THE
NATURAL HISTORY
OF
PLINY.

TRANSLATED,

WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

BY THE LATE

JOHN BOSTOCK, M.D., F.R.S.,

AND

H. T. RILEY, Esq., B.A.,
LATE SCHOLAR OF CLARE HALL, CAMBRIDGE.

VOL. V.

LONDON:
HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
MDCCCLVI.

CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE ANTIPATHIES AND SYMPATHIES WHICH EXIST AMONG TREES AND PLANTS.

Not even are the forests and the spots in which the aspect of Nature is most rugged, destitute of their peculiar remedies; for so universally has that divine parent of all things distributed her succours for the benefit of man, as to implant for him medicinal virtues in the trees of the desert even, while at every step she presents us with most wonderful illustrations of those antipathies and sympathies which exist in the vegetable world.

Between the quercus1 and the olive2 there exists a hatred so inveterate, that transplanted, either of them, to a site previously occupied by the other, they will die.3 The quercus too, if planted near the walnut, will perish. There is a mortal feud4 existing also between the cabbage and the vine; and the cabbage itself, so shunned as it is by the vine, will wither immediately if planted in the vicinity of cyclamen5 or of origanum. We find it asserted even, that aged trees fit to be felled, are cut with all the greater difficulty, and dry all the more rapidly,2 if touched by the hand of man before the axe is applied: it is a common belief, too, that when their load consists of fruit, beasts of burden are immediately sensible6 of it, and will instantly begin to sweat, however trifling it may be, unless the fruit is duly shown to them before starting. Fennel-giant, as a fodder, is extremely grateful to the ass, and yet to other beasts of burden it is a deadly poison: hence it is that the ass is consecrated to Father Liber,7 to which deity the fennel is also sacred.

Inanimate objects again, even of the most insignificant character, have their own peculiar antipathies. Cooks disengage meat of the brine, when it has been too highly salted, by the agency of fine meal and the inner bark8 of the linden-tree. Salt again, tends to neutralize the sickly flavour of food when over-sweet. The taste of water, when nitrous or bitter, is modified by the addition of polenta,9 so much so indeed, as to be rendered potable10 in a couple of hours: it is for a similar reason, too, that a layer of polenta is put11 in our linen wine-strainers. A similar property is possessed also by the chalk12 of Rhodes, and the argilla of our own country.

Equal affinities exist as well; pitch, for instance, is extracted by the agency of oil, both of them being of an unctuous nature: oil again, will incorporate only with lime, both of them having a natural antipathy13 to water. Gum is most14 easily removed with vinegar, and ink15 with water; in addition to which, there3 are numberless other instances of sympathy and antipathy which we shall be careful to mention in their appropriate places.

It is in tendencies of this description that the medical art first took its rise; though it was originally intended, no doubt, by Nature, that our only medicaments should be those which universally exist, are everywhere to be found, and are to be procured at no great outlay, the various substances, in fact, from which we derive our sustenance. But at a later period the fraudulent disposition of mankind, combined with an ingenuity prompted by lucre, invented those various laboratories,16 in which each one of us is promised an extension of his life—that is, if he will pay for it. Compositions and mixtures of an inexplicable nature forthwith have their praises sung, and the productions of Arabia and India are held in unbounded admiration in the very midst17 of us. For some trifling sore or other, a medicament is prescribed from the shores of the Red Sea; while not a day passes but what the real remedies are to be found upon the tables of the very poorest man among us.18 But if the remedies for diseases were derived from our own gardens, if the plants or shrubs were employed which grow there, there would be no art, forsooth, that would rank lower than that of medicine.

Yes, avow it we must—the Roman people, in extending its empire, has lost sight of its ancient manners, and in that we have conquered we are the conquered:19 for now we obey the natives of foreign20 lands, who by the agency of a single art have even out-generalled our generals.21 More, however, on this topic hereafter.

We have already22 spoken in their appropriate places of the4 herb called lotus, and of the plant of Egypt known by the same name and as the “tree of the Syrtes.” The berries of the lotus, which is known among us as the “Grecian bean,”23 act astringently upon the bowels; and the shavings of the wood, boiled in wine, are useful in cases of dysentery, excessive menstruation, vertigo, and epilepsy: they also prevent the hair from falling off. It is a marvellous thing—but there is no substance known that is more bitter than the shavings of this wood, or sweeter than the fruit. The sawdust also of the wood is boiled in myrtle-water, and then kneaded and divided into lozenges, which form a medicament for dysentery of remarkable utility, being taken in doses of one victoriatus,24 in three cyathi of water.

Acorns,25 pounded with salted axle-grease,26 are curative of those indurations known as “cacoethe.”27 The acorn of the holm-oak, however, is the most powerful in its effects; and in all these trees the bark is still more efficacious, as well as the inner membrane which lies beneath it. A decoction of this last is good for cœliac affections; and it is applied topically in cases of dysentery, as well as the acorns, which are employed also for the treatment of stings inflicted by serpents, fluxes, and suppurations. The leaves, acorns, and bark, as well as a decoction prepared from them, are good as counter-poisons. A decoction of the bark, boiled in cows’ milk, is used topically for stings inflicted by serpents, and is administered in wine for dysentery. The holm-oak is possessed of similar properties.

The scarlet berry28 of the holm-oak is applied to fresh5 wounds with vinegar; and in combination with water it is dropt into the eyes in cases of defluxion of those organs or of ecchymosis. There grows also in most parts of Attica, and in Asia, a berry of this description, which becomes transformed with great rapidity into a diminutive worm, owing to which circumstance the Greeks have given it the name of “scolecion:”29 it is held, however, in disesteem. The principal varieties of this berry have been previously30 described.

And no fewer are the varieties of the gall-nut which we have described:31 we have, for instance, the full-bodied gall-nut, the perforated one, the white, the black, the large, the small, all of them possessed of similar properties; that, however, of Commagene is generally preferred. These substances remove fleshy excrescences on the body, and are serviceable for affections of the gums and uvula,32 and for ulcerations of the mouth. Burnt, and then quenched in wine, they are applied topically in cases of cœliac affections and dysentery, and with honey, to whitlows, hangnails, malformed nails, running ulcers, condylomatous swellings, and ulcerations of the nature known as phagedænic.33 A decoction of them in wine is used as an injection for the ears, and as a liniment for the eyes, and in combination with vinegar they are employed for eruptions and tumours.

The inner part of the gall, chewed, allays tooth-ache, and is good for excoriations between the thighs, and for burns. Taken unripe in vinegar, they reduce the volume of the spleen; and, burnt and then quenched in salt and vinegar, they are used as a fomentation for excessive menstruation and procidence of the uterus. All varieties of the gall-nut stain the hair black.

We have already34 stated that the best mistletoe is that which grows on the robur,35 and have described the manner in6 which it is prepared. Some persons, after bruising the berries, boil them in water, till nothing appears on the surface, while others, again, bite the berries with the teeth, and reject the skins.36 The best kind of viscus is that which has none of the outer skin in it, is extremely light, yellow without, and of a leek-green colour within. There is no substance more glutinous than this: it is of an emollient nature, disperses tumours, and acts as a desiccative upon scrofulous sores; combined with resin and wax, it heals inflamed swellings of every description. Some persons add galbanum as well, using equal proportions of each ingredient, and this preparation they employ also for the treatment of wounds.

The viscus of the mistletoe has the additional property also of rectifying malformed nails; but to effect this it must be taken off at the end of seven days, and the nails must be washed with a solution of nitre.37 Some persons have a sort of superstitious notion that the viscus will be all the more efficacious if the berries are gathered from the robur at new moon, and without the aid of iron. They have an impression too, that if it has not touched the ground, it will cure epilepsy,38 that it will promote conception in females if they make a practice of carrying it about them: the berries, chewed and applied to ulcers, are remarkably efficacious for their cure, it is said.

The round excrescences39 which grow on the robur * * * and mixed with bear’s grease, are remedial in cases of loss of the hair by alopecy.

The leaves, bark, and acorns of the cerrus40 act as a desiccative upon gatherings and suppurations, and arrest fluxes. A decoction41 of them, used as a fomentation, strengthens such parts of the body as are paralyzed; and it is a very good plan7 to employ it as a sitting-bath, for its desiccative or astringent effects upon the lower extremities. The root of this tree neutralizes the venom of the scorpion.

The bark of the cork-tree,42 pulverized and taken in warm water, arrests hæmorrhage at the mouth and nostrils;43 and the ashes of it, taken in warm wine, are highly extolled as a cure for spitting of blood.

The leaves44 of the beech are chewed for affections of the lips and gums. A liniment is made of the ashes of beech-mast for urinary calculus, and, in combination with honey, for alopecy.

The leaves of the cypress45 are pounded and applied to wounds inflicted by serpents, and with polenta, to the head, in cases of sunstroke. They are used also for hernia, and an infusion of them is taken in drink.46 They are applied with wax to swellings of the testes, and mixed with vinegar they stain the hair black.47 Beaten up with twice the quantity of light bread, and then kneaded with Aminean48 wine, they are found very soothing for pains in the feet and sinews.

The excrescences of this tree are taken in drink for the stings of serpents and for discharges of blood from the mouth; they are used also as a topical application for gatherings. Fresh-gathered and beaten up with axle-grease and bean-meal, they are good for hernia; and an infusion of them is8 taken in drink for the same complaint. In combination with meal, they are applied topically to imposthumes of the parotid glands, and to scrofulous sores. From these excrescences, pounded along with the seed, a juice is extracted, which, mixed with oil, disperses films of the eyes. Taken in doses of one victoriatus,49 in wine, and applied at the same time in a pulpy, dried fig, the seeds of which have been removed, this juice cures maladies of the testes and disperses tumours: mixed with leaven, it heals scrofulous sores.

The root of the cypress, bruised with the leaves and taken in drink, is curative of diseases of the bladder, strangury, and the sting of the phalangium.50 The shavings of the wood, taken in drink, act as an emmenagogue, and neutralize the venom of the scorpion.

The larger cedar, known as the “cedrelates,”51 produces a pitch called “cedria,” which is very useful for tooth-ache, it having the effect of breaking52 the teeth and extracting them, and so allaying the pain. We have already53 stated how the juices of cedar are extracted, so remarkably useful for seasoning books,54 were it not for the head-ache they produce. This extract from the cedar preserves55 the bodies of the dead uncorrupted for ages, but exercises a noxious effect upon the bodies of the living—singular that there should be such a diversity in its properties, taking away life from animated9 beings, and imparting a sort of life, as it were to the dead! It injures clothing also and destroys56 animal life. It is for this reason that I cannot recommend it to be taken internally for the cure of quinzy and indigestion though there are some who advise it: I should be greatly in dread too, to rinse the teeth with it in combination with vinegar, for tooth-ache, or to use it as an injection for the ears in cases of hardness of hearing, or for worms in those organs. There is one very marvellous story told about it—if the male organs, they say, are rubbed with it just before the sexual congress, it will effectually prevent impregnation.57

Still, however, I should not hesitate to employ it as a friction for phthiriasis or porrigo. It is strongly recommended also, in raisin wine, as an antidote to the poison of the sea-hare,58 but I should be more ready to use it as a liniment for elephantiasis. Some authors have prescribed it as an ointment for foul ulcers and the fleshy excrescences which grow in them, as also for spots and films on the eyes; and have recommended it to be taken, in doses of one cyathus, for ulcerations of the lungs, and for tapeworm.

There is an oil extracted from this pitch, known as “pisselæon,”59 the properties of which are of increased activity for all the purposes before-mentioned. It is a well-known fact that the saw-dust of cedar will put serpents to flight, and that a similar effect is produced by anointing the body with the berries60 bruised in oil.

Cedrides, or in other words, the fruit of the cedar,61 is curative of coughs, acts as a diuretic, and arrests looseness of the bowels. It is good also for ruptures, convulsions, spasms, and strangury, and is employed, as a pessary, for affections of the uterus. It is used also to neutralize the10 venom of the sea-hare,62 and for the cure of the various affections above-mentioned, as also of gatherings and inflammations.

We have already63 given some description of galbanum: to be good, it should be neither too moist nor too dry, but just in the state which we have mentioned.64 It is taken by itself for inveterate coughs, asthma, ruptures, and convulsions; and it is employed externally for sciatica, pains in the sides, inflamed tumours,65 boils, denudations of the bones, scrofulous sores, nodes upon the joints, and tooth-ache. It is applied with honey also, to ulcerations of the head. In combination with oil of roses or with nard, it is used as an injection for suppurations of the ears; and the odour of it is useful for epilepsy, hysterical suffocations, and faintness at the stomach. Employed as a pessary or as a fumigation, it brings away the fœtus in cases of miscarriage; branches too of hellebore covered with it and laid beneath the patient, have a similar effect.

We have already66 stated that serpents are driven away by the fumes of burnt galbanum, and they will equally avoid persons whose body has been rubbed with it. It is curative also of the sting of the scorpion. In protracted deliveries, a piece of galbanum the size of a bean is given in one cyathus of wine: it has the effect also of reducing the uterus when displaced, and, taken with myrrh and wine, it brings away the dead fœtus. In combination with myrrh and wine too, it neutralizes poisons—those which come under the denomination of “toxica”67 in particular. The very touch of it, mixed with oil and spondylium,68 is sufficient to kill a serpent.69 It is generally thought to be productive of strangury.

Of a similar nature to galbanum is hammoniacum, a tearlike gum, the qualities of which are tested in manner already70 stated. It is of an emollient, warming, resolvent, and dispellent nature. Employed as an ingredient in eye-salves, it improves the sight. It disperses prurigo, effaces the marks of sores, removes spots in the eyes, and allays tooth-ache, more particularly when burnt. It is very useful too, taken in drink, for hardness of breathing, pleurisy, affections of the lungs, diseases of the bladder, bloody urine, maladies of the spleen, and sciatica: employed in a similar manner, it acts as a purgative upon the bowels. Boiled with an equal proportion of pitch or wax, and with oil of roses, it is good for diseases of the joints, and for gout. Employed with honey it ripens hard tumours, extracts corns, and has an emollient effect upon indurations. In combination with vinegar and Cyprian wax, or oil of roses, it is extremely efficacious as a liniment for affections of the spleen. In cases of extreme lassitude, it is an excellent plan to use it as a friction, with vinegar and oil, and a little nitre.

In speaking too of the exotic trees, we have made mention71 of the properties of storax. In addition to those which we have already mentioned, it ought to be very unctuous, without alloy, and to break to pieces in whitish fragments. This substance is curative of cough, affections of the fauces, diseases of the chest, and obstructions or indurations of the uterus. Taken in drink, or employed as a pessary, it acts as an emmenagogue; it has a laxative effect also upon the bowels. I find it stated that, taken in moderate doses, storax dispels melancholy; but that when employed in large quantities, it promotes it. Used as an injection it is good for singings in the ears, and employed as a friction, for scrofulous swellings and nodes of the sinews. It neutralizes poisons of a cold nature, and consequently, hemlock.72

At the same time we have also spoken73 of spondylium; an infusion of which is poured upon the head in cases of phrenitis and lethargy, and of head-ache of long standing. Combined with old oil, it is taken in drink for affections of the liver, jaundice, epilepsy, hardness of breathing, and hysterical suffocations, maladies for which it is equally serviceable in the shape of a fumigation. It relaxes the bowels, and with rue it is applied to ulcers of a serpiginous nature. The juice which is extracted from the blossom is a most useful injection for suppurations of the ears; but the moment it is extracted it should be covered up, as flies and other insects of a similar nature are remarkably fond of it.

Scrapings of the root, introduced into the interior of fistulas, have a caustic effect upon their callosities; and they are sometimes used, in combination with the juice, as an injection for the ears. The root itself also is prescribed for jaundice, and for diseases of the liver and uterus. If the head is rubbed with the juice, it will make the hair curl.74

Sphagnos, sphacos, or bryon, grows, as we have already75 stated, in Gaul. A decoction of it, employed as a sitting-bath, is useful for affections of the uterus: mixed with nasturtium, and beaten up in salt water, it is good for the knees and for swellings in the thighs. Taken in drink with wine and dried resin, it acts very powerfully as a diuretic. Pounded in wine with juniper berries, and taken in drink, it draws off the water in dropsy.

The leaves and root of the terebinth76 are used as applications13 for gatherings; and a decoction of them is strengthening to the stomach. The seed of it is taken in wine for head-ache and strangury: it is slightly laxative to the bowels, and acts as an aphrodisiac.

The leaves of the pitch-tree77 and the larch,78 beaten up and boiled in vinegar, are good for tooth-ache. The ashes of the bark are used for excoriations and burns. Taken in drink this substance arrests diarrhœa, and acts as a diuretic; and used as a fumigation, it reduces the uterus when displaced. The leaves of the pitch-tree are particularly good for the liver, taken in doses of one drachma in hydromel.

It is a well-known fact that forests planted solely with trees from which pitch and resin are extracted, are remarkably beneficial for patients suffering from phthisis,79 or who are unable to recover their strength after a long illness: indeed it is said, that in such cases to breathe the air of localities thus planted, is more beneficial even than to take a voyage to Egypt,80 or to go on a summer’s journey to the mountains to drink the milk there, impregnated with the perfumes of plants.

The chamæpitys,81 called in Latin “abiga,”82 because it promotes abortion, and known to some as “incense of the earth,”83 has branches a cubit in length, and the odour and14 blossoms of the pine. Another variety84 of it, which is somewhat shorter, has all the appearance of being bent85 downwards; and there is a third,86 which, though it has a similar smell, and consequently the same name, is altogether smaller, with a stem the thickness of one’s finger, and a diminutive, rough, pale leaf: it is found growing in rocky localities. All these varieties are in reality herbaceous productions; but in consequence of the resemblance of the name,87 I have thought it as well not to defer the consideration of them.

These plants are good for stings inflicted by scorpions, and are useful as an application, mixed with dates or quinces, for maladies of the liver: a decoction of them with barley-meal is used for the kidneys and the bladder. A decoction of them in water is used also for jaundice and for strangury. The kind last mentioned, in combination with honey, is good for wounds inflicted by serpents, and a pessary is made of it, with honey, as a detergent for the uterus. Taken in drink it brings away coagulated blood, and rubbed upon the body it acts as a sudorific: it is particularly useful also for the kidneys. Pills of a purgative nature are made of it for dropsy, with figs.88 Taken in wine, in doses of one victoriatus,89 it dispels lumbago, and cures coughs that are not of an inveterate description. A decoction of it in vinegar, taken in drink, will instantaneously bring away the dead fœtus, it is said.

For a similar90 reason, too, we shall accord the same distinction to the pityusa, a plant which some persons reckon among the varieties of the tithymalus.91 It is a shrub,92 resembling15 the pitch-tree in appearance, and with a diminutive purple blossom. A decoction of the root, taken in doses of one hemina, carries off the bilious and pituitous secretions by93 stool, and a spoonful of the seed, used as a suppository, has a similar effect. A decoction of the leaves in vinegar removes scaly eruptions of the skin; and in combination with boiled rue, it effects the cure of diseases of the mamillæ, gripings in the bowels, wounds inflicted by serpents, and incipient gatherings of most kinds.

In treating, first of wines,94 and then of trees,95 we have stated that resin is the produce of the trees above-mentioned, and have described the several varieties of it, and the countries in which they are respectively produced. There are two principal kinds of resin, the dry and the liquid.96 The dry resins are extracted from the pine97 and the pitch-tree,98 the liquid from the terebinth,99 the larch,100 the lentisk,101 and the cypress;102 these last producing it in the province of Asia and in Syria. It is an error103 to suppose that the resin of the pitch-tree is the same as that of the larch; for the pitch-tree yields an unctuous104 resin, and of the same consistency as frankincense, while that of the larch is thin, like honey in colour, and of a powerful odour. It is but very rarely that medical men make use of liquid resin, and when they do, it is mostly that produced by the larch, which is administered in an egg for16 cough and ulcerations of the viscera. The resin of the pine, too, is far from extensively used, and that of the other kinds is always boiled105 before use: on the various methods of boiling it, we have enlarged at sufficient length already.106

As to the produce of the various trees, the resin of the terebinth is held in high esteem, as being the most odoriferous and the lightest, the kinds107 which come from Cyprus and Syria being looked upon as the best. Both these kinds are the colour of Attic honey; but that of Cyprus has more body, and dries with greater rapidity. In the dry resins the qualities requisite are whiteness, purity, and transparency: but whatever the kind, the produce of mountainous108 districts is always preferred to that of champaign countries, and that of a north-eastern aspect to that of any other quarter. Resins109 are dissolved in oil as a liniment and emollient cataplasm for wounds; but when they are used as a potion, bitter almonds110 are also employed. The curative properties of resins consist in their tendency to close wounds, to act as a detergent upon gatherings and so disperse them, and to cure affections of the chest.

The resin of the terebinth * * * it is used too, warmed, as a liniment for pains in the limbs, the application being removed after the patient has taken a walk in the sun. Among slave-dealers too, there is a practice of rubbing the bodies of the slaves with it, which is done with the greatest care, as a corrective for an emaciated appearance; the resin having the property of relaxing the skin upon all parts of the body, and rendering it more capable of being plumped out by food.111

Next after the resin of the terebinth comes that of the17 lentisk:112 it possesses astringent properties, and is the most powerful diuretic of them all. The other resins are laxative to the bowels, promote the digestion of crudities, allay the violence of inveterate coughs, and, employed as a fumigation, disengage the uterus of foreign113 bodies with which it is surcharged: they are particularly useful too as neutralizing the effects of mistletoe; and, mixed with bull suet and honey, they are curative of inflamed tumours and affections of a similar nature. The resin of the lentisk is very convenient as a bandoline for keeping stubborn eyelashes in their place: it is useful also in cases of fractures, suppurations of the ears, and prurigo of the generative organs. The resin of the pine is the best of them all for the cure of wounds in the head.

We have also stated on a previous occasion114 from what tree pitch is extracted, and the methods employed for that purpose. Of this also there are two kinds; thick pitch and liquid pitch.115 Of the several varieties of thick pitch the most useful for medicinal purposes is that of Bruttium;116 for being both extremely unctuous and very resinous, it reunites the properties both of resin and of pitch, that of a yellow reddish colour being the most highly esteemed. As to the statement made in addition to this, that the produce of the male tree is the best, I do not believe that any such distinction is at all possible.

Pitch is of a warming, cicatrizing tendency: mixed with polenta it is particularly useful as a neutralizer of the venom of the cerastes,117 and in combination with honey it is used for quinzy, catarrhs, and fits of sneezing caused by phlegm. With oil of roses it is used as an injection for the ears, and employed as a liniment with wax it heals lichens. It relaxes118 the bowels, also, and used as an electuary, or applied with18 honey to the tonsillary glands, it facilitates expectoration. Applied topically, it acts as a detergent upon ulcers, and makes new flesh. Mixed with raisins and axle-grease, it forms a detergent plaster for carbuncles and putrid ulcers, and, with pine-bark or sulphur, for serpiginous sores. Pitch has been administered too by some, in doses of one cyathus, for phthisis and inveterate coughs. It heals chaps of the feet and rectum, inflamed tumours, and malformed nails; and used as a fumigation, it is curative of indurations and derangements of the uterus, and of lethargy. Boiled with barley-meal and the urine of a youth, who has not arrived at puberty, it causes scrofulous sores to suppurate. Dry pitch is used also for the cure of alopecy. For affections of the mamillæ, Bruttian pitch is warmed in wine with fine spelt meal, and applied as hot as can be borne.

We have already119 described the way in which liquid pitch and the oil known as pisselæon are made. Some persons boil the pitch over again, and give it the name of “palimpissa.”120 For quinzy121 and affections of the uvula, liquid pitch is employed internally. It is used also for the cure of ear-ache, for the improvement of the sight, and as a salve for the lips; and is employed for hysterical suffocations, inveterate coughs, profuse expectorations, spasms, nervousness, opisthotony, paralysis, and pains in the sinews. It is a very excellent remedy too for itch in dogs and beasts of burden.

There is pissasphaltos too, a natural production of the territory of the Apolloniates,122 and consisting of pitch mixed19 with bitumen. Some persons, however, make this mixture artificially, and employ it for the cure of itch in cattle, and of injuries done by the young sucklings to the mamillæ. The most esteemed portion of it is that which floats on the surface when boiled.

We have already123 stated that zopissa is the pitch, macerated with salt-water and wax, that has been scraped from off the bottoms of ships. The best kind is that taken from ships which have been to sea for the first time. It is used as an ingredient in plasters of an emollient nature, employed to disperse gatherings.

A decoction in vinegar of the wood of the torch-tree124 makes a most efficacious gargle for tooth-ache.

The seed, bark, and tear-like juices of the lentisk are diuretics, and act astringently upon the bowels:125 a decoction of them, used as a fomentation, is curative of serpiginous sores, and is applied topically for humid ulcerations and erysipelas; it is employed also as a collutory for the gums. The teeth are rubbed with the leaves in cases of tooth-ache, and they are rinsed with a decoction of the leaves when loose:126 this decoction has the effect also of staining127 the hair. The gum of this tree is useful for diseases of the rectum, and all cases in which desiccatives and calorifics are needed; a decoction too of the gum is good for the stomach, acting as a carminative20 and diuretic; it is applied also to the head, in cases of headache, with polenta. The more tender of the leaves are used as an application for inflammations of the eyes.

The mastich128 produced by the lentisk is used as a bandoline for the hairs of the eye-lids, in compositions for giving a plumpness to the face, and in cosmetics for smoothing129 the skin. It is employed for spitting of blood and for inveterate coughs, as well as all those purposes for which gum acacia is in request. It is used also for the cure of excoriations; which are fomented either with the oil extracted from the seed, mixed with wax, or else with a decoction of the leaves in oil. Fomentations too are made of a decoction of it in water for diseases of the male organs.130 I know for a fact, that in the illness of Considia, the daughter of M. Servilius, a personage of consular rank, her malady, which had long resisted all the more severe methods of treatment, was at last successfully treated with the milk of goats that had been fed upon the leaves of the lentisk.

The plane-tree131 neutralizes the bad effects of bites inflicted by the bat.132 The excrescences of this tree, taken in doses133 of four denarii, in wine, act as an antidote to the venom of serpents of all kinds and of scorpions, and are curative of burns. Pounded with strong vinegar, squill vinegar in particular, they arrest hæmorrhage of every kind; and with the addition of honey, they remove freckles, carcinomatous sores, and black spots of long standing on the skin.

The leaves again, and the bark of this tree, are used in the form of liniments for gatherings and suppurations, and a decoction of them is employed for a similar purpose. A decoction of the bark in vinegar is remedial for affections of the teeth, and the more tender of the leaves boiled in white wine are good for the eyes. The down which grows upon the21 leaves134 is injurious to both the ears and eyes. The ashes of the excrescences of this tree heal such parts of the body as have been burnt or frost-bitten. The bark, taken in wine, reduces the inflammation caused by the stings of scorpions.

We have already135 made some mention of the virtues possessed by the ash as an antidote to the venom of serpents. The seed of it is enclosed in follicules, which are good for diseases of the liver, and, in combination with wine, for pains in the sides: they are employed also for drawing off the water in dropsy. They have the property, too, of diminishing obesity, and of gradually reducing the body to a state of comparative emaciation,136 the follicules being pounded in wine and administered in proportion to the bodily strength; thus, for instance, to a child, five of them are given in three cyathi of wine, but for persons in more robust health, seven are prescribed, in five cyathi of wine.

We must not omit to state that the shavings and saw-dust of this wood are of a highly dangerous nature, according to some.

The root of the maple,137 beaten up in wine, is extremely efficacious as a topical application for pains in the liver.

We have already138 mentioned, when speaking of the unguents, the use that is made of the berries139 of the white poplar. A potion prepared from the bark is good for sciatica22 and strangury, and the juice of the leaves is taken warm for ear-ache. So long140 as a person holds a sprig of poplar in his hand, there is no fear of141 chafing between the thighs.

The black poplar which grows in Crete is looked upon as the most efficacious of them all. The seed of it, taken in vinegar, is good for epilepsy. This tree produces a resin also to a small extent, which is made use of for emollient plasters. The leaves, boiled in vinegar, are applied topically for gout. A moisture that exudes from the clefts of the black poplar removes warts, and pimples caused by friction. Poplars produce also on the leaves a kind of sticky142 juice, from which bees prepare their propolis:143 indeed this juice, mixed with water, has the same virtues as propolis.

The leaves, bark, and branches of the elm144 have the property of filling up wounds and knitting the flesh together: the inner membrane145 too, of the bark, and the leaves, steeped in vinegar, are applied topically for leprosy. The bark, in doses of one denarius, taken in one hemina of cold water, acts as a purgative upon the bowels, and is particularly useful for carrying off pituitous and aqueous humours. The gum also which this tree produces is applied topically to gatherings, wounds, and burns, which it would be as well to foment with the decoction also. The moisture146 which is secreted on the follicules of the tree gives a finer colour to the skin, and improves the looks. The foot-stalks of the leaves that first appear,147 boiled in wine, are curative of tumours, and23 bring them to a head:148 the same, too, is the effect produced by the inner bark.

Many persons are of opinion that the bark of this tree, chewed, is a very useful application for wounds, and that the leaves, bruised and moistened with water are good for gout. The moisture too that exudes from the pith of the tree, as already149 stated, on an incision being made, applied to the head, causes the hair to grow and prevents it from falling off.

The linden-tree150 is useful, though in a less marked degree, for nearly all the same purposes as the wild olive. The leaves, however, are the only part that is made use of for ulcers upon infants; chewed, too, or employed in the form of a decoction, they are diuretic. Used as a liniment they arrest menstruation when in excess, and an infusion of them, taken, in drink, carries off superfluous blood.

There are two kinds of elder, one of which grows wild and is much smaller than the other; by the Greeks it is known as the “chamæacte,” or “helion.”151 A decoction of the leaves,152 seed, or root of either kind, taken in doses of two cyathi, in old wine, though bad for the upper regions of the stomach, carries off all aqueous humours by stool. This decoction is very cooling too for inflammations, those attendant upon recent burns in particular. A poultice is made also of the more24 tender leaves, mixed with polenta, for bites inflicted by dogs. The juice of the elder, used as a fomentation, reduces abscesses of the brain, and more particularly of the membrane which envelopes that organ. The berries, which have not so powerful an action as the other parts of the tree, stain the hair. Taken in doses of one acetabulum, in drink, they are diuretic. The softer leaves are eaten with oil and salt, to carry off pituitous and bilious secretions.

The smaller kind is for all these purposes the more efficacious of the two. A decoction of the root in wine, taken in doses of two cyathi, brings away the water in dropsy, and acts emolliently upon the uterus: the same effects are produced also by a sitting-bath made of a decoction of the leaves. The tender shoots of the cultivated kind, boiled in a saucepan and eaten as food, have a purgative effect: the leaves taken in wine, neutralize the venom of serpents. An application of the young shoots, mixed with he-goat suet, is remarkably good for gout; and if they are macerated in water, the infusion will destroy fleas. If a decoction of the leaves is sprinkled about a place, it will exterminate flies. “Boa”153 is the name given to a malady which appears in the form of red pimples upon the body; for its cure the patient is scourged with a branch of elder. The inner bark,154 pounded and taken with white wine, relaxes the bowels.

The juniper is of a warming and resolvent nature beyond all other plants: in other respects, it resembles the cedar.155 There are two species of this tree, also, one of which is larger156 than the other:157 the odour of either, burnt, repels the approach25 of serpents.158 The seed159 is good for pains in the stomach, chest, and sides; it dispels flatulency and sudden chills, soothes cough, and brings indurations to a head. Applied topically, it checks the growth of tumours; and the berries, taken in red wine, act astringently upon the bowels: they are applied also to tumours of the abdomen. The seed is used as an ingredient in antidotes of an aperient nature, and is diuretic160 in its effects. It is used as a liniment for defluxions of the eyes, and is prescribed for convulsions, ruptures griping pains in the bowels, affections of the uterus, and sciatica, either in a dose of four berries in white wine, or in the form of a decoction of twenty berries in wine.

There are persons who rub the body with juniper berries as a preventive of the attacks of serpents.

The fruit of the willow,161 before it arrives at maturity, is covered with a down like a spider’s web: gathered162 before it is ripe, it arrests discharges of blood from the mouth. The bark of the upper branches, reduced to ashes and mixed with water, is curative of corns and callosities: it removes spots also upon the face, being still more efficacious for that purpose if mixed with, the juices of the tree.

The juices produced by the willow form three different varieties; one163 of which exudes in the shape of a gum from26 the tree itself, and another distils from an incision some three fingers in width, made in the bark while the tree is in blossom. This last is very useful for dispersing humours which impede the sight, acting also as an inspissative when needed, promoting the discharge of the urine, and bringing abscesses of all kinds to a head. The third kind of juice exudes from the wounds, when the branches are lopt off with the bill. Either of these juices, warmed in a pomegranate rind, is used as an injection for diseases of the ears. The leaves, too, boiled and beaten up with wax, are employed as a liniment for similar purposes, and for gout. The bark and leaves, boiled in wine, form a decoction that is remarkably useful as a fomentation for affections of the sinews. The blossoms, bruised with the leaves, remove scaly eruptions of the face; and the leaves, bruised and taken in drink, check libidinous tendencies,164 and effectually put an end to them, if habitually employed.

The seed of the black willow of Ameria,165 mixed with litharge in equal proportions, and applied to the body just after the bath, acts as a depilatory.

Not much unlike the willow, for the use that is made of it in wicker-work, is the vitex,166 which also resembles it in the leaves and general appearance, though the smell of it is more agreeable. The Greeks call it “lygos,” or “agnos,”167 from the fact that the matrons of Athens, during the Thesmophoria,168 a period when the strictest chastity is observed, are in the habit of strewing their beds with the leaves of this tree.

There are two species of vitex: the larger169 one, like the willow, attains the full proportions of a tree; while the other,170 which is smaller, is branchy, with a paler, downy leaf. The first kind, generally known as the “white” vitex, bears a27 white blossom mixed with purple, whereas the black one has a flower that is entirely purple. Both of these trees grow on level spots of a marshy nature.

The seed of these trees, taken in drink, has a sort of vinous flavour, and has the reputation of being a febrifuge. It is said also to act as a sudorific, if the body is rubbed with it mixed with oil, and to have the effect of dispelling extreme lassitude: it acts too as a diuretic171 and emmenagogue. The produce of both trees is trying to the head, like wine, and indeed the odour of them is very similar. They have the effect also of removing flatulence in the lower regions of the body, act astringently upon the bowels, and are remarkably useful for dropsy and affections of the spleen. They promote the secretion of the milk, and neutralize the venom of serpents, when of a cold nature more particularly. The smaller kind, however, is the more efficacious of the two for injuries inflicted by serpents, the seed being taken in doses of one drachma, in wine or oxycrate, or else the more tender leaves in doses of two drachmæ.

From both trees also a liniment is prepared for the bites of spiders, but it is quite sufficient to rub the wounds with the leaves; and if a fumigation is made from them, or if they are spread beneath the bed, they will repel the attacks of all venomous creatures. They act also as an antaphrodisiac, and it is by this tendency in particular that they neutralize the venom of the phalangium, the bite of which has an exciting effect upon the generative organs. The blossoms and young shoots, mixed with oil of roses, allay head-aches arising from inebriation. A decoction of the seed used as a fomentation cures head-ache, however intense it may be; and employed as a fumigation or as a pessary, the seeds acts as a detergent upon the uterus. Taken in drink with honey and penny-royal, it has a laxative effect; pounded and used with barley-meal, it quickly brings abscesses and hard tumours to a head, and has an emollient effect.

The seed, in combination with saltpetre and vinegar, removes lichens and freckles; mixed with honey, it heals ulcers and eruptions of the mouth; applied with butter and vine-leaves, it reduces swellings of the testes; used with water, as a linment,28 it cures chaps of the rectum; and employed with salt, nitre, and wax, it is good for sprains. The seed and leaves are used as ingredients also in emollient plasters for diseases of the sinews, and for gout; and a decoction of the seed in oil is employed as a fomentation for the head in cases of phrenitis and lethargy. Persons172 who carry a sprig of this plant in the hand, or stuck in the girdle, will be proof, it is said, against chafing between the thighs.

The Greeks give the name of “erice,”173 to a shrub that is but little different from the myrice.174 It has the colour, and very nearly the leaf, of rosemary. It neutralizes175 the venom of serpents, it is said.

The broom is used for making withes;176 the flowers of it are greatly sought by bees. I have my doubts whether this is not the same plant that the Greek writers have called “sparton,” and of which, in those parts of the world, as I have already177 stated, they are in the habit of making fishing-nets. I doubt also whether Homer178 has alluded to this plant, when he speaks of the seams of the ships,—“the sparta” coming asunder; for it is certain that in those times the spartum179 of Spain or Africa was not as yet in use, and that vessels made of materials sown together, were united by the agency, not of spartum, but of flax.

29

The seed of the plant to which the Greeks now give the name of “sparton,” grows in pods like those of the kidney-bean. It is as strongly drastic180 as hellebore, and is usually taken fasting, in doses of one drachma and a half, in four cyathi of hydromel. The branches also, with the foliage, are macerated for several days in vinegar, and are then beaten up, the infusion being recommended for sciatica, in doses of one cyathus. Some persons think it a better plan, however, to make an infusion of them in sea-water, and to inject it as a clyster. The juice of them is used also as a friction for sciatica, with the addition of oil. Some medical men, too, make use of the seed for strangury. Broom, bruised with axle-grease, is a cure for diseases of the knees.

Lenæus says, that the myrice,181 otherwise known as the “erica,” is a similar plant to that of which brooms are made at Ameria.182 He states also that, boiled in wine and then beaten up and applied with honey, it heals carcinomatous sores. I would here remark, parenthetically, that some persons identify it with the tamarice. Be this as it may, it is particularly useful for affections of the spleen, the juice of it being extracted for the purpose, and taken in wine; indeed so marvellous, they say, is its antipathy to this part of the viscera, and this only, that if swine drink from troughs made of this wood,183 they will be found to lose the spleen. Hence it is that30 in maladies of the spleen victuals and drink are given to the patient in vessels made of this wood.

A medical author too, of high repute,184 has asserted that a sprig broken from off this tree, without being allowed to touch the earth or iron, will allay pains in the bowels, if applied to the body, and kept close to it by the clothes and girdle. The common people, as already185 stated, look upon this tree as ill-omened, because it bears no fruit, and is never propagated from seed.

At Corinth, and in the vicinity of that city, the Greeks give the name of “brya”186 to a plant of which there are two varieties; the wild brya,187 which is altogether barren, and the cultivated one.188 This last, when found in Syria and Egypt, produces a ligneous fruit, somewhat larger than a gall-nut, in great abundance, and of an acrid flavour; medical men employ it as a substitute for galls in the compositions known as “antheræ.”189 The wood also, with the blossoms, leaves, and bark of the tree, is used for similar purposes, but their properties are not so strongly developed. The bark is pounded also, and given for190 discharges of blood from the mouth, irregularities of the catamenia, and cœliac affections: beaten up and applied to the part affected, it checks the increase of all kinds of abscesses.

The juice too is extracted from the leaves for similar purposes, and a decoction is made of them in wine; they are applied also to gangrenes, in combination with honey. A decoction of them taken in wine, or the leaves themselves applied with oil of roses and wax, has a sedative effect: it is in this form that they are used for the cure of epinyctis. This decoction is useful also for tooth-ache or ear-ache, and the root31 is employed for similar purposes. The leaves too have this additional use—they are applied with polenta to serpiginous sores. The seed, in doses of one drachma, is administered in drink for injuries inflicted by spiders or the phalangium; and mixed with the grease of poultry, it is applied to boils. It is very efficacious also for stings inflicted by all kinds of serpents, the asp excepted. The decoction used as a fomentation, is curative of jaundice, phthiriasis, and lice; it also arrests the catamenia when in excess. The ashes of the tree are employed for all these purposes; there is a story told, too, that mixed with the urine of an ox, and taken in the food or drink they will act most effectually as an antaphrodisiac. The charcoal too of this wood is quenched in urine of a similar nature, and kept in a shady spot. When it is the intention of the party to rekindle the flames191 of desire, it is set on fire again. The magicians say,192 that the urine of an eunuch, will have a similar effect.

Nor is the blood-red193 shrub looked upon as a less ill-omened194 plant than the last. The inner bark of it is used to re-open ulcers which have healed too rapidly.

The leaves, of the siler,195 applied to the forehead, allay head-ache; and the seed of it, beaten up with oil, is curative of phthiriasis. Serpents also are greatly in dread of this tree, and it is for this reason that the country-people are in the habit of carrying a walking-stick made of it.

The ligustrum, or privet, if it is the same tree as the cyprus196 of the East, has also its own medicinal uses in Europe. The juice of it is used for affections of the sinews and joints, and for sudden chills; and the leaves are universally employed, with a sprinkling of salt, for the cure of inveterate sores and of ulcerations of the mouth. The berries are curative of phthiriasis and chafings between the thighs, for which last purpose the leaves also are employed. The berries are made use of for the cure of pip in poultry.197

The leaves of the alder, steeped in boiling water, are an undoubted remedy for tumours.

We have already198 enumerated some twenty varieties of the ivy. The medicinal properties of them all are of a doubtful nature; taken in considerable quantities they disturb the mental faculties and purge the brain. Taken internally they are injurious to the sinews,199 but applied topically they are beneficial to those parts of the body. Ivy possesses properties similar200 to those of vinegar. All the varieties of the ivy are of a refrigerative nature, and taken in drink they are diuretic. The softer leaves, applied to the head, allay head-ache, acting more particularly upon the brain and the membrane which envelopes that organ. For this purpose the leaves are bruised with vinegar and oil of roses and then boiled, after which some more rose-oil is added. The leaves too are applied to the forehead33 and the mouth is fomented with a decoction of them, with which the head is rubbed as well. They are useful also for the spleen, the leaves being applied topically, or an infusion of them taken in drink. A decoction of them is used for cold shiverings in fevers, and for pituitous eruptions; or else they are beaten up in wine for the purpose. The umbels too taken in drink or applied externally, are good for affections of the spleen, and an application of them is useful for the liver; employed as a pessary, they act as an emmenagogue.

The juice of the ivy, the white cultivated kind more particularly, cures diseases of the nostrils and removes habitually offensive smells. Injected into the nostrils it purges the head, and with the addition of nitre it is still more efficacious for that purpose. In combination with oil, the juice is injected for suppurations or pains in the ears. It is a corrective also of the deformities of scars. The juice of white ivy, heated with the aid of iron, is still more efficacious for affections of the spleen; it will be found sufficient, however, to take six of the berries in two cyathi of wine. Three berries of the white ivy, taken in oxymel, expel tape-worm, and in the treatment of such cases it is a good plan to apply them to the abdomen as well. Erasistratus prescribes twenty of the golden-coloured berries of the ivy which we have mentioned as the “chrysocarpos,”201 to be beaten up in one sextarius of wine, and he says that if three cyathi of this preparation are taken for dropsy, it will carry off by urine the water that has been secreted beneath the skin. For cases of tooth-ache he recommends five berries of the chrysocarpos to be beaten up in oil of roses, and warmed in a pomegranate-rind, and then injected into the ear opposite the side affected. The berries which yield a juice of a saffron, colour, taken beforehand in drink, are a preservative against crapulence; they are curative also of spitting of blood and of griping pains in the bowels. The whiter umbels of the black ivy, taken in drink, are productive of sterility, in males even. A decoction in wine of any kind of ivy is useful as a liniment for all sorts of ulcers, those even of the malignant kind known as “cacoethes.” The tears202 which distil from the ivy are used34 as a depilatory, and for the cure of phthiriasis. The blossoms too, of all the varieties, taken twice a day in astringent wine, a pinch in three fingers at a time, are curative of dysentery and looseness of the bowels: they are very useful also, applied to burns with wax. The umbels stain the hair black. The juice extracted from the root is taken in vinegar for the cure of wounds inflicted by the phalangium. I find it stated too, that patients suffering from affections of the spleen are cured by drinking from vessels made of the wood of the ivy. The berries are bruised also, and then burnt, and a liniment is prepared from them for burns, the parts being fomented with warm water first.

Incisions are sometimes made in the ivy to obtain the juice, which is used for carious teeth, it having the effect of breaking them, it is said; the adjoining teeth being fortified with wax against the powerful action of the juice. A kind of gum even is said to be found in the ivy, which, it is asserted, is extremely useful, mixed with vinegar, for the teeth.

The Greeks give the name of “cisthos”—a word very similar to “cissos,” the Greek name of the ivy—to a plant which is somewhat larger than thyme, and has a leaf like that of ocimum. There are two varieties of this plant; the male,203 which has a rose-coloured blossom, and the female,204 with a white one. The blossom of either kind, taken in astringent wine, a pinch in three fingers at a time, is good for dysentery and looseness of the bowels. Taken in a similar manner twice a day, it is curative of inveterate ulcers: used with wax, it heals burns, and employed by itself it cures ulcerations of the mouth. It is beneath these plants more particularly that the hypocisthis grows, of which we shall have occasion205 to speak when treating of the herbs.

The plant called “cissos erythranos”206 by the Greeks, is35 similar to the ivy: taken in wine, it is good for sciatica and lumbago. The berries, it is said, are of so powerful a nature as to produce bloody urine. “Chamæcissos”207 also is a name given by them to a creeping ivy which never rises from the surface of the ground: bruised in wine, in doses of one acetabulum, it is curative of affections of the spleen, the leaves of it being applied topically with axle-grease to burns.

The smilax208 also, otherwise known as the “anthophoros,”209 has a strong resemblance to ivy, but the leaves of it are smaller. A chaplet, they say, made of an uneven number of the leaves, is an effectual cure for head-ache. Some writers mention two kinds of smilax, one of which is all but perennial, and is found climbing the trees in umbrageous valleys, the berries hanging in clusters. These berries, they say, are remarkably efficacious for all kinds of poisons; so much so indeed, that infants to whom the juice of them has been habitually administered, are rendered proof against all poisons for the rest of their life. The other kind, it is said, manifests a predilection for cultivated localities, and is often found growing there; but as for medicinal properties, it has none. The former kind, they say, is the smilax, the wood of which we have mentioned210 as emitting a sound, if held close to the ear.

Another plant, similar to this, they call by the name of “clematis:”211 it is found adhering to trees, and has a jointed stem. The leaves of it cleanse leprous212 sores, and the seed acts as an aperient, taken in doses of one acetabulum, in one hemina of water, or in hydromel. A decoction of it is prescribed also for a similar purpose.

We have already213 treated of twenty-nine varieties of the reed, and there is none of her productions in which that36 mighty power of Nature,214 which in our successive Books we have described, is more fully displayed than in this. The root of the reed, pounded and applied to the part affected, extracts the prickles of fern from the body, the root of the fern having a similar effect upon splinters of the reed. Among the numerous varieties which we have described, the scented reed215 which is grown in Judæa and Syria as an ingredient in our unguents, boiled with hay-grass or parsley-seed, has a diuretic effect: employed as a pessary, it acts as an emmenagogue. Taken in drink, in doses of two oboli, it is curative of convulsions, diseases of the liver and kidneys, and dropsy. Used as a fumigation, and with resin, more particularly, it is good for coughs, and a decoction of it with myrrh is useful for scaly eruptions and running ulcers. A juice, too, is collected from it which has similar properties to those of elaterium.216

In every kind of reed the part that is the most efficacious is that which lies nearest the root; the joints also are efficacious in a high degree. The ashes of the Cyprian reed known as the “donax,”217 are curative of alopecy and putrid ulcers. The leaves of it are also used for the extraction218 of pointed bodies from the flesh, and for erysipelas and all kinds of gatherings. The common reed, beaten up quite fresh, has also considerable extractive powers, and not in the root only, for the stem, it is said, has a similar property. The root is used also in vinegar as a topical application for sprains and for pains in the spine; and beaten up fresh and taken in wine it acts as an aphrodisiac. The down that grows on reeds, put into the ears, deadens the hearing.219

Of a kindred nature with the reed is the papyrus220 of Egypt; a plant that is remarkably useful, in a dried state, for37 dilating and drying up fistulas, and, by its expansive powers, opening an entrance for the necessary medicaments. The ashes221 of paper prepared from the papyrus are reckoned among the caustics: those of the plant, taken in wine, have a narcotic effect. The plant, applied topically in water, removes callosities of the skin.

The ebony-tree222 does not grow in Egypt even, as we have already stated, and it is not our intention to speak here of the medicinal properties of the vegetable productions of foreign climates. Still, however, the ebony must not be omitted, on account of the marvels related of it. The saw-dust of this wood, it is said, is a sovereign remedy for diseases of the eyes, and the pulp of the wood, rubbed upon a whetstone moistened with raisin wine, dispels all films which impede the sight. The root too, they say, applied with water, is curative of white specks in the eyes, and, with the addition of root of dracunculus,223 in equal proportions, and of honey, of cough. Medical men reckon ebony also in the number of the caustics.224

The rhododendron225 has not so much as found a Latin name among us, its other names being “rhododaphne”226 and “nerium.” It is a marvellous fact, but the leaves227 of this plant are poisonous to quadrupeds; while for man, if taken in wine with rue, they are an effectual preservative against the venom of serpents. Sheep too, and goats, it is said, if they drink water in which the leaves have been steeped, will die immediately.

Nor yet has the tree called “rhus”228 any Latin name, although it is employed in numerous ways. Under this name are comprehended a wild plant,229 with leaves like those of myrtle, and a short stem, which is good as an expellent of tapeworm; and the shrub230 which is known as the “currier’s plant,” of a reddish colour, a cubit in height, and about the thickness of one’s finger, the leaves of which are dried and used, like pomegranate rind, for curing leather.

Medical men also employ the leaves of these plants for the treatment of contusions, and for the cure of cœliac affections, and of ulcers of the rectum and phagedænic sores; for all which, purposes they are pounded with honey and applied with vinegar. A decoction of them is injected for suppurations of the ears. With the branches, boiled, a stomatice231 is also made, which is used for the same purposes as that prepared from mulberries;232 it is more efficacious, however, mixed with alum. This preparation is applied also to reduce the swelling in dropsy.

Rhus233 erythros is the name given to the seed of this shrub. It possesses properties of an astringent and cooling nature, and is used as a seasoning234 for provisions, in place of salt. It has a laxative effect, and, used in conjunction with silphium, it gives a finer flavour to meat of all kinds. Mixed with honey, it is curative of running ulcers, pimples on the tongue,235 contusions, bruises, and excoriations. It causes ulcers of the head to cicatrize with the greatest rapidity; and taken with the food, it arrests excessive menstruation.

The erythrodanus,236 by some called “ereuthodanus,” and39 in Latin “rubia,” is quite a different plant. It is used for dyeing wool, and skins for leather are prepared with it. Used medicinally, it is a diuretic, and, employed with hydromel, it is curative of jaundice.237 Employed topically with vinegar, it heals lichens; and a potion is prepared from it for sciatica and paralysis, the patient while using it taking a bath daily. The root of it and the seed are effectual as an emmenagogue; they act astringently upon the bowels, and disperse gatherings. The branches, together with the leaves, are applied to wounds inflicted by serpents; the leaves too have the property of staining the hair.238 I find it stated by some writers that this shrub is curative of jaundice, even if worn as an amulet only, and looked at every now and then.

The plant known as the “alysson”239 differs only from the preceding one in the leaves and branches, which are more diminutive. It receives its name from the fact, that, taken in vinegar and worn as an amulet, it prevents persons bitten by dogs from becoming rabid. It is a marvellous fact too, that is added, to the effect that the person bitten has only to look at this shrub, and the flow of corrupt matter from the wound will be staunched immediately.

The radicula, which we have already240 mentioned as being called “struthion” by the Greeks, is used by dyers for preparing wool. A decoction of it, taken internally, is curative of jaundice and diseases of the chest. It is diuretic also, and laxative, and acts as a detergent upon the uterus, for which reasons medical men have given it the name of the “golden40 beverage.”241 Taken with honey, it is a sovereign remedy for cough; and it is used for hardness of breathing, in doses of a spoonful. Applied with polenta and vinegar to the parts affected, it removes leprous sores. Used with panax and root of the caper-plant, it breaks and expels calculi, and a decoction of it in wine with barley-meal disperses inflamed tumours. It is used as an ingredient in emollient plasters and eye-salves for the sight, and is found to be one of the most useful sternutories known; it is good too for the liver and the spleen. Taken in hydromel, in doses of one denarius, it effects the cure of asthma, as also of pleurisy and all pains in the sides.

The apocynum242 is a shrub with leaves like those of ivy, but softer, and not so long in the stalk, and the seed of it is pointed and downy, with a division running down it, and a very powerful smell. Given in their food with water, the seed is poisonous243 to dogs and all other quadrupeds.

There are two kinds of rosemary; one of which is barren, and the other has a stem with a resinous seed, known as “cachrys.” The leaves have the odour of frankincense.244 The root, applied fresh, effects the cure of wounds, prolapsus of the rectum, condylomata, and piles. The juice of the plant, as well as of the root, is curative of jaundice, and such diseases as require detergents; it is useful also for the sight. The seed is given in drink for inveterate diseases of the chest, and, with wine and pepper, for affections of the uterus; it acts also as an emmenagogue, and is used with meal of darnel as a liniment for gout. It acts also as a detergent upon freckles, and is used as an application in diseases which require calorifics or sudorifics, and for convulsions. The plant itself, or else the root, taken in wine, increases the milk, and the leaves and stem of the plant are applied with vinegar to scrofulous sores; used with honey, they are very useful for cough.

As already245 stated, there are several kinds of cachrys;246 but that which is produced by rosemary above-mentioned, when rubbed, is found to be of a resinous nature. It neutralizes poisons and the venom of animals, that of serpents excepted. It acts also as a sudorific, dispels griping pains in the bowels, and increases the milk in nursing women.

Of the herb savin, known as “brathy” by the Greeks,247 there are two varieties, one of them248 with a leaf like that of the tamarix, the other249 with that of the cypress; for which reason some persons have called this last the Cretan cypress. It is used by many for fumigations, as a substitute for frankincense;250 employed in medicine, it is said to have the same effect as cinnamon, if taken in doses twice as large. It reduces gatherings, disperses corrosive sores, acts as a detergent upon ulcers, and, used as a pessary and as a fumigation, brings away the dead fœtus.251 It is employed as a topical application for erysipelas and carbuncles, and, taken with honey in wine, is curative of jaundice.

The smoke of this plant, they say, cures the pip in all kinds of poultry.252

Similar to savin is the herb known as “selago.”253 Care is42 taken to gather it without the use of iron, the right hand being passed for the purpose through the left sleeve of the tunic, as though the gatherer were in the act of committing a theft.254 The clothing too must be white, the feet bare and washed clean, and a sacrifice of bread and wine must be made before gathering it: it is carried also in a new napkin. The Druids of Gaul have pretended that this plant should be carried about the person as a preservative against accidents of all kinds, and that the smoke of it is extremely good for all maladies of the eyes.

The Druids, also, have given the name of “samolus”255 to a certain plant which grows in humid localities. This too, they say, must be gathered fasting with the left hand, as a preservative against the maladies to which swine and cattle are subject. The person, too, who gathers it must be careful not to look behind him, nor must it be laid anywhere but in the troughs from which the cattle drink.

We have already256 spoken of the different kinds of gum; the better sort of each kind will be found the most effective. Gum is bad for the teeth; it tends to make the blood coagulate, and is consequently good for discharges257 of blood from the mouth. It is useful for burns,258 but is bad for diseases of the trachea. It exercises a diuretic effect, and tends to neutralize all acridities, being astringent in other respects. The gum of the bitter-almond tree, which has the most25943 astringent properties of them all, is calorific also in its effects. Still, however, the gum of the plum, cherry, and vine is greatly preferred: all which kinds, applied topically, are productive of astringent and desiccative effects, and, used with vinegar, heal lichens upon infants. Taken in must, in doses of four oboli, they are good for inveterate coughs.

It is generally thought that gum, taken in raisin wine, improves the complexion,260 sharpens the appetite, and is good for calculi261 in the bladder. It is particularly useful too for wounds and affections of the eyes.

When speaking262 of the perfumes, we have descanted upon the merits of the Egyptian or Arabian thorn. This, too, is of an astringent nature, and acts as a desiccative upon fluxes of all kinds, discharges of blood from the mouth, and excessive menstruation; for all which purposes the root is still more efficacious.

The seed of the white thorn is useful as a remedy for the stings of scorpions, and a chaplet made of it, is good for headache. Similar to this plant is that known to the Greeks as the “acanthion;”263 though it is much smaller in the leaf, which is pointed at the extremity, and covered with a down like a cobweb in appearance. This downy substance is gathered in the East, and certain textures are made of it similar to those of silk. An infusion of the leaves or root of this plant is taken for the cure of opisthotony.

Gum acacia is produced also from the white and black264 thorns of Egypt,44 and from a green thorn as well; the produce, however, of the former trees is by far the best. There is also a similar gum found in Galatia, but of very inferior quality, the produce of a more thorny tree265 than those last mentioned. The seed of all these trees resembles266 the lentil in appearance, only that it is smaller, as well as the pod which contains it: it is gathered in autumn, before which period it would be too powerful in its effects. The juice is left to thicken in the pods, which are steeped in rain-water for the purpose, and then pounded in a mortar; after which, the juice is extracted by means of presses. It is then dried in the mortars in the sun, and when dry is divided into tablets. A similar juice is extracted from the leaves, but it is by no means267 so useful as the other. The seed is used also, as a substitute for nut-galls in curing leather.268

The juice extracted from the leaves, as also the extremely black juice of the Galatian269 acacia, is held in no esteem. The same too with that of a deep red colour. The gum which is of a purple, or of an ashy, grey colour, and which dissolves with the greatest rapidity, possesses the most astringent and cooling qualities of them all, and is more particularly useful as an ingredient in compositions for the eyes. When required for these purposes, the tablets are steeped in water by some, while some again scorch them, and others reduce them to ashes. They are useful for dyeing the hair, and for the cure of erysipelas, serpiginous sores, ulcerations of the humid parts of the body, gatherings, contusions of the joints, chilblains, and hangnails. They are good also for cases of excessive menstruation, procidence of the uterus and rectum, affections of the eyes, and ulcerations of the generative organs270 and mouth.

The common271 thorn too, with which the fulling coppers are filled is employed for the same purposes as the radicula.272 In the provinces of Spain it is commonly employed as an ingredient in perfumes and unguents, under the name of “aspalathos.” There is no doubt, however, that there is also a wild thorn of the same name in the East, as already mentioned,273 of a white colour, and the size of an ordinary tree.

There is also found in the islands of Nisyros and of Rhodes, a shrub of smaller size, but full as thorny, known by some as the erysisceptrum,274 by others as the adipsatheon, and by the Syrians as the diaxylon. The best kind is that which is the least275 ferulaceous in the stem, and which is of a red colour, or inclining to purple, when the bark is removed. It is found growing in many places, but is not everywhere odoriferous. We have already276 stated, how remarkably sweet the odour of it is, when the rainbow has been extended over it.

This plant cures fetid ulcers of the mouth, polypus277 of the nose, ulcerations or carbuncles of the generative organs, and chaps; taken in drink it acts as a carminative, and is curative of strangury. The bark is good for patients troubled with discharges of blood, and a decoction of it acts astringently on the bowels. It is generally thought that the wild plant is productive of the same effects.

There is a thorn also known as the appendix;278 that name being given to the red berries which hang from its branches. These berries eaten by themselves, raw, or else dried and boiled in wine, arrest looseness of the bowels and dispel griping pains in the stomach. The berries of the pyracantha279 are taken in drink for wounds inflicted by serpents.

The paliurus,280 too, is a kind of thorn. The seed of it, known by the people of Africa as “zura,” is extremely efficacious for the sting of the scorpion, as also for urinary calculi and cough. The leaves are of an astringent nature, and the root disperses inflamed tumours, gatherings, and abscesses; taken in drink it is diuretic in its effects. A decoction of it in wine arrests diarrhœa, and neutralizes the venom of serpents: the root more particularly is administered in wine.

The agrifolia,281 pounded, with the addition of salt, is good for diseases of the joints, and the berries are used in cases of excessive menstruation, cœliac affections, dysentery, and cholera; taken in wine, they act astringently upon the bowels. A decoction of the root, applied externally, extracts foreign bodies from the flesh, and is remarkably useful for sprains and tumours.

The tree called “aquifolia,” planted282 in a town or country-house47 is a preservative against sorceries and spells. The blossom of it, according to Pythagoras, congeals283 water, and a staff284 made of the wood, if, when thrown at any animal, from want of strength in the party throwing it, it falls short of the mark will roll back again285 towards the thrower, of its own accord—so remarkable are the properties of this tree. The smoke of the yew kills286 rats and mice.

Nor yet has Nature destined the bramble287 to be only an annoyance to mankind, for she has bestowed upon it mulberries of its own,288 or, in other words, a nutritive aliment even for mankind. These berries are of a desiccative, astringent, nature,289 and are extremely useful for maladies of the gums, tonsillary glands, and generative organs. They neutralize also the venom of those most deadly of serpents, the hæmorrhoïs290 and the prester;291 and the flowers or fruit will heal wounds inflicted by scorpions, without any danger of abscesses forming. The shoots of the bramble have a diuretic effect: and the more tender ones are pounded; and the juice extracted and then dried in the sun till it has attained the consistency of honey, being considered a most excellent remedy, taken in drink or applied externally, for maladies of the mouth and eyes, discharges of blood from the mouth, quinzy, affections of the48 uterus, diseases of the rectum, and cœliac affections. The leaves, chewed, are good for diseases of the mouth, and a topical application is made of them for running ulcers and other maladies of the head. In the cardiac disease they are similarly applied to the left breast by themselves. They are applied topically also for pains in the stomach and for procidence of the eyes. The juice of them is used as an injection for the ears, and, in combination with cerate of roses, it heals condylomata.

A decoction of the young shoots in wine is an instantaneous remedy for diseases of the uvula; and eaten by themselves like cymæ,292 or boiled in astringent wine, they strengthen loose teeth. They arrest fluxes of the bowels also, and discharges of blood, and are very useful for dysentery. Dried in the shade and then burnt, the ashes of them are curative of procidence of the uvula. The leaves too, dried and pounded, are very useful, it is said, for ulcers upon beasts of burden. The berries produced by this plant would seem to furnish a stomatice293 superior even to that prepared from the cultivated mulberry. Under this form, or else only with hypocisthis294 and honey, the berries are administered for cholera, the cardiac disease, and wounds inflicted by spiders.295

Among the medicaments known as “styptics,”296 there is none that is more efficacious than a decoction of the root of the bramble in wine, boiled down to one third. Ulcerations of the mouth and rectum are bathed with it, and fomentations of it are used for a similar purpose; indeed, it is so remarkably powerful in its effects, that the very sponges which are used become as hard as a stone.297

There is another kind of bramble also,298 which bears a rose. It produces a round excrescence,299 similar to a chesnut in49 appearance, which is remarkably valuable as a remedy for calculus. This is quite a different production from the “cynorrhoda,” which we shall have occasion to speak of in the succeeding Book.300

(14.) The cynosbatos301 is by some called “cynapanxis,”302 and by others “neurospastos;”303 the leaf resembles the human footstep in shape. It bears also a black grape, in the berries of which there is a nerve, to which it is indebted for its name of “neurospastos.” It is quite a different plant from the capparis304 or caper, to which medical men have also given the name of “cynosbatos.” The clusters305 of it, pickled in vinegar, are eaten as a remedy for diseases of the spleen, and flatulency: and the string found in the berries, chewed with Chian mastich, cleanses the mouth.

The rose306 of the bramble, mixed with axle-grease, is curative of alopecy: and the bramble-berries themselves, combined with oil of omphacium,307 stain308 the hair. The blossom of the bramble is gathered at harvest, and the white blossom, taken in wine, is an excellent remedy for pleurisy and cœliac affections. The root, boiled down to one third, arrests looseness of the bowels and hæmorrhage, and a decoction of it, used as a gargle, is good for the teeth: the juice too is employed as a fomentation for ulcers of the rectum and generative organs. The ashes of the root are curative of relaxations of the uvula.

The Idæan bramble309 is so called from the fact that it is the only plant of the kind found growing upon Mount Ida. It is of a more delicate nature than the others, and smaller; the canes too are thinner, and not310 so prickly: it mostly grows beneath the shade of trees. The blossom of it, mixed with honey, is applied topically for defluxions of the eyes, and is administered in water for erysipelas and affections of the stomach.311 In other respects, it has properties similar to those of the plants312 already mentioned.

Among the several kinds313 of bramble is reckoned the plant called “rhamnos” by the Greeks. One variety of it is whiter314 than the other, and has a more shrublike appearance, throwing out branches armed with straight thorns, and not hooked, like those of the other kinds; the leaves too are larger. The other kind,315 which is found growing wild, is of a more swarthy hue, in some measure inclining to red; it bears too a sort316 of pod. With the root of it boiled in water a medicament is made, known as “lycium:”317 the seed of it is useful for bringing away the after-birth. The white kind, however, is of a more astringent and cooling nature, and better adapted for the treatment of gatherings and wounds. The leaves of both kinds, either raw or boiled, are employed topically with oil.

The best lycium,318 they say, is that prepared from the thorn of that name, known also as the “Chironian pyxacanthus,”319 and mentioned by us when speaking of the trees of India, the lycium of those regions being generally looked upon as by far the best. The branches and roots, which are intensely bitter,320 are first pounded and then boiled for three days in a copper vessel, after which the woody parts are removed, and the decoction is boiled again, till it has attained the consistency of honey. It is adulterated with various bitter extracts,321 as also with amurca of olive oil and ox-gall. The froth or flower322 of this decoction is used as an ingredient in compositions for the eyes: and the other part of it is employed as a cosmetic for the face, and for the cure of itch-scabs, corroding sores in the corners of the eyes, inveterate fluxes, and suppurations of the ears. It is useful too for diseases of the tonsillary glands and gums, for coughs, and for discharges of blood from the mouth, being generally taken in pieces the size of a bean. For the cure of discharges from wounds, it is applied to the part affected; and it is similarly used for chaps, ulcerations of the genitals, excoriations, ulcers, whether putrid, serpiginous, or of recent date, hard excrescences323 of the nostrils, and suppurations. It is taken also by females, in milk, for the purpose of arresting the catamenia when in excess.

The Indian lycium is distinguished from the other kinds by its colour, the lumps being black outside, and, when broken, red within, though they turn black very quickly.324 It is bitter and remarkably astringent, and is employed for all the purposes above mentioned, diseases of the generative organs in particular.

Some authors are of opinion that sarcocolla325 is a tearlike gum which exudes from a kind of thorn;326 it is similar to powdered incense in appearance, has a sweet flavour with a slight degree of bitter, and is of the consistency of gum. Pounded in wine, it arrests defluxions, and is used as a topical application for infants more particularly. This substance too becomes black327 when old; the whiter it is, the more highly it is esteemed.

We are indebted too to the medicinal properties of trees for one very celebrated medicament, known as “oporice.”328 This preparation is used for dysentery and various affections of the stomach; the following being the method of preparing it. Five quinces, seeds and all, with the same number of pomegranates, one sextarius of sorbs, a similar quantity of Syrian rhus,329 and half an ounce of saffron, are boiled in one congius of white grape-juice at a slow heat, till the whole mixture is reduced to the consistency of honey.

We shall now add to these plants, certain vegetable productions to which the Greeks have given names belonging to trees, so that it would be doubtful whether they themselves are not trees as well.

(15.) The chamædrys330 is the same plant that in Latin is called “trixago;” some persons, however, call it “chamædrops,” and others “teucria.” The leaves of it are the size53 of those of mint, but in their colour and indentations they resemble those of the oak. According to some, the leaves are serrated, and it was these, they say, that first suggested the idea of the saw:331 the flower of it borders closely upon purple. This plant is gathered in rough craggy localities, when it is replete with juice; and, whether taken332 internally or applied topically, it is extremely efficacious for the stings of venomous serpents, diseases of the stomach, inveterate coughs, collections of phlegm in the throat, ruptures, convulsions, and pains in the sides. It diminishes the volume of the spleen, and acts as a diuretic and emmenagogue; for which reasons it is very useful in incipient dropsy, the usual dose being a handful of the sprigs boiled down to one third in three heminæ of water. Lozenges too are made of it for the above-named purposes, by bruising it in water. In combination with honey, it heals abscesses and inveterate or sordid ulcers: a wine333 too is prepared from it for diseases of the chest. The juice of the leaves, mixed with oil, disperses films on the eyes; it is taken also, in vinegar, for diseases of the spleen; employed as a friction, it is of a warming nature.

The chamædaphne334 consists of a single diminutive stem, about a cubit in height, the limbs of it being smaller than those of the laurel. These leaves * * * The seed, which is of a red colour, and attached to the leaves, is applied fresh for head-ache, is of a cooling nature for burning heats, and is taken for griping pains in the bowels, with wine. The juice of this plant, taken in wine, acts as an emmenagogue and diuretic; and applied as a pessary in wool, it facilitates laborious deliveries.

The leaves of the chamelæa335 resemble those of the olive; they are bitter, however, and odoriferous. This plant is found54 growing in craggy localities, and never exceeds a palm in height. It is of a purgative336 nature, and carries off phlegm and bile; for which purposes, the leaves are boiled with twice the quantity of wormwood, and the decoction taken with honey. The leaves, applied to ulcers, have a detergent effect. It is said, that if a person gathers it before sunrise, taking care to mention that he is gathering it for the cure of white specks337 in the eyes, and then wears it as an amulet, it will effect a cure: as also that, gathered in any way, it is beneficial for the eyes of beasts of burden and cattle.

The chamæsyce338 has leaves similar to those of the lentil, and lying close to the ground; it is found growing in dry, rocky, localities. A decoction of it in wine is remarkably useful as a liniment for improving339 the sight, and for dispersing cataract, cicatrizations, films, and cloudiness of the eyes. Applied in a pledget of linen, as a pessary, it allays pains in the uterus; and used topically340 it removes warts and excrescences of all kinds. It is very useful also for hardness of breathing.

The chamæcissos341 has ears like342 those of wheat, with numerous leaves, and small branches, about five in number. When in blossom it might almost be taken for the white violet: the root of it is diminutive. For sciatica, the leaves of it are taken, seven days consecutively, in doses of three oboli, in two cyathi of wine: this is a very bitter potion, however.

The chamæleuce343 is known among us as the “farfarum” or “farfugium:” it grows on the banks of rivers, and has a leaf55 like that of the poplar, only larger. The root of it is burnt upon cypress charcoal, and, by the aid of a funnel,344 the smoke inhaled, in cases of inveterate cough.

The chamæpeuce345 has a leaf which resembles that of the larch, and is useful more particularly for lumbago and pains in the back. The chamæcyparissos346 is a herb which, taken in wine, counteracts the venom of serpents of all kinds, and of scorpions.

The ampeloprason347 is found growing in vineyards; it has leaves like those of the leek, and produces offensive eructations. It is highly efficacious for the stings of serpents, and acts as an emmenagogue and diuretic. Taken in drink or applied externally, it arrests discharges of blood from the generative organs. It is prescribed also for females after delivery, and is used for bites inflicted by dogs.

The plant known as “stachys” bears a strong resemblance also to a leek,348 but the leaves of it are longer and more numerous. It has an agreeable smell, and in colour inclines to yellow. It promotes menstruation.

The clinopodion,349 cleonicion, zopyron, or ocimoïdes, resembles56 wild thyme in appearance. The stem of it is tough and ligneous, and it is a palm in height. It grows in stony soils, and the leaves are trained regularly around the stem,350 which resembles a bed-post in appearance. This plant is taken in drink, for convulsions, ruptures, strangury, and wounds inflicted by serpents: a decoction is also made of it, and the juice is similarly employed.

We shall now have to annex some plants, of a marvellous nature no doubt, but not so well known, reserving those of a higher reputation for the succeeding Books.

Our people give the name of “centunculus,”351 to a creeping plant that grows in the fields, the leaves of which bear a strong resemblance to the hoods attached to our cloaks. By the Greeks it is known as the “clematis.” Taken in astringent wine it is wonderfully effectual for arresting352 diarrhœa: beaten up, in doses of one denarius, in five cyathi of oxymel or of warm water, it arrests hæmorrhage, and facilitates the after-birth.

The Greeks have other varieties also of the clematis, one of which is known as “echites”353 or “lagine,” and by some as the “little scammony.” Its stems are about two feet in height, and covered with leaves: in general appearance it is not unlike scammony, were it not that the leaves are darker and more diminutive; it is found growing in vineyards and cultivated soils. It is eaten as a vegetable, with oil and salt, and acts as a laxative upon the bowels. It is taken354 also for dysentery,57 with linseed, in astringent wine. The leaves of this plant are applied with polenta for defluxions of the eyes, the part affected being first covered with a pledget of wet linen. Applied to scrofulous sores, they cause them to suppurate, and if some axle-grease is then applied, a perfect cure will be effected. They are applied also to piles, with green oil, and are good for phthisis, in combination with honey. Taken with the food, they increase the milk in nursing women, and, rubbed upon the heads of infants, they promote the rapid growth of the hair. Eaten with vinegar, they act as an aphrodisiac.

There is another kind also, known as the “Egyptian”355 clematis, otherwise as “daphnoïdes”356 or “polygonoïdes:” it has a leaf like that of the laurel, and is long and slender. Taken in vinegar, it is very useful for the stings of serpents, that of the asp in particular.

It is Egypt more particularly that produces the clematis known as the “aron,” of which we have already357 made some mention when speaking of the bulbs. Respecting this plant and the dracontium, there have been considerable differences of opinion. Some writers, indeed, have maintained that they are identical, and Glaucias has made the only distinction between them in reference to the place of their growth, assuming that the dracontium is nothing else than the aron in a wild state. Some persons, again, have called the root “aron,” and the stem of the plant “dracontium:” but if the dracontium is the same as the one known to us as the “dracunculus,”358 it is a different plant altogether; for while the aron has a broad, black, rounded root, and considerably larger,—large enough, indeed, to fill the hand,—the dracunculus has a58 reddish root of a serpentine form, to which, in fact, it owes its name.359

The Greeks themselves, in fact, have established an immense difference between these two plants, in attributing to the seed of the dracunculus certain hot, pungent properties, and a fetid odour360 so remarkably powerful as to be productive of abortion,361 while upon the aron, on the other hand, they have bestowed marvellous encomiums. As an article of food, however, they give the preference to the female plant, the male plant being of a harder nature, and more difficult to cook. It carries off,362 they say, all vicious humours from the chest, and powdered and taken in the form either of a potion or of an electuary, it acts as a diuretic and emmenagogue. Powdered and taken in oxymel, it is good for the stomach; and we find it stated that it is administered in ewe’s milk for ulcerations of the intestines, and is sometimes cooked on hot ashes and given in oil for a cough. Some persons, again, are in the habit of boiling it in milk and administering the decoction; and it has been used also in a boiled state as a topical application for defluxions of the eyes, contusions, and affections of the tonsillary glands. * * * *363 prescribes it with oil, as an injection for piles, and recommends it as a liniment, with honey, for freckles.

Cleophantus has greatly extolled this plant as an antidote for poisons, and for the treatment of pleurisy and peripneumony, prepared the same way as for coughs. The seed too, pounded with olive oil or oil of roses, is used as an injection for pains59 in the ears. Dieuches prescribes it, mixed in bread364 with meal, for the cure of coughs, asthma, hardness of breathing, and purulent expectorations. Diodotus recommends it, in combination with honey, as an electuary for phthisis and diseases of the lungs, and as a topical application even for fractured bones. Applied to the sexual parts, it facilitates delivery in all kinds of animals; and the juice extracted from the root, in combination with Attic honey, disperses films upon the eyes, and diseases of the stomach. A decoction of it with honey is curative of cough; and the juice is a marvellous remedy for ulcers of every description, whether phagedænic, carcinomatous, or serpiginous, and for polypus of the nostrils. The leaves, boiled in wine and oil, are good for burns, and, taken with salt and vinegar, are strongly purgative; boiled with honey, they are useful also for sprains, and used either fresh or dried, with salt, for gout in the joints.

Hippocrates has prescribed the leaves, either fresh or dried, with honey, as a topical application for abscesses. Two drachmæ of the seed or root, in two cyathi of wine, are a sufficient dose to act as an emmenagogue, and a similar quantity will have the effect of bringing away the after-birth, in cases where it is retarded.365 Hippocrates used to apply the root also, for the purpose. They say too, that in times of pestilence the employment of aron as an article of food is very beneficial. It dispels the fumes of wine; and the smoke of it burnt drives away serpents,366 the asp in particular, or else stupefies them to such a degree as to reduce them to a state of torpor. These reptiles also will fly at the approach of persons whose bodies have been rubbed with a preparation of aron with oil of laurel: hence it is generally thought a good plan to administer it in red wine to persons who have been stung by serpents. Cheese, it is said, keeps remarkably well, wrapped in leaves of this plant.

The plant which I have spoken of367 as the dracunculus, is taken out of the ground just when the barley is ripening, and at the moon’s increase. It is quite sufficient to have this plant about one, to be safe from all serpents; and it is said, that an infusion of the larger kind taken in drink, is very useful for persons who have been stung by those reptiles: it is stated also that it arrests the catamenia when in excess, due care being taken not to let iron touch it. The juice of it too is very useful for pains in the ears.

As to the plant known to the Greeks by the name of “dracontion,” I have368 had it pointed out to me under three different forms; the first369 having the leaves of the beet, with a certain proportion of stem, and a purple flower, and bearing a strong resemblance to the aron. Other persons, again, have described it as a plant370 with a long root, embossed to all appearance and full of knots, and consisting of three stems in all; the same parties have recommended a decoction of the leaves in vinegar, as curative of stings inflicted by serpents. The third371 plant that has been pointed out to me has a leaf larger than that of the cornel, and a root resembling that of the reed. This root, I have been assured, has as many knots on it as the plant is years old, the leaves, too, being as many in number. The plant is recommended also for the stings of serpents, administered either in wine or in water.

There is a plant also called the “arisaros,”372 which grows in Egypt, and is similar to the aron in appearance, only that it is more diminutive, and has smaller leaves; the root too is smaller, though fully as large as a good-sized olive. The white arisaros throws out two stems, the other kind only one. They are curative, both of them, of running ulcers and burns, and are used as an injection for fistulas. The leaves, boiled in61 water, and then beaten up with the addition of oil of roses, arrest the growth of corrosive ulcers. But there is one very marvellous fact connected with this plant—it is quite sufficient to touch the sexual parts of any female animal with it to cause its instantaneous death.

The myriophyllon,373 by our people known as the “millefolium” has a tender stem, somewhat similar to fennel-giant in appearance, with vast numbers of leaves, to which circumstance it is indebted for its name. It grows in marshy localities, and is remarkably useful for the treatment of wounds. It is taken in vinegar for strangury, affections of the bladder, asthma, and falls with violence; it is extremely efficacious also for tooth-ache.

In Etruria, the same name is given to a small meadow-plant,374 provided with leaves at the sides, like hairs, and particularly useful for wounds. The people of that country say that, applied with axle-grease, it will knit together and unite the tendons of oxen, when they have been accidentally severed by the plough-share.375

The pseudobunion376 has the leaves of the turnip, and grows in a shrub-like form, about a palm in height; the most esteemed being that of Crete. For gripings of the bowels, strangury, and pains of the thoracic organs, some five or six sprigs of it are administered in drink.

The myrrhis,377 otherwise known as the myriza or myrrha,62 bears a strong resemblance to hemlock in the stem, leaves, and blossom, only that it is smaller and more slender: it is by no means unpleasant to the palate. Taken with wine, it acts as an emmenagogue, and facilitates parturition: they say too that in times of pestilence it is very wholesome, taken in drink. It is very useful also for phthisis, administered in broth. It sharpens the appetite, and neutralizes the venom of the phalangium. The juice of this plant, after it has been macerated some three days in water, is curative of ulcers of the face and head.

The onobrychis378 has leaves like those of the lentil, only somewhat379 longer; the blossom is red, and the root small and slender. It is found growing in the vicinity of springs. Dried and reduced to powder, and sprinkled in white wine, it is curative of strangury, and arrests looseness of the bowels. The juice of it, used as a friction with oil, acts as a sudorific.

While I am treating of plants of a marvellous nature, I am induced to make some mention of certain magical plants—for what, in fact, can there be more marvellous than they? The first who descanted upon this subject in our part of the world were Pythagoras and Democritus, who have adopted the accounts given by the Magi. Coracesta380 and callicia, according to Pythagoras, are plants which congeal381 water. I find no mention made of them, however, by any other author, and he himself gives no further particulars relative to them.

Pythagoras gives the name of minsas382 too, or corinthia, to another plant; a decoction of which, used as a fomentation, will effect an instantaneous cure of stings inflicted by serpents, according to him. He adds too, that if this decoction is poured upon the grass, and a person happens to tread upon it, or if the body should chance to be sprinkled with it, the result is fatal beyond all remedy; so monstrously malignant are the venomous proporties of this plant, except as neutralizing other kinds of poison.

Pythagoras makes mention, too, of a plant called aproxis, the root of which takes fire383 at a distance, like naphtha, of which we have made some mention, when speaking384 of the marvellous productions of the earth. He says too, that if the human body happens to be attacked by any disease while the cabbage385 is in blossom, the person, although he may have been perfectly cured, will be sensible of a recurrence of the symptoms, every time that plant comes into blossom; a peculiarity which he attributes to it in common with wheat, hemlock, and the violet.

I am not ignorant, however, that the work of his from which I have just quoted is ascribed to the physician Cleemporus by some, though antiquity and the unbroken current of tradition concur in claiming it for Pythagoras. It is quite enough, however, to say in favour of a book, that the author has deemed the results of his labours worthy to be published under the name of so great a man. And yet who can believe that Cleemporus would do this, seeing that he has not hesitated to publish other works under his own name?

As to Democritus, there can be no doubt that the work called “Chirocmeta”386 belongs to him. How very much more marvellous too are the accounts given in this book by the philosopher who, next to Pythagoras, has acquired the most intimate knowledge of the learning of the Magi! According to him, the plant aglaophotis,387 which owes its name to the admiration in which its beauteous tints are held by man, is found growing among the marble quarries of Arabia, on the side of Persia, a circumstance which has given it the additional name of “marmaritis.” By means of this plant, he says, the Magi can summon the deities into their presence when they please.

The achæmenis,388 he says, a plant the colour of amber, and destitute of leaves, grows in the country of the Tradastili, an Indian race. The root of it, divided into lozenges and taken in wine in the day time, torments the guilty to such a degree during the night by the various forms of avenging deities presented to the imagination, as to extort from them a confession of their crimes. He gives it the name also of “hippophobas,” it being an especial object of terror to mares.

The theobrotion389 is a plant found at a distance of thirty schœni390 from the river Choaspes; it represents the varied tints of the peacock, and the odour of it is remarkably fine. The65 kings of Persia, he says, are in the habit of taking it in their food or drink, for all maladies of the body, and derangements of the mind. It has the additional name of semnion,391 from the use thus made of it by majesty.

He next tells us of the adamantis,392 a plant grown in Armenia and Cappadocia: presented to a lion, he says, the beast will fall upon its back, and drop its jaws. Its name originates in the fact that it is impossible to bruise it. The arianis,393 he says, is found in the country of the Ariani; it is of a fiery colour, and is gathered when the sun is in Leo. Wood rubbed with oil will take fire on coming in contact with this plant. The therionarca,394 he tells us, grows in Cappadocia and Mysia; it has the effect of striking wild beasts of all kinds with a torpor which can only be dispelled by sprinkling them with the urine of the hyæna. He speaks too of the æthiopis,395 a plant which grows in Meroë; for which reason it is also known as the “meroïs.” In leaf it resembles the lettuce, and, taken with honied wine, it is very good for dropsy. The ophiusa,396 which is found in Elephantine, an island also of Æthiopia, is a plant of a livid colour, and hideous to the sight. Taken by a person in drink, he says, it inspires such a horror of serpents, which his imagination continually represents as menacing him, that he commits suicide at last; hence it is that persons guilty of sacrilege are compelled to drink an infusion of it. Palm wine, he tells us, is the only thing that neutralizes its effects.

The thalassægle397 he speaks of as being found on the banks of the river Indus, from which circumstance it is also known as the potamaugis.398 Taken in drink it produces a delirium,399 which presents to the fancy visions of a most extraordinary nature. The theangelis,400 he says, grows upon Mount Libanus66 in Syria, upon the chain of mountains called Dicte in Crete, and at Babylon and Susa in Persis. An infusion of it in drink, imparts powers of divination to the Magi. The gelotophyllis401 too, is a plant found in Bactriana, and on the banks of the Borysthenes. Taken internally with myrrh and wine, all sorts of visionary forms present themselves, and excite the most immoderate laughter, which can only be put an end to by taking kernels of the pine-nut, with pepper and honey, in palm wine.

The hestiatoris,402 he tells us, is a Persian plant, so called from its promotion of gaiety and good fellowship at carousals. Another name for it is protomedia, because those who eat of it will gain the highest place in the royal favour. The casignetes403 too, we learn, is so called, because it grows only among plants of its own kind, and is never found in company with any other; another name given to it is “dionysonymphas,”404 from the circumstance of its being remarkably well adapted to the nature of wine. Helianthes405 is the name he gives to a plant found in the regions of Themiscyra and the mountainous parts of maritime Cilicia, with leaves like those of myrtle. This plant is boiled up with lion’s fat, saffron and palm wine being added; the Magi, he tells us, and Persian monarchs are in the habit of anointing the body with the preparation, to add to its graceful appearance: he states also, that for this reason it has the additional name of “heliocallis.”406 What the same author calls “hermesias,”407 has the singular virtue of ensuring the procreation of issue, both beautiful as well as good. It is not a plant, however, but a composition made of kernels of pine nuts, pounded with honey, myrrh, saffron, and palm wine, to which theobrotium408 and milk are then added. He also67 recommends those who wish to become parents to drink this mixture, and says, that females should take it immediately after conception, and during pregnancy.409 If this is done, he says, the infant will be sure to be endowed with the highest qualities, both in mind and body. In addition to what has here been stated, Democritus gives the various names by which all these plants are known to the Magi.

Apollodorus, one of the followers of Democritus, has added to this list the herb æschynomene,410 so called from the shrinking of its leaves at the approach of the hand; and another called “crocis,”411 the touch of which is fatal to the phalangium. Crateuas, also, speaks of the œnotheris,412 an infusion of which in wine, sprinkled upon them, has the effect of taming all kind of animals, however wild. A celebrated grammarian,413 who lived but very recently, has described the anacampseros,414 the very touch of which recalls former love, even though hatred should have succeeded in its place. It will be quite sufficient for the present to have said thus much in reference to the remarkable virtues attributed to certain plants by the Magi; as we shall have occasion to revert to this subject in a more appropriate place.415

Many authors have made mention of the eriphia,416 a plant which contains a kind of beetle in its hollow stem. This68 beetle is continually ascending the interior of the stalk, and as often descending, while it emits a sound like the cry of a kid; a circumstance to which the plant is indebted for its name. There is nothing in existence, they say, more beneficial to the voice.

The wool plant,417 given to sheep fasting, greatly increases the milk. The plant commonly called lactoris,418 is equally well known: it is full of a milky juice, the taste of which produces vomiting. Some persons say that this is identical with, while others say that it only resembles, the plant known as “militaris,”419 from the fact that, applied with oil, it will effect the cure, within five days, of any wound that has been inflicted with iron.

The Greeks speak in high terms also of the stratiotes,420 though that is a plant which grows in Egypt only, and during the inundations of the river Nilus. It is similar in appearance to the aizoön,421 except that the leaves are larger. It is of a remarkably cooling nature, and, applied with vinegar, it heals wounds, as well as erysipelas and suppurations. Taken in drink with male frankincense, it is marvellously useful for discharges of blood from the kidneys.

It is asserted also, that a plant growing422 on the head of a69 statue, gathered in the lappet of any one of the garments, and then attached with a red string to the neck, is an instantaneous cure for head-ache.

Any plant that is gathered before sunrise on the banks of a stream or river, due care being taken that no one sees it gathered, attached to the left arm without the patient knowing what it is, will cure a tertian fever, they say.

There is a herb called “lingua,”423 which grows in the vicinity of fountains. The root of it, reduced to ashes and beaten up with hog’s lard—the hog, they say, must have been black and barren—will cure alopecy, the head being rubbed with it in the sun.

Plants that take root in a sieve that has been thrown in a hedge-row, if gathered and worn upon the person by a pregnant woman, will facilitate delivery.

A plant that has been grown upon a dungheap in a field, is a very efficacious remedy, taken in water, for quinzy.

A plant upon which a dog has watered, torn up by the roots, and not touched with iron, is a very speedy cure for sprains.

We have already424 made mention of the rumpotinus, when speaking of the vine-growing425 trees. Near the tree, when not70 accompanied by the vine, there grows a plant, known to the Gauls as the “rodarum.”426 It has a knotted stem like the branch of a fig-tree, and the leaves, which are very similar to those of the nettle, are white in the middle, though in process of time they become red all over. The blossom of it is of a silvery hue. Beaten up with stale axle-grease, due care being taken not to touch it with iron, this plant is extremely useful for tumours, inflammations, and gatherings; the patient, however, on being anointed with it must spit three times on the right side. They say too, that as a remedy it is still more efficacious, if three persons of three different nations rub the right side of the body with it.

The plant called “impia”427 is white, resembling rosemary in appearance. It is clothed with leaves like a thyrsus, and is terminated by a head, from which a number of small branches protrude, terminated, all of them, in a similar manner. It is this peculiar conformation that has procured for it the name of “impia,” from the progeny thus surmounting the parent. Some persons, however, are of opinion that it is so called because no animal will touch it. Bruised between two stones it yields an effervescent juice, which, in combination with wine and milk, is remarkably efficacious for quinzy.

There is a marvellous property attributed to this plant, to the effect that persons who have once tasted it will never be attacked by quinzy; for which reason it is given to swine: those among them, however, which refuse to take it will be sure to die of that disease. Some persons too are of opinion that if slips of it are put into a bird’s nest, they will effectually prevent the young birds from choking themselves by eating too voraciously.

From its resemblance to a comb, they give the name of “Venus’ comb”428 to a certain plant, the root of which, bruised71 with mallows, extracts all foreign substances from the human body.

The plant called “exedum”429 is curative of lethargy. The herbaceous plant called “notia,” which is used by curriers for dyeing leather a bright, cheerful colour, and known by them under various names—is curative of cancerous ulcers; I find it also stated that, taken in wine or in oxycrate, it is extremely efficacious for stings inflicted by scorpions.

The Greeks wittily give the name of “philanthropos”430 to a certain plant, because it attaches itself to articles of dress.431 A chaplet made of this plant has the effect of relieving headache.

As to the plant known as the “lappa canaria,”432 beaten up in wine with plantago and millefolium,433 it effects the cure of carcinomatous sores, the application being removed at the end of three days. Taken out of the ground without the aid of iron, and thrown into their wash, or given to them in wine and milk, it cures diseases in swine. Some persons add, however, that the person, as he takes it up, must say—“This is the plant argemon, a remedy discovered by Minerva for such swine as shall taste thereof.”

Tordylon is, according to some authorities, the seed of sili,434 while according to others it is a distinct plant,435 known also as “syreon.” I find no particulars relative to it, except that72 it grows upon mountains, and that the ashes of it, taken in drink, act as an emmenagogue and facilitate expectoration. It is stated also, that for this last purpose the root is even more efficacious than the stem; that the juice of it, taken in doses of three oboli, cures diseases of the kidneys; and that the root is used as an ingredient for emollient plasters.

Gramen436 is of all herbaceous productions the most common. As it creeps along the ground it throws out jointed stems, from the joints of which, as well as from the extremity of the stem, fresh roots are put forth every here and there. In all other parts of the world the leaves of it are tapering, and come to a point; but upon Mount Parnassus437 they resemble the leaves of the ivy, the plant throwing out a greater number of stems than elsewhere, and bearing a blossom that is white and odoriferous. There is no vegetable production that is more grateful438 to beasts of burden than this, whether in a green state or whether dried and made into hay, in which last case it is sprinkled with water when given to them. It is said that on Mount Parnassus a juice is extracted from it, which is very abundant and of a sweet flavour.

In other parts of the world, instead of this juice a decoction of it is employed for closing wounds; an effect equally produced by the plant itself, which is beaten up for the purpose and attached to the part affected, thereby preventing inflammation. To the decoction wine and honey are added, and in some cases, frankincense, pepper, and myrrh, in the proportion of one third of each ingredient; after which it is boiled again in a copper vessel, when required for tooth-ache or defluxions of the eyes. A decoction of the roots, in wine, is curative of griping pains in the bowels, strangury, and ulcerations of the bladder, and it disperses calculi. The seed is still more powerful as a diuretic,439 arrests looseness and vomiting, and is particularly73 useful for wounds inflicted by dragons.440 There are some authorities which give the following prescription for the cure of scrofulous sores and inflamed tumours:—From one, two, or three stems, as many as nine joints must be removed, which must then be wrapped in black wool with the grease in it. The party who gathers them must do so fasting, and must then go, in the same state, to the patient’s house while he is from home. When the patient comes in, the other must say to him three times, “I come fasting to bring a remedy to a fasting man;” and must then attach the amulet to his person, repeating the same ceremony three consecutive days. The variety of this plant which has seven441 joints is considered a most excellent amulet for the cure of head-ache. For excruciating pains in the bladder, some recommend a decoction of gramen, boiled down in wine to one half, to be taken immediately after the bath.

There are some authorities who mention three varieties of the pointed gramen. That which has at the extremity five442 points at the utmost, is called “dactylos.” Twisting these points together, persons introduce them into the nostrils and then withdraw them, with the view of preventing hæmorrhage. The second kind, which, resembles aizoön,443 is employed with axle-grease for whitlows and hangnails, and for fleshy excrescences upon the nails: this also is called “dactylos,” because it is so useful as a remedy for diseases of the fingers.

The third444 kind, which is also known as “dactylos,” is more diminutive, and is found growing upon walls or tiles. It has certain caustic properties, and arrests the progress of serpiginous ulcers. By placing a wreath of gramen round the head, bleeding at the nose is stopped. In Babylonia, it is said, the gramen445 which grows by the wayside is fatal to camels.

Nor is fenugreek held in less esteem. By some it is known as “telis,” by others as “carphos,” and by others again as “buceras,” or “ægoceras,”446 the produce of it bearing some resemblance to horns. Among us it is known as “silicia.” The mode of sowing it we have already447 described on the appropriate occasion. Its properties are desiccative,448 emollient, and resolvent. A decoction of it is useful for many female maladies, indurations for instance, tumours, and contractions of the uterus; in all which cases it is employed as a fomentation or used for a sitting-bath: it is serviceable also as an injection. It removes cutaneous eruptions on the face; and a decoction of it, applied topically with nitre or vinegar, cures diseases of the spleen or liver. In cases of difficult labour, Diodes recommends the seed pounded, in doses of one acetabulum, mixed with boiled449 must. After taking one third of the mixture, the patient must use a warm bath, and then, while in a perspiration, she must take another third, and, immediately after leaving the bath, the remainder—this, he says, will prove a most effectual means of obtaining relief.

The same authority recommends fenugreek boiled, with barley or linseed, in hydromel, as a pessary for violent pains in the uterus: he prescribes it also as an external application for the lower regions of the abdomen. He speaks also of treating leprous sores and freckles with a mixture composed of equal proportions of sulphur and meal of fenugreek, recommending it to be applied repeatedly in the course of the day, due care being taken not to rub the part affected.

For the cure of leprosy, Theodorus prescribes a mixture of fenugreek, and one fourth part of cleaned nasturtium, the whole to be steeped in the strongest vinegar. Damion used to give a potion by way of emmenagogue, consisting of half an acetabulum of fenugreek seed in nine cyathi of boiled must450 and water. There is no doubt too, that a decoction of it is remarkably useful for diseases of the uterus and for ulcerations75 of the intestines, and that the seed is beneficial for affections of the joints and chest. Boiled with mallows and then taken in honied wine, fenugreek is extolled in the highest terms, as serviceable for affections of the uterus and intestines. Indeed, the very steam that arises from the decoction may be productive of considerable benefit. A decoction too of fenugreek seed is a corrective of the rank odours of the armpits. Meal of fenugreek, with wine and nitre, speedily removes ring-worm and dandriff of the head; and a decoction of it in hydromel, with the addition of axle-grease, is used for the cure of diseases of the generative organs, inflamed tumours, imposthumes of the parotid glands, gout in the feet and hands, maladies of the joints, and denudations of the bones. Kneaded with vinegar, it effects the cure of sprains, and, boiled in oxymel only, it is used as a liniment for affections of the spleen. Kneaded with wine, it acts as a detergent upon carcinomatous sores; after which, applied with honey, it effects a perfect cure. A pottage too is made of this meal, which is taken for ulcerations of the chest and chronic coughs; it is kept boiling a considerable time, in order to remove the bitterness,451 after which honey is added.

We shall now proceed to speak of the plants which have gained a higher degree of reputation.

Summary.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, eleven hundred and seventy-six.

Roman authors quoted.—C. Valgius,452 Pompeius Lenæus,453 Sextius Niger454 who wrote in Greek, Julius Bassus455 who wrote in Greek, Antonius Castor,456 Cornelius Celsus.457

Foreign authors quoted.—Theophrastus,458 Apollodorus,459 Democritus,460 Orpheus,461 Pythagoras,462 Mago,463 Menander46476 who wrote the “Biochresta,” Nicander,465 Homer, Hesiod,466 Musæus,467 Sophocles,468 Anaxilaüs.469

Medical authors quoted.—Mnesitheus,470 Callimachus,471 Phanias472 the physician, Timaristus,473 Simus,474 Hippocrates,475 Chrysippus,476 Diocles,477 Ophelion,478 Heraclides,479 Hicesius,480 Dionysius,481 Apollodorus482 of Citium, Apollodorus483 of Tarentum, Praxagoras,484 Plistonicus,485 Medius,486 Dieuches,487 Cleophantus,488 Philistion,489 Asclepiades,490 Crateuas,491 Petronius Diodotus,492 Iollas,493 Erasistratus,494 Diagoras,495 Andreas, Mnesides,496 Epicharmus,497 Damion,498 Sosimenes,499 Tlepolemus,500 Metrodorus,501 Solon,502 Lycus,503 Olympias504 of Thebes, Philinus,505 Petrichus,506 Micton,507 Glaucias,508 Xenocrates.509

CHAP. 1. (1.)—WHEN THE WILD PLANTS WERE FIRST BROUGHT INTO USE.

The more highly esteemed plants of which I am now about to speak, and which are produced by the earth for medicinal purposes solely, inspire me with admiration of the industry and laborious research displayed by the ancients. Indeed there is nothing that they have not tested by experiment or left untried; no discovery of theirs which they have not disclosed, or which they have not been desirous to leave for the benefit of posterity. We, on the contrary, at the present day, make it our object to conceal and suppress the results of our labours, and to defraud our fellow-men of blessings even which have been purchased by others. For true it is, beyond all doubt, that those who have gained any trifling accession of knowledge, keep it to themselves, and envy the enjoyment of it by others; to leave mankind uninstructed being looked upon as the high prerogative of learning. So far is it from being the habit with them to enter upon new fields of discovery, with the view of benefitting mankind at large, that for this long time past it has been the greatest effort of the ingenuity of each, to keep to himself the successful results of the experience of former ages, and so bury them for ever!

And yet, by Hercules! a single invention before now has elevated men to the rank of gods; and how many an individual has had his name immortalized in being bestowed upon some plant which he was the first to discover, thanks to the gratitude which prompted a succeeding age to make some adequate return! If it had been expended solely upon the plants which are grown to please the eye, or which invite us by their nutrimental properties, this laborious research on the part of the ancients would not have been so surprising; but in addition to this, we find them climbing by devious tracts to the very summit of mountains, penetrating to the very78 heart of wilds and deserts, and searching into every vein and fibre of the earth—and all this, to discover the hidden virtues of every root, the properties of the leaf of every plant, and the various purposes to which they might be applied; converting thereby those vegetable productions, which the very beasts of the field refuse to touch, into so many instruments for our welfare.

This subject has not been treated of by the writers in our own language so extensively as it deserves, eager as they have proved themselves to make enquiry into everything that is either meritorious or profitable. M. Cato, that great master in all useful knowledge, was the first, and, for a long time, the only author who treated of this branch510 of learning; and briefly as he has touched upon it, he has not omitted to make some mention of the remedial treatment of cattle. After him, another illustrious personage, C. Valgius,511 a man distinguished for his erudition, commenced a treatise upon the same subject, which he dedicated to the late Emperor Augustus, but left unfinished. At the beginning of his preface, replete as it is with a spirit of piety,512 he expresses a hope that the majestic sway of that prince may ever prove a most efficient remedy for all the evils to which mankind are exposed.

The only513 person among us, at least so far as I have been able to ascertain, who had treated of this subject before the time of Valgius, was Pompeius Lenæus,514 the freedman of Pompeius Magnus; and it was in his day, I find, that this branch of knowledge first began to be cultivated among us. Mithridates, the most powerful monarch of that period, and who was finally conquered by Pompeius, is generally thought to have been a79 more zealous promoter of discoveries for the benefit of mankind, than any of his predecessors—a fact evinced not only by many positive proofs, but by universal report as well. It was he who first thought, the proper precautions being duly taken, of drinking poison every day; it being his object, by becoming habituated to it, to neutralize its dangerous effects. This prince was the first discoverer too of the various kinds of antidotes, one515 of which, indeed, still retains his name; and it is generally supposed that he was the first to employ the blood of the ducks of Pontus as an ingredient in antidotes, from the circumstance that they derive their nutriment from poisons.516

It was to Mithridates that Asclepiades,517 that celebrated physician, dedicated his works, still extant, and sent them, as a substitute for his own personal attendance, when requested by that monarch to leave Rome and reside at his court. It is a well-known fact, that this prince was the only person that was ever able to converse in so many as two-and-twenty languages, and that, during the whole fifty-six years of his reign, he never required the services of an interpreter when conversing with any individuals of the numerous nations that were subject to his sway.

Among the other gifts of extraordinary genius with which he was endowed, Mithridates displayed a peculiar fondness for enquiries into the medical art; and gathering items of information from all his subjects, extended, as they were, over a large proportion of the world, it was his habit to make copies of their communications, and to take notes of the results which upon experiment had been produced. These memoranda, which he kept in his private cabinet,518 fell into the hands of Pompeius, when he took possession of the royal treasures; who at once commissioned his freedman, Lenæus the grammarian, to translate them into the Latin language: the result of which was, that his victory was equally conducive to the benefit of the republic and of mankind at large.

In addition to these, there are some Greek writers who have treated of this subject, and who have been already mentioned on the appropriate occasions. Among them, Crateuas, Dionysius, and Metrodorus, adopted a very attractive method of description, though one which has done little more than prove the remarkable difficulties which attended it. It was their plan to delineate the various plants in colours, and then to add in writing a description of the properties which they possessed. Pictures, however, are very apt to mislead, and more particularly where such a number of tints is required, for the imitation of nature with any success; in addition to which, the diversity of copyists from the original paintings, and their comparative degrees of skill, add very considerably to the chances of losing the necessary degree of resemblance to the originals. And then, besides, it is not sufficient to delineate a plant as it appears at one period only, as it presents a different appearance at each of the four seasons of the year.519

Hence it is that other writers have confined themselves to a verbal description of the plants; indeed some of them have not so much as described them even, but have contented themselves for the most part with a bare recital of their names, considering it sufficient if they pointed out their virtues and properties to such as might feel inclined to make further enquiries into the subject. Nor is this a kind of knowledge by any means difficult to obtain; at all events, so far as regards myself, with the exception of a very few, it has been my good fortune to examine them all, aided by the scientific researches of Antonius Castor,520 who in our time enjoyed the highest reputation for an intimate acquaintance with this branch of knowledge. I had the opportunity of visiting his garden, in which, though he had passed his hundredth year, he cultivated vast numbers of plants with the greatest care. Though he had reached this great age, he had never experienced81 any bodily ailment, and neither his memory nor his natural vigour had been the least impaired by the lapse of time.

There was nothing more highly admired than an intimate knowledge of plants, in ancient times. It is long since the means were discovered of calculating before-hand, not only the day or the night, but the very hour even at which an eclipse of the sun or moon is to take place; and yet the greater part of the lower classes still remain firmly persuaded that these phænomena are brought about by compulsion, through the agency of herbs and enchantments, and that the knowledge of this art is confined almost exclusively to females. What country, in fact, is not filled with the fabulous stories about Medea of Colchis and other sorceresses, the Italian Circe in particular, who has been elevated to the rank of a divinity even? It is with reference to her, I am of opinion, that Æschylus,521 one of the most ancient of the poets, asserts that Italy is covered with plants endowed with potent effects, and that many writers say the same of Circeii,522 the place of her abode. Another great proof too that such is the case, is the fact, that the nation of the Marsi,523 descendants of a son of Circe, are well known still to possess the art of taming serpents.

Homer, that great parent of the learning and traditions of antiquity, while extolling the fame of Circe in many other respects, assigns to Egypt the glory of having first discovered the properties of plants, and that too at a time when the portion of that country which is now watered by the river Nilus was not in existence, having been formed at a more recent period by the alluvion524 of that river. At all events, he states525 that numerous Egyptian plants were sent to the Helena of his story, by the wife of the king of that country, together with the celebrated nepenthes,526 which ensured oblivion of all sorrows and forgetfulness of the past, a potion which Helena was to administer to all mortals. The first person, however, of whom the remembrance has come down to us, as having82 treated with any degree of exactness on the subject of plants, is Orpheus; and next to him Musæus and Hesiod, of whose admiration of the plant called polium we have already made some mention on previous occasions.527 Orpheus and Hesiod too we find speaking in high terms of the efficacy of fumigations. Homer also speaks of several other plants by name, of which we shall have occasion to make further mention in their appropriate places.

In later times again, Pythagoras, that celebrated philosopher, was the first to write a treatise on the properties of plants, a work in which he attributes the origin and discovery of them to Apollo, Æsculapius, and the immortal gods in general. Democritus too, composed a similar work. Both of these philosophers had visited the magicians of Persia, Arabia, Æthiopia, and Egypt, and so astounded were the ancients at their recitals, as to learn to make assertions which transcend all belief. Xanthus, the author of some historical works, tells us, in the first of them, that a young dragon528 was restored to life by its parent through the agency of a plant to which he gives the name of “ballis,” and that one Tylon, who had been killed by a dragon, was restored to life and health by similar means. Juba too assures us that in Arabia a man was resuscitated by the agency of a certain plant. Democritus has asserted—and Theophrastus believes it—that there is a certain herb in existence, which, upon being carried thither by a bird, the name of which we have already529 given, has the effect, by the contact solely, of instantaneously drawing a wedge from a tree, when driven home by the shepherds into the wood.

These marvels, incredible as they are, excite our admiration nevertheless, and extort from us the admission that, making all due allowance, there is much in them that is based on truth. Hence it is too that I find it the opinion of most writers, that there is nothing which cannot be effected by the agency of plants, but that the properties of by far the greater part of them remain as yet unknown. In the number of these was Herophilus, a celebrated physician, a saying of whose is reported, to the effect that some plants may possibly exercise a beneficial influence, if only trodden under foot. Be this as it may, it has been remarked more than once, that wounds and83 maladies are sometimes inflamed530 upon the sudden approach of persons who have been journeying on foot.

Such was the state of medical knowledge in ancient times, wholly concealed as it was in the language of the Greeks. But the main reason why the medicinal properties of most plants remain still unknown, is the fact that they have been tested solely by rustics and illiterate people, such being the only class of persons that live in the midst of them: in addition to which, so vast is the multitude of medical men always at hand, that the public are careless of making any enquiries about them. Indeed, many of those plants, the medicinal properties of which have been discovered, are still destitute of names—such, for instance, as the one which we mentioned531 when speaking of the cultivation of grain, and which we know for certain will have the effect of keeping birds away from the crops, if buried at the four corners of the field.

But the most disgraceful cause of all, why so few simples are known, is the fact that those even who are acquainted with them are unwilling to impart their knowledge; as though, forsooth, they should lose for ever anything that they might think fit to communicate to others! Added to all this, there is no well-ascertained method to guide us to the acquisition of this kind of knowledge; for, as to the discoveries that have been made already, they have been due, some of them, to mere accident, and others again, to say the truth, to the interposition of the Deity.

Down to our own times, the bite of the mad dog, the symptoms of which are a dread of water and an aversion to every kind of beverage, was incurable;532 and it was only recently that84 the mother of a soldier who was serving in the prætorian guard, received a warning in a dream, to send her son the root of the wild rose, known as the cynorrhodos,533 a plant the beauty of which had attracted her attention in a shrubbery the day before, and to request him to drink the extract of it. The army was then serving in Lacetania, the part of Spain which lies nearest to Italy; and it so happened that the soldier, having been bitten by a dog, was just beginning to manifest a horror of water when his mother’s letter reached him, in which she entreated him to obey the words of this divine warning. He accordingly complied with her request, and, against all hope or expectation, his life was saved; a result534 which has been experienced by all who have since availed themselves of the same resource. Before this, the cynorrhodos had been only recommended by writers for one medicinal purpose; the spongy excrescences, they say, which grow535 in the midst of its thorns, reduced to ashes and mixed with honey, will make the hair grow again when it has been lost by alopecy. I know too, for a fact, that in the same province there was lately discovered in the land belonging to a person with whom I was staying, a stalked plant, the name given to which was dracunculus.536 This plant, about an inch in thickness, and spotted with various colours, like a viper’s skin, was generally reported to be an effectual preservative against the sting of all kinds of serpents. I should remark, however, that it is a different plant from the one of the same name of which mention has been made in the preceding Book,537 having altogether another shape and appearance. There is also another marvellous property belonging to it: in spring, when the serpents begin to cast their slough, it shoots up from the ground to the height of about a couple of feet, and again, when they retire for the winter it conceals itself within the earth, nor is there a serpent to be seen so long as it remains out of sight. Even if this plant did nothing else but warn us of impending danger, and tell us when to be on our guard, it could not be looked upon otherwise than as a beneficent provision made by Nature in our behalves.

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(3.) It is not, however, the animals only that are endowed with certain baneful and noxious properties, but, sometimes, waters538 even, and localities as well. Upon one occasion, in his German campaign, Germanicus Cæsar had pitched his camp beyond the river Rhenus; the only fresh water to be obtained being that of a single spring in the vicinity of the sea-shore. It was found, however, that within two years the habitual use of this water was productive of loss of the teeth and a total relaxation of the joints of the knees: the names given to these maladies, by medical men, were “stomacace”539 and “sceloturbe.” A remedy for them was discovered, however, in the plant known as the “britannica,”540 which is good, not only for diseases of the sinews and mouth, but for quinzy541 also, and injuries inflicted by serpents. This plant has dark oblong leaves and a swarthy root: the name given to the flower of it is “vibones,”542 and if it is gathered and eaten before thunder has been heard, it will ensure safety in every respect. The Frisii, a nation then on terms of friendship with us, and within whose territories the Roman army was encamped, pointed out this plant to our soldiers: the name543 given to it, however,86 rather surprises me, though possibly it may have been so called because the shores of Britannia are in the vicinity, and only separated by the ocean. At all events, it was not called by this name from the fact of its growing there in any great abundance, that is quite certain, for at the time I am speaking of, Britannia was still independent.544

In former times there was a sort of ambition, as it were, of adopting plants, by bestowing upon them one’s name, a thing that has been done before now by kings even, as we shall have occasion to show:545 so desirable a thing did it appear to have made the discovery of some plant, and thus far to have contributed to the benefit of mankind. At the present day, however, it is far from impossible that there may be some who will look upon these researches of ours as frivolous even, so distasteful to a life of ease and luxury are the very things which so greatly conduce to our welfare.

Still, however, it will be only right to mention in the first place those plants the discoverers of which are known, their various properties being classified546 according to the several maladies for the treatment of which they are respectively employed: in taking a review of which one cannot do otherwise than bewail the unhappy lot of mankind, subject as it is, in addition to chances and changes, and those new afflictions which every hour is bringing with it, to thousands of diseases which menace the existence of each mortal being. It would seem almost an act of folly to attempt to determine which of these diseases is attended with the most excruciating pain, seeing that every one is of opinion that the malady with which for the moment he himself is afflicted, is the most excruciating and insupportable. The general experience, however, of the present age has come to the conclusion, that the most agonizing torments are those attendant upon strangury, resulting from calculi in the bladder; next to them, those arising from maladies of the stomach; and in the third place, those caused by pains and affections of the head; for it is more generally in87 these cases, we find, and not in others, that patients are tempted to commit suicide.

For my own part, I am surprised that the Greek authors have gone so far as to give a description of noxious plants even; in using which term, I wish it to be understood that I do not mean the poisonous plants merely; for such is our tenure of life that death is often a port of refuge to even the best of men. We meet too, with one case of a somewhat similar nature, where M. Varro speaks of Servius Clodius,547 a member of the Equestrian order, being so dreadfully tormented with gout, that he had his legs rubbed all over with poisons, the result of which was, that from that time forward all sensation, equally with all pain, was deadened in those parts of his body. But what excuse, I say, can there be for making the world acquainted with plants, the only result of the use of which is to derange the intellect, to produce abortion, and to cause numerous other effects equally pernicious? So far as I am concerned, I shall describe neither abortives nor philtres, bearing in mind, as I do, that Lucullus, that most celebrated general, died of the effects of a philtre.548 Nor shall I speak of other ill-omened devices of magic, unless it be to give warning against them, or to expose them, for I most emphatically condemn all faith and belief in them. It will suffice for me, and I shall have abundantly done my duty, if I point out those plants which were made for the benefit of mankind, and the properties of which have been discovered in the lapse of time.

According to Homer,549 the most celebrated of all plants is that, which, according to him, is known as moly550 among the88 gods. The discovery of it he attributes to Mercury, who was also the first to point out its uses as neutralizing the most potent spells of sorcery. At the present day, it is said, it grows in the vicinity of Lake Pheneus, and in Cyllene; a district of Arcadia. It answers the description given of it by Homer, having a round black root, about as large as an onion, and a leaf like that of the squill: there is no551 difficulty experienced in taking it up. The Greek writers have delineated552 it as having a yellow flower, while Homer,553 on the other hand, has spoken of it as white. I once met with a physician, a person extremely well acquainted with plants, who assured me that it is found growing in Italy as well, and that he would send me in a few days a specimen which had been dug up in Campania, with the greatest difficulty, from a rocky soil. The root of it was thirty554 feet in length, and even then it was not entire, having been broken in the getting up.

The plant next in esteem to moly, is that called dodecatheos,555 it being looked upon as under the especial tutelage of all the superior gods.556 Taken in water, it is a cure, they say, for maladies of every kind. The leaves of it, seven in number, and very similar to those of the lettuce, spring from a yellow root.

The plant known as “pæonia”557 is the most ancient of them all. It still retains the name558 of him who was the first to89 discover it, being known also as the “pentorobus”559 by some, and the “glycyside”560 by others; indeed, this is one of the great difficulties attendant on forming an accurate knowledge of plants, that the same object has different names in different districts. It grows in umbrageous mountain localities, and puts forth a stem amid the leaves, some four fingers in height, at the summit of which are four or five heads resembling Greek nuts561 in appearance; enclosed in which, there is a considerable quantity of seed of a red or black colour. This plant is a preservative against the illusions562 practised by the Fauni in sleep. It is generally recommended to take it up at night; for if the wood-pecker563 of Mars should perceive a person doing so, it will immediately attack his eyes in defence of the plant.

The panaces, by its very name,564 gives assurance of a remedy for all diseases: there are numerous kinds of it, and the discovery of its properties has been attributed to the gods. One of these kinds is known by the additional name of “asclepion,”565 in commemoration of the circumstance that Æsculapius gave the name of Panacia566 to his daughter. The juice of it, as we have had occasion to remark already,567 coagulates like that of fennel-giant; the root is covered with a thick rind of a salt flavour.

After this plant has been taken up, it is a point religiously observed to fill the hole with various kinds of grain, a sort of expiation, as it were, to the earth. We have already568 stated, when speaking of the exotic productions, where and in what manner this juice is prepared, and what kind is the most esteemed. That which is imported from Macedonia is known as “bucolicon,” from the fact that the neatherds there are in the habit of collecting it as it spontaneously exudes: it evaporates, however, with the greatest rapidity. As to the90 other kinds, that more particularly is held in disesteem which is black and soft, such being a proof, in fact, that it has been adulterated with wax.

A second kind of panaces is known by the name of “heracleon,”569 from the fact that it was first discovered by Hercules. Some persons, however, call it “Heracleotic origanum,” or wild origanum, from its strong resemblance to the origanum of which we have already570 spoken: the root of it is good for nothing.

A third kind of panaces is surnamed “chironion,” from him571 who first discovered it. The leaf is similar to that of lapathum, except that it is larger and more hairy; the flower is of a golden colour, and the root diminutive. It grows in rich, unctuous soils. The flower of this plant is extremely efficacious; hence it is that it is more generally used than the kinds previously mentioned.

A fourth kind of panaces, discovered also by Chiron, is known by the additional name of “centaurion:”572 it is also called “pharnacion,” from King Pharnaces, it being a matter in dispute whether it was really discovered by Chiron or by that prince. It is grown from seed,573 and the leaves of it are longer than those of the other kinds, and serrated at the edge. The root, which is odoriferous, is dried in the shade, and is used for imparting an aroma to wine. Some writers distinguish91 two varieties of this plant—the one with a smooth leaf, the other of a more delicate form.

The heracleon siderion574 is also another discovery of Hercules. The stem is thin, about four fingers in length, the flower red, and the leaves like those of coriander. It is found growing in the vicinity of lakes and rivers, and is extremely efficacious for the cure of all wounds made by iron.575

The ampelos Chironia576 also, which we have already577 mentioned when speaking of the vines, is a discovery due to Chiron. We have spoken too, on a previous occasion,578 of a plant, the discovery of which is attributed to Minerva.

To Hercules also is attributed the discovery of the plant known as the “apollinaris,” and, among the Arabians, as the “altercum” or “altercangenum:” by the Greeks it is called “hyoscyamos.”579 There are several varieties of it; one of them,580 with a black seed, flowers bordering on purple, and a prickly stem, growing in Galatia. The common kind581 again, is whiter, more shrublike, and taller than the poppy. The seed of a third variety is similar to that of irio582 in appearance; but they have, all of them, the effect of producing vertigo and insanity. A fourth583 kind again is soft, lanuginous, and more unctuous than the others; the seed of it is white, and it grows in maritime localities. It is this kind that medical men92 employ, as also that with a red seed.584 Sometimes, however, the white seed turns of a reddish colour, if not sufficiently ripe when gathered; in which case it is rejected as unfit for use: indeed, none of these plants are gathered until they are perfectly dry. Hyoscyamos, like wine, has the property of flying to the head, and consequently of acting injuriously upon the mental faculties.

The seed is either used in its natural state, or else the juice of it is extracted: the juice also of the stem and leaves is sometimes extracted, separately from the seed. The root is sometimes made use of; but the employment of this plant in any way for medical purposes is, in my opinion, highly dangerous. For it is a fact well ascertained, that the leaves even will exercise a deleterious effect upon the mind, if more than four are taken at a time; though the ancients were of opinion that the leaves act as a febrifuge, taken in wine. From the seed, as already585 stated, an oil is extracted, which, injected into the ears, deranges the intellect. It is a singular thing, but we find remedies mentioned for those who have taken this juice, as though for a poison, while at the same time we find it prescribed as a potion among the various remedies. In this way it is that experiments are multiplied without end, even to forcing the very poisons themselves to act as antidotes.

Linozostis586 or parthenion is a discovery attributed to Mercury: hence it is that among the Greeks it is known as “hermupoa”587 by many, while among us it is universally known as “mercurialis.” There are two varieties of this plant, the male and the female, the last possessing more decided properties than the other, and having a stem a cubit in height, and sometimes branchy at the summit, with leaves somewhat narrower than those of ocimum. The joints of the stem lie close together, and the axils are numerous: the seed hangs downwards, having the joints for its basis. In the93 female plant the seed is very abundant, but in the male588 it is less so, lies closer to the joints, and is short and wreathed. In the female plant the seed hangs more loosely, and is of a white colour. The leaves of the male plant are swarthy, while those of the female are whiter: the root, which is made no use of, is very diminutive.

Both of these plants grow in cultivated champaign localities. A marvellous property is mentioned as belonging to them: the male plant, they say,589 ensures the conception of male children, the female plant of females; a result which is ensured by drinking the juice in raisin wine, the moment after conception, or by eating the leaves, boiled with oil and salt, or raw with vinegar. Some persons, again, boil the plant in a new earthen vessel with heliotropium and two or three ears of corn, till it is thoroughly done; and say that the decoction should be taken in drink by the female, and the plant eaten for three days successively, the regimen being commenced the second day of menstruation. This done, on the fourth day she must take a bath, immediately after which the sexual congress must take place.

Hippocrates590 has lavished marvellous encomiums upon these plants for the maladies of females, while at the present day no physician recognizes their utility for such purpose. It was his practice to employ them for affections of the uterus, in the form of a pessary, in combination with honey, rose-oil, oil of iris, or oil of lilies. He employed them also as an emmenagogue, and for the purpose of bringing away the after-birth; effects which are equally produced, according to him, by taking them in drink, or using them in the form of a fomentation. It was his practice also, to inject the juice of these plants in cases of fetid odours of the ears, and then to wash the ear with old wine. The leaves also were used by him as a cataplasm for the abdomen, defluxions of the eyes, strangury, and affections of the bladder; a decoction too, of the plants is prescribed by him, with frankincense and myrrh.

For the purpose of relaxing591 the bowels, or in cases of fever,94 a handful of this plant is boiled down to one half, in two sextarii of water, the decoction being taken with salt and honey: if a pig’s foot or a cock is boiled with it, it will be all the more beneficial. Some persons have been of opinion, that as a purgative the two kinds of mercurialis ought to be used together, or else that a decoction should be made of the plant in combination with mallows. These plants act as a detergent upon the chest, and carry off the bilious secretions, but they are apt to be injurious to the stomach. We shall have to speak further of their properties on the appropriate occasions.592

Achilles too, the pupil of Chiron, discovered a plant which heals wounds, and which, as being his discovery, is known as the “achilleos.” It was by the aid of this plant, they say, that he cured Telephus. Other authorities, however, assert that he was the first593 to discover that verdigris594 is an extremely useful ingredient in plasters; and hence it is that he is sometimes represented in pictures as scraping with his sword the rust from off a spear595 into the wound of Telephus. Some again, are of opinion that he made use of both remedies.

By some persons this plant is called “panaces heracleon,” by others, “sideritis,”596 and by the people of our country, “millefolium:”597 the stalk of it, they say, is a cubit in length, branchy, and covered from the bottom with leaves somewhat smaller than those of fennel. Other authorities, however, while admitting that this last plant is good for wounds, affirm that the genuine achilleos has a bluish stem a foot in length,95 destitute of branches, and elegantly clothed all over with isolated leaves of a round form. Others again, maintain that it has a squared stem, that the heads of it are small and like those of horehound,598 and that the leaves are similar to those of the quercus—they say too, that this last has the property of uniting the sinews when cut asunder. Another statement is, that the sideritis599 is a plant that grows on garden walls, and that it emits, when bruised, a fetid smell; that there is also another plant, very similar to it, but with a whiter and more unctuous leaf, a more delicate stem, and mostly found growing in vineyards.

They speak also of another600 sideritis, with a stem two cubits in length, and diminutive branches of a triangular shape: the leaf, they say, resembles that of fern, and has a long footstalk, the seed being similar to that of beet. All these plants, it is said, are remarkably good for the treatment of wounds. The one with the largest leaf is known among us by the name of “scopæ regiæ,”601 and is used for the cure of quinzy in swine.

At the same period also, Teucer discovered the teucrion, a plant known to some as the “hemionion.”602 It throws out thin rush-like stems, with diminutive leaves, and grows in rugged, uncultivated spots: the taste of it is rough, and it never blossoms or produces seed. It is used for the cure of affections of the spleen,603 and it is generally understood that its properties were discovered in the following manner:—The entrails of a victim having been placed upon this plant, it attached itself to the milt, and entirely consumed it;604 a96 property to which it is indebted for the name of “splenion,” given to it by some. It is said too, that swine which have fed upon the root of this plant are found to have no milt.

Some authors give this name also to a ligneous plant,605 with branches like those of hyssop, and a leaf resembling that of the bean; they say too, that it should be gathered while in blossom, from which we may conclude that they entertain no doubt that it does blossom. That which grows on the mountains of Cilicia and Pisidia is more particularly praised by them.

The repute of Melampus, as being highly skilled in the arts of divination, is universally known. This personage has given a name to one species of hellebore, known as the “melampodion.” Some persons, however, attribute the discovery of this plant to a shepherd of that name, who remarked that his she-goats were violently purged after browsing upon it, and afterwards cured the daughters of Prœtus of madness, by giving them the milk of these goats. It will be the best plan, therefore, to take this opportunity of treating of the several varieties of hellebore. The two principal kinds are the white606 and the black;607 though, according to most authorities, this difference exists in the root only. There are some authors, however, who assure us that the leaves of the black hellebore are similar to those of the plane-tree, only darker, more diminutive, and more jagged at the edges: and who say, that the white hellebore has leaves like those of beet when first shooting, though at the same time of a more swarthy colour, with reddish veins on the under side. The stem, in both kinds, is ferulaceous, a palm608 in height, and covered with coats like those of the bulbs, the root, too, being fibrous like that of the onion.609

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The black hellebore kills horses, oxen, and swine; hence it is that those animals avoid it, while they eat the white610 kind. The proper time, they say, for gathering this last, is harvest. It grows upon Mount Œta in great abundance; and the best of all is that found upon one spot on that mountain, in the vicinity of Pyra. The black hellebore is found growing everywhere, but the best is that of Mount Helicon; which is also equally celebrated for the qualities of its other plants. The white hellebore of Mount Œta is the most highly esteemed, that of Pontus occupying the second place, and the produce of Elea the third; which last, it is generally said, grows in the vineyards there. The fourth rank is held by the white hellebore of Mount Parnassus, though it is often, adulterated with that of the neighbouring districts of Ætolia.

Of these kinds it is the black hellebore that is known as the “melampodium:” it is used in fumigations, and for the purpose of purifying houses; cattle, too, are sprinkled with it, a certain form of prayer being repeated. This last plant, too, is gathered with more numerous ceremonies than the other: a circle is first traced around it with a sword, after which, the person about to cut it turns towards the East, and offers up a prayer, entreating permission of the gods to do so. At the same time he observes whether an eagle is in sight—for mostly while the plant is being gathered that bird is near at hand—and if one should chance to fly close at hand, it is looked upon as a presage that he will die within the year. The white hellebore, too, is gathered not without difficulty, as it is very oppressive to the head; more particularly if the precaution has not been used of eating garlic first, and of drinking wine every now and then, care being taken to dig up the plant as speedily as possible.

Some persons call the black hellebore “ectomon,”611 and others “polyrrhizon:” it purges612 by stool, while the white hellebore acts as an emetic, and so carries off what might otherwise have given rise to disease. In former days hellebore was regarded with horror, but more recently the use613 of it has become so familiar, that numbers of studious men are in the98 habit of taking it for the purpose of sharpening the intellectual powers required by their literary investigations. Carneades, for instance, made use of hellebore when about to answer the treatises of Zeno; Drusus614 too, among us, the most famous of all the tribunes of the people, and whom in particular the public, rising from their seats, greeted with loud applause—to whom also the patricians imputed the Marsic war—is well known to have been cured of epilepsy in the island of Anticyra;615 a place at which it is taken with more safety than elsewhere, from the fact of sesamoïdes being combined with it, as already616 stated. In Italy the name given to it is “veratrum.”

These kinds of hellebore, reduced to powder and taken alone, or else in combination with radicula, a plant used, as already mentioned,617 for washing wool, act as a sternutatory, and are both of them productive of narcotic effects. The thinnest and shortest roots are selected, and among them the lower parts in particular, which have all the appearance of having been cut short;618 for, as to the upper part, which is the thickest, and bears a resemblance to an onion, it is given to dogs only, as a purgative. The ancients used to select those roots the rind of which was the most fleshy, from an idea that the pith extracted therefrom was of a more refined619 nature. This substance they covered with wet sponges, and, when it began to swell, used to split it longitudinally with a needle; which done, the filaments were dried in the shade, for future use. At the present day, however, the fibres620 of the root with the thickest rind are selected, and given to the patient just as they are. The best hellebore is that which has an acrid, burning taste, and when broken, emits a sort of dust. It retains its efficacy, they say, so long as thirty years.

Black hellebore is administered for the cure of paralysis, insanity, dropsy—provided there is no fever—chronic gout, and diseases of the joints: it has the effect too, of carrying99 off the bilious secretions and morbid humours by stool. It is given also in water as a gentle aperient, the proportion being one drachma at the very utmost, and four oboli for a moderate dose. Some authorities have recommended mixing scammony with it, but salt is looked upon as more safe. If given in any considerable quantity in combination with a sweet substance, it is highly dangerous: used in the form of a fomentation, it disperses films upon the eyes; and hence it is that some medical men have pounded it and used it for an eye-salve. It ripens and acts detergently upon scrofulous sores, suppurations, and indurated tumours, as also upon fistulas, but in this latter case it must be removed at the end of a couple of days. In combination with copper filings621 and sandarach, it removes warts; and it is applied to the abdominal regions, with barley-meal and wine, in cases of dropsy.

This plant is employed for the cure of pituitous defluxions in cattle and beasts of burden, a slip of it being passed622 through the ear, and removed at the same hour on the following day. With frankincense also, wax, and pitch, or else pisselæon,623 it is used for the cure of itch in quadrupeds.

The best white hellebore is that which acts most speedily as a sternutatory; but it would seem to be a much more formidable624 plant than the black kind; more particularly if we read in the ancient authors the precautions used by those about to take it, against cold shiverings, suffocation, unnatural drowsiness, continuous hiccup or sneezing, derangements of the stomach, and vomitings, either retarded or prolonged, too sparing or in excess. Indeed, it was generally the practice to administer other substances to promote vomiting, and to carry off the hellebore by the aid of purgatives or clysters, while bleeding even was frequently had recourse to. In addition to all this, however successful the results may prove, the symptoms by which it is attended are really most alarming, by reason of100 the various colours which the matter vomited presents: besides which, after the vomiting has subsided, the physician has to pay the greatest attention to the nature of the alvine evacuations, the due and proper use of the bath, and the general regimen adopted by the patient; all of them inconveniences in themselves, and preceded by the terrors naturally inspired by the character of the drug; for one story is, that it has the property of consuming flesh, if boiled with it.

The great error,625 however, on the part of the ancients was, that in consequence of these fears, they used to give it too sparingly, the fact being, that the larger the dose, the more speedily it passes through the body. Themison used to give no more than two drachmæ, but at a later period as much as four drachmæ was administered; in conformity with the celebrated eulogium passed upon it by Herophilus,626 who was in the habit of comparing hellebore to a valiant general, and saying, that after it has set in motion all within, it is the first to sally forth and show the way. In addition to these particulars, there has been a singular discovery made: the hellebore which, as we have already stated, has been cut with a small pair of scissors,627 is passed through a sieve, upon which the pith makes its way through, while the outer coat remains behind. The latter acts as a purgative, while the former is used for the purpose of arresting vomiting when that evacuation is in excess.

In order to secure a beneficial result, due precautions must be taken not to administer hellebore in cloudy weather; for if given at such a time, it is sure to be productive of excruciating agonies. Indeed there is no doubt that summer is a better time for giving it than winter: the body too, by an abstinence from wine, must be prepared for it seven days previously, emetics being taken on the fourth and third days before, and101 the patient going without his evening meal the previous day. White hellebore, too, is administered in a sweet628 medium, though lentils or pottage are found to be the best for the purpose. There has been a plan also, lately discovered, of splitting a radish, and inserting the hellebore in it, after which the sections are pressed together; the object being that the strength of the hellebore may be incorporated with the radish, and modified thereby.

At the end of about four hours it generally begins to be brought up again; and within seven it has operated to the full extent. Administered in this manner, it is good for epilepsy, as already629 stated, vertigo, melancholy, insanity, delirium, white elephantiasis, leprosy, tetanus, palsy, gout, dropsy, incipient tympanitis, stomachic affections, cynic spasms,630 sciatica, quartan fevers which defy all other treatment, chronic coughs, flatulency, and recurrent gripings in the bowels.

It is universally recommended not to give hellebore to aged people or children, to persons of a soft and effeminate habit of body or mind, or of a delicate or tender constitution. It is given less frequently too to females than to males; and persons of a timorous disposition are recommended not to take it: the same also, in cases where the viscera are ulcerated or tumefied, and more particularly when the patient is afflicted with spitting of blood, or with maladies of the side or fauces. Hellebore is applied, too, externally, with salted axle-grease, to morbid eruptions of the body and suppurations of long standing: mixed with polenta, it destroys rats and mice. The people of Gaul, when hunting, tip their arrows with hellebore, taking care to cut away the parts about the wound in the animal so slain: the flesh, they say, is all the more tender for it. Flies are destroyed with white hellebore, bruised and sprinkled about a place with milk: phthiriasis is also cured by the use of this mixture.

Crateuas ascribes the discovery of one plant to Mithridates himself, the name of which is “mithridatia.”631 Near the root it has two leaves resembling those of the acanthus, between which it puts forth a stem supporting a flower at the extremity, like a rose.

Lenæus attributes to Mithridates the discovery of another plant, the scordotis632 or scordion, which has been described, he tells us, by the hand even of that prince. This plant, he says, is a cubit in height, and has a square stem, branchy, covered with downy leaves, and resembling the quercus633 in appearance: it is found growing in Pontus, in rich, humid soils, and has a bitter taste.

There is another634 variety also of this plant, with a larger leaf, and resembling wild mint in appearance. They are both of them used for numerous purposes, both individually and in combination with other ingredients, as antidotes.

The polemonia635 is known as the “philetæria” by some, in consequence of the contest which has arisen between certain kings for the honour of its discovery. The people of Cappadocia also give it the name of “chiliodynamus.”636 The root of it is substantial, and it has slender branches, with umbels103 hanging from the extremities, and a black seed. In other respects, it bears a resemblance to rue, and is found growing in mountainous localities.

The eupatoria637 also is a plant under royal patronage. The stem of it is ligneous, hairy, and swarthy, and a cubit or more in length. The leaves, arranged at regular intervals, resemble those of cinquefoil or hemp; they have five indentations at the edge, and are swarthy like the stem, and downy. The root is never used. The seed, taken in wine, is a sovereign remedy for dysentery.

Centaury,638 it is said, effected a cure for Chiron, on the occasion when, while handling the arms of Hercules, his guest, he let one of the arrows fall upon his foot: hence it is that by some it is called “chironion.” The leaves of it are large and oblong, serrated at the edge, and growing in thick tufts from the root upwards. The stems, some three cubits in height and jointed, bear heads resembling those of the poppy. The root is large and spreading, of a reddish colour, tender and brittle, a couple of cubits in length, and full of a bitter juice, somewhat inclining to sweet.

This plant grows in rich soils upon declivities; the best in quality being that of Arcadia, Elis, Messenia, Mount Pholoë, and Mount Lycæus: it grows also upon the Alps, and in numerous other localities, and in Lycia they prepare a lycium639 from it. So remarkable are its properties for closing wounds, that pieces of meat even, it is said, are soldered together, when boiled with it. The root is the only part in use, being administered in doses of two drachmæ in the several cases hereafter640 mentioned.104 If, however, the patient is suffering from fever, it should be bruised and taken in water, wine being used in other cases. A decoction of the root is equally useful for all the same purposes.

There is another centaury also, with diminutive leaves, known by the additional name of “lepton.”641 By some persons it is called “libadion,”642 from the circumstance that it grows upon the borders of fountains. It is similar to origanum in appearance, except that the leaves are narrower and longer. The stem is angular, branchy, and a palm in height; the flower is like that of the lychnis,643 and the root is thin, and never used. It is in the juice that its medicinal properties are centred: it being gathered in the autumn, and the juice extracted from the leaves. Some persons cut up the stalks, and steep them for some eighteen days in water, and then extract the juice.

In Italy this kind of centaury is known as “gall644 of the earth,” from its extreme bitterness. The Gauls give it the name of “exacum;”645 from the circumstance that, taken in drink, it purges off all noxious substances by alvine evacuation.

There is a third kind of centaury also, known as the “centauris triorchis.”646 It is but rarely that a person cuts it without wounding himself. The juice emitted is just the colour of blood.647 Theophrastus relates that this plant is under105 the protection of the triorchis, a kind of hawk, which attacks those who gather it; a circumstance to which it owes its name. Ignorant648 persons are in the habit of confounding all these characteristics, and attributing them to the centaury first named.

Clymenus is a plant so called, after a certain king.649 It has leaves like those of ivy, numerous branches, and a hollow, jointed stem. The smell of it is powerful, and the seed like that of ivy: it grows in wild and mountainous localities. We shall have to state hereafter, of what maladies it is curative, taken in drink, but it is as well to take the present opportunity of remarking that, while effecting a cure, in the male sex it neutralizes the generative powers.

The Greeks speak650 of this plant as being similar to the plantago in appearance, with a square stem, and a seed in capsules, interlaced like the arms of the polypus. The juice of this plant, too, is used, being possessed of refreshing properties in a very high degree.

Gentian651 was first discovered by Gentius, king of Illyria. It is a plant to be found everywhere,652 but that of Illyria is the finest. It has a leaf like that of the ash,653 but equal in size to a lettuce-leaf: the stem is tender, about the thickness of the thumb, hollow and empty, and covered with leaves at regular intervals. This stem is sometimes three cubits in length, and the root is flexible, swarthy,654 and inodorous. It is found in the greatest abundance in humid localities at the foot of the Alps. The root and juice are the parts of it that are used: the root is possessed of certain warming properties,106 but it should never be taken by women in a state of pregnancy.

King Lysimachus655 first discovered the plant which from him has received the name of lysimachia, and the merits of which have been so highly extolled by Erasistratus. This plant has green leaves resembling those of the willow, and a purple656 blossom: it has all the appearance of a shrub, the branches are erect, and it has a pungent smell. It is found growing in watery soils. The properties of it are so extremely powerful, that if placed upon the yoke when beasts of burden are restive, it will be sure to overcome all stubbornness on their part.657

Women too have even affected an ambition to give their name to plants: thus, for instance, Artemisia, the wife of King Mausolus, adopted the plant, which before was known by the name of “parthenis.” There are some persons, however, who are of opinion that it received this surname from the goddess Artemis Ilithyia,658 from the fact of its being used for the cure of female complaints more particularly. It is a plant with numerous branches, like those of wormwood, but the leaves of it are larger and substantial.

There are two varieties of it; one has broader659 leaves than the other,660 which last is of a slender form, with a more diminutive leaf, and grows nowhere but in maritime districts.

107

Some persons again, give this name to a plant661 which grows more inland, with a single stem, extremely diminutive leaves, and numerous blossoms which open at the ripening of the grape, and the odour of which is far from unpleasant. In addition to this name, this last plant is known as “botrys” to some persons, and “ambrosia” to others:662 it grows in Cappadocia.

The plant called “nymphæa,” owes its name, they say, to a Nymph who died of jealousy conceived on account of Hercules, for which reason it is also known as “heracleon” by some. By other persons, again, it is called “rhopalon,” from the resemblance of its root to a club.663 * * * * and hence it is that those who take it in drink become impotent for some twelve days, and incapacitated for procreation. That of the first quality is found in Orchomenia and at Marathon: the people of Bœotia call it “madon,” and use the seed for food. It grows in spots covered with water; the leaves664 of it are large, and float upon the surface, while others are to be seen springing from the roots below. The flower is very similar to a lily in appearance, and after the plant has shed its blossom, the place of the flower is occupied by a head like that of the poppy. The stem is slender, and the plant is usually cut in autumn. The root, of a swarthy hue, is dried in the sun; garlic665 manifests a peculiar antipathy to it.

There is another666 nymphæa also, which grows in the river Peneus, in Thessaly: the root of it is white, and the head yellow, about the size of a rose.

In the time, too, of our fathers, King Juba discovered667 a108 plant, to which he gave the name of “euphorbia,” in honour of his physician, Euphorbus, the brother of the same Musa, whom we have mentioned668 as having saved the life of the late Emperor Augustus. It was these brothers who introduced the practice of douching the body with large quantities of cold water, immediately after the bath, for the purpose of bracing the system: whereas in former times, as we find stated in the works of Homer669 even, it was the practice to wash the body with warm water only. With reference to euphorbia,670 there is a treatise still in existence, written upon it by King Juba, in which he highly extols its merits; he discovered it growing upon Mount Atlas, and describes it as resembling a thyrsus in appearance, and bearing leaves like those of the acanthus.671

The properties of this plant are so remarkably powerful,672 that the persons engaged in collecting the juices of it are obliged to stand at a considerable distance. The incisions are made with a long pole shod with iron, the juice flowing into receivers of kid-leather placed beneath. The juice has all the appearance of milk, as it exudes, but when it has coagulated and dried, it assumes the form and consistency of frankincense. The persons engaged in collecting it, find their sight improved673 thereby. This juice is an excellent remedy for the stings of serpents: in whatever part of the body the wound may have been inflicted, the practice is to make an incision in the crown of the head, and there introduce the medicament. The Gætuli who collect it, are in the habit of adulterating it with warm milk;674 a fraud, however, easily to be detected by the agency of fire, that which is not genuine emitting a most disgusting smell.

Much inferior to this is the juice extracted, in Gaul,675 from the chamelæa,676 a plant which bears the grain of Cnidos. When broken asunder, it resembles hammoniacum677 in appearance; and however slightly tasted, it leaves a burning sensation in109 the mouth, which lasts a considerable time, and increases every now and then, until, in fact, it has quite parched the fauces.

The physician Themiso, too, has conferred some celebrity upon the plantago, otherwise a very common plant; indeed he has written a treatise upon it, as though he had been the first to discover it. There are two varieties; one, more diminutive678 than the other, has a narrower and more swarthy leaf, strongly resembling a sheep’s tongue in appearance: the stem of it is angular and bends downwards, and it is generally found growing in meadow lands. The larger679 kind has leaves enclosed with ribs at the sides, to all appearance, from the fact of which being seven680 in number, the plant has been called “heptapleuron”681 by some. The stem of it is a cubit in height, and strongly resembles that of the turnip. That which is grown in a moist soil is considered much the most efficacious: it is possessed of marvellous virtues as a desiccative and as an astringent, and has all the effect of a cautery. There is nothing that so effectually arrests the fluxes known by the Greeks as “rheumatismi.”

To an account of the plantago may be annexed that of the buglossos, the leaf of which resembles an ox tongue.682 The main peculiarity of this plant is, that if put into wine, it promotes683 mirth and hilarity, whence it has obtained the additional name of “euphrosynum.”684

To this plant we may also annex an account of the cynoglossos,685 the leaf of which resembles a dog’s tongue, and which produces so pleasing an effect686 in ornamental gardening. The root, it is said, of the kind which bears three687 stems surmounted with seed, is very useful, taken in water, for tertian, and of that with four stems, for quartan, fevers.

There is another plant688 very similar to it, which bears diminutive burrs resembling those of the lappa:689 the root of it, taken in water, is curative of wounds inflicted by frogs690 or serpents.

There is the buphthalmos691 also, so called from its resemblance to an ox’s eye, and with a leaf like that of fennel. It grows in the vicinity of towns, and is a branchy plant, with numerous stems, which are boiled and eaten. Some persons give it the name of “cachla.” In combination with wax, it disperses scirrhi.692

Entire nations, too, have been the discoverers of certain plants. The Scythæ were the first to discover the plant known as “scythice,”693 which grows in the vicinity of the Palus694111 Mæotis. Among its other properties, this plant is remarkably sweet, and extremely useful for the affection known as “asthma.” It is also possessed of another great recommendation—so long as a person keeps it in his month, he will never695 experience hunger or thirst.

The hippace,696 another plant that grows in Scythia, is possessed of similar properties: it owes697 its name to the circumstance that it produces the like effect upon horses. By the aid of these two plants, the Scythæ, they say, are enabled to endure hunger and thirst, so long as twelve days even.

The Thracians were the first to discover the ischæmon,698 which, it is said, has the property of stanching the flow of blood, not only when a vein has been opened, but when it has been cut asunder even. This is a creeping plant; it is like millet in appearance, and the leaves of it are rough and lanuginous. It is used as a plug699 for the nostrils. The kind that grows in Italy, attached to the body as an amulet, has the property of arresting hæmorrhage.

The Vettones, a people of Spain, were the original discoverers of the plant known as the “vettonica”700 in Gaul, the “serratula”701 in Italy, and the “cestros” or “psychotrophon”702 in112 Greece. This is a plant more highly esteemed than any other: it puts forth an angular stem two cubits in height, and throws out leaves from the root, with serrated edges, and closely resembling those of lapathum.703 The seed of it is purple: the leaves are dried and powdered, and used for numerous purposes. There is a wine also prepared from it, and a vinegar, remarkably beneficial to the stomach and the eyesight. Indeed, this plant enjoys so extraordinary a reputation, that it is a common belief even that the house which contains it is insured against misfortunes of every kind.

In Spain, too, is found the cantabrica,704 which was first discovered by the nation of the Cantabri in the time of the late Emperor Augustus. It grows everywhere in those parts, having a stem like that of the bulrush, a foot in height, and bearing small oblong flowers, like a calathus705 in shape, and enclosing an extremely diminutive seed.

Nor indeed, in other respects, have the people of Spain been wanting in their researches into the nature of plants; for at the present day even it is the custom in that country, at their more jovial entertainments, to use a drink called the hundred-plant drink, combined with a proportion of honied wine; it being their belief, that the wine is rendered more wholesome and agreeable by the admixture of these plants. It still remains unknown to us, what these different plants are, or in what number exactly they are used: as to this last question, however, we may form some conclusion from the name that is given to the beverage.

Our own age, too, can remember the fact of a plant being discovered in the country of the Marsi. It is found growing also in the neighbourhood of the village of Nervesia, in the territory of the Æquicoli, and is known by the name of113 “consiligo.”706 It is very useful, as we shall have occasion to mention707 in the appropriate place, in cases of phthisis where recovery is considered more than doubtful.

It is but very lately, too, that Servilius Democrates, one of our most eminent physicians, first called attention to a plant to which he gave the name of iberis,708 a fanciful appellation709 only, bestowed by him upon this discovery of his in the verses by him devoted710 to it. This plant is found mostly growing in the vicinity of ancient monuments, old walls, and overgrown footpaths: it is an evergreen, and its leaves are like those of nasturtium, with a stem a cubit in height, and a seed so diminutive as to be hardly perceptible; the root, too, has just the smell of nasturtium. Its properties are more strongly developed in summer, and it is only used fresh-gathered: there is considerable difficulty in pounding it.

Mixed with a small proportion of axle-grease, it is extremely useful for sciatica and all diseases of the joints; the application being kept on some four hours at the utmost, when used by the male sex, and about half that time in the case of females. Immediately after its removal, the patient must take a warm bath, and then anoint the body all over with oil and wine—the same operation being repeated every twenty days, so long as there are any symptoms of pain remaining. A similar method is adopted for the cure of all internal defluxions; it114 is never applied, however, so long as the inflammation is at its height, but only when it has somewhat abated.

The brute animals also have been the discoverers of certain plants: among them, we will name chelidonia first of all. It is by the aid of this plant that the swallow restores the sight of the young birds in the nest, and even, as some persons will have it, when the eyes have been plucked out. There are two varieties of this plant; the larger711 kind has a branchy stem, and a leaf somewhat similar to that of the wild parsnip,712 but larger. The plant itself is some two cubits in height, and of a whitish colour, that of the flower being yellow. The smaller713 kind has leaves like those of ivy, only rounder and not so white. The juice of it is pungent, and resembles saffron in colour, and the seed is similar to that of the poppy.

These plants blossom,714 both of them, at the arrival of the swallow, and wither at the time of its departure. The juice is extracted while they are in flower, and is boiled gently in a copper vessel on hot ashes, with Attic honey, being esteemed a sovereign remedy for films upon the eyes. This juice is employed also, unmixed with any other substance, for the eyesalves,715 which from it take their name of “chelidonia.”

Dogs, too, are in the habit of seeking a certain plant,716 as a stimulant to the appetite; but although they eat it in our presence, it has never yet been discovered what it is, it being quite impossible to recognize it when seen half-chewed. There has also been remarked another bit of spitefulness in this animal, though in a much greater degree, in reference to115 another plant. When stung by a serpent, it cures itself, they say, by eating a certain herb, taking care, however, never to gather it in presence of man.

The hind, with a much greater degree of frankness, has discovered to us the elaphoboscon, a plant of which we have already717 spoken, and which is also called “helxine,”718 from the assistance it affords those animals in yeaning.

It is the hind, too, that, as already719 stated, first made us acquainted with dictamnon,720 or dittany; for when wounded, it eats some of this plant, and the weapon immediately falls from the body. This plant grows nowhere721 but in Crete. The branches of it are remarkably thin; it resembles pennyroyal in appearance, and is hot and acrid to the taste. The leaves are the only part employed, it being destitute of722 blossom, seed, and stem: the root is thin, and never used. In Crete even, it is found growing only in a very limited locality, and is sought by goats with singular avidity.

In place of it, the pseudodictamnum723 is employed, a plant that is found growing in many countries. In leaf it is similar to the other, but the branches are more diminutive: by some persons it is known as “chondris.” Its properties not being so strongly developed, the difference is immediately recognized: for an infusion of the very smallest piece of the real dittany,116 is sufficient to burn the mouth. The persons who gather it are in the habit of enclosing it in a stem of fennel-giant or in a reed, which they close at the ends that the virtues of it may not escape. Some persons say, that both plants grow indiscriminately in numerous localities, the inferior sort being the produce of rich soils, and the genuine dittany being found nowhere but in rugged, uncultivated spots.

There is, again, a third724 plant called “dictamnum,” which, however, has neither the appearance nor the properties of the other plant so called; the leaves of it are like those of sisymbrium,725 but the branches are larger.

There has long been this impression with reference to Crete, that whatever plant grows there is infinitely superior in its properties to a similar plant the produce of any other country; the second rank being given to the produce of Mount Parnassus. In addition to this, it is generally asserted that simples of excellent quality are found upon Mount Pelion in Thessaly, Mount Teleuthrius in Eubœa, and throughout the whole of Arcadia and Laconia. Indeed, the Arcadians, they say, are in the habit of using, not the simples themselves, but milk, in the spring season more particularly; a period at which the field plants are swollen with juice, and the milk is medicated by their agency. It is cows’ milk in especial that they use for this purpose, those animals being in the habit of feeding upon nearly every kind of plant. The potent properties of plants are manifested by their action upon four-footed animals in two very remarkable instances: in the vicinity of Abdera and the tract known as the Boundary726 of Diomedes, the horses, after pasturing, become inflamed with frantic fury; the same is the case, too, with the male asses, in the neighbourhood of Potniæ.

In the number of the most celebrated plants is the aristolochia,117 which would appear to have derived its name from females in a state of pregnancy, as being ἀρίστη λοχούσαις.727 Among us, however, it is known as the “malum terræ,” or apple of the earth,728 four different varieties of it being distinguished. One of these has a root covered with tubercles of a rounded729 shape, and leaves of a mixed appearance, between those of the mallow and the ivy, only softer and more swarthy. The second730 kind is the male plant, with an elongated root some four fingers in length, and the thickness of a walking-stick. A third731 variety is extremely thin and long, similar to a young vine in appearance: it has the most strongly-marked properties of them all, and is known by the additional names of “clematitis,” and “cretica.” All these plants are the colour of boxwood, have a slender stem, and bear a purple flower and small berries like those of the caper: the root is the only part that is possessed of any virtues.

There is also a fourth732 kind, the name given to which is “plistolochia;” it is more slender than the one last mentioned, has a root thickly covered with filaments, and is about as thick as a good-sized bulrush: another name given to it is “polyrrhizos.” The smell of all these plants is medicinal, but that of the one with an oblong root and a very slender stem, is the most agreeable: this last, in fact, which has a fleshy outer coat, is well adapted as an ingredient for nardine unguents even. They grow in rich champaign soils, and the best time for gathering them is harvest; after the earth is scraped from off them, they are put by for keeping.

The aristolochia that is the most esteemed, however, is that118 which comes from Pontus; but whatever the soil may happen to be, the more weighty it is, the better adapted it is for medicinal purposes. The aristolochia with a round root is recommended for the stings of serpents, and that with an oblong root * * * * But in this is centred its principal reputation; applied to the uterus with raw beef, as a pessary, immediately after conception, it will ensure the birth of male733 issue, they say. The fishermen on the coasts of Campania give the round root the name of “poison of the earth;” and I myself have seen them pound it with lime, and throw it into the sea; immediately on which the fish flew towards it with surprising avidity, and being struck dead in an instant, floated upon the surface.

The kind that is known as “polyrrhizos,”734 is remarkably good, they say, for convulsions, contusions, and falls with violence, an infusion of the root being taken in water: the seed, too, is useful for pleurisy and affections of the sinews. It is considered, too, to be possessed of warming and strengthening properties, similar to those of satyrion,735 in fact.

But it will be as well now to mention the various uses made of these plants, and the effects produced by them, beginning with that most dangerous of all evils that can befall us, stings inflicted by serpents. In such cases the plant britannica736 effects a cure, and the same is the case with the root of all the varieties of panaces,737 administered in wine. The flower, too, and seed of panaces chironion are taken in drink, or applied externally with wine and oil: cunila bubula,738 too, is looked upon as particularly useful for this purpose, and the root of polemonia or philetæris is taken in doses of four drachmæ in unmixed wine. Teucria,739 sideritis,740 and scordotis,741 are used in wine, plants particularly good, all of them, for injuries inflicted by snakes; the juice or leaves, or else a decoction of119 them, being taken in drink or applied to the wound. For a similar purpose also, the root of the greater centaury is taken, in doses of one drachma to three cyathi of white wine. Gentian, too, is particularly good for the stings of snakes, taken either fresh or dried, in doses of two drachmæ, mixed with rue and pepper in six cyathi of wine. The odour, too, of lysimachia742 puts serpents to flight.

Chelidonia743 is also given in wine to persons who have been stung; and betony in particular is used as an external application to the wound, a plant the virtues of which are so extraordinary, it is said, that if a circle of it is traced around a serpent, it will lash itself to death744 with its tail. The seed of this plant is also administered in such cases, in doses of one denarius to three cyathi of wine; or else it is dried and powdered, and applied to the wound, in the proportion of three denarii of powder to one sextarius of water.

Cantabrica, dittany, and aristolochia, are also similarly used, one drachma of the root of this last plant being taken every now and then in a semisextarius of wine. It is very useful too, rubbed in with vinegar, and the same is the case, also, with plistolochia:745 indeed it will be quite sufficient to suspend this last over the hearth, to make all serpents leave the house.

The argemonia,746 too, is remedial in such cases; the root of it being taken, in doses of one denarius, in three cyathi of wine. It will be as well, however, to enter into some further details in reference to this plant and others, which I shall have occasion next to mention; it being my intention first to describe, under each head, those plants which are the most efficacious for the treatment of the affection under consideration.

The argemonia has leaves like those of the anemone, but divided747 like those of parsley: the head grows upon a slender stem resembling that of the wild poppy, and the root is also120 very similar to that of the same plant. The juice is of a saffron colour, acrid and pungent: the plant is commonly found in the fields of this country. Among us there are three748 varieties of it distinguished, the one being the most highly approved of, the root of which smells749 like frankincense.750

Agaric751 is found growing in the form of a fungus of a white colour, upon the trees in the vicinity of the Bosporus. It is administered in doses of four oboli, beaten up in two cyathi of oxymel. The kind that grows in Galatia is generally looked upon as not so efficacious. The male752 agaric is firmer than the other, and more bitter; it is productive too of head-ache. The female plant is of a looser texture; it has a sweet taste at first, which speedily changes into a bitter flavour.

Of the echios there are two kinds; one753 of which resembles pennyroyal in appearance, and has a concave leaf. It is administered, in doses of two drachmæ, in four cyathi of wine. The other754 kind is distinguished by a prickly down, and bears small heads resembling those of vipers: it is usually taken in wine and vinegar. Some persons give the name of “echios personata”755 to a kind of echios with larger leaves than the others, and burrs of considerable size, resembling that of the lappa.756 The root of this plant is boiled and administered in vinegar.121 Henbane, pounded with the leaves on, is taken in wine, for the sting of the asp in particular.

But among the Romans there is no plant that enjoys a more extended renown than hierabotane757 known to some persons as “peristereon,”758 and among us more generally as “verbenaca.”759 It is this plant that we have already760 mentioned as being borne in the hands of envoys when treating with the enemy, with this that the table of Jupiter is cleansed,761 with this that houses are purified and due expiation made. There are two varieties of it: the one that is thickly covered with leaves762 is thought to be the female plant; that with fewer leaves,763 the male. Both kinds have numerous thin branches, a cubit in length, and of an angular form. The leaves are smaller than those of the quercus, and narrower, with larger indentations. The flower is of a grey colour, and the root is long and thin. This plant is to be found growing everywhere, in level humid localities. Some persons make no distinction between these two varieties, and look upon them as identical, from the circumstance of their being productive of precisely similar effects.

The people in the Gallic provinces make use of them both for soothsaying purposes, and for the prediction of future events; but it is the magicians more particularly that give utterance to such ridiculous follies in reference to this plant. Persons, they tell us, if they rub themselves with it will be sure to gain the object of their desires; and they assure us that it keeps away fevers, conciliates friendship, and is a cure for every possible disease; they say, too, that it must be gathered about the rising of the Dog-star—but so as not to be shone upon by sun or moon—and that honey-combs and honey must be first presented to the earth by way of expiation. They tell us also122 that a circle must first be traced around it with iron; after which it must be taken up with the left hand, and raised aloft, care being taken to dry the leaves, stem, and root, separately in the shade. To these statements they add, that if the banqueting couch is sprinkled with water in which it has been steeped, merriment and hilarity will be greatly promoted thereby.

As a remedy for the stings of serpents, this plant is bruised in wine.

There is a plant very similar in appearance to verbascum,764 so much so, indeed, as to be frequently gathered for it by mistake. The leaves,765 however, are not so white, the stems are more numerous, and the flower is of a yellow colour. Thrown upon the ground, this plant attracts black beetles766 to it, whence its Roman appellation “blattaria.”

Lemonium767 furnishes a milky juice, which thickens like gum. It grows in moist, watery localities, and is generally administered, in doses of one denarius, in wine.

There is no one to whom quinquefolium768 is unknown, being recommended by a sort of strawberry769 which it bears: The Greeks give it the name of pentapetes,770 pentaphyllon,770 and chamæzelon.771 The root, when taken up, is red; but as it123 dries it becomes black and angular. Its name is derived from the number of its leaves: it puts forth and withers with the leaves of the vine. This plant also is employed in the purification of houses.

The root, too, of the plant known as the sparganion,772 is taken in white wine, as a remedy for the stings of serpents.

Petronius Diodotus has distinguished four kinds of daucus, which it would be useless here to describe, the varieties being in reality but two773 in number. The most esteemed kind is that of Crete,774 the next best being the produce of Achaia, and of all dry localities. It resembles fennel in appearance, only that its leaves are whiter, more diminutive, and hairy on the surface. The stem is upright, and a foot in length, and the root has a remarkably pleasant taste and smell. This kind grows in stony localities with a southern aspect.

The inferior sorts are found growing everywhere, upon declivities for instance, and in the hedges of fields, but always in a rich soil. The leaves are like those of coriander,775 the stem being a cubit in length, the heads round, often three or more in number, and the root ligneous, and good for nothing when dry. The seed of this kind is like that of cummin, while that of the first kind bears a resemblance to millet; in all cases it is white, acrid, hot, and odoriferous. The seed of the second kind has more active properties than that of the first; for which reason it should be used more sparingly.

If it is considered really desirable to recognize a third124 variety of the daucus, there is a plant776 of this nature very similar to the staphylinos, known as the “pastinaca777 erratica,” with an oblong seed and a sweet root. Quadrupeds will touch none of these plants, either in winter or in summer, except indeed, after abortion.778 The seed of the various kinds is used, with the exception of that of Crete, in which case it is the root that is employed; this root being particularly useful for the stings of serpents. The proper dose is one drachma, taken in wine. It is administered also to cattle when stung by those reptiles.

The therionarca, altogether a different plant from that of the Magi,779 grows in our own climates, and is a branchy plant, with greenish leaves, and a rose-coloured flower. It has a deadly effect upon serpents, and the very contact of it is sufficient to benumb780 a wild beast, of whatever kind it be.

The persolata,781 a plant known to every one, and called “arcion” by the Greeks, has a leaf, larger, thicker, more swarthy, and more hairy than that of the gourd even, with a large white root. This plant also is taken, in doses of two denarii, in wine.

So too, the root of cyclaminos782 is good for injuries inflicted by serpents of all kinds. It has leaves smaller than those of ivy, thinner, more swarthy, destitute of angles, and covered with whitish spots. The stem is thin and hollow, the flowers of a purple colour, and the root large and covered with a black rind; so much so, in fact, that it might almost be taken for the root of rape. This plant grows in umbrageous localities, and by the people of our country is known as the “tuber terræ.”783 It ought to be grown in every house, if there is any truth in the assertion that wherever it grows, noxious spells can have no effect. This plant is also what is called an “amulet;” and taken in wine, they say, it produces all the symptoms and appearances of intoxication. The root is dried, cut in pieces, like the squill, and put away for keeping. When wanted, a decoction is made of it, of the consistency of honey. Still, however, it has some deleterious784 properties; and a pregnant woman, it is said, if she passes over the root of it, will be sure to miscarry.

There is also another kind of cyclaminos, known by the additional name of “cissanthemos;”785 the stems of it, which are jointed, are good for nothing. It is altogether different from the preceding plant, and entwines around the trunks of trees. It bears a berry similar to that of the ivy, but soft; and the flower is white and pleasing to the sight. The root is never used. The berries are the only part of it in use, being of an126 acrid, viscous taste. They are dried in the shade, after which they are pounded and divided into lozenges.

A third kind786 of cyclaminos has also been shown to me, the additional name of which is “chamæcissos.” It consists of but a single leaf, with a branchy root, formerly employed for killing fish.

But in the very first rank among these plants, stands peucedanum,787 the most esteemed kind of which is that of Arcadia, the next best being that of Samothrace, The stem resembles that of fennel, is thin and long, covered with leaves close to the ground, and terminating in a thick black juicy root, with a powerful smell. It grows on umbrageous mountains, and is taken up at the end of autumn. The largest and tenderest roots are the most esteemed; they are cut with bone-knives into slips four fingers in length, and left to shed their juice788 in the shade; the persons employed taking the precaution of rubbing the head and nostrils with rose-oil, as a preservative against vertigo.

There is also another kind of juice, which adheres to the stems, and exudes from incisions made therein. It is considered best when it has arrived at the consistency of honey: the colour of it is red, and it has a strong but agreeable smell, and a hot, acrid taste. This juice, as well as the root and a decoction of it, enters into the composition of numerous medicaments, but the juice has the most powerful properties of the two. Diluted with bitter almonds or rue, it is taken in drink as a remedy for injuries inflicted by serpents. Rubbed upon the body with oil, it is a preservative against the attacks of those reptiles.

A fumigation, too, of ebulum,789 a plant known to every one, will put serpents to flight.

The root of polemonia,790 even worn as an amulet only, is particularly useful for repelling the attacks of scorpions, as also the phalangium and other small insects of a venomous nature. For injuries inflicted by the scorpion, aristolochia791 is also used, or agaric, in doses of four oboli to four cyathi of wine. For the bite of the phalangium, vervain is employed, in combination with wine or oxycrate: cinquefoil, too, and daucus, are used for a similar purpose.

Verbascum has the name of “phlomos” with the Greeks. Of this plant there are two principal kinds; the white,792 which is considered to be the male, and the black,793 thought to be the female. There is a third794 kind, also, which is only found in the woods. The leaves of these plants are larger than those of the cabbage, and have a hairy surface: the stem is upright, and more than a cubit in height, and the seed black, and never used. The root is single, and about the thickness of the finger. The two principal kinds are found growing in champaign localities. The wild verbascum has leaves like those of elelisphacus,795 but of an elongated form; the branches are ligneous.

There are also two796 varieties of the phlomis, hairy plants,128 with rounded leaves, and but little elevated above the surface of the earth. A third kind, again, is known as the “lychnitis”797 by some persons, and as the “thryallis” by others: it has three leaves only, or four at the very utmost, thick and unctuous, and well adapted for making wicks for lamps. The leaves of the phlomos which we have mentioned as the female plant, if wrapped about figs, will preserve them most efficiently from decay, it is said. It seems little better than a loss of time to give the distinguishing characteristics of these three798 kinds, the effects of them all being precisely the same.

For injuries inflicted by scorpions, an infusion of the root is taken, with rue, in water. Its bitterness is intense, but it is quite as efficacious as the plants already mentioned.

The thelyphonon799 is a plant known as the “scorpio” to some, from the peculiar form of its roots, the very touch of which kills800 the scorpion: hence it is that it is taken in drink for stings inflicted by those reptiles. If a dead scorpion is rubbed with white hellebore, it will come to life, they say. The thelyphonon is fatal to all quadrupeds, on the application of the root to the genitals. The leaf too, which bears a resemblance to that of cyclaminos, is productive of a similar effect, in the course of the same day. It is a jointed plant, and is found growing in unbrageous localities. Juice of betony or of plantago is a preservative against the venom of the scorpion.

Frogs, too, have their venom, the bramble-frog801 in particular,129 and I myself have seen the Psylli, in their exhibitions, irritate them by placing them upon flat vessels made red hot,802 their bite being fatal more instantaneously than the sting even of the asp. One remedy for their poison is the phrynion,803 taken in wine, which has also the additional names of “neuras”804 and “poterion:” it bears a small flower, and has numerous fibrous roots, with an agreeable smell.

Similar too, are the properties of the alisma,805 known to some persons as the “damasonion,” and as the “lyron” to others. The leaves of it would be exactly those of the plantago, were it not that they are narrower, more jagged at the edges, and bent downwards in a greater degree. In other respects, they present the same veined appearance as those of the plantago. This plant has a single stem, slender, a cubit in height, and terminated by a spreading head.806 The roots of it are numerous, thin like those of black hellebore, acrid, unctuous, and odoriferous: it is found growing in watery localities.

There is another kind also, which grows in the woods, of a more swarthy colour, and with larger leaves. The root of them both is used for injuries inflicted by frogs and by the sea-hare,807 in doses of one drachma taken in wine. Cyclaminos, too, is an antidote for injuries inflicted by the sea-hare.

The bite of the mad dog has certain venomous properties, as an antidote to which we have the cynorrhodos, of which130 we have spoken808 elsewhere already. The plantago is useful for the bites of all kinds of animals, either taken in drink or applied topically to the part affected. Betony is taken on similar occasions, in old wine, unmixed.

The name of peristereos809 is given to a plant with a tall stem, covered with leaves, and throwing out other stems from the top. It is much sought by pigeons, to which circumstance it owes its name. Dogs will never bark, they say, at persons who have this plant about them.

Closely approaching in their nature to these various kinds of poisons, are those which have been devised by man for his own destruction. In the number of antidotes to all these artificial poisons as well as to the spells of sorcery, the very first place must be accorded to the moly810 of Homer; next to which come the mithridatia,811 scordotis,812 and centaury. The seed of betony carries off all kinds of noxious substances by stool; being taken for the purpose in honied wine or raisin wine, or else pulverized, and taken, in doses of one drachma, in four cyathi of old wine: in this last case, however, the patient must bring it off the stomach by vomit and then repeat the dose. Persons who accustom themselves to take this plant daily, will never experience any injury, they say, from substances of a poisonous nature.

When a person has taken poison, one most powerful remedy is aristolochia,813 taken in the same proportions as those used for injuries inflicted by serpents.814 The juice, too, of cinquefoil is given for a similar purpose; and in both cases, after the patient has vomited, agaric is administered, in doses of one denarius, in three cyathi of hydromel.

The name of antirrhinum815 or anarrhinon is given to the lychnis agria,816 a plant which resembles flax in appearance, is destitute of root, has a flower like that of the hyacinth, and a seed similar in form to the muzzle of a calf. According to what the magicians say, persons who rub themselves with this plant improve their personal appearance thereby; and they may ensure themselves against all noxious substances and poisons, by wearing it as a bracelet.

The same is the case, too, with the plant to which they give the name of “euclea,”817 and which, they tell us, rubbed upon the person, will ensure a more extended consideration. They say, too, that if a person carries artemisia818 about him, he will be ensured against all noxious drugs, the attacks of wild beasts of every kind, and sunstroke even. This last plant is taken also in wine, in cases of poisoning by opium. Used as an amulet, or taken in drink, it is said to be particularly efficacious for injuries inflicted by frogs.

The pericarpum is a kind of bulbous plant. There are two varieties of it; one with a red819 outer coat, and the other,820132 similar is appearance to the black poppy, and possessed of greater virtues than the first. They are both, however, of a warming nature, for which reason, they are administered to persons who have taken hemlock, a poison for which frankincense and panaces are used, chironion821 in particular. This last, too, is given in cases of poisoning by fungi.

But we shall now proceed to point out the various classes of remedies for the several parts of the body, and the maladies to which those parts are subject, beginning in the first place with the head.

The root of nymphæa heraclia822 effects the cure of alopecy, if they are beaten up together,823 and applied. The polythrix824 differs from the callitrichos825 in having white, rushlike suckers, larger leaves, and more numerous; the main stem,826 too, is larger. This plant strengthens the hair, prevents it from falling off, and makes it grow more thickly

The same is the case too with the lingulaca,827 a plant that grows in the vicinity of springs, and the root of which is reduced to ashes, and beaten up with hog’s lard. Due care must be taken, however, that it is the lard of a female, of a black colour, and one that has never farrowed. The application is rendered additionally efficacious, if the ointment is applied in the sun. Root, too, of cyclaminos is employed in the same133 manner for a similar purpose. A decoction of root of hellebore in oil or in water is used for the removal of porrigo. For the cure of head-ache, root of all kinds of panaces828 is used, beaten up in oil; as also aristolochia829 and iberis,830 this last being applied to the head for an hour or more, if the patient can bear it so long, care being taken to bathe m the meanwhile. The daucus, too, is curative of head-ache. Cyclaminos,831 introduced into the nostrils with honey, clears the head; used in the form of a liniment, it heals ulcers of the head. Peristereos,832 also, is curative of diseases of the head.

The name of “cacalia”833 or “leontice” is given to a plant with seed resembling small pearls in appearance, and hanging down between large leaves: it is mostly found upon mountains. Fifteen grains of this seed are macerated in oil, and the head is rubbed with the mixture, the contrary way to the hair.

A sternutatory, too, is prepared from the callitrichos.834 The leaves of this plant are similar to those of the lentil, and the stems resemble fine rushes; the root is very diminutive. It grows in shady, moist localities, and has a burning taste in the mouth.

Hyssop,835 beaten up in oil, is curative of phthiriasis and134 prurigo of the head. The best hyssop is that of Mount Taurus in Cilicia, next to which in quality is the produce of Pamphylia and Smyrna. This plant is injurious to the stomach: taken with figs, it produces alvine evacuations, and used in combination with honey, it acts as an emetic. It is generally thought that, beaten up with honey, salt, and cummin, it is curative of the stings of serpents.

The lonchitis836 is not, as most writers have imagined, the same plant as the xiphion837 or phasganion, although the seed of it does bear a resemblance to the point of a spear. The lonchitis, in fact, has leaves like those of the leek, of a reddish colour near the root, and more numerous there than on the upper part of the stem. It bears diminutive heads, which are very similar to our masks of comedy, and from which a small tongue protrudes:838 the roots of it are remarkably long. It grows in thirsty, arid soils.

The xiphion839 or phasganion, on the other hand, is found growing in humid localities. On first leaving the ground it has the appearance of a sword; the stem of it is two cubits in length, and the root is fringed like a hazel nut.840

This root should always be taken up before harvest, and dried in the shade. The upper part of it, pounded with frankincense, and mixed with an equal quantity of wine, extracts fractured bones of the cranium, purulent matter in all parts of the body, and bones of serpents,841 when accidentally135 trodden upon; if is very efficacious, too, for poisons. In cases of head-ache, the head should be rubbed with hellebore, boiled and beaten up in olive oil, or oil of roses, or else with peucedanum steeped in olive oil or rose oil, and vinegar. This last plant, made lukewarm, is very good also for hemicrania842 and vertigo. It being of a heating nature, the body is rubbed with the root as a sudorific.

Psyllion,843 cynoïdes, crystallion, sicelicon, or cynomyia, has a slender root, of which no use is made, and numerous thin branches, with seeds resembling those of the bean, at the extremities.844 The leaves of it are not unlike a dog’s head in shape;845 and the seed, which is enclosed in berries, bears a resemblance to a flea—whence its name “psyllion.” This plant is generally found growing in vineyards, is of a cooling nature, and is extremely efficacious as a dispellent. The seed of it is the part made use of; for head-ache, it is applied to the forehead and temples with rose oil and vinegar, or else with oxycrate; it is used as a liniment for other purposes also. Mixed in the proportion of one acetabulum to one sextarius of water, it is left to coagulate and thicken; after which it is beaten up, and the thick solution is used as a liniment for all kinds of pains, abscesses, and inflammations.

Aristolochia is used as a remedy for wounds in the head; it has the property, too, of extracting fractured bones, not only from other parts of the body, but the cranium in particular. The same, too, with plistolochia.

Thryselinum846 is a plant not unlike parsley; the root of it, eaten, carries off pituitous humours from the head.

It is generally thought that the greater centaury847 strengthens the sight, if the eyes are fomented with it steeped in water; and that by employing the juice of the smaller kind, in combination with honey, films and cloudiness may be dispersed, marks obliterated, and small flies removed which have got into the eye. It is thought also that sideritis is curative of albugo in beasts of burden. As to chelidonia,848 it is marvellously good for all the affections above mentioned. Root of panaces849 is applied, with polenta,850 to defluxions of the eyes; and for the purpose of keeping them down, henbane-seed is taken, in doses of one obolus, with an equal proportion of opium, in wine. Juice, too, of gentian is used as a liniment, and it sometimes forms an ingredient in the more active eyesalves,851 as a substitute for meconium. Euphorbia,852 applied in the form of a liniment, improves the eyesight, and for ophthalmia juice of plantago853 is injected into the eyes.

Aristolochia disperses films upon the eyes; and iberis,854 attached to the head with cinquefoil, is curative of defluxions and other diseases of the eyes. Verbascum855 is applied topically to defluxions of the eyes, and vervain is used for a similar purpose, with rose oil and vinegar. For the treatment of cataract and dimness of sight, cyclaminos is reduced to a pulp and divided into lozenges. Juice, too, of peucedanum, as already mentioned,856 mixed with meconium and oil of roses, is good for the sight, and disperses films upon the eyes. Psyllion,857 applied to the forehead, arrests defluxions of the eyes.

The anagallis is called “corchoron”858 by some. There are137 two kinds of it, the male859 plant, with a red blossom, and the female,860 with a blue flower. These plants do not exceed a palm in height, and have a tender stem, with diminutive leaves of a rounded form, drooping upon the ground. They grow in gardens and in spots covered with water, the blue anagallis being the first to blossom. The juice861 of either plant, applied with honey, disperses films upon the eyes, suffusions of blood862 in those organs resulting from blows, and argema863 with a red tinge: if used in combination with Attic honey, they are still more efficacious. The anagallis has the effect also of dilating864 the pupil; hence the eye is anointed with it before the operation of couching865 for cataract. These plants are employed also for diseases of the eyes in beasts of burden.

The juice, injected into the nostrils, which are then rinsed with wine, acts as a detergent upon the head: it is taken also, in doses of one drachma, in wine, for wounds inflicted by serpents. It is a remarkable fact, that cattle will refuse to touch the female plant; but if it should so happen that, deceived by the resemblance—the flower being the only distinguishing mark—they have accidentally tasted it, they immediately have recourse, as a remedy, to the plant called “asyla,”866 but more generally known among us as “ferus oculus.”867 Some persons recommend those who gather it, to prelude by saluting it before sunrise, and then, before uttering another word, to take care and extract the juice immediately; if this is done, they say, it will be doubly efficacious.

As to the juice of euphorbia, we have spoken868 of its properties at sufficient length already. In cases of ophthalmia,138 attended with swelling, it will be a good plan to apply wormwood beaten up with honey, as well as powdered betony.

The fistula of the eye, called “ægilops,” is cured by the agency of the plant of the same name,869 which grows among barley, and has a leaf like that of wheat. The seed is pounded for the purpose, and applied with meal; or else the juice is extracted from the stem and more pulpy leaves, the ears being first removed. This juice is incorporated with meal of three-month wheat, and divided into lozenges.

Some persons, too, were in the habit of employing mandragora for diseases of the eyes; but more recently, the use of it for such a purpose has been abandoned. It is a well-ascertained fact, however, that the root, beaten up with rose oil and wine, is curative of defluxions of the eyes and pains in those organs; and, indeed, the juice of this plant still forms an ingredient in many medicaments for the eyes. Some persons give it the name of “circæon.”870 There are two varieties, the white871 mandragora, which is generally thought to be the male plant, and the black,872 which is considered to be the female. It has a leaf narrower than that of the lettuce, a hairy stem, and a double or triple root, black without and white within, soft and fleshy, and nearly a cubit in length.

Both kinds bear a fruit about the size of a hazel-nut, enclosing a seed resembling the pips of a pear in appearance. The name given to the white plant by some persons is “arsen,”873 by others “morion,”874 and by others again, “hippophlomos.” The leaves of it are white, while those of the other139 one875 are broader, and similar to those of garden lapathum876 in appearance. Persons, when about to gather this plant, take every precaution not to have the wind blowing in their face; and after tracing three circles round it with a sword, turn towards the west and dig it up.877 The juice is extracted both from the fruit and from the stalk, the top being first removed; also from the root, which is punctured for the purpose, or else a decoction is made of it. The filaments, too, of the root are made use of, and it is sometimes cut up into segments and kept in wine.

It is not the mandragora of every country that will yield a juice, but where it does, it is about vintage time that it is collected: it has in all cases a powerful odour, that of the root and fruit the most so. The fruit is gathered when ripe, and dried in the shade; and the juice, when extracted, is left to thicken in the sun. The same is the case, too, with the juice of the root, which is extracted either by pounding it or by boiling it down to one third in red wine. The leaves are best, kept in brine; indeed, when fresh, the juice of them is a baneful poison,878 and these noxious properties are far from being entirely removed, even when they are preserved in brine. The very odour of them is highly oppressive to the head, although there are countries in which the fruit is eaten. Persons ignorant of its properties are apt to be struck dumb by the odour of this plant when in excess, and too strong a dose of the juice is productive of fatal effects.

Administered in doses proportioned to the strength of the patient, this juice has a narcotic effect; a middling dose being one cyathus. It is given, too, for injuries inflicted by serpents, and before incisions or punctures are made in the body, in140 order to ensure insensibility to the pain.879 Indeed, for this last purpose, with some persons, the odour of it is quite sufficient to induce sleep. The juice is taken also as a substitute for hellebore, in doses of two oboli, in honied wine: hellebore, however, is more efficacious as an emetic, and as an evacuant of black bile.

Hemlock,880 too, is a poisonous plant, rendered odious by the use made of it by the Athenian people, as an instrument of capital punishment: still,881 however, as it is employed for many useful purposes, it must not be omitted. It is the seed that is noxious, the stalk being eaten by many people, either green, or cooked882 in the saucepan. This stem is smooth, jointed like a reed, of a swarthy hue, often as much as two cubits in height, and branchy at the top. The leaves are like those of coriander, only softer, and possessed of a powerful odour. The seed is more substantial than that of anise, and the root is hollow and never used. The seed and leaves are possessed of refrigerating properties; indeed, it is owing to these properties that it is so fatal, the cold chills with which it is attended commencing at the extremities. The great remedy883 for it, provided it has not reached the vitals, is wine, which is naturally of a warming tendency; but if it is taken in wine, it is irremediably fatal.

A juice is extracted from the leaves and flowers; for it is at the time of its blossoming that it is in its full vigour. The seed is crushed, and the juice extracted from it is left to thicken in the sun, and then divided into lozenges. This141 preparation proves fatal by coagulating the blood—another deadly property which belongs to it; and hence it is that the bodies of those who have been poisoned by it are covered with spots. It is sometimes used in combination with water as a medium for diluting certain medicaments. An emollient poultice is also prepared from this juice, for the purpose of cooling the stomach; but the principal use made of it is as a topical application, to check defluxions of the eyes in summer, and to allay pains in those organs. It is employed also as an ingredient in eyesalves, and is used for arresting fluxes in other parts of the body: the leaves, too, have a soothing effect upon all kinds of pains and tumours, and upon defluxions of the eyes.

Anaxilaüs makes a statement to the effect, that if the mamillæ884 are rubbed with hemlock during virginity, they will always be hard and firm: but a better-ascertained fact is, that applied885 to the mamillæ, it dries up the milk in women recently delivered; as also that, applied to the testes at the age of puberty, it acts most effectually as an antaphrodisiac.886 As to those cases in which it is recommended to take it internally as a remedy, I shall, for my own part, decline to mention them. The most powerful hemlock is that grown at Susa, in Parthia, the next best being the produce of Laconia, Crete, and Asia.887 In Greece, the hemlock of the finest quality is that of Megara, and next to it, that of Attica.

Crethmos agrios,888 applied to the eyes, removes rheum; and, with the addition of polenta, it causes tumours to disappear.

Molybdæna889 also grows everywhere in the fields, a plant commonly known as “plumbago.”889 It has leaves like those of lapathum,890 and a thick, hairy root. Chewed and applied to the142 eye from time to time, it removes the disease called “plum-bum,”891 which affects that organ.

The first kind of capnos,892 known also as “chicken’s foot,”893 is found growing on walls and hedges: it has very thin, straggling branches, with a purple blossom. It is used in a green state, and the juice of it disperses films upon the eyes; hence it is that it is employed as an ingredient in medicinal compositions for the eyes.

There is another kind894 of capnos also, similar both in name and properties, but different in appearance. It is a branchy plant, is extremely delicate, has leaves like those of coriander, is of an ashy colour, and bears a purple flower: it grows in gardens, and amid crops of barley. Employed in the form of an ointment for the eyes, it improves the sight, producing tears in the same way that smoke does, to which, in fact, it owes its name. It has the effect also of preventing the eyelashes, when pulled out, from growing again.

The acoron895 has leaves similar to those of the iris,896 only narrower, and with a longer stalk; the roots of it are black, and not so veined, but in other respects are similar to those of the iris, have an acrid taste and a not unpleasant smell, and act as a carminative. The best roots are those grown in Pontus, the next best those of Galatia, and the next those of143 Crete; but it is in Colchis, on the banks of the river Phasis, and in various other watery localities, that they are found in the greatest abundance. When fresh, they have a more powerful odour than when kept for some time: these of Crete are more blanched than the produce of Pontus. They are cut into pieces about a finger in length, and dried in leather bags897 in the shade.

There are some authors who give the name of “acoron” to the root of the oxymyrsine;898 for which reason also some prefer giving that plant the name of “acorion.” It has powerful properties as a calorific and resolvent, and is taken in drink for cataract and films upon the eyes; the juice also is extracted, and taken for injuries inflicted by serpents.

The cotyledon899 is a small herbaceous plant, with a diminutive, tender stem, and an unctuous leaf, with a concave surface like that of the cotyloïd cavity of the thigh. It grows in maritime and rocky localities, is of a green colour, and has a rounded root like an olive: the juice of it is remedial for diseases of the eyes.

There is another900 kind also of the same plant, the leaves of which are of a dirty green901 colour, larger than those of the other, and growing in greater numbers about the root, which is surrounded with them just as the eye is with the socket. These leaves have a remarkably astringent taste, and the stem is of considerable length, but extremely slender. This plant is employed for the same purposes as the iris and aizoüm.

Of the plant known as aizoüm902 there are two kinds; the144 larger of which is sown in earthen pots. By some persons it is known as “buphthalmos,”903 and by others as “zoöphthalmos,” or else as “stergethron,” because it forms an ingredient in the composition of philtres. Another name given to it is “hypogeson,” from the circumstance that it generally grows upon the eaves904 of houses: some persons, again, give it the names of “ambrosion” and “amerimnon.” In Italy it is known as “sedum magnum,”905 “oculus,” or “digitellus.” The other kind906 of aizoüm is more diminutive, and is known by some persons as “erithales”907 and by others as “trithales,” from the circumstance that it blossoms three times in the year. Other names given to it are “chrysothales”908 and “isoëtes:”909 but aizoüm is the common appellation of them both, from their being always green.

The larger kind exceeds a cubit in height, and is somewhat thicker than the thumb: at the extremity, the leaves are similar to a tongue in shape, and are fleshy, unctuous, full of juice, and about as broad as a person’s thumb. Some are bent downwards towards the ground, while others again stand upright, the outline of them resembling an eye in shape. The smaller kind grows upon walls, old rubbish of houses, and tiled roofs; it is branchy from the root, and covered with leaves to the extremity. These leaves are narrow, pointed, and juicy: the stem is a palm in height, and the root is never used.

A similar plant is that known to the Greeks by the name of “andrachle agria,”910 and by the people of Italy as the “illecebra145.” Its leaves, though small, are larger than those of the last-named plant, but growing on a shorter stem. It grows in craggy localities, and is gathered for use as food. All these plants have the same properties, being cooling and astringent. The leaves, applied topically, or the juice, in form of a liniment, are curative of defluxions of the eyes: this juice too acts as a detergent upon ulcers of the eyes, makes new flesh, and causes them to cicatrize; it911 cleanses the eyelids also of viscous matter. Applied to the temples, both the leaves and the juice of these plants are remedial for head-ache; they neutralize the venom also of the phalangium; and the greater aizoüm, in particular, is an antidote to aconite. It is asserted, too, that those who carry this last plant about them will never be stung by the scorpion.

These plants are curative of pains in the ears; which is the case also with juice of henbane, applied in moderate quantities, of achillea,912 of the smaller centaury and plantago, of peucedanum in combination with rose-oil and opium, and of acoron913 mixed with rose-leaves. In all these cases, the liquid is made warm, and introduced into the ear with the aid of a syringe.914 The cotyledon is good, too, for suppurations in the ears, mixed with deer’s marrow made hot. The juice of pounded root of ebulum915 is strained through a linen cloth, and then left to thicken in the sun: when wanted for use, it is moistened with oil of roses, and made hot, being employed for the cure of imposthumes of the parotid glands. Vervain and plantago are likewise used for the cure of the same malady, as also sideritis,916 mixed with stale axle-grease.

Aristolochia,917 mixed with cyperus,918 is curative of polypus of the nose.919

The following are remedies for diseases of the teeth: root146 of panaces,920 chewed, that of the chironion in particular, and juice of panaces, used as a collutory; root, too, of henbane, chewed with vinegar, and root of polemonia.921 The root of plantago is chewed for a similar purpose, or the teeth, are rinsed with a decoction of the juice mixed with vinegar. The leaves, too, are said to be useful for the gums, when swollen with sanious blood, or if there are discharges of blood therefrom. The seed, too, of plantago is a cure for abscesses in the gums, and for gum-boils. Aristolochia has a strengthening effect upon the gums and teeth; and the same with vervain, either chewed with the root of that plant, or boiled in wine and vinegar, the decoction being employed as a gargle. The same is the case, also, with root of cinquefoil, boiled down to one third, in wine or vinegar; before it is boiled, however, the root should be washed in sea or salt water: the decoction, too, must be kept a considerable time in the mouth. Some persons prefer cleaning the teeth with ashes of cinquefoil.

Root of verbascum922 is also boiled in wine, and the decoction used for rinsing the teeth. The same is done too with hyssop and juice of peucedanum, mixed with opium; or else the juice of the root of anagallis,923 the female plant in particular, is injected into the nostril on the opposite side to that in which the pain is felt.

Erigeron924 is called by our people “senecio.” It is said that if a person, after tracing around this plant with an implement of iron, takes it up and touches the tooth affected with it three times, taking care to spit each time on the ground, and then replaces it in the same spot, so as to take root again, he will never experience any further pain in that tooth. This plant has just the appearance and softness of trixago,925 with a number of small reddish-coloured stems: it is found growing upon walls, and the tiled roofs of houses. The Greeks have147 given it the name of “erigeron,”926 because it is white in spring. The head is divided into numerous downy filaments, which resemble those of the thorn,927 protruding from between the divisions of the head: hence it is that Callimachus has given it the name of “acanthis,”928 while others, again, call it “pappus.929”

After all, however, the Greek writers are by no means agreed as to this plant; some say, for instance, that it has leaves like those of rocket, while others maintain that they resemble those of the robur, only that they are considerably smaller. Some, again, assert that the root is useless, while others aver that it is beneficial for the sinews, and others that it produces suffocation, if taken in drink. On the other hand, some have prescribed it in wine, for jaundice and all affections of the bladder, heart, and liver, and give it as their opinion that it carries off gravel from the kidneys. It has been prescribed, also, by them for sciatica, the patient taking one drachma in oxymel, after a walk; and has been recommended as extremely useful for griping pains in the bowels, taken in raisin wine. They assert, also, that used as an aliment with vinegar, it is wholesome for the thoracic organs, and recommend it to be grown in the garden for these several purposes.

In addition to this, there are some authorities to be found, which distinguish another variety of this plant, but without mentioning its peculiar characteristics. This last they recommend to be taken in water, to neutralize the venom of serpents, and prescribe it to be eaten for the cure of epilepsy. For my own part, however, I shall only speak of it in accordance with the uses made of it among us Romans, uses based upon the results of actual experience. The down of this plant, beaten up with saffron and a little cold water, is applied to defluxions of the eyes; parched with a little salt, it is employed for the cure of scrofulous sores.

The ephemeron930 has leaves like those of the lily, but smaller;148 a stem of the same height, a blue flower, and a seed of which no use is made. The root is single, about the thickness of one’s finger, and an excellent remedy for diseases of the teeth; for which purpose it is cut up in pieces, and boiled in vinegar, the decoction being used warm as a collutory. The root, too, is employed by itself to strengthen the teeth, being inserted for the purpose in those that are hollow or carious.

Root of chelidonia931 is also beaten up with vinegar, and kept in the mouth. Black hellebore is sometimes inserted in carious teeth; and a decoction of either of these last-mentioned plants, in vinegar, has the effect of strengthening loose teeth.

Labrum Venereum932 is the name given to a plant that grows in running streams.933 It produces a small worm,934 which is crushed by being rubbed upon the teeth, or else enclosed in wax and inserted in the hollow of the tooth. Care must be taken, however, that the plant, when pulled up, does not touch the ground.

The plant known to the Greeks as “batrachion,”935 we call ranunculus.936 There are four varieties of it,937 one of which149 has leaves somewhat thicker than those of coriander, nearly the size of those of the mallow, and of a livid hue: the stem of the plant is long and slender, and the root white; it grows on moist and well-shaded embankments. The second938 kind is more foliated than the preceding one, the leaves have more numerous incisions, and the stems of the plant are long. The third939 variety is smaller than the others, has a powerful smell, and a flower of a golden colour. The fourth940 kind is very like the one last mentioned, but the flower is milk-white.

All these plants have caustic properties: if the leaves are applied unboiled, they raise blisters like those caused by the action of fire; hence it is that they are used for the removal of leprous spots, itch-scabs, and brand marks upon the skin. They form an ingredient also in all caustic preparations, and are applied for the cure of alopecy, care being taken to remove them very speedily. The root, if chewed for some time, in cases of tooth-ache, will cause941 the teeth to break; dried and pulverized, it acts as a sternutatory.

Our herbalists give this plant the name of “strumus,” from the circumstance of its being curative of strumous942 sores and inflamed tumours, for which purpose a portion of it is hung up in the smoke. It is a general belief, too, with them, that if it is replanted, the malady so cured will reappear943—a criminal practice, for which the plantago is also employed. The juice of this last-mentioned plant is curative of internal ulcerations of the mouth; and the leaves and root are chewed for a similar150 purpose, even when the mouth is suffering from defluxions. Cinquefoil effects the cure of ulcerations and offensive breath; psyllium944 is used also for ulcers of the mouth.

We shall also here make mention of certain preparations for the cure of offensive breath—a most noisome inconvenience. For this purpose, leaves of myrtle and lentisk are taken in equal proportions, with one half the quantity of Syrian nut-galls; they are then pounded together and sprinkled with old wine, and the composition is chewed in the morning. In similar cases, also, ivy berries are used, in combination with cassia and myrrh; these ingredients being mixed, in equal proportions, with wine.

For offensive odours of the nostrils, even though attended with carcinoma, the most effectual remedy is seed of dracontium945 beaten up with honey. An application of hyssop has the effect of making bruises disappear. Brand marks946 in the face are healed by rubbing them with mandragora.947

Summary.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, twelve hundred and ninety-two.

Roman authors quoted.—C. Valgius,948 Pompeius Lenæus,949 Sextius Niger950 who wrote in Greek, Julius Bassus951 who wrote in Greek, Antonius Castor,952 Cornelius Celsus,953 Fabianus.954

Foreign authors quoted.—Theophrastus,955 Apollodorus,956 Democritus,957 Juba,958 Orpheus,959 Pythagoras,960 Mago,961 Menander962151 who wrote the “Biochresta,” Nicander,963 Homer, Hesiod,964 Musæus,965 Sophocles,966 Xanthus,967 Anaxilaüs.968

Medical authors quoted.—Mnesitheus,969 Callimachus,970 Phanias971 the physician, Timaristus,972 Simus,973 Hippocrates,974 Chrysippus,975 Diocles,976 Ophelion,977 Heraclides,978 Hicesius,979 Dionysius,980 Apollodorus981 of Citium, Apollodorus982 of Tarentum, Praxagoras,983 Plistonicus,984 Medius,985 Dieuches,986 Cleophantus,987 Philistion,988 Asclepiades,989 Crateuas,990 Petronius Diodotus,991 Iollas,992 Erasistratus,993 Diagoras,994 Andreas,995 Mnesides,996 Epicharmus,997 Damion,998 Sosimenes,999 Tlepolemus,1000 Metrodorus,1001 Solon,1002 Lycus,1003 Olympias1004 of Thebes, Philinus,1005 Petrichus,1006 Micton,1007 Glaucias,1008 Xenocrates.1009

CHAP. 1. (1.)—NEW FORMS OF DISEASE.

The face of man has recently been sensible of new forms of disease, unknown1010 in ancient times, not only to Italy, but to almost the whole of Europe. Still, however, they have not as yet extended to the whole of Italy, nor have they made any very great inroads in Illyricum, Gaul, or Spain, or indeed any other parts, to so great an extent as in Rome and its environs. Though unattended with pain, and not dangerous to life, these diseases are of so loathsome a nature, that any form of death would be preferable to them.

The most insupportable of all these diseases is the one which, after its Greek appellation, is known to us as “lichen.”1010 In consequence, however, of its generally making its first appearance at the chin, the Latins, by way of joke, originally—so prone are mankind to make a jest of the misfortunes of others—gave it the name of “mentagra;”1011 an appellation which has since become established in general use. In many cases, however, this disease spreads over the interior of the mouth, and takes possession of the whole face, with the sole exception of the eyes; after which, it passes downwards to the neck, breast, and hands, covering them with foul furfuraceous eruptions.

This curse was unknown to the ancients,1012 and in the times of our fathers even, having first entered Italy in the middle of153 the reign of the Emperor Tiberius1013 Claudius Cæsar; where it was introduced from Asia,1014 in which country it had lately made1015 its appearance, by a member of the equestrian order at Rome, a native of Perusium, secretary to the quæstor. The disease, however, did not attack either females or slaves,1016 nor yet the lower orders, or, indeed, the middle classes, but only the nobles, being communicated even by the momentary contact requisite for the act of salutation.1017 Many of those who persevered in undergoing a course of remedial treatment, though cured of the disease, retained scars upon the body more hideous even than the malady itself; it being treated with cauteries, as it was certain to break out afresh, unless means were adopted for burning it out of the body by cauterizing to the very bone.

Upon this occasion several physicians repaired to Rome from Egypt, that fruitful parent of maladies of this nature, men who devoted themselves solely to this branch of medical practice; and very considerable were the profits they made. At all events, it is a well-known fact that Manilius Cornutus, a personage of prætorian rank, and legatus of the province of Aquitania, expended no less a sum than two hundred thousand1018 sesterces upon his cure.

It is much more frequently, on the other hand, that we hear of new forms of diseases attacking the lower orders; a singular fact, and one quite unequalled for the marvellous phænomena which sometimes attend these outbreaks. Thus, for instance, we find an epidemic suddenly making its appearance in a certain country, and then confining itself, as though it had made its election so to do, to certain parts of the body, certain ages, and even certain pursuits in life. In the same way, too, while154 one class of diseases attacks the young, another confines itself to adults; while one malady extends itself only to the higher classes, another is felt exclusively by the poor.

We find it stated in the Annals, that it was in the censorship1019 of L. Paulus and Q. Marcius that carbuncle1020 was first introduced into Italy, a malady which till then had confined itself solely to the province of Gallia Narbonensis. In the year in which I am writing these lines, two persons of consular rank have died of this disease, Julius Rufus1021 and Q. Lecanius Bassus;1022 the former in consequence of an incision unskilfully made by his medical attendants, the latter through a wound upon the thumb of the left hand by pricking a carbuncle with a needle, a wound so small originally as to be hardly perceptible.

This disease makes its appearance in the more hidden1023 parts of the human body, and mostly beneath the tongue. It originally has the form of a hard, red, pimple, with a blackish head mostly, though sometimes of a livid colour. It produces tension of the flesh, but unattended with swelling, pain, or any itching sensation; indeed, the only symptom that accompanies it is a confirmed drowsiness, which overpowers the patient, and carries him off in the course of three days. Sometimes, however, it is accompanied with shuddering, and small pustules about the sore; and occasionally, though but rarely, with fever. When these symptoms extend to the fauces and œsophagus, death ensues with the greatest rapidity.

We have already1024 stated that elephantiasis1025 was unknown155 in Italy before the time of Pompeius Magnus. This malady, too, like those already mentioned, mostly makes its first appearance in the face. In its primary form it bears a considerable resemblance to a small lentil upon the nose; the skin gradually dries up all over the body, is marked with spots of various colours, and presents an unequal surface, being thick in one place, thin in another, indurated every here and there, and covered with a sort of rough scab. At a later period, the skin assumes a black hue, and compresses the flesh upon the bones, the fingers and toes becoming swollen.

This disease was originally peculiar to Egypt. Whenever it attacked the kings of that country, it was attended with peculiarly fatal effects to the people, it being the practice to temper their sitting-baths with human blood, for the treatment of the disease. As for Italy, however, its career was very soon cut short: the same was the case, too, with the disease known as “gemursa”1026 to the ancients, a malady which made its appearance between the toes, and the very name of which is now buried in oblivion.

It is a remarkable fact that some diseases should disappear from among us, while others, again, should continue to prevail, colic1027 for example. It was only in the reign of Tiberius Cæsar that this malady made its appearance in Italy, the emperor himself being the first to be attacked by it; a circumstance which produced considerable mystification throughout the City, when it read the edict issued by that prince excusing his inattention to public business, on the ground of his being laid up with a disease, the very name of which was till then unknown. To what cause are we to attribute these various diseases, or how is it that we have thus incurred the anger of the gods? Was it deemed too little for man to be exposed to156 fixed and determinate classes of maladies, already more than three hundred in number, that he must have new forms of disease to alarm him as well? And then, in addition to all these, not less in number are the troubles and misfortunes which man brings upon himself!

The remedies which I am here describing, are those which were universally employed in ancient times, Nature herself, so to say, making up the medicines: indeed, for a long time these were the only medicines employed.

(2.) Hippocrates,1028 it is well known, was the first to compile a code of medical precepts, a thing which he did with the greatest perspicuity, as his treatises, we find, are replete with information upon the various plants. No less is the information which we gain from the works of Diocles1029 of Carystus, second only in reputation, as well as date, to Hippocrates. The same, too, with reference to the works of Praxagoras, Chrysippus, and, at a later period, Erasistratus1030 of Cos. Herophilus1031 too, though himself the founder of a more refined system of medicine, was extremely profuse of his commendations of the use of simples. At a later period, however, experience, our most efficient instructor in all things, medicine in particular, gradually began to be lost sight of in mere words and verbiage: it being found, in fact, much more agreeable to sit in schools, and to listen to the talk of a professor, than to go a simpling in the deserts, and to be searching for this plant or that at all the various seasons of the year.

Still, however, the ancient theories remained unshaken, based as they were upon the still existing grounds of universally acknowledged experience; until, in the time of Pompeius Magnus, Asclepiades,1032 a professor of rhetoric, who considered himself not sufficiently repaid by that pursuit, and whose readiness and sagacity rendered him better adapted for any other than forensic practice, suddenly turned his attention to the medical art. Having never practised medicine, and being totally unacquainted with the nature of remedies—a157 knowledge only to be acquired by personal examination and actual experience—as a matter of course, he was obliged to renounce all previously-established theories, and to trust rather to his flowing periods and his well-studied discourses, for gaining an influence upon the minds of his audience.

Reducing the whole art of medicine to an estimation solely of primary causes, he made it nothing but a merely conjectural art, and established it as his creed, that there are five great principles of treatment for all diseases in common; diet, use or non-use of wine, frictions, exercise on foot, and exercise1033 in a carriage or on horseback. As every one perceived that each of these methods of treatment lay quite within his own reach, all, of course, with the greatest readiness gave their assent, willing as they were to believe that to be true which was so easy of acquisition; and hence it was that he attracted nearly all the world about him, as though he had been sent among mankind on a special mission from heaven.

In addition to this, he had a wonderful tact in gaining the full confidence of his patients: sometimes he would make them a promise of wine, and then seize the opportune moment for administering it, while on other occasions, again, he would prescribe cold water: indeed, as Herophilus, among the ancients, had been the first to enquire into the primary causes of disease, and Cleophantus had brought into notice the treatment of diseases by wine, so did Asclepiades, as we learn from M. Varro, prefer to be indebted for his surname and repute to the extensive use made by him of cold water as a remedy. He employed also various other soothing remedies for his patients; thus, for instance, it was he that introduced swinging beds, the motion of which might either lull the malady, or induce sleep, as deemed desirable. It was he, too, that brought baths into such general use,—a method of treatment that was adopted with the greatest avidity—in addition to numerous other modes of treatment of a pleasant and soothing nature. By these means he acquired a great professional reputation, and a no less extended fame; which158 was very considerably enhanced by the following incident: meeting the funeral procession of a person unknown to him, he ordered the body to be removed from the funeral pile1034 and carried home, and was thus the means of saving his life. This circumstance I am the more desirous to mention, that it may not be imagined that it was on slight grounds only that so extensive a revolution was effected in the medical art.

There is, however, one thing, and one thing only, at which we have any ground for indignation,—the fact, that a single individual, and he belonging to the most frivolous nation1035 in the world, a man born in utter indigence, should all on a sudden, and that, too, for the sole purpose of increasing his income, give a new code of medical laws to mankind; laws, however, be it remembered, which have been annulled by numerous authorities since his day. The success of Asclepiades was considerably promoted by many of the usages of ancient medicine, repulsive in their nature, and attended with far too much anxiety: thus, for instance, it was the practice to cover up the patient with vast numbers of clothes, and to adopt every possible method of promoting the perspiration; to order the body to be roasted before a fire; or else to be continually sending the patient on a search for sunshine, a thing hardly to be found in a showery climate like that of this city of ours; or rather, so to say, of the whole of Italy, so prolific1036 as it is of fogs and rain.1037 It was to remedy these inconveniences, that he introduced the use of hanging baths,1038 an invention that was found grateful to invalids in the very highest degree.

In addition to this, he modified the tortures which had hitherto attended the treatment of certain maladies; as in quinzy for instance, the cure of which before his time had been usually effected by the introduction of an instrument1039 into the throat. He condemned, and with good reason, the indiscriminate use of emetics, which till then had been resorted to in a159 most extraordinary degree. He disapproved also of the practice of administering internally potions that are naturally injurious to the stomach, a thing that may truthfully be pronounced of the greater part of them. Indeed it will be as well to take an early opportunity of stating what are the medicaments which act beneficially upon the stomach.

But above all things, it was the follies of magic more particularly that contributed so essentially to his success—follies which had been carried to such a pitch as to destroy all confidence in the remedial virtues of plants. Thus, for instance, it was stoutly maintained that by the agency of the plant æthiopis1040 rivers and standing waters could be dried up, and that by the very touch1041 * * * * all bars and doors might be opened: that if the plant achæmenis1042 were thrown into the ranks of the enemy it would be certain to create a panic and put them to flight: that latace1043 was given by the Persian kings to their ambassadors, to ensure them an abundant supply of everything wherever they might happen to be: with numerous other reveries of a similar nature. Where, I should like to know, were all these plants, when the Cimbri and Teutones brought upon us the horrors of warfare with their terrific yells? or when Lucullus defeated, with a few legions, so many kings who ruled over the Magi?1044 Why is it too that the Roman generals have always made it their first care in warfare to make provision for the victualling of their troops? And how was it that at Pharsalia the troops of Cæsar were suffering from famine, if an abundance of everything could have been ensured by the fortunate possession of a single plant? Would it not have been better too for Scipio Æmilianus to have opened the gates of Carthage by touching them with a herb, than to have taken so many years to batter down its bulwarks with his engines of war?

Turning to the present moment, let them, by the agency of the herb meroïs,1045 dry up the Pomptine1046 Marshes, if they can,160 and by these means restore so much territory to the regions of Italy in the neighbourhood of our city. In the works, too, of Democritus, already mentioned,1047 we find a recipe for the composition of a medicament which will ensure the procreation of issue, both sure to be good and fortunate.—What king of Persia, pray, ever obtained that blessing? It really would be a marvellous fact that human credulity, taking its rise originally in the very soundest of notions, should have ultimately arrived at such a pitch as this, if the mind of man understood, under any circumstances, how to keep within the bounds of moderation; and if the very system of medicine thus introduced by Asclepiades, had not been carried to a greater pitch of extravagance than the follies of magic even, an assertion which I shall prove on a more appropriate occasion.1048

Such, however, is the natural constitution of the human mind, that, be the circumstances what they may, commencing with what is necessary it speedily arrives at the point of launching out in excess.

We will now resume our account of the medicinal properties of the plants mentioned in the preceding Book, adding to our description such others as the necessities of the case may seem to require.

As to the treatment of lichen, so noisome a disease as it is, we shall here give a number of additional remedies for it, gathered from all quarters, although those already described are by no means few in number. For the cure of lichen plantago is used, pounded, cinquefoil also, root of albucus1049 in combination with vinegar, the young shoots of the fig-tree boiled in vinegar, or roots of marsh-mallow boiled down to one-fourth with glue and vinegar. The sores are rubbed also with pumice, and then fomented with root of rumex1050 bruised in vinegar, or with scum of viscus1051 kneaded up with lime. A decoction, too, of tithymalos1052 with resin is highly esteemed for the same purpose.

But to all these remedies the plant known as “lichen,” from161 its efficacy as a cure, is held in preference. It is found growing among rocks, and has a single broad leaf1053 near the root, and a single long stem, with small leaves hanging from it. This plant has the property also of effacing brand marks, being beaten up with honey for that purpose. There is another kind1054 of lichen also, which adheres entirely to rocks, like moss, and which is equally used as a topical application. The juice of it, dropt into wounds, or applied to abscesses, has the property of arresting hæmorrhage: mixed with honey, it is curative of jaundice, the face and tongue being rubbed with it. Under this mode of treatment, the patient is recommended to wash in salt water, to anoint himself with oil of almonds, and to abstain from garden vegetables. For the cure of lichen, root of thapsia1055 is also used, bruised in honey.

For the treatment of quinzy, we find argemonia1056 recommended, in wine; a decoction of hyssop, boiled with figs, used as a gargle; peucedanum,1057 with an equal proportion of sea-calf’s rennet; proserpinaca,1058 beaten up in the pickle of the mæna1059 and oil, or else placed beneath the tongue; as also juice of cinquefoil, taken in doses of three cyathi. Used as a gargle, juice of cinquefoil is good for the cure of all affections of the fauces: verbascum,1060 too, taken in wine, is particularly useful for diseases of the tonsillary glands.

For the cure of scrofula1061 plantago is employed, chelidonia1062 mixed with honey and axle-grease, cinquefoil, and root of persolata1063—this162 last being applied topically, and covered with the leaf of the plant—artemisia,1064 also, and an infusion of the root of mandragora1065 in water. The large-leaved sideritis,1066 cleft by the left hand with a nail, is worn attached as an amulet: but after the cure has been effected, due care must be taken to preserve the plant, in order that it may not be set again, to promote the wicked designs of the herbalists and so cause the disease to break out afresh; as sometimes happens in the cases already mentioned,1067 and others which I find stated, in reference to persons cured by the agency of artemisia or plantago.

Damasonion,1068 also known as alcea, is gathered at the summer solstice, and applied with rain-water, the leaves being beaten up, or the root pounded, with axle-grease, so as to admit, when applied, of being covered with a leaf of the plant. The same plan is adopted also for the cure of all pains in the neck, and tumours on all parts of the body.

Bellis1069 is the name of a plant that grows in the fields, with a white flower somewhat inclining to red; if this is applied with artemisia,1070 it is said, the remedy is still more efficacious.

The condurdum,1071 too, is a plant with a red blossom, which flowers at the summer solstice. Suspended from the neck, it163 arrests scrofula, they say: the same being the case also with vervain, in combination with plantago. For the cure of all diseases of the fingers, hangnails in particular, cinquefoil is used.

Of all diseases of the chest, cough is the one that is the most oppressive. For the cure of this malady, root of panaces1072 in sweet wine is used, and in cases where it is attended with spitting of blood, juice of henbane. Henbane, too, used as a fumigation, is good for cough; and the same with scordotis,1073 mixed with nasturtium and dry resin, beaten up with honey: employed by itself also, scordotis facilitates expectoration, a property which is equally possessed by the greater centaury, even where the patient is troubled with spitting of blood; for which last juice of plantago is very beneficial. Betony, taken in doses of three oboli in water, is useful for purulent or bloody expectorations: root also of persolata,1074 in doses of one drachma, taken with eleven pine-nuts; and juice of peucedanum.1075

For pains in the chest, acoron1076 is remarkably useful; hence it is that it is so much used an ingredient in antidotes. For cough, daucus1077 and the plant scythice1078 are much employed, this last being good, in fact, for all affections of the chest, coughs, and purulent expectorations, taken in doses of three oboli, with the same proportion of raisin wine. The verbascum1079 too, with a flower like gold, is similarly employed.

(6.) This last-named plant is so remarkably energetic, that an infusion of it, administered in their drink, will relieve beasts of burden, not only when troubled with cough, but when broken-winded even—a property which I find attributed to gentian also. Root of cacalia1080 chewed, or steeped in wine, is good for cough as well as all affections of the throat. Five sprigs of hyssop, with two of rue and three figs, act detergently upon the thoracic organs and allay cough.

Bechion1081 is known also as tussilago: there are two kinds of it. Wherever it is found growing wild, it is generally thought that there is a spring of water below, and it is looked upon as a sure sign that such is the case, by persons in search1082 of water. The leaves are somewhat larger than those of ivy, and are some five or seven in number, of a whitish hue beneath, and a pale green on the upper surface. The plant is destitute of stem, blossom, and seed, and the root is very diminutive. Some persons are of opinion that this bechion is identical with the arcion, known also as the “chamæleuce.”1083 The smoke1084 of this plant in a dry state, inhaled by the aid of a reed and swallowed, is curative, they say, of chronic cough; it is necessary, however, at each inhalation to take a draught of raisin wine.

There is another bechion1085 also, known to some persons as “salvia,”1086 and bearing a strong resemblance to verbascum. This plant is triturated, and the juice strained off and taken warm for cough and for pains in the side: it is considered very beneficial also for the stings of scorpions and sea-dragons.1087 It is a good plan, too, to rub the body with this juice, mixed with oil, as a preservative against the stings of serpents. A bunch of hyssop is sometimes boiled down with a quarter of a pound of honey, for the cure of cough.

For the cure of pains in the side and chest, verbascum1088 is used in water, with rue; powdered betony is also taken in warm water. Juice of scordotis1089 is used as a stomachic,165 centaury also, gentian taken in water, and plantago, either eaten with the food, or mixed with lentils or a pottage of alica.1090 Betony, which is in general prejudicial to the stomach, is remedial for some stomachic affections, taken in drink or chewed, the leaves being used for the purpose. In a similar manner too, aristolochia1091 is taken in drink, or dried agaric is chewed, a draught of undiluted wine being taken every now and then. Nymphæa heraclia1092 is also applied topically in these cases, and juice of peucedanum.1093 For burning pains in the stomach psyllion1094 is applied, or else cotyledon1095 beaten up with polenta, or aizoüm.1096

Molon1097 is a plant with a striated stem, a soft diminutive leaf, and a root four fingers in length, at the extremity of which there is a head like that of garlic; by some persons it is known as “syron.” Taken in wine, it is curative of affections of the stomach, and of hardness of breathing. For similar purposes the greater centaury is used, in an electuary; juice also of plantago, or else the plant itself, eaten with the food; pounded betony, in the proportion of one pound to half an ounce of Attic honey, taken daily in warm water; and aristolochia1098 or agaric, taken in doses of three oboli, in warm water or asses’ milk.

For hardness of breathing an infusion of cissanthemos1099 is taken in drink, and for the same complaint, as also for asthma, hyssop. For pains in the liver, chest, and side, if unattended with fever, juice of peucedanum is used. For spitting of blood agaric is employed, in doses of one victoriatus,1100 bruised and administered in five cyathi of honied wine: amomum,1101 too, is equally useful for that purpose. For liver diseases in166 particular, teucria1102 is taken fresh, in doses of four drachmæ to one hemina of oxycrate; or else betony, in the proportion of one drachma to three cyathi of warm water. For diseases of the heart, betony is recommended, in doses of one drachma to two cyathi of cold water. Juice of cinquefoil is remedial for diseases of the liver and lungs, and for spitting of blood as well as all internal affections of the blood. The two varieties of anagallis1103 are wonderfully efficacious for liver complaints. Patients who eat the plant called “capnos”1104 discharge the bile by urine. Acoron1105 is also remedial for diseases of the liver, and daucus1106 is useful for the thorax and the pectoral organs.

The ephedra,1107 by some persons called “anabasis,” mostly grows in localities exposed to the wind. It climbs the trunks of trees, and hangs down from the branches, is destitute of leaves, but has numerous suckers, jointed like a bulrush; the root is of a pale colour. This plant is given, pounded, in astringent red wine, for cough, asthma, and gripings in the bowels. It is administered also in the form of a pottage, to which some wine should be added. For these complaints, gentian is also used, being steeped in water the day before, and then pounded and given in doses of one denarius, in three cyathi of wine.

Geum1108 is a plant with thin, diminutive roots, black, and aromatic.1109 It is curative not only of pains in the chest and sides, but is useful also for dispelling crudities, owing to its agreeable flavour. Vervain, too, is good for all affections of the viscera, and for diseases of the sides, lungs, liver, and167 thorax. But one invaluable remedy for diseases of the lungs, and for cases of incipient phthisis, is the root of consiligo, a plant only very recently discovered, as already1110 mentioned. It is a most efficient remedy also for pulmonary diseases in swine and cattle, even though only passed through the ear of the animal. When used, it should be taken in water, and kept for a considerable time in the mouth, beneath the tongue. Whether the part of this plant which grows above ground is useful or not for any purpose, is at present unknown. Plantago, eaten with the food, betony taken in drink, and agaric taken in the way prescribed for cough, are useful, all of them, for diseases of the kidneys.

Tripolium1111 is a plant found growing upon cliffs on the sea-shore against which the waves break, springing up, so to say, neither upon dry land nor in the sea. The leaves are like those of isatis,1112 only thicker; the stem is a palm in height and divided at the extremity, and the root white, thick, and odoriferous, with a warm flavour; it is recommended for diseases of the liver, boiled with spelt. This plant is thought by some to be identical with polium, of which we have already spoken in the appropriate place.1113

Gromphæna1114 is the name of a plant, the stem of which is covered with leaves of a green and rose colour, arranged alternately. The leaves of it are administered in oxycrate, in cases of spitting of blood.

For diseases of the liver the malundrum1115 is prescribed, a168 plant which grows in meadows and corn-fields, with a white odoriferous flower. The stem is diminutive, and is beaten up in old wine.

Chalcetum1116 also is the name of a plant, which is pounded with grape husks and applied topically, for the cure of liver complaints. Root of betony acts as a gentle emetic, taken in the same way as hellebore, in doses of four drachmæ in raisin wine or honied wine. Hyssop, too, is beaten up with honey for similar purposes; but it is more efficacious if nasturtium or irio1117 is taken first.

Molemonium1118 is used as an emetic, being taken in doses of one denarius; the same, too, with sillybum.1119 Both of these plants have a milky juice, which thickens like gum, and is taken with honey in the proportions above-mentioned, being particularly good for carrying off bile. On the other hand, vomiting is arrested by the use of wild cummin or powdered betony, taken in water. Crudities and distaste for food are dispelled, and the digestion promoted by employing daucus,1120 powdered betony1121 taken in hydromel, or else plantago boiled like greens. Hiccup is arrested by taking hemionium1122 or aristolochia,1123 and asthma by the use of clymenus.1124 For pleurisy and peripneumony, the greater centaury is used, or else hyssop, taken in drink. Juice of peucedanum1125 is also good for pleurisy.

The plant halus,1126 by the people of Gaul called “sil,” and by the Veneti “cotonea,” is curative of pains in the side, affections of the kidneys, ruptures, and convulsions. It resembles cunila bubula1127 in appearance, and the tops of it are like those of thyme. It is of a sweet flavour, and allays thirst; the roots of it are sometimes white, sometimes black.

The chamærops,1128 also, is similarly efficacious for pains in the side. It is a plant with leaves like those of myrtle, arranged in pairs around the stem, the heads of it resembling those of the Greek rose: it is taken in wine. Agaric, administered in drink, in the same manner1129 as for cough, assuages sciatica and pains in the vertebræ: the same, too, with powdered stœchas1130 or betony, taken in hydromel.

But it is the belly, for the gratification of which the greater part of mankind exist, that causes the most suffering to man. Thus, for instance, at one time it will not allow the aliments to pass, while at another it is unable to retain them. Sometimes, again, it either cannot receive the food, or, if it can, cannot digest it; indeed, such are the excesses practised at the present day, that it is through his aliment, more than anything else, that man hastens his end. This receptacle,1131 more troublesome to us than any other part of the body, is ever craving, like some importunate creditor, and makes its calls repeatedly in the day. It is for its sake, more particularly, that avarice is so insatiate, for its sake that luxury is so refined,1132 for its sake that men voyage to the shores even of the Phasis, for its sake that the very depths of the ocean are ransacked. And yet, with all this, no one ever gives a thought how abject is the condition of this part of our body, how disgusting the results of its action upon what it has received! No wonder then,170 that the belly should have to be indebted to the aid of medicine in the very highest degree!

Scordotis,1133 fresh-gathered and beaten up, in doses of one drachma, with wine, arrests flux of the bowels; an effect equally produced by a decoction of it taken in drink. Polemonia,1134 too, is given in wine for dysentery, or two fingers’ length of root of verbascum,1135 in water; seed of nymphæa heraclia,1136 in wine; the upper root of xiphion,1137 in doses of one drachma, in vinegar; seed of plantago, beaten, up in wine; plantago itself boiled in vinegar, or else a pottage of alica1138 mixed with the juice of the plant; plantago boiled with lentils; plantago dried and powdered, and sprinkled in drink, with parched poppies pounded; juice of plantago, used as an injection, or taken in drink; or betony taken in wine heated with a red-hot iron. For cœliac affections, betony is taken in astringent wine, or iberis is applied topically, as already1139 stated. For tenesmus, root of nymphæa heraclia is taken in wine, or else psyllion1140 in water, or a decoction of root of acoron.1141 Juice of aizoüm1142 arrests diarrhœa and dysentery, and expels round tape-worm. Root of symphytum,1143 taken in wine, arrests diarrhœa and dysentery, and daucus1144 has a similar effect. Leaves of aizoüm1145 beaten up in wine, and dried alcea1146 powdered and taken in wine, are curative of griping pains in the bowels.