usual method. For it has long
been a complaint among philosophers, that by working the
air pump the air is only rarefied, till it no longer possesses
elasticity capable of raising the valve, so that it is impossible to
produce a complete vacuum by this method. If we can credit
the followers of Euler, that subtle fluid, which they call
ether, and which permeates every thing, still remains; for,
adopting the opinion of the antient Peripatetics, they consider
a vacuum as beneath the dignity of nature. But, setting
aside this question, I shall only observe, that if a vacuum be
formed in the upper part of the receiver, by the method
above described, it does not appear that it can be disturbed
by any thing from without, and the gravity of the falling
Pg 171
fluid will not suffer itself to be overcome by the subtle
ether, if any really exists. Should it be apprehended that
the air contained in the oil may be disengaged, and disturb
the vacuum, you may substitute in its stead mercury
or water, which can be deprived of air either by boiling or
by long exposure to the action of a vacuum. But before
any thing certain on this subject can be said, new and repeated
experiments will be necessary. As every objection
that could be made in regard to a vacuum seems now to
be obviated, since a space perfectly free from common air
can be produced, and cut off from all communication with
the atmosphere, or with conducting bodies, I shall return to
animal electricity, from which I was led by a desire of contributing
towards the improvement of natural philosophy in
general.
XIV. Those who attempt to determine the velocity of
the nervous fluid in a given time, undertake a matter of
great difficulty, respecting which nothing certain can be
known. Haller rejected the suppositions of those who, comparing
the tenuity of the nervous tubes of the heart with the
large branch of the aorta, were of opinion, that the velocity
of the nervous fluid must be two thousand eight hundred
and eighty times greater than that of the blood. This celebrated
physician, distrusting hypothesis, had recourse to experiment,
and found that the velocity of the nervous fluid
would be no less than nine thousand feet in the first minute.
But in this determination of the velocity of the nervous fluid
Pg 172
there seems to be some difficulty, which perhaps ought to
be ascribed rather to the period when that celebrated man
lived, than to his want of sagacity or accuracy. Had Haller
possessed the means of conveying the nervous fluid with his
own hands to different parts at pleasure, he would no doubt
have given us some more certain ideas respecting its rapid
motion. I resolved, therefore, not to neglect those advantages
with which the modern philosophy has been enriched,
and to employ very long metallic arcs, by which I could direct
the animal electricity as I pleased. A staircase which
reached from the top to the bottom of the house, with many
windings, presented me with an iron plate, exceedingly convenient
for the transmission of animal electricity. A metal
wire, brought down from the top of the staircase, was connected
with the iron plate, and by these means I obtained
an arc, the length of which was above one hundred and fifty
feet. When this arrangement was made, the two extremities
of this very long arc were applied to the armed nerves and
muscles of a frog; and the animal electricity being thus excited,
instantly proceeded with so much velocity from the
one extremity of the arc to the other, that no difference
could be perceived between the time when the frog touched
the arc, and that when it began to be agitated. But to
show that this result was not owing entirely to the metallic
conductor, I employed long ropes dipped in salt water, and
always with the same effect. This circumstance seems to
prove, in a striking manner, a great similarity between the
nervous fluid and common electricity, and to overturn the
Pg 173
opinion of Haller, who, according to his calculations, makes
the nervous fluid require a second for passing over the space
of 150 feet.
XV. According to Beccaria, a celebrated observer of the
propagation of the electric fluid, there are two ways of its being
transmitted; one when it flows through conducting bodies
only, and the other when, being collected in non-conducting
bodies, it proceeds from the coating electric by excess to
that which is in the contrary state. In the one case, Beccaria
establishes a certain time for its passage; in the other he
allows none. This celebrated man observed, that the electric
matter was conveyed from the conductor of a machine, along
a metallic wire 500 feet in length, in the course of a second;
in its passage along a hempen rope of the same length, it employed
seven seconds; but when the rope was moistened with
water, it required only two or nearly three vibrations of a pendulum.
When he discharged a Leyden flask by the longest
conductor, he was never able to observe the least interval of
time. The same thing was remarked by Jallabert, Sigaud de
la Fond, and other philosophers, who performed their experiments,
not in an apartment but in the open air; and conveyed
the electric fluid in this manner for a considerable distance
along the banks of large rivers. Monnier extended two iron
wires[11] in an open field, parallel to each other, for the distance
of 5107 feet; and a man placed between them held in
Pg 174
his hands the extremity of the conductors, keeping them at a
little distance from his body. “But the man, who was in the
middle of the arc,” says the author, “while he saw the spark
issue from the jar, received the shock: he could have distinguished
the smallest interval of time between the explosion
and the shock; and if it had amounted to the fourth part of a
second, it could have easily been remarked.”
XVI. While reflecting on these facts, I formed a conjecture
from the great celerity with which animal electricity is
conveyed, respecting the manner in which it is evolved. If
the animal electricity were conveyed from a muscle to a nerve,
or vice versa, in the same manner as the common electric fluid
is conveyed from the machine by the chain, it would have
been observed to employ some time, however small, in its passage.
As I at first ascribed this to the shortness of the conductor
I had used, I extended it to more than 250 Parisian feet,
and applied the nerves and muscles of a frog to this new conductor
in the manner above described, without observing the
least obstacle to the passage of the electric fluid. As this arc
formed a half of that employed by Beccaria, the space of half
a second would have been required, if we consider in this passage
only one kind of electricity. But the half second required
according to the observations of Beccaria was not observed:
it therefore appears, that this propagation of animal
electricity ought not to be referred to the first-mentioned
case, but to that where equilibrium is restored between the
negative and positive state.
Pg 175
XVII. This rapid conveyance of animal electricity, however,
is entirely stopped, if the metallic arc be intercepted, not
only by non-conducting but by certain conducting bodies.
Here then we have again occasion for the action of two contrary
kinds of electricity. For the electric matter, whether
positive or negative, when conveyed from the machine to the
chain, pervades all bodies in the same manner, provided they
be conductors. Thus the metallic conductor of the machine,
the insulated person, and all other bodies that may be connected
with it, become electric in the same manner. But the
same electric matter collected in non-conducting bodies requires,
before it can be discharged, certain conditions in the
conducting bodies by which it is discharged. When the metallic
arc is interrupted by a little water, the Leyden flask, if
it contain a moderate quantity of electricity, cannot be discharged;
for the two contrary kinds of electricity to be discharged
require that every part of the arc should be equally
endowed with the property necessary for conducting the
electric fluid. But in the case of only one kind of electricity,
it would pass with great readiness either through water or metal.
Let us now apply these phænomena of general electricity
to the theory of animal electricity. In the experiment
mentioned in the sixth section, if only one kind of electricity
proceeded from the nerves or the muscles, it would be immediately
conveyed from the nerve to the metal, then to the vacuum
back to the metal, and thence to the muscle, as being
the place from which it issued. Besides, the electricity propagated
in this manner would have produced contractions,
Pg 176
which however were not observed. The progress of the animal
electricity, therefore, experienced considerable obstacles,
not only from non-conducting but also from conducting bodies;
which affords a strong proof that electricity exists
and is collected in the muscular fibre, in the same manner
as in non-conducting bodies. But the remarkable quickness
of the progress of animal electricity leads me to the Leyden
flask; and therefore I shall here say a few words respecting
the analogy between the phænomena it exhibits, and those
of animal electricity; and give an account of the reasons
which first induced me to enter on this comparison.
XVIII. When public meetings were held at the house of
Galvani, for the purpose of discussing the theory of animal
electricity, great doubts were entertained respecting two contrary
kinds of electricity acting in animals. The reasoning
on this subject, which displays acuteness and ingenuity, was
as follows: If two kinds of electricity, one positive and the
other negative, prevailed in the nerves and muscles of animals,
on applying the muscles of one frog to the armed nerve of another,
we should observe contractions; which however is not
found to be the case. The proposed doubt, however, gave
me considerable uneasiness, as the dispute on that subject
seemed to lay a foundation for many objections against the
theory of animal electricity. But the novelty of this event
will excite no astonishment in those who consider the subject
with attention: nay, it would rather seem astonishing if the
matter were otherwise. The phænomena in the above experiment
Pg 177
are perfectly agreeable to the laws of general electricity,
and to the theory of the new animal Leyden flask. For,
if we suppose the muscles of the frog furnished with nerves to
represent so many Leyden flasks, no contractions ought to be
expected from them, in circumstances under which Leyden
flasks themselves would produce no explosion. This we always
observe in two electric jars, neither of which is discharged
when the arc is established between the exterior coating of
the one and the interior coating of the other. If the muscles,
therefore, in the above experiment, represent Leyden flasks,
in cases in which no explosion could take place in the latter
no contractions can be observed in the former.
XIX. For the sake of illustrating the proposed analogy, it
will be proper that I should here explain the conditions under
which contractions are produced by the application of two
frogs to each other, and compare them with the phænomena
of the Leyden flasks. I shall therefore show, in a few words,
the different methods in which several frogs are made to contract
at the same time, and in which Leyden jars are discharged.
Place on a glass plate two frogs, one of which has
its spinal marrow armed, and let a communication be established
between its muscles and the spinal marrow of another
frog, by means of a small metallic chain. If the arc be formed
from the armed spinal marrow of the one frog to the muscles
of the other, contractions will be produced in both. Let us
now apply to Leyden flasks the arrangement followed with
the frogs. If two electric Leyden jars stand on a glass plate,
Pg 178
when an arc is applied, some electricity will be elicited; but an
absolute explosion will never be produced. If one extremity of
a metallic wire, however, be brought in contact with the inside
of one of the Leyden jars, and the other with the exterior coating
of the other, on applying an arc to the other two coatings,
which have no communication with the metallic wire that has
been added, an explosion will take place, and both the jars will
be discharged. But the above contractions may be produced
in a manner still simpler. If the spinal marrow of one frog be
united to the muscles of another, as soon as an arc is formed
from the spinal marrow of the armed frog to the remote muscles
of the other, strong contractions will be produced in
both. The analogy between animal and artificial electricity,
which is the object of our research, will always be apparent
in this experiment. Two charged Leyden flasks, suspended
in such a manner from the conductor of the machine that
the exterior coating of the one is connected with the interior
coating of the other, form a very happy representation of the
frogs; for, the same arc being applied, and in the same manner,
both to the frogs and the Leyden flasks, when an explosion
is produced by the latter contractions will take place in
the former.
XX. Hitherto the contractions have been produced by
establishing the arc from the nerve of one frog to the muscles
of another: but contractions will take place in both, if the arc
be conveyed from the armed spinal marrow of the one to the
armed spinal marrow of the other, provided care be taken that
Pg 179
corresponding muscles communicate alternately with the conducting
body. But it is much more difficult to reconcile this
phænomenon than the former to the general laws of electricity.
This difficulty, however, may be obviated, if we suppose that
the one frog, in consequence of its natural moisture, forms an
arc to the other. This indeed was first confirmed by the experiments
of Galvani; for, having divided a frog lengthwise,
both parts were connected merely by their moisture[12]. Yet,
when the arc touched one of the separated parts, the other
was immediately contracted. As this explanation is so obvious,
nothing further needs be said on the subject. But I
was unwilling to leave in a state of uncertainty the analogy
between the phænomena of animal electricity and those of
the Leyden flask, the wonderful agreement of which had
so much excited my astonishment: and indeed I had no cause
to repent of my perseverance; for, though it did not enable
me to attain to what I proposed, it conducted me to some general
phænomena of electricity, which no one perhaps had
before made an object of research. I discovered that one
Leyden flask may be applied as an arc to another. I provided
two insulated Leyden jars of the same capacity, one of
them charged and the other uncharged, and established a
communication between the exterior coating of both, by
means of a conducting body; and having then formed an arc
from the interior coating of the one to that of the other, there
Pg 180
was an immediate transmission of the electricity with an explosion;
and at the same time the flask which at first was
uncharged became charged. If I formed an arc with my
arms and hands, I experienced a considerable shock during
the passage of the electric fluid. When I observed this
effect, I conceived it was not contrary to the principles of
philosophy to suppose that the one frog, in respect to the
other, represented a Leyden flask, and at the same time acted
the part of an arc.
XXI. Some, perhaps, will object to this analogy, that in
the above experiments the flask destitute of electricity forms
the arc; while, on the contrary, both flasks ought to be
charged to represent properly the muscles and nerves of
frogs, which both possess electricity. But the very same
phænomenon is observed in two charged flasks, provided one
of them is charged with more electricity than the other.
Hence, in support of our analogy, we need only assume, that
the quantity of electricity in the one frog is a little different
from that of the other; a supposition which, in forming an
hypothesis, the severest philosopher may allow. I shall say
nothing of the great variety and connection of the elements
of which animal bodies are composed, and which on this account
require a difference in the quantity of the animal electricity.
It appears by some late experiments of Valli[13], that
Pg 181
animal electricity is discharged in the same manner as that
which is collected in non-conducting bodies. It is likewise
proved, that the same arc and the same armatures, according
to the various consensus and connection of the nerves,
and according to the different positions in which they are applied,
elicit a larger or smaller quantity of electricity, and
sometimes none at all. Those indeed who consider these
observations will hardly think it possible, when animal
Leyden flasks consist of so many different parts, that there
should not be some difference in the electricity collected.
But there is no need of employing conjecture in regard to a
point, which is confirmed not only in regard to animals, but
in all conducting bodies, by the ingenious observations of
Coulomb[14]; for it is fully established that the electric matter is
communicated and accumulated different ways on the surface
of conducting bodies. But if this phænomenon takes
place in conducting bodies the parts of which are homogeneous,
there is no reason to deny that it may appear in animals
in which provident nature has so intermixed conducting
with non-conducting parts, in order that the action of
animal electricity might not be short and transient, but constant
and durable.
XXII. But if the diversity in the structure of animal
Pg 182
bodies require that the force and power of the animal electricity,
collected in the corresponding muscles, should be
different, a singular agreement will appear between the phænomena
of the Leyden flask and those of animal electricity.
If an insulated person touch two flasks containing equal
quantities of electricity, however great, he will experience
no shock; but if one of the flasks contain a greater charge
than the other, he will receive a shock according to the ratio
of the difference of the electricity of the flasks. Though the
frogs therefore represent two Leyden flasks, one of them
may act the part of an arc, and produce an equilibrium, provided
it be allowed that there is a difference between the
quantities of the electricities collected. I have here endeavoured
to establish the proposed analogy, not because I
suppose the muscles to be so many Leyden flasks, such as they
are exhibited to us by the ingenuity of philosophers, but in
order to show that many phænomena are common to both;
nor have I applied animal electricity to explain all the phænomena
of muscular motion, with a view of obtaining applause
from those who are zealous advocates for this theory.
I must also observe, that if in the prosecution of this object
I have met with any anomalies, I do not on that account
despise the agreement of the laws of philosophy which have
been established by so much labour. Several of the phænomena
observed by Galvani and others have served me as a
foundation for the proposed analogy, and induced me to extend,
if possible, its boundaries. But going back to the
Pg 183
origin of animal electricity, since it belongs to the subject,
I shall here take a general view of the whole, and express
the substance of it in a few corollaries.
XXIII. The corollaries I propose will follow the order
of time in which they arose, and therefore will express the
gradual improvement of animal electricity.
1. Animal electricity passes freely through bodies which
possess nearly the same degree of conducting power, but it
does not pass through non-conducting bodies.
2. It is affected by the obstacles which occur, not only
in non-conducting but in conducting bodies, as well as by
their varieties; and if these obstacles be numerous, its passage
is stopped: but if it be possible to overcome them, the
impediment causes it to make a more powerful effort to attain
to a state of equilibrium. Hence, unlike armatures and
arcs are of great effect in exciting a moderate degree of electricity,
when the same electricity resists the power of a homogeneous
metal.
3. Animal electricity obeys the law of equilibrium; for,
when the muscles have been brought to a state of equilibrium
with the corresponding nerves, no contractions are
produced by the application of an arc; but if that which
produces the equilibrium be removed, the contractions immediately
take place.
Pg 184
4. Poisons, mephitic air, aëriform fluids, and condensed
air, do not prevent animal electricity from being excited.
5. The influence of a vacuum on animal electricity is
various. In dead animals, if kept a long time in vacuo, the
animal electricity is weakened: in living animals it is considerably
increased.
6. Though a vacuum does not prevent the electricity from
being excited, it will not serve as a conductor of it when it has
been excited: if an arc from the nerves to the muscles be intercepted
by the smallest vacuum, no contractions take place.
7. As metallic armatures are of great effect in attracting
and collecting artificial electricity, the case is the same with
animal electricity; but care must be taken not to ascribe to
them that electricity which the muscles naturally possess.
8. Though unlike armatures have a great effect in calling
forth animal electricity, we have reason to conclude from
several experiments, that they do not contain two kinds of
electricity capable of producing muscular motion.
9. As natural electricity issues with great force from
sharp-pointed bodies, and proceeds to them more readily
than to others, the case is the same in regard to animal
electricity, as it issues more readily from the pointed parts of
the metallic arming applied to the nerves and muscles.
Pg 185
10. The nervo-electric fluid is propagated with that rapidity
which is required in restoring to an equilibrium two
opposite kinds of electricity.
11. The same conditions which cause two flasks to be
discharged when an arc is established from the exterior coating
of the one to the interior coating of the other, excite contractions
in two frogs, when an arc is formed from the nerve
of one to the muscles of the other.
12. The arc applied as above mentioned to the interior
coating of two phials, and to the nerves of two frogs, seems
to give more force to the proposed analogy; for the electric
explosions have a great similarity to the muscular motions
excited in the frogs.
I might have enlarged the number of these corollaries, had
not the well-known fate of various opinions, now consigned to
oblivion, rendered me more timid in hazarding conjectures. I,
however, did not allow myself to think that I ought so far to
give way to my timidity as to check the spirit of inquiry, or
to abandon the hope of one day attaining to the truth. But
it would be unreasonable to expect in animal electricity,
which is yet in its infancy, that precision and those satisfactory
results which can be the work only of time, and of the
continued labour of philosophers.
Pg 186
CONCLUSION.
I publish my experiments respecting muscular contractions
produced by one metal with the greater confidence, as
they were repeated different ways by the celebrated Humboldt,
who has adopted my opinion. In his work on Galvanism,
under the head which he entitles “Answer to the Objections
made by Volta to the Experiments of Aldini,” he says,
“J. Aldini of Bologna invented a very ingenious apparatus,
by means of which he was enabled to refute the supposition of
Professor Volta. For this purpose he had recourse to mercury:
every thing relating to his experiments is very well represented
in the plate which accompanies his memoir. Volta, in
reply to these experiments, observes, that they can impose
only on those who have not thoroughly examined them. He
denies the facts related by Aldini, and persists in his opinion
that the phænomena of Galvanism may all be referred to the
laws of heterogeneity. In regard to the experiments made
with mercury, he says that there is a great difference between
the surface of this metal and the interior of its mass; because
the surface becomes oxidated by the contact of the atmospheric
air; that consequently, in the experiment of Aldini, the
conducting arc is not really but apparently homogeneous,
the organs being immersed to different depths in the metal:
besides, that the mercury in these experiments produces a
Pg 187
shock; and that, as this shock is not the same at both extremities
of the arc, the result is an unequal development of
electricity. Volta, therefore, opposes to the phænomena
described by Aldini nothing but hypothesis. We might reply
in the same manner; but as it is much better in philosophical
disputes to have recourse to experiments, I undertook
some researches for the purpose of removing all doubt in regard
to this subject.
“I purified mercury by all the known means employed
for that purpose. I strained it several times through a piece
of chamois leather; I washed it with water and soap, with
vinegar and with alcohol. It appeared to me that it contained
neither lead nor tin; and that it was free from oily particles
and dust: it was perfectly fluid, and divided itself into
small, very round globules, which did not adhere to each
other, and which left behind them no traces. Its surface was
as brilliant as that of glass, without any pellicle or spot; and
a small quantity of it being stirred in a mortar with water, did
not communicate to it any sensible colour. It dissolved in
nitric acid without sensible effervescence, and without giving
any precipitate. A large quantity of mercury thus purified
was poured into three porcelain vessels; and as I was aware
that, if I performed several experiments with the same quantity
of mercury, it might be objected, that the metal had
contracted some impurity by the mere contact of the animal
substances, I made only one experiment with the mercury in
each of the vessels.
Pg 188
“I prepared several legs of frogs in such a manner that a
portion of the crural nerve and a part of the muscle of the
same length were left dependent. I placed a glass tube in a
horizontal direction above a vessel containing mercury; made
fast to it two silk threads, and suspended from it the thigh of
the leg in such a manner that the nerve and muscle could
be made to descend at pleasure. I brought the leg of the
frog within two lines of the vessel, and then lengthened the
thread till the nerve touched the surface of the metal. No
contractions took place; but as soon as the nerve also was
brought into contact with the metal, by lengthening the silk
thread, the whole limb experienced a convulsive shock. I
repeated this experiment with the same precaution, employing
the two other vessels, and the same results were obtained.
“The muscle and nerve touched the mercury only at the
surface; they were in no manner immersed in the metal; and
care had been taken to lower them so gently, that it was impossible
to suspect there could be any impulse, as in the experiment
where Aldini had caused the mercury to flow down
by employing a vessel shaped somewhat like a syphon.”
Pg 189
APPENDIX.
No. I.
An Account of the Experiments performed by J. Aldini on the Body of a
Malefactor executed at Newgate Jan. 17th 1803.
INTRODUCTION.
The unenlightened part of mankind are apt to entertain
a prejudice against those, however laudable their motives,
who attempt to perform experiments on dead subjects; and
the vulgar in general even attach a sort of odium to the common
practice of anatomical dissection. It is, however, an
incontrovertible fact, that such researches in modern times
have proved a source of the most valuable information, in regard
to points highly interesting to the knowledge of the human
frame, and have contributed in an eminent degree to
the improvement of physiology and anatomy. Enlightened
legislators have been sensible of this truth; and therefore it
has been wisely ordained by the British laws, which are
founded on the basis of humanity and public benefit, that the
bodies of those who during life violated one of the most sacred
rights of mankind, should after execution be devoted to a purpose
which might make some atonement for their crime, by
Pg 190
rendering their remains beneficial to that society which they
offended.
In consequence of this regulation, I lately had an opportunity
of performing some new experiments, the principal
object of which was to ascertain what opinion ought to be
formed of Galvanism as a mean of excitement in cases of
asphyxia and suspended animation. The power which exists in
the muscular fibre of animal bodies some time after all other
signs of vitality have disappeared, had before been examined
according to the illustrious Haller’s doctrine of irritability;
but it appeared to me that muscular action might be excited
in a much more efficacious manner by the power of the Galvanic
apparatus.
In performing these experiments, I had another object in
view. Being favoured with the assistance and support of gentlemen
eminently well skilled in the art of dissection, I proposed,
when the body should be opened, to perform some
new experiments which I never before attempted, and to confirm
others which I had made above a year ago on the bodies
of two robbers decapitated at Bologna.
To enlarge on the utility of such researches, or to point
out the advantages which may result from them, is not my
object at present. I shall here only observe, that as the bodies
of valuable members of society are often found under similar
circumstances, and with the same symptoms as those
Pg 191
observed on executed criminals; by subjecting the latter to
proper experiments, some speedier and more efficacious
means than any hitherto known, of giving relief in such cases,
may, perhaps, be discovered. In a commercial and maritime
country like Britain, where so many persons, in consequence
of their occupations at sea, on canals, rivers, and in
mines, are exposed to drowning, suffocation, and other accidents,
this object is of the utmost importance in a public
view, and is entitled to every encouragement.
Forster, on whose body these experiments were performed,
was twenty-six years of age, seemed to have been of a strong,
vigorous constitution, and was executed at Newgate on the
17th of January 1803. The body was exposed for a whole
hour in a temperature two degrees below the freezing point
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer; at the end of which long interval
it was conveyed to a house not far distant, and, in pursuance
of the sentence, was delivered to the College of Surgeons.
Mr. Keate, master of that respectable society, having
been so kind as to place it under my direction, I readily
embraced that opportunity of subjecting it to the Galvanic
stimulus, which had never before been tried on persons put
to death in a similar manner: and the result of my experiments
I now take the liberty of submitting to the public.
Before I conclude this short introduction, I consider it as
my duty to acknowledge my obligations to Mr. Carpue, lecturer
on anatomy, and Mr. Hutchins, a medical pupil, for
Pg 192
the assistance they afforded me in the dissection. I was also
much indebted to Mr. Cuthbertson, an eminent mathematical
instrument maker, who directed and arranged the
Galvanic apparatus. Encouraged by the aid of these gentlemen,
and the polite attention of Mr. Keate, I attempted
a series of experiments, of which the following is a brief account.
Pg 193
EXPERIMENT I.
One arc being applied to the mouth, and another to the
ear, wetted with a solution of muriate of soda (common salt),
Galvanism was communicated by means of three troughs
combined together, each of which contained forty plates of
zinc, and as many of copper. On the first application of the
arcs the jaw began to quiver, the adjoining muscles were horribly
contorted, and the left eye actually opened.
EXPERIMENT II.
On applying the arc to both ears, a motion of the head
was manifested, and a convulsive action of all the muscles
of the face: the lips and eyelids were also evidently affected;
but the action seemed much increased by making one extremity
of the arc to communicate with the nostrils, the other
continuing in one ear.
EXPERIMENT III.
The conductors being applied to the ear, and to the rectum,
excited in the muscles contractions much stronger than
in the preceding experiments. The action even of those muscles
Pg 194
furthest distant from the points of contact with the arc
was so much increased as almost to give an appearance of
re-animation.
EXPERIMENT IV.
In this state, wishing to try the power of ordinary stimulants,
I applied volatile alkali to the nostrils and to the mouth,
but without the least sensible action: on applying Galvanism
great action was constantly produced. I then administered
the Galvanic stimulus and volatile alkali together; the convulsions
appeared to be much increased by this combination,
and extended from the muscles of the head, face, and neck,
as far as the deltoid. The effect in this case surpassed our
most sanguine expectations, and vitality might, perhaps,
have been restored, if many circumstances had not rendered
it impossible.
EXPERIMENT V.
I next extended the arc from one ear to the biceps flexor
cubiti, the fibres of which had been laid bare by dissection.
This produced violent convulsions in all the muscles of the
arm, and especially in the biceps and the coraco brachialis
even without the intervention of salt water.
Pg 195
EXPERIMENT VI.
An incision having been made in the wrist, among the
small filaments of the nerves and cellular membrane, on bringing
the arc into contact with this part, a very strong action
of the muscles of the fore-arm and hand was immediately
perceived. In this, as in the last experiment, the animal
moisture was sufficient to conduct the Galvanic stimulus
without the intervention of salt water.
EXPERIMENT VII.
The short muscles of the thumb were dissected, and submitted
to the action of the Galvanic apparatus, which induced
a forcible effort to clench the hand.
EXPERIMENT VIII.
The effects of Galvanism in this experiment were compared
with those of other stimulants. For this purpose, the
point of the scalpel was applied to the fibres, and even introduced
into the substance of the biceps flexor cubiti without
producing the slightest motion. The same result was obtained
from the use of caustic volatile alkali and concentrated
Pg 196
sulphuric acid. The latter even corroded the muscle, without
bringing it into action.
EXPERIMENT IX.
Having opened the thorax and the pericardium, exposing
the heart in situ, I endeavoured to excite action in the ventricles,
but without success. The arc was first applied upon the
surface, then in the substance of the fibres, to the carneæ columnæ,
to the septum ventriculorum, and lastly, in the course
of the nerves by the coronary arteries, even with salt water
interposed, but without the slightest visible action being induced.
EXPERIMENT X.
In this experiment the arc was conveyed to the right auricle,
and produced a considerable contraction, without the
intervention of salt water, but especially in that part called
the appendix auricularis: in the left auricle scarcely any action
was exhibited.
EXPERIMENT XI.
Conductors being applied from the spinal marrow to the
fibres of the biceps flexor cubiti, the gluteus maximus, and
the gastrocnemius, separately, no considerable action in the
muscles of the arm and leg was produced.
Pg 197
EXPERIMENT XII.
The sciatic nerve being exposed between the great trochanter
of the femur and the tuberosity of the ischium, and
the arc being established from the spinal marrow to the nerve
divested of its theca, we observed, to our astonishment, that
no contraction whatever ensued in the muscles, although
salt water was used at both extremities of the arc. But the
conductor being made to communicate with the fibres of the
muscles and the cellular membrane, as strong an action as
before was manifested.
EXPERIMENT XIII.
By making the arc to communicate with the sciatic nerve
and the gastrocnemius muscle, a very feeble action was produced
in the latter.
EXPERIMENT XIV.
Conductors being applied from the sciatic to the peronæal
nerve, scarcely any motion was excited in the muscles.
EXPERIMENT XV.
The sciatic nerve being divided about the middle of the
thigh, on applying the conductors from the biceps flexor cruris
Pg 198
to the gastrocnemius, there ensued a powerful contraction of
both. I must here observe that the muscles continued excitable
for seven hours and a half after the execution. The
troughs were frequently renewed, yet towards the close they
were very much exhausted. No doubt, with a stronger apparatus
we might have observed muscular action much
longer; for, after the experiments had been continued for
three or four hours, the power of a single trough was not
sufficient to excite the action of the muscles: the assistance
of a more powerful apparatus was required. This shows that
such a long series of experiments could not have been performed
by the simple application of metallic coatings. I am
of opinion that, in general, these coatings, invented in the
first instance by Galvani, are passive. They serve merely to
conduct the fluid pre-existent in the animal system; whereas,
with the Galvanic batteries of Volta, the muscles are excited
to action by the influence of the apparatus itself.
From the above experiments there is reason to conclude:
I.
That Galvanism exerts a considerable power over the
nervous and muscular systems, and operates universally on
the whole of the animal œconomy.
Pg 199
II.
That the power of Galvanism, as a stimulant, is stronger
than any mechanical action whatever.
III.
That the effects of Galvanism on the human frame differ
from those produced by electricity communicated with common
electrical machines.
IV.
That Galvanism, whether administered by means of
troughs, or piles, differs in its effects from those produced
by the simple metallic coatings employed by Galvani.
V.
That when the surfaces of the nerves and muscles are
armed with metallic coatings, the influence of the Galvanic
batteries is conveyed to a greater number of points, and
acts with considerably more force in producing contractions
of the muscular fibre.
Pg 200
VI.
That the action of Galvanism on the heart is different
from that on other muscles. For, when the heart is no
longer susceptible of Galvanic influence, the other muscles
remain still excitable for a certain time. It is also remarkable
that the action produced by Galvanism on the auricles
is different from that produced on the ventricles of the heart,
as is demonstrated in Experiment the tenth.
VII.
That Galvanism affords very powerful means of resuscitation
in cases of suspended animation under common circumstances.
The remedies already adopted in asphyxia,
drowning, &c. when combined with the influence of Galvanism,
will produce much greater effect than either of them
separately.
To conclude this subject, it may be acceptable to the
reader to have a short but accurate account of the appearances
exhibited on the dissection of the body, which was
performed with the greatest care and precision by Mr. Carpue.
Pg 201
“The blood in the head was not extravasated, but
several vessels were prodigiously swelled, and the lungs
entirely deprived of air; there was a great inflammation
in the intestines, and the bladder was fully distended
with urine. In general, upon viewing the body, it appeared
that death had been immediately produced by a
real suffocation.”
It may be observed, if credit can be given to some loose
reports, which hitherto it has not been in our power to substantiate,
that after this man had been for some time suspended,
means were employed with a view to put an end
to his sufferings.
From the preceding narrative it will be easily perceived,
that our object in applying the treatment here described
was not to produce re-animation, but merely to obtain a
practical knowledge how far Galvanism might be employed
as an auxiliary to other means in attempts to revive persons
under similar circumstances.
In cases when suspended animation has been produced
by natural causes, it is found that the pulsations of the heart
and arteries become totally imperceptible; therefore, when
it is to be restored, it is necessary to re-establish the circulation
throughout the whole system. But this cannot be done
without re-establishing also the muscular powers which have
Pg 202
been suspended, and to these the application of Galvanism
gives new energy.
I am far from wishing to raise any objections against
the administration of the other remedies which are already
known, and which have long been used. I would only recommend
Galvanism as the most powerful mean hitherto
discovered of assisting and increasing the efficacy of every
other stimulant.
Volatile alkali, as already observed, produced no effect
whatever on the body when applied alone; but, being used
conjointly with Galvanism, the power of the latter over the
nervous and muscular system was greatly increased: nay, it
is possible that volatile alkali, owing to its active powers
alone, might convey the Galvanic fluid to the brain with
greater facility, by which means its action would become
much more powerful in cases of suspended animation. The
well known method of injecting atmospheric air ought not
to be neglected; but here, likewise, in order that the lungs
may be prepared for its reception, it would be proper previously
to use Galvanism, to excite the muscular action, and
to assist the whole animal system to resume its vital functions.
Under this view, the experiments of which I have
just given an account, may be of great public utility.
It is with heartfelt gratitude that I recall to mind the
politeness and lively interest shown by the members of the
Pg 203
College of Surgeons in the prosecution of these experiments.
Mr. Keate, the master, in particular proposed to make comparative
experiments on animals, in order to give support
to the deductions resulting from those on the human body.
Mr. Blicke observed that on similar occasions it would be
proper to immerse the body in a warm salt bath, in order to
ascertain how far it might promote the action of Galvanism
on the whole surface of the body. Dr. Pearson recommended
oxygen gas to be substituted instead of the atmospheric air
blown into the lungs. It gives me great pleasure to have an
opportunity of communicating these observations to the
public, in justice to the eminent characters who suggested
them, and as an inducement to physiologists not to overlook
the minutest circumstance which may tend to improve experiments
that promise so greatly to relieve the sufferings of
mankind.
Pg 204
No. II.
Report presented to the Class of the Exact Sciences of the Academy
of Turin, 15th August 1802, in regard to the Galvanic
Experiments made by C. Vassali-Eandi, Giulio, and
Rossi, on the 10th and 14th of the same Month, on the
Bodies of three Men a short Time after their Decapitation. By
C. Giulio.
The First Consul, in a letter to Chaptal, in which he announced
to that minister the two prizes he had founded to
encourage philosophers to make new researches in regard to
Galvanism, says, “Galvanism, in my opinion, will lead to
great discoveries.” This observation was just and profound:
great discoveries have already been made; Galvani and Volta
have immortalized their names, and several celebrated philosophers
and physiologists have rendered themselves illustrious
in this branch of science, so abundant in astonishing phænomena:
yet it is only in its infancy, and there can be no doubt
that many important discoveries still remain to be made.
Vassali, Rossi, and myself, have for several years been
employed in researches on this subject. While the first examined
the Galvanic fluid in every point of view, for the purpose
of illustrating its nature by means of a great number of
ingenious experiments, performed with that care and exactness
for which he is distinguished, Rossi and I attempted
Pg 205
to explain the action of the Galvanic fluid on the different
organs of the animal œconomy.
Sometimes I was obliged to interrupt my researches by
unfortunate circumstances, and at others by my administrative
functions: but I have now resumed them; and though
success has not yet crowned our efforts by any brilliant discovery,
we trust, and with confidence, that we shall be able to
add some valuable facts to the history of the animal œconomy;
to rectify others; to confirm facts already received; and to
extend the domain of an inexhaustible agent fertile in wonders.
Volta had announced that the involuntary organs, such as
the heart, the stomach, the intestines, the bladder and vessels,
are insensible to the Galvanic action[15]: but we have fully refuted
this great physiological error. Unfortunately, however,
the Latin memoir containing the decisive experiments which
we made on cold-blooded and warm-blooded animals in 1792,
presented to the Academy soon after, and which, according
to Sue, in his History of Galvanism[16], “are curious, and contain
very interesting observations,” did not appear till 1801,
Pg 206
when it was printed in the last volume of the Transactions of
the Academy.
In that interval Grapengiesser found, as we had done, that
Galvanism, by means of zinc and silver[17], has an influence on
the peristaltic motion. Humboldt ascertained the Galvanic
action on the hearts of frogs, lizards, toads, and fishes. Smuch
observed the excitability of the heart by the Galvanic fluid;
and Fowler changed the pulsations of the heart without the
immediate application to it of armatures, and only by adapting
them in warm-blooded animals to the recurrent nerve by
means of the sympathetic[18].
It is chiefly in regard to the experiments of these learned
Germans that the historian of Galvanism states[19], that the involuntary
vermicular motion of the intestines, according to the
acknowledgment of all physiologists, obeys metallic irritation;
whence it follows, says he, that the Italian philosophers
have advanced an error when they said that Galvanism exercises
no action but on the muscles, which depend on the will.
As an accurate and impartial historian, how can Sue accuse
the Italian philosophers indiscriminately of such an error,
since he had our memoir before him when employed on the second
volume of his History of Galvanism, and since he gave
a short account of my experiments in his first volume? Nay,
Pg 207
I gave an account of my experiments in a small work published
in Italian in 1792. But as Italian works are not much
read in France, and were less so at that period, I should not
have reproached C. Sue with this act of injustice, and his incorrectness
in regard to the Italian philosophers, had not my
Latin memoir been known to him, as it had appeared in the
Transactions of the Academy.
Though we made a great many experiments before we attempted
to combat a philosopher so justly celebrated as
Volta, and to establish the influence of Galvanism on the involuntary
organs; and though Grapengiesser, Humboldt,
Smuch, Fowler, &c. ascertained this influence in certain cold-blooded
and even warm-blooded animals; an object of so
much importance to physiology required to be extended and
confirmed, especially in man, by new experiments. We have
been the more sensible of the necessity of establishing this
fact in an incontestable manner, either in regard to the involuntary
organs in general, or more particularly the heart, as
the celebrated Aldini, professor at Bologna, in an Italian work
replete with new facts and valuable experiments made on the
bodies of decapitated criminals, has been obliged to acknowledge
that he was not able to obtain any contraction in that
organ by means of the electro-motor of Volta, which is so
powerful.
We shall give an account, in particular memoirs, of the
experiments we have already made, and of those which we
Pg 208
propose to perform. In regard to the stomach, the large and
the small intestines, and the bladder, we shall say only, in a
general manner, that by armature of the different nervous
branches we obtained contractions analogous to those described
in regard to animals. The Galvanic action on the
heart and arteries is the object of the present paper, as it is
of the utmost importance to physiology, and deserves, under
every point of view, to excite our attention and occupy our
reflections.
Our experiments on the different parts of the head and
trunk of the decapitated criminals were begun, on the 10th
of August, in a hall of the large hospital of St. John, and resumed
and continued yesterday in the anatomical theatre of
the university, before a great number of spectators.
We tried the influence of Galvanism on the heart in three
different ways:
1st, In arming the spinal marrow by means of a cylinder
of lead introduced into the canal of the cervical vertebræ, and
then conveying one extremity of a silver arc over the surface
of the heart, and the other to the arming of the spinal marrow.
The heart of the first individual subjected to our experiments
immediately exhibited very visible and very strong
contractions. These experiments were made without the
intervention of any kind of pile, and without any armature
applied to the heart. It is very remarkable, that when the
Pg 209
former is touched first, and then the arming and spinal marrow,
the contractions of the heart which follow are more instantaneous,
and stronger, than when the arming of the spinal
marrow is first touched, and then the heart. In a memoir on
Galvanism, read in the last public sitting of the academy, I
gave an account of a great number of experiments, made especially
on frogs, which exhibited a similar phænomenon. In
these animals I observed, a great number of times, that when
the arming of the crural nerves was touched first, and then
the muscles of the thigh, there were no contractions, or the
contractions were exceedingly weak; and, on the other hand,
that when the muscles of the thighs were first touched, and
then the arming of the crural nerves, as long as the least vitality
remained in the organs, the contractions of the muscles
were constant and violent. In the memoir already mentioned
I have endeavoured to account for this phænomenon, to which
I shall recur, when it has been ascertained by a sufficient
number of trials, that it is as general in men as I found it in
frogs and other cold-blooded animals.
The second manner in which we tried the influence of Galvanism
on the heart was by arming the par vagum and the
great sympathetic nerve. The object of these experiments will
be readily comprehended by anatomists acquainted with the
details of neurology. In these, as well as in the first and other
experiments where we armed the cardiac nerves themselves,
we obtained contractions in the heart. In this, as in the
Pg 210
former case, the contractions took place when the heart was
first touched, and then the arming of the nerves, were much
stronger than when the arming of the nerves was touched first,
and then the heart. In this method we even observed that
the Galvanic experiments sometimes failed.
The third kind of experiments on the heart were performed
by means of the pile. The pile employed on the 10th of
August, for the experiments on the first decapitated criminal,
was composed of fifty plates of silver and as many of zinc,
with pasteboard moistened by a strong solution of muriate
of soda. The silver was mixed with a tenth part of copper.
This is the proportion which we found most favourable to the
intensity of the signs of Galvanism:
|
Metre. |
| The diameter of the silver plates was |
0·036 |
| Their thickness |
0·0015 |
The dimensions of the pieces of pasteboard were the same. |
|
Metre. |
| The diameter of the zinc plates was |
0·042 |
| Their thickness |
0·0035 |
The pile employed for the experiments on the 15th of August
was composed of fifty plates of pure silver, and twice
Pg 211
that number of plates of zinc and pieces of pasteboard; the
latter moistened in a solution of muriate of soda.
|
Metre. |
| The diameter of the silver plates was |
0·038 |
| Their thickness |
0·001 |
The dimensions of the pieces of pasteboard were the same. |
|
Metre. |
| The diameter of the zinc plates was |
0·04 |
| Their thickness |
0·001 |
By making the negative extremity of the pile to communicate,
by means of respective conductors, with the spinal
marrow, or merely with the muscles of the back or breast, laid
bare, and the positive extremity immediately with the heart,
instantaneous and violent contractions were obtained; and
the contractions were produced also when the heart was made
to communicate with the negative extremity of the pile, and
the spinal marrow with the positive extremity.
We shall observe, in regard to contractions of the heart,
that of all its parts the apex is the most susceptible of motion,
and the most sensible to the Galvanic influence: we must observe
also, that the contractions produced by communication
with the pile were not only strong, but that they continued
a long time even after the communication was destroyed.
Pg 212
A very remarkable circumstance is, that the heart, which
of all the muscles retains longest, in general, its contractility
in regard to mechanical stimulants, is the first to become insensible
to the Galvanic influence. The muscles of the arms,
and those of the back and breast, continue to be excitable by
Galvanism for whole hours; and the heart had lost its excitability
about forty minutes after death.
The experiments made yesterday in the anatomical theatre
exhibited nearly the same results in regard to the heart as
those already mentioned. The great arteries, such as the
aorta and some of its branches, being injected with water
raised nearly to the same temperament as that of the blood
in the living individual, and subjected to the Galvanic action,
exhibited contractions. But it is probable that they will
appear stronger when trials of this kind shall be made on bodies
endowed with a higher degree of vitality than those of
yesterday, and when the interval between the period of decapitation
and that of the experiments shall be less. With this
view, indeed, we have provided a hall much nearer to the
place of execution; for the results which we obtained in the
man decapitated on the 10th of August, in which case the experiments
were begun five minutes after the decapitation,
were all comparatively more striking, and stronger, than those
obtained in the experiments of yesterday, which were begun
more than twenty minutes after decapitation, and which were
performed, as appears, on bodies endowed with a much
less degree of vitality.
Pg 213
In the experiments made on the arteries, we armed the
nervous plexuses, which envelop the trunks of the cœliac and
mesenteric arteries, several branches of which are even interwoven
around the aorta: a communication was established
between the positive or negative extremity of the pile and the
aortic artery itself. It was by these means that we obtained
visible contractions.
If the effects of Galvanism on arterial contractions be constant,
as I suppose them to be, all those discussions which have
been agitated so long, and with so much violence, in regard
to the irritability of the arteries, which does not manifest itself
by the action of different mechanical and chemical stimulants,
will at length be terminated in a positive and irrefragable
manner; all doubts will at length be removed; and we shall
be indebted to the Galvanic fluid, which is the most energetic
of all agents applied to the animal fibre, for having fixed the
opinions of physiologists on a point of so much importance to
the animal œconomy.
Whence comes it that Aldini, even with the help of the
most powerful electro-motors, was not able to obtain contractions
in the heart of man, which we so evidently obtained
by the same means which always withstood his efforts? How
happens it that we obtained contractions by means much
weaker?
The first experiments of Aldini on the human heart were
Pg 214
begun an hour and a half after death[20]. The trunk had been
exposed a long time to the open air, the temperature of which
was no more than + 2. It is probable that the cold, and the
long interval between the period of death and that of the experiment,
had already annihilated the irritability of the heart[21].
In the fifty-third experiment, the heart of another executed
criminal constantly remained motionless and insensible to the
Galvanic current. But in this experiment, before trying the
heart, a considerable time was employed in making trials on
the voluntary organs, the sensibility of which to Galvanism
had already been acknowledged. But the very reverse of this
method ought to be followed; for I will here repeat, that excitability,
by means of the Galvanic fluid, is extinguished in
the heart a long time before it becomes extinct in the voluntary
muscles. This is so certain, that while no part of the
heart, tried externally and internally, presented any sign of
contractions, the diaphragm, and the muscles of the upper
and lower extremities, gave very strong ones.
Pg 215
In our experiments which were begun five minutes after
death, the heart ceased to be sensible to the Galvanic agent
about the fortieth minute; and this was the case in the temperature
of + 25; while the voluntary muscles retained their
Galvanic excitability for hours. In other experiments made
by Aldini, the contractility of the voluntary muscles existed
three hours, and even five hours, after death.
In the oxen subjected to Galvanic experiments by Aldini,
the excitability of the heart must have been extinguished
sooner, since the action of the Galvanic fluid of the pile produced
no contractions, though applied immediately after
death.
If contractions were observed in the voluntary muscles
under the same circumstances, it was because these muscles,
which lose much sooner than the heart their excitability in
regard to mechanical stimulants, retain it much longer than
that organ in regard to the Galvanic agent. What then is
the cause of this diversity, which seems contrary to every analogy,
and which, however, is proved by facts? It is still involved
in much obscurity: but it is not yet time to tear the
dark veil which conceals it; we are not yet enlightened by a
sufficient number of facts; and the few scattered data which
we have been able to collect, cannot yet be connected in a
manner capable of encouraging us to attempt to rend the
veil at present.
Pg 216
We shall not here speak of the astonishment with which
the spectators were struck when they saw the contractions of
the frontal muscles, those of the eye-lids, the face, the lower
jaw, and the tongue; when they beheld the convulsions of
the muscles of the arms, the breast, and of the back, which
raised the trunk some inches from the table; the contractions
of the pectoral muscles, and the exterior and interior intercostal
muscles, which diminished the intervals between all
the ribs, and made them approach each other with violence,
raising the inferior ones towards the superior, and the latter
towards the first rib and the clavicle; the contractions of the
arms, which, when the uncovered biceps muscle was touched,
as well as its tendon, were so speedy and violent, that complete
flexion of the fore-arm on the arm took place, and that
the hand raised weights of some pounds fifty minutes after
decapitation. Similar experiments may be seen in the work
of Aldini: our object in this report was merely to speak of
the Galvanic influence on the heart and arteries of man,
which had not yet been observed.
These new and important results, which we obtained in
regard to the heart and arteries of man, will be confirmed by
other trials. We shall repeat our experiments as soon as an
opportunity occurs, and we shall take care to give you an
early account of the most remarkable observations we shall
make.
Pg 217
No. III.
Account of an experiment made at Calais, on the transmission of
Galvanism through an arm of the sea. By J. Aldini.
The experiments made at the Lake of Geneva by Mr. de
Luc and his brother, and those made in England on the banks
of the Thames, by which it has been proved that common
electricity is susceptible of transmission through a considerable
space of water, induced me to try some analogous experiments
in regard to Galvanism by endeavouring to make it
traverse a certain extent of sea.
Some philosophers, to whom I communicated this project,
seemed to entertain doubts on the subject, as they conceived
that a considerable extent of sea water might perhaps destroy
or impede the action of the Galvanic fluid. My late passage
at Calais afforded me an opportunity of removing all these
doubts by an experiment which was attended with complete
success.
Pg 218
M. Sept-Fontaines, distinguished by his philosophical
knowledge, was desirous of assisting me in my proposed researches;
M. Cheely, chemist of the military hospital, prepared
the necessary instruments; and M. Debaudre, the port
engineer, conducted the arrangement of the Galvanic arcs.
On the 27th of February, the sky being serene, and the sea
calm, every thing seemed to be favourable for the experiment.
A gentle south-west wind prevailed at the time; the temperature
of the water of the sea was 47·4° of Fahrenheit, that of
the atmosphere 49·4°, and the barometer stood at 30·37
inches.
Fort Rouge and the West Mole afforded me two fixed
points proper for my purpose. A Galvanic pile consisting of
eighty plates of silver and zinc was constructed on the West
Mole on an insulated stool, and the animals destined to be
exposed to the Galvanic action were placed at Fort Rouge.
The Galvanic chain was composed of the arm of the sea which
separates Fort Rouge from the Western Mole, and of three
wires disposed in the following manner.
The first wire proceeded from the base of the pile, and,
being supported by an insulator, fell vertically into the sea
to the depth of about three fathoms.
The second wire, insulated in the same manner, proceeded
from the summit of the pile, and was conveyed in a horizontal
Pg 219
direction at the height of from six to nine feet above the
surface of the sea, as far as the platform of Fort Rouge.
A third wire, also insulated, and placed at one corner of the
platform, descended perpendicularly into the sea in the same
manner as the first.
When this arrangement was made, if a person on the platform
touched the extremities of the second and third wires,
and thus completed the Galvanic circle, he always experienced
a shock; and when animals recently killed were substituted
in the room of the person, they were thrown into strong
convulsions. We therefore concluded that the portion of sea
water between the pile and the animal subjected to its action
formed a part of the Galvanic circle: such was the consequence
we thought ourselves authorised to deduce from this
experiment. The breadth of the water was about 200 feet.
I must freely confess, that in repeating these experiments,
we found, that to receive the shock, it was not absolutely necessary
that the person should hold in his hands the two conductors,
and that it was sufficient to touch the wire alone
which proceeded from the summit of the pile. This apparent
anomaly deranged at first the result of my researches;
and we suspected that the shocks before received had been
transmitted without the intervention of the water of the sea.
It was therefore necessary that this doubt should be cleared
up by new observations.
Pg 220
I tried separately, on the platform, the action of the two
conducting wires, and found that by touching the wire which
fell into the sea no shock was produced. I then took in my
hand the other wire, which proceeded from the summit of the
pile; and having thus brought its action into equilibrium, I
experienced a shock: which shows that the Galvanic fluid took
its course from the bottom of the pile traversing the sea.
M. Sept-Fontaines proposed that we should lower to the level
of the sea the wire which proceeded from the summit of the
pile, and which was extended to Fort Rouge. The action of
the Galvanism was then checked, but was immediately
restored by placing the conductor in its former position.
Thus, notwithstanding the large extent of water by
which the metallic conductors were separated; and notwithstanding
the agitation produced by the sea, the Galvanism
found no obstacle to its propagation, and pursued
its usual direction.
Hence it may be readily perceived, that though the experiments
here described are analogous to those formerly
made with the Leyden flask on lakes and rivers, they are new
of their kind, and may contribute to establish the similarity
between the properties of common electricity and of Galvanism.
I will even venture to assert, that these experiments, if
pursued and varied, may lead to some interesting discoveries
in natural philosophy.
After making these observations at Fort Rouge, I repaired
Pg 221
in company with M. Sept-Fontaines to the West Mole, to try
the power of the pile unconnected with the sea. Having
formed an arc, we found that the action of the pile, in this
case, was stronger; which induced us to conclude, that the
Galvanic power in traversing the sea had been in some measure
weakened. There is reason to suppose, that by transmitting
the Galvanic influence gradually to greater distances
through the sea, the point of the minimum of its action, that
is, a distance at which it will no longer be sensible, may be discovered.
This distance remains to be determined, and also
the difference between the propagation of common electricity
in fresh water, and that of Galvanism in salt water.
I observed that the sea shore, still moist after the water
retires in consequence of the reflux, is endowed with the
power of conveying Galvanism to very great distances. I
made several experiments on this subject with M. Bastide,
physician of Calais, who acknowledged that he had received
very strong shocks, the effects of which were sensible the
day following.
THE END.
Wilks and Taylor,
Printers, Chancery-lane.
[Transcriber Note: Double-click plate image to view detailed image.]
Pl. 1
Pl. 2.
Pl. 3.
Pl. 4.
BOOKS
PRINTED FOR AND SOLD BY
CUTHELL AND MARTIN,
HOLBORN.
LA GRANGE’S (Professor in the Central Schools of Paris, &c.) Manual of a
Course of Chemistry, or a Series of Experiments and Illustrations, necessary
to form a complete Course of that Science, 2 vols. 8vo. illustrated with 17
Plates by Lowry, 18s. in boards.
Brisson’s (Professor of Chemistry in the Central Schools of Paris) Physical Principles
of Chemistry, to which is added a short Appendix by the Translator, illustrated
with Seven large Engravings by Lowry, 1 vol. 8vo. 10s. 6d. boards.
Morgagni on Diseases, translated by Alexander, 3 vols. 4to. boards, 1l. 16s.
Monro’s (Dr. Alex. senior) Works, with his Life, and Portrait by Basire,
4to. boards, 1l. 1s.
Gellert’s Metallurgic Chymistry, being a System of Mineralogy in general, and
of all the Arts arising from this Science, to the great Improvement of Manufactures,
and the most capital Branches of Trade and Commerce, Theoretical and
Practical. Translated from the German, 8vo. with 4 Plates, boards, 6s.
Gillespie’s Observations on the Diseases which prevailed on board a Part of his
Majesty’s Squadron on the Leeward Island Station, between November 1794 and
April 1796, 8vo. boards, 5s.
Fontana’s Treatise on the Venom of the Viper, on the American Poisons, and
on the Cherry Laurel, and some other Vegetable Poisons, to which are annexed
Observations on the primitive Structure of the Animal Body, different Experiments
on the Reproduction of the Nerves, and a Description of a new Canal of
the Eye, with Ten descriptive Plates. Translated by Skinner, 2 vols. 12s. boards.
Fourcroy’s System of Chemical Knowledge, with the Synoptic Tables of Chemistry,
translating by Nicholson, 11 vols. 8vo.—The Synoptic Tables are already
printed, Price 1l. 1s. boards.
Haller’s First Lines of Physiology, a new Edition, to which is added, a Translation
of the Index composed for the Edinburgh Edition printed under the Inspection
of Dr. William Cullen, neatly printed in 8vo. boards, 10s. 6d.
Swediaur’s Practical Observations on Venereal Complaints, to which are added,
An Account of a new Venereal Disease which has lately appeared in Canada;
and A Pharmacopœia Syphilitica, 8vo. boards, 4s.
The same Book on fine paper, boards, 5s.
Shaw’s Essays for the Improvement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce,
by Means of Chemistry, 8vo. boards, 5s.
Buchan’s Domestic Medicine. A new Edition is in the Press, and will shortly
appear.
Clark’s Treatise on the Prevention of Diseases incident to Horses, to which
are subjoined Observations on some of the Surgical and Medical Branches of Farriery,
a new Edition, in 1 vol. 8vo. boards, 8s.
Cooper’s Complete Distiller, containing the Method of performing the various
Processes of Distillation, with Descriptions of the several Instruments, &c. with a
Plate, boards, 3s. 6d.
Chemical Vocabulary and Tables of the Old and New Nomenclature, by De
Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy, boards, 4s.
Bergman’s Physical and Chemical Essays, translated from the original Latin,
with Notes and Illustrations by Dr. Cullen, of Dublin, 3 vols. 8vo. with Plates,
18s. boards.
Bell’s (Benjamin) System of Surgery, a new Edition, 7 vols. 8vo. with many
Plates, 3l. 3s. boards.
Bell’s (Benjamin) Treatise on the Hydrocele, on Sarcocele, on Cancer, and
other Diseases of the Testes, 8vo. with four Plates, 4s. boards.
Withering’s Systematic Arrangement of British Plants, with an easy Introduction
to the Study of Botany, illustrated by Copper-plates, 4 vols. 8vo. boards,
2l. 2s.
Transcriber’s Note:
Dialect, obsolete and alternative spellings were left
unchanged. ‘Economy’ is spelled without an œ twice in the Contents;
elsewhere it appears as ‘œconomy.’ Footnotes were renumbered
sequentially and moved to the end of the section in which related
anchors occur.
Obvious printing errors, such as backwards, upside down, unprinted, or
partially printed letters, were corrected. Final stops missing at the
end of abbreviations and sentences were added.
The following items were changed:
Added missing page number (3) to first entry of Table of Contents
Added missing close quote to footnote [21].
Changed comma to stop ‘…printed in 8vo. boards,.…’
End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Account of the Late Improvements in
Galvanism, by John Aldini
*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GALVANISM ***
***** This file should be named 57267-h.htm or 57267-h.zip *****
This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
http://www.gutenberg.org/5/7/2/6/57267/
Produced by Sonya Schermann, Carol Brown and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
file was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)
Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
1.E.8.
1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country outside the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
are located before using this ebook.
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
provided that
* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation."
* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
works.
* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
receipt of the work.
* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
For additional contact information:
Dr. Gregory B. Newby
Chief Executive and Director
gbnewby@pglaf.org
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.
Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org
This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
