Discovery The Philippines were discovered by Magellan in 1521. That discovery occasioned the first circumnavigation of the globe. Long before the discovery, however, the Islands were already known in the Orient, for they had commercial relations with China as early as the 13th century and with Japan, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Moluccas.

It is erroneous to suppose that the culture of the Filipinos dated only from the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. Long before that time they had already acquired a fair degree of culture. They had systems of writing similar to the Phœnician alphabetical arrangement. They had calendars and a system of weights and measures. They tilled their lands and maintained village governments. They had laws based on traditions and customs handed down from generation to generation, and as early as 1433, or 88 years previous to the arrival of Magellan, there existed a Penal Code known as the Code of Calantiao.

The Spanish Rule—A Tale of Wars and Uprisings The history of the Islands from the beginning of Spanish rule to the middle of the 19th century was a long tale of wars and uprisings. The Portuguese disputed Spain’s right to the Islands, and between 1566 and 1570 made three attempts to dislodge the Spaniards. The Dutch during the first half of the 17th century repeatedly appeared in Philippine waters and made attacks on the Spaniards. The British unexpectedly swooped down on Manila in 1762, and the Archbishop who was acting as governor speedily capitulated, the City of Manila falling into [18]British hands until the treaty of Paris in 1763 when it was again restored to Spain. The Chinese residents added to all these difficulties by revolting from time to time.

But the most persistent trouble-makers were the Filipinos themselves who repeatedly revolted because of alleged injustices committed upon them. Between the years 1645 and 1665 alone there occurred five uprisings against the Spanish Government. Other revolts, no less serious, took place in the 18th and 19th centuries. The rebellion of Dagohoy, for example, took place at this time, spreading throughout practically the whole Island of Bohol and continuing for a period of eighty years.

There were in all about a hundred uprisings, big and small, during the Spanish régime. That of 1872 was especially noted for its magnitude and the determination shown by the revolutionists. It was put down with the execution of three secular priests—Burgos, Gomez, and Zamora—ever since reckoned among the popular heroes of the country. From that time plotting against the corrupt civil government and the autocratic religious corporations never really ceased; and in 1892 Andres Bonifacio organized a secret society known as the Katipunan, which preached hatred against Spain because of the abuses of the friars and of the authorities, and demanded freedom from foreign yoke.

Reforms in the 19th century The dawn of the 19th century, however, was marked by significant changes for the better. During the periods of 1810 and 1813, 1820 to 1823, and 1830 to 1837, as a result of the nationalistic and liberal struggles Spain was experiencing, the Cortes was revived and representatives from different parts of the monarchy—the colonies included—were given seats therein. This ushered in a period of constitutional and representative government for the Filipinos. Moreover, by 1830, Spain’s commercial policy of trade exclusiveness for the colonies was abandoned. A few years later, Manila was thrown open to foreign trade and a freer and more liberal economic system adopted. In this way, the foundation for subsequent political and economic progress was laid. [19]

From the beginning of Spanish domination, there existed scores of schools and colleges which were mostly conducted by the religious orders. These schools and colleges offered various courses and graduated numerous priests, lawyers, physicians, pharmacists, and teachers. Increase in the number of professional graduates made possible the rise of an intellectual class in the seventies and eighties. To this group of men, Burgos and Paterno, leaders of the liberal movement of 1870; Dr. Rizal, the Filipino hero; M. H. del Pilar, a prominent propagandist; and Mabini, the brain of the Revolution, belonged—men who, in attainment and culture, can adorn the halls of any nation. Many of the prominent leaders of today also had their training in those schools—Manuel L. Quezon, Sergio Osmeña, T. Pardo de Tavera, Victorino Mapa, Florentino Torres, Teodoro M. Kalaw, Juan Sumulong, Rafael Palma, and many others who have held high positions in the government during the first years of American sovereignty.

Last Decades of Spanish Rule—The Coming of the Americans The last decades of Spanish rule were marked by several reforms, but these reforms were altogether too conservative and came too late. Consequently there was much discontent and the Filipinos, in August, 1896, following the teachings of the Katipunan, rose in revolt and sought to declare themselves independent of Spain. The revolution extended throughout the archipelago. It was halted by the Pact of Biac-na-Bato in December, 1897, only to be resumed early in the year following, under the very eyes and later with the help of the Americans, who appeared on the scene on May 1, 1898. The Filipinos succeeded in wresting from Spain every foot of Philippine territory except Manila which was surrendered to the Americans on August 13, after simultaneous attacks by American and Filipino forces.

Soon afterwards the first republic in the Far East based on a constitutional and representative government was established by the Filipinos. It had received the commendation [20]of several foreigners among whom were the late Senator Hoar and John Barrett, ex-Director of the Pan-American Union.

Filipino-American War The downfall of the republic came as a result of the Filipino-American war which broke out through a misunderstanding between America and the Philippines and which lasted for three years. With the superior forces of the United States it was naturally a one-sided struggle, but it nevertheless showed once more the determination of the Filipino people to have an independent national existence. They wanted no less than an untrammeled republic free from any foreign control. They asked that of the United States. But no definite assurance was given that they would ultimately be freed. Had such assurances been given them the Filipino-American war would have been avoided.

The Establishment of civil government American civil government was established in the Islands in 1901 and 1902. Under this government the Philippines made remarkably rapid strides along the road of progress. But the most significant stride is perhaps the development of Philippine home rule, For it should be known that today, with few exceptions, notably those of the American Chief Executive and the American Vice-Governor, who is also Secretary of Public Instruction, the Philippine government is run by the Filipinos themselves.

[21]

Power of Propaganda to Misrepresent Conditions So powerful is propaganda in misrepresenting actual conditions that the Philippines used to mean, and often still means, a mere fringe of civilization, or something similar to it, where the Spaniards had planted and the Americans had watered, but within all was still savagery and primeval ways.

An exhibition of an Igorot village at the St. Louis World’s Fair of 1904 probably spread in America more of the notion of the Philippines as an untamed wilderness than tons of statistics could correct. These, then, were the people America had undertaken to govern—wild, naked creatures, beside whom the North American Indian was a gentleman and a scholar! Indeed, a long time must elapse before you can reduce these to suspenders and beefsteaks. A long time? Why, centuries and centuries!

Non-Christian population Again, to the assiduous readers of press dispatches, the typical Filipino has come to mean the fierce Mohammedan Moro; although, there are in the Islands less than 400,000 Mohammedans of all kinds, whether fierce or urbane. Still others have concluded that the wild-eyed nomad of the mountains, the man with the bow and arrow, with no religion at all, must be the determining factor of the situation because there are so many of his kind; and yet the census reveals the total number of persons in all the Islands that do not profess either Christianity, Mohammedanism, or Buddhism as only 102,000. [22]

Literacy So, too, the ignorance of the Filipinos has always been believed to be appalling and a bulwark of darkness not to be overcome in generations, if ever; and yet the census reveals the percentage of literacy in the entire Islands at 49.2 per cent. The percentage compares favorably with the literacy of many of the small independent nations of the world at present.

The facts are these, as regards the Filipinos even in Pre-Spanish days:

Facts of Filipino Attainments in Pre-Spanish Days The Spaniards found that the inhabitants of the Islands built and lived in planned houses, had a machinery of government of their own, maintained a system of jurisprudence, in many cases dwelt in ordered cities and towns and practised the arts familiar to the most advanced peoples of their times.

Gunpowder they knew and used before 1300, when it had not yet been introduced in Europe; and they made firearms that astonished the Spaniards. At the siege of Manila, 1570, the natives defended their city with cannon, and the conquerors found within the walls the factory where these guns had been forged, as well equipped and ordered as any abroad.

The Islanders were expert in other metal-working, skilful ship-builders, able carpenters. Copper they had worked; but bronze, of which their great guns were made, they imported from China. Some of their art in silver-work excites admiration even now, for their beautiful design and fine workmanship.

They wove cloths of cotton, hemp, and other fibers. They were, in fact, inheritors of two great cultural infiltrations upon what original culture the Malays had two thousand years before: on one side, was the influence of the Hindus and on the other the civilization of the Chinese, and to these had been added, years before the Spaniards came, stray gleams of information transmitted roundabout from Europe.

Religion, alphabet, and books All this is inconsistent with the fanciful theory of the head-hunter and the wild man of the woods, but is nevertheless [23]the incontestable record. Heathen they were called, but they had a religion, and a code of morals, not at all contemptible. They were natural musicians, possessed a variety of musical instruments, and had native orchestras. They were fond of poetry and and honored their poets. They had also a written alphabet and they wrote books. Every settled town had a temple and most temples had collections of books. They were written in the native characters on palm leaves and bamboo, and stored with the native priests. The subjects were historical and legendary, folk-lore tales, statutes, deeds of heroism and poems. The Spanish enthusiasts burned these books as anti-Christian and thereby destroyed documents priceless to succeeding ages, the few that escaped the flames testifying poignantly to the great loss. A small collection of them was recently discovered in a cave in the Island of Negros and ethnologists have hopes of others that may have escaped the sharp eyes of the destructors. Professor Beyer, whose investigations of early Filipino life and history have been so extensive, has come upon other evidence of early Filipino letters, including an epic poem of considerable length; but this exists now only in the memories of the reciters. The four-thousand-odd lines of it that Professor Beyer has translated show a rare gift of versification and imagery.

Of the written alphabets in use before the coming of the Spaniards, fourteen were of Malay origin, one was Arabic, and one Hebrew. Of the Malayan alphabets many were structurally alike, so that a learned Visayan must have been able to make out Tagalog words and a Pampangan to spell Ilocano. We are not to imagine that every Filipino could read the written speech; there were in the Islands at that time, as in India, Spain, England, and elsewhere, the educated and the uneducated. But it seems likely that the percentage of literacy in the Philippines, about the year 1500, let us say, was as large as in Spain, larger than in India and compared favorably with the percentage in other places.

Traders and artisans The inhabitants were able traders as well as skilful artisans. Manila was one of the great commercial centers of [24]the East and long had been so; it was not a mere collection of fishermen’s huts. When the inhabitants of England were wearing skins, painting their bodies, and gashing their flesh in religious frenzies, the Filipinos were already conducting commercial marts in which were offered silks, brocades, cotton and other cloths, household furniture, precious stones, gold and gold dust, jewelry, wheat from Japan, weapons, works of art and of utility in many metals, cultivated fruits, domesticated animals, earthenware, and a variety of agricultural products from their rich volcanic soil.

Able Agriculturists The people understood how to make agricultural implements which, if crude by present standards, were nevertheless serviceable. They knew how to make machines, to hull and separate rice, to express oil from coconuts, and to weave their cloths. They worked out their own problems of irrigation and in their own way. The huge rice terraces in some parts of Luzon were and still are the wonder of all beholders. “I know of no more impressive examples of primitive engineering,” says Dean C. Worcester, “than the terraced mountain-sides of Nueva Vizcaya beside which the terraced hills of Japan sink into insignificance.”

WRITTEN AND UNWRITTEN LAWS.—The people had both written and unwritten laws. They were made and promulgated by the chiefs after consultation with the elders, and were “observed with so great exactness that it was not considered possible to break them in any circumstance.”

The laws covered many of the subjects which are common in modern times. A few of the most striking points were: Respect of parents and elders, carried to so great a degree that not even the name of one’s father could pass the lips, in the same way as the Hebrews regarded the name of God. Even after reaching manhood and even after marriage, the son was under a strict obligation to obey his father and mother. Marriage had reached the stage of mutual consent. Marriage ceremonies approaching the religious were elaborate, according to rank. Husband and wife were equal [25]socially and in the control of their property. Property was acquired principally by occupation, but also by gift, purchase, and succession. Wills were sometimes made. Contracts were strictly fulfilled. The Chinese writer, Wang Ta-yuan; in a book of 1349 says: “The natives and the traders having agreed on prices, they let the former carry off the goods and later on they bring the amount of native products agreed upon. The traders trust them, for they never fail to keep their bargains.” In fact, non-performance of a contract was severely punished. Partnerships were formed and the respective obligations of the partners enforced.

The Code of Calantiao.—The penal law was the most extensive. Penalties were severe, altho compared with present laws, they appear cruel and illogical. However, they compared favorably with Greek and Roman laws as well as with the contemporary Spanish and English criminal laws.

Calantiao, the third chief of Panay, had, in 1433, promulgated a penal code. It ran as follows:

“Ye shall not kill; neither shall ye steal; neither shall ye do harm to the aged; lest ye incur the danger of death. All those who infringe this order shall be condemned to death by being drowned with stones in the river, or in boiling water.

“Ye shall obey. Let all your debts with the headmen (principales) be met punctually. He who does not obey shall receive for the first offense one hundred lashes. If the debt is large, he shall be condemned to thrust his hand thrice into boiling water. For the second offense, he shall be condemned to be beaten to death.

“Observe and obey ye: let no one disturb the quiet of graves. When passing by the caves and trees where they are, give respect to them.

“Ye shall obey: he who makes exchange for food, let it be always done in accordance with his word. He who does not comply, shall be beaten for one hour, he who repeats the offense shall be exposed for one day among ants.

“They shall be burned: Those who by their strength or cunning have mocked at and escaped punishment; or who have killed young boys; or try to steal away the women of agorangs (rich men). [26]

“Those shall be killed who profane sites where idols are kept, and sites where are buried the sacred things of their diuatas (spirits) and headmen.”

Testimonies of Occidental Writers All which bespeak a culture of no mean order, and occidental writers themselves have given it the credit that it deserves, as shown by the following testimonies:

“They had already reached a considerable degree of civilization at the time of the Spanish conquest.”—Professor Ferdinand Blumentritt.

“The inhabitants of these Islands were by no means savages, entirely unreclaimed from barbarism, before the Spanish advent in the sixteenth century. They had a culture of their own.”—John Foreman.

“The inhabitants of the Philippines possessed a culture of their own prior to the coming of the Spaniards to the Islands. Those along the coasts were the most advanced in civilization. Their material wealth was considerable. The chief occupations were agriculture, fishing, weaving, some manufacturing, and trade both inter-island and with the mainland, generally in the form of barter. They were expert navigators. They used standard weights and measures. The year was divided into twelve lunar months. They had a peculiar phonetic alphabet, wrote upon leaves, and had a primitive literature. The majority of the people are said to have been able to read and write.”—Justice George A. Malcolm.

“The inhabitants practise various kinds of industry; they weave matting of extraordinary fineness and of the brightest colors, straw hats, cigar-cases and baskets; they manufacture cloth and tissues of every sort from leaves of the aguana, make cambric of a texture much finer than that of France; and they also manufacture coarse strong cloth for sails, etc.; and ropes and cables of all dimensions; they tan and dress leather and skins to perfection; they manufacture coarse earthenware and forge and polish arms of various kinds; they build ships of heavy tonnage and also light and neat boats, and at Manila they frame and finish off beautiful carriages; they are also very clever workers in gold and silver and copper; and the Indian (Filipino) women are especially expert in needlework and in all kinds of embroidery.” (Twenty years in the Philippines, pp. 304, 307.)

[27]

PROGRESS DURING SPANISH RULE.—The Spanish rule in the Philippines lasted 350 years. The Spanish Crown meant well, but the way her policies were translated into deeds was all but desirable. The best men could not be induced to go to Manila. The Church wielded tremendous power, and at times was more powerful than the government itself. Each village was under the rule of a priest. Character was stifled; progress was deliberately discouraged; independence of thought stamped out.

It would be doing Spain a great injustice, however, if no credit whatever is given her rule in the Philippine Islands. She introduced Christianity into the Islands and unequivocably converted the inhabitants to the creed, thus setting up the only Christian country in this part of the globe with a Christian outlook on life; in the women, particularly, the tenets of Christianity instilled dignity and it freed them from Hindu and Mohammedan degradations.

Schools and Colleges Efforts were also taken to teach the people the rudiments of education. Access was thus given to the splendid tongue of Castile, and, thru that, to all the glories and traditions of Latin civilization. As early as 1866, for a population of 4,000,000 people, there were 841 schools for boys and 833 for girls. In 1892, six years before the coming of the Americans, there were 2,137 schools. There were also colleges and universities where professional training was given. The colleges were: University of Santo Tomas, Manila, established in 1611 (twenty-five years older than Harvard); San Juan de Letran, Municipal Athenaeum, Normal School, College of San Jose, the Nautical School, the School of Commercial Accounting, the Academy of Painting and Drawing, and many other private schools, fourteen of which were in Manila. There were also seminaries in Manila, Nueva Segovia, Cebu, Jaro, and Nueva Caceres, where all branches of secondary instruction were taught in addition to those prescribed for the priesthood.

Many of the prominent Filipinos in Philippine history, as stated above, including the national hero, Jose Rizal, had their first instructions in these schools established by Spain. [28]

Filipino Record Abroad A number of the ambitious students were sent by their parents to complete their education in Spain, France, England, Belgium, and Germany. Groups of these young men took part in the various liberal movements of nineteenth century Europe. They wrote and spoke in behalf of liberal institutions for the Islands, in terms that would have cost them their lives in the Philippines; in fact, Rizal was put to death upon his return to his native land. Several of these young Filipinos even rose to eminence in the public service, a right which was denied them at home except in a few cases in the minor judiciary. In the eighties and nineties, a group of them of which Rizal, Juan Luna, Resurrección Hidalgo, M. H. del Pilar, Lopez Jaena, Pedro A. Paterno, and Dr. Pardo de Tavera were the leading spirits—made a deep impression in the literary and artistic circles of Madrid, Paris, and Berlin. A newspaper was founded by them in Madrid to further their political views. Although proscribed in the Philippines, their books and articles were circulated secretly in the Islands and helped to arouse the people and to consolidate the growing unrest.

Opinions of Foreign Authors.—On Spain’s achievements in the Philippines, foreign authors have been considerate. The famous French explorer of the Pacific, for example, La Perouse, who was in Manila in 1787, wrote:

“Three million people inhabit these different islands, and that of Luzon contains nearly a third of them. These people seem to me no way inferior to those of Europe; they cultivate the soil with intelligence, they are carpenters, cabinet-makers, smiths, jewelers, weavers masons, etc. I have gone through their villages and I have found them kind, hospitable, and affable.” (“Voyage de la Perouse autour du Monde,” Paris, 1787, II, p. 347.)

“Almost every other country of the (Malay or Indian) Archipelago is, at this day, in point of wealth, power, and civilization, in a worse state than when Europeans connected themselves with them three centuries back. The Philippines alone have improved in [29]civilization, wealth, and populousness. (“History of the Indian Archipelago,” by John Crawford, F. R. S. Edinburgh, 1820, Vol. ii, pp. 447, 488.)

The Austrian professor, Ferdinand Blumentritt, wrote in La Solidaridad of October 15, 1899, to this effect:

“If the general condition of the civilization of the Tagalos, Pampangos, Bicols, Bisayans, Ilocanos, Cagayanes, and Sambales is compared to the European constitutional countries of Servia, Roumania, Bulgaria, and Greece, the Spanish-Filipino civilization of the said Indian districts is greater and of larger extent than of those countries.”

And the foremost American scholar on the Philippines, gives the following résumé of the results of the Spanish administration:

“The Spaniards did influence the Filipinos profoundly, and on the whole for the better. There were ways, indeed, in which their record as a colonizing power in the Philippines stands today unique in all the world for its benevolent achievement and its substantial accomplishment of net progress. We do not need to gloss over the defects of Spain; we do not need to condone the backward and halting policy which at last turned the Filipinos against Spanish rule, nor to regret the final outcome of events, in order to do Spain justice. But we must do full justice to her actual achievements, if not as ruler, at any rate as teacher and missionary, in order to put the Filipinos of today in their proper category.” (Le Roy: “Philippine Life in Town and Country,” 1905, pp. 6, 7.)

The Background on Which America Had Built It was on all that cultural background—the native and the Spaniard—that America had built. Without belittling what she, alone, has done for the Filipinos since 1898 it hardly can be disputed that the rapid progress towards modern democracy in the Islands has been due mainly to the materials she found there. This fact has made her task a great deal easier, and is the reason why even the early military governors thought best to preserve the old municipal institutions with very slight changes. [30]

The earlier revolutions against Spain were actuated by well-defined causes. They have been summarized as follows:

Causes of Earlier Revolutions (1) Denial of freedom of speech and press; (2) desire for Filipino representation; (3) proceedings by which a man was condemned without being heard; (4) violation of domicile and correspondence on mere secret denunciations; (5) agitation for the secularization of parishes; (6) political and civil equality for Filipinos and Spaniards; (7) desire for promulgation of the Spanish Constitution in the Philippines; and (7) the martyrdom of Burgos, Gomez, and Zamora, and later of Rizal.

The Revolution of 1896 The revolution of 1896, however, had an additional cause which was dominant in the minds of the leaders. It was “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.” In the words of General Aguinaldo in a manifesto, “We aspire to the glory of obtaining the Liberty, Independence, and Honor of the Country.”

The Pact of Biac-na-Bato This revolution was halted in 1897 by the Pact of Biac-na-Bato, which was signed between the Revolutionists and the Spanish authorities. There were three outstanding stipulations in the pact:

First, that the Filipino leaders should leave the country for the time being.

Second, that liberal and sweeping reforms would be introduced without delay.

Third, that the sum of $800,000 would be paid the Filipinos in two instalments, as evidence of good faith. [31]

The Filipinos complied with their part of the agreement; Aguinaldo and his followers went to Hongkong. But the Spaniards did not comply with theirs; only $400,000 was paid to the revolutionists and no reforms were introduced.

The Republic Accordingly, Aguinaldo and his companions returned to the Islands and renewed the struggle. On June 12, 1898 at Kawit, Cavite, they proclaimed the Independence of the Philippines from Spain. Soon afterwards a Philippine Republic was ratified, with General Aguinaldo as President. The capital was established at Malolos about 30 miles from Manila. There an elective Congress sat regularly, passed laws, levied taxes, administered revenues, kept in motion the machinery of justice, directed a military organization, carried on efficient war and constantly appealed to the patriotism of the people.

Governmental Machinery Set Up A complete governmental machinery was set up. The government was declared to be “popular, representative, and responsible.” Church and state were made separate, and, profiting by the experience of the past, freedom of religious worship was expressly recognized in the Constitution. The powers of government were made to reside in three distinct entities—the legislative, the executive, and the judicial, to be entirely separate. It was declared that no two of these powers should be vested in a single person or corporation, nor can the legislative power be conferred on a single individual alone. The government was recognized throughout the islands and had the wholehearted support of the entire population.

At the time America insisted in imposing her sovereignty and authority not only were the Filipinos in military control of the country; they were administering its political affairs as well. This they did from the establishment of the Republic until the autumn of 1899. “Up to that time,” writes Albert G. Robinson, of the New York Evening Post, “the territory occupied by the forces of the United States in the Island of Luzon was confined to a very limited area in the vicinity of Manila, with a filamentary extension northward for some [32]fifty or sixty miles along the Manila-Dagupan railway. Very much the same condition obtained on the other islands. One thing is certain: although greatly disturbed by the conditions of war, this territory was under some form of governmental administration.”

THE MALOLOS CONSTITUTION.—The fundamental law that had been prepared and adopted by the independent government has since then been known as the “Malolos Constitution.” This Philippine Magna Carta embodied the advanced thought of the times and was replete with sound principles. It had all the requisites of a “fundamental law of the land”—an enumeration of individual rights, the organization of the state and of the government, provisions pertaining to the public welfare (such as education, appropriation, the militia, local government, impeachment, etc.) and provisions for constitutional revisions.

Salient Features The Parliamentary System of government was adopted as best suited to the needs of the archipelago. Sovereignty was to reside in the people through their duly elected representatives. The aim throughout was to adopt a government and a social order essentially democratic, without those privileges of caste or classes which were the determinant causes of the revolution. The popular assembly was to be the directing power.

The following progressive principles were enunciated:

(1) That no one should be tried in courts created by private laws or by special tribunals; (2) that throughout the republic there should not be more than one kind of court for all citizens both in civil, criminal, and military actions; (3) that no person or corporation should be given emoluments that were not as compensation for public service fixed by law; (4) there shall be no primogeniture nor should decorations and titles of nobility be accepted; (5) that every Filipino citizen shall enjoy the right of meeting, association, petition, and liberty of the press; (6) freedom of religious worship throughout the land and inviolability of domicile, correspondence, and property; (7) the right of habeas [33]corpus; (8) gratuitous and compulsory public instruction; (9) taxes to be in proportion to the income of the taxpayers.

The legislative power was vested in an unicameral assembly. The representatives elected by the people were to be representatives of the entire nation and could not bind themselves to specific mandates from their constituents.

The President of the republic and the Assembly were to initiate laws.

Impeachment of high officials of the government was unhesitatingly made a part of the fundamental law. Even the President of the republic could be impeached in cases of high treason.

A permanent commission was created to take the place of the assembly during recess, the motive behind its creation being that legislative bodies should be permanent because the popular will works continually and consequently should be continually represented in the governmental machinery.

The permanent commission was to be composed of seven members elected by the assembly from among its members. Its powers were:

(1) To declare if a certain official of the government should be impeached; (2) to convene the assembly to an extraordinary session in cases in which it should constitute itself into a tribunal of justice to consider impeachments; (3) to resolve all pending questions with a view to bringing them before the assembly for consideration; (4) to convoke the assembly to special sessions whenever these are necessary; (5) to substitute the assembly in its power regarding the. constitution with the exception that the permanent commission can not pass laws.

The executive power was vested in the President of the Republic who exercised it through his secretaries.

The President of the Republic was elected by the constituent assembly by an absolute majority of votes. His term of office was four years but might be reëlected. The powers of the President were expressly enumerated. The secretaries of departments constituted the Cabinet, presided [34]over by the President. There were seven departments—foreign relations; interior; finance; war and navy; public instruction; communications and public works; agriculture, industry, and commerce.

Ministerial responsibility was established so that whenever a cabinet had lost the confidence of the majority of the assembly its members were morally bound to resign.

The judicial power was vested in a supreme court and in such other tribunals as might be created by law. The judiciary was made absolutely independent of the legislative and executive departments. The chief justice and the attorney-general were appointed by the Assembly with the concurrence of the President and of the cabinet.

Provinces and municipalities were given administrative autonomy. The central government intervened in their acts only when they over-stepped their powers to the prejudice of general or individual interests.

A Constituent Assembly was to be convened in case of an election of the President of the Republic and whenever there were proposed changes in the constitution. In either of these two cases the regular assembly was dissolved by the President and the Constituent Assembly convoked. The constituent assembly was to be composed of the same members of the regular assembly plus special representatives.

Such was the framework of the governmental machinery created by the first republican constitution ever promulgated in the East. In the words of General Aguinaldo, the Constitution was “the most glorious note in the noble aspirations of the Philippine revolution and is an irrefutable proof before the civilized world of the culture and capacity of the Filipino people to govern themselves.”

Comments of Foreigners.—The comments of unbiased foreigners on this ill-fated attempt of the Filipino people to live an independent existence all point to the fact that the Republic together with the constitution the independent government had established was a great work of an unquestionably able people. [35]

John Barrett, ex-director of the Pan-American Union, saw the Philippine Republic in operation, and described it as follows:

“It is a government which has practically been administering the affairs of that great island, ‘Luzon’ since the American possession of Manila, and is certainly better than the former administration. It had a properly formed Cabinet and Congress, the members of which, in appearance and manners, would compare favorably with the Japanese statesmen.”

Admiral Dewey, after studying Philippine conditions, during the Spanish-American War, spoke of the Filipinos as follows:

“In my opinion, these people are far more superior in intelligence and more capable of self-government than the natives of Cuba. I am familiar with both races.”

General Merrit, on his arrival in Paris in October, 1898, was reported as saying:

“The Filipinos impressed me very favorably. I think great injustice has been done to the native population.… They are more capable of self-government than, I think, the Cubans are. They are considered to be good Catholics. They have lawyers, doctors, the men of kindred professions, who stand well in the community, and bear favorable comparison to those of other countries. They are dignified, courteous, and reserved.”

Leonard Sargent, a naval cadet, and W. B. Wilcox, paymaster of the Navy, after travelling over the Island of Luzon, at that time wrote a report of their trip, which was referred by Admiral Dewey to the Navy Department with the indorsement that it was “the most complete information obtainable.” Mr. Sargent remarked:

“Although this government has never been recognized, and in all probability will go out of existence without recognition, yet, it cannot be denied that, in a region occupied by many millions of inhabitants, for nearly six months, it stood alone between anarchy and order. [36]

“As a tribute to the efficiency of Aguinaldo’s government and to the law-abiding character of his subjects, I offer the fact that Mr. Wilcox and I pursued our journey throughout in perfect security, and returned to Manila with only the most pleasing recollections of the quiet and orderly life which we found the natives to be leading under the new régime.”

[37]

A Homogeneous People The Filipinos are a homogeneous people. An American, Dr. Merton Miller, former chief ethnologist of the Philippine Bureau of Science is the foremost authority for the claim that:

“From the extreme northern end of the Archipelago to its southernmost limits, with the exception of the few scattered Negritos, the people of the Philippines, pagan, Moro and Christian are one racially. There is some reason for believing that they migrated into the islands at two different times. But in all probability they came from the same general region and have a common ancestry.

“There are many different languages or dialects in the Philippines but all are closely related one to another, the pronunciation and mode of speech vary but little from one section of the Philippines to another and the majority of the words are common to two or more of the Philippine languages. These languages, whether spoken by pagan, Moro or Christian, belong to the great Malayo-Polynesian family, branches of which are found in Sumatra, the Hawaiian Islands, Madagascar and on many islands between.”

Ex-President Taft has the following to say about Filipino homogeneity:

“The word ‘tribe’ gives an erroneous impression. There is no tribal relation among the Filipinos. There is a racial solidarity among them undoubtedly. They are homogeneous. I can not tell the difference between an Ilocano and a Tagalog or a Visayan.… To me all the Filipinos were alike.”

While Governor General Harrison, before a joint committee of Congress, expressed himself thus:

“To my way of thinking, they are very remarkably homogeneous, quite as much so as any nation in the world to-day with which I have any acquaintance. [38]From one end of the Philippine Islands to the other the people look very much alike; their manners are very much the same; their style of living is about the same; and they are being generally educated along the same lines by the government and by the private schools, which are coöperating with the government. So that I think they already have one of the prime requisites to a nationality, namely, a general and universal feeling that they belong to the same race of people.”

Total Population The total population of the Philippine Islands according to the Census of 1918 is 10,350,640. Of this number 9,495,272 are Christians, while 855,368 are non-Christian so-called. The non-Christian element, therefore, represents 8.2 per cent of the total population. In this number are included the Mohammedans of the South and the Igorots and other mountaineers, who have been so widely advertised abroad and often represented as typical Filipinos.

[39]

The Philippine Archipelago is entirely in the Tropics. They lie north of the Dutch and British Island of Borneo and the Dutch Island of Celebes; South of the Japanese Island of Formosa; East of French Indo-China, and Southeast of Hongkong and the Southern provinces of China.

Number of Islands There are 7,083 islands in all extending 1,152 statute miles from north to south and 688 statute miles from east to west. Two thousand four hundred and forty-one of the Islands have names, while 4,642 are unnamed. The northernmost Island known as Y’Ami Island is 65 miles from Formosa while the southernmost, called Salwag, 4° 40′ from the Equator, is only 30 miles east of Borneo.

Total Land Area The total land area of the entire archipelago is approximately 115,000 square miles. This is in excess of the combined areas of the States of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware; only about 7,000 square miles less than the total area of the British Isles; about 5,000 square miles more than the total area of Italy; and about two-thirds the size of Spain. Luzon Island alone which is the largest is as large as Denmark, Belgium, and Holland combined. It contains 46,969 square miles. Mindanao, the second largest, is about equal in area to Portugal. Ten islands contain more than 10,000 square miles each or 6,400,000 acres; while 20 of the islands have between 100 and 1,000 square miles each. About seven-eighths of the total number of islands composing the Archipelago contain less than 1 square mile each.

Bays and Straits There are twenty-one fine harbors and eight land-locked straits. Manila Bay with an area of 770 square miles and [40]a circumference of 120 miles is reputed to be the finest in the Far East. It is said that it can accommodate the entire fleet of the world. It is a roadstead, in all parts of which vessels can anchor. Manila, Cebu, Iloilo, Zamboanga, and Jolo are at present the ports of entry.

The interisland waters are shallow, averaging between seventy-five and five hundred fathoms.

Mountains There are at least seven principal mountain ranges and twenty more or less active volcanoes. Mount Apo in Mindanao is the highest being 9,610 feet. Canlaon in Negros is second with 7,995 feet; Mayon in Albay third, with 7,943 feet.

Rivers Nearly all the principal islands have important river systems. In Luzon are the Rio Grande de Cagayan, 220 miles long, which drains 16,000 square miles of territory, the Rio Grande de Pampanga, emptying into Manila Bay through a dozen mouths, the Agno, the Abra, Bued, and the more familiar Pasig. The Rio Grande de Mindanao, 330 miles long, is the largest in the Islands, and the Agusan, also in Mindanao, is the third in size. Mindoro has 60 rivers and Samar, 26. In Panay, are the Jalaud and Panay and in Negros the Danao and the Lanao. Inter-island steamers berth in the Pasig as far as the Jones Bridge. The larger rivers, in addition to being navigable for steamers and launches of light draft for distances of from 20 to 200 miles, could furnish abundant water power for manufacturing purposes.

Lakes Mindanao, especially the basin of the Agusan, has a vast number of lakes, among them the famous lakes Lanao, Mainit, and Lagusan. Laguna de Bay, near Manila, Lake Naujan in Mindoro, Taal, and Bombon lakes in Batangas, and Lake Bito in Leyte are also noted for size and beauty. [41]

Falls The Falls of Pagsanjan and the Botocan at Majayjay, in Laguna Province; the Maria Cristina, the Pigduktan, and Kalilokan, in Mindanao, are the largest and most beautiful.

Mineral Springs Some 170 or more medico-mineral springs, hot and cold, are known in the Islands, many rivaling the most famous of Europe and America. Near Manila are those of Los Baños, Sibul, Lemery, Tivi, and Marilao.

Climate Father Algué, the world famous Director of the Weather Bureau, divides the climate into three types, the classification being based on distance above sea level and exposure to ocean breezes.

November, December, January, and February are the temperate months. The mean average temperature at this season is about 77° to 79° Fahrenheit. In April, May, and June, the hot months, the mean average is between 83° and 84°. In other months it is about 80°. The nights are seldom unpleasantly hot even in the hot season, and a temperature of 100° is a rarity in Manila. The mountain regions of the north are cool as September in the temperate zone. The mean average maximum for Baguio is 80° and the minimum 53°. Far south, nearer the equator, in some localities it is hotter; but Zamboanga and the Provinces of Bukidnon and Lanao boast a most agreeable and healthful climate.

The climate is thus mildly tropical. Sunstrokes are unknown. The recorded death rate per 1,000 whites in Manila for 1917 was 8.8, as compared with 16.5 for New York, 15 for San Francisco, 14 for Chicago, 18 for Glasgow, and 22 for Belfast.

[42]

RAINFALL

Maximum days of rain in July, August, September.

Minimum days of rain in February and March.

Dry Season: November to May, inclusive.

Wet Season: June to October, inclusive.

Typhoons: Frequent in July, August, September, and October.

The lowest average rainfall for the last twelve years for the whole Archipelago was 60.73 inches in the driest region, the highest, 125.68, in the wettest. Manila’s average was 75.46. [43]

Entrance to Manila Bay You enter Manila Bay thru a narrow passage in the middle of which is the famous Island of Corregidor, the “Rock,” the “Gibraltar of the Far East,” the “Home of the Big Guns,” that guards the harbor. It is also a hydroplane station of the United States. The island is a stalwart sentinel, as it were, at the harbor’s mouth. Nearby are two other “watch dogs” of Uncle Sam, known as “El Fraile” and “El Carabao,” two other well fortified islands holding many a surprise for any invading fleet.

Down the bay your steamer glides amid the shipping of many nations and the launches of the customs and quarantine soon appear to “look the stranger over.”

MANILA.—After the quarantine and customs inspection you get off your steamer and you are in Manila, the capital of the Philippine Archipelago. Your first impressions are of the tourist sort. Your interest is immediately arrested by the dress and habits of the Filipinos, of the Chinese, and of the various residents from every quarter of the globe. The water buffalo or the carabao, the one horse carriage, or the carromata, and the slippers, or “chinelas,” worn in the streets by the poor will startle you to the realization that you are in a world other than your own. The every-day clothes worn by the people give you an ensemble of all the colors imaginable, more so when there is a procession, parade or similar festivities—royal purple, plum, heliotrope, magenta, psolferino, scarlet, geranium, salmon, pinks, greens, vivid and tender, all the blues, yellow, orange, champaca, in short every hue, shade, and tint that art has borrowed from nature or has invented. [44]

You stroll around the City and one of the first things you notice is the various means of transportation. There is the automobile, from the popular Ford Lizzie to the Packard Limousine; there is the one-horse carriage, in shape and looks unique in the world; and there is the street car propelled by the familiar electricity.

The Walled City.—Near the pier you see a cluster of buildings enclosed by solid stone walls about twenty feet high. This is the famous Walled City or Intramuros, a remnant of Spanish days. It is something less than a mile long and half a mile wide. The walls used to be fortresses with which the Spaniards used to repel the many attacks and invasions. To go into this Walled City is to remind you of Madrid, Spain, with all its narrow streets and typical Spanish buildings. The walls had been begun prior to the end of the sixteenth century; before the next was far advanced, the place boasted of a cathedral, hospitals, and a university; walled Manila had grown into quite a city.

The Walled City is the original Manila, of which every other part of the modern city is, historically speaking, a suburb. Its battlemented wall is a little over 2½ miles in circuit, and is still for the most part in an excellent state of preservation. The age of the walls is hard to state; its oldest existing portions were undoubtedly built before the end of the sixteenth century, but it has been continuously patched and added to, almost up to the present generation. Parts of it are from twenty to thirty feet in height and thickness. Considering everything, it makes this district one of the best examples of a mediæval walled town in existence.

Fort Santiago While in this Walled City, do not fail to visit Fort Santiago, the oldest part of Spanish Manila, long the citadel of the city, and now the headquarters of the United States Army in the Philippines. It probably stands very nearly on the site of the native fort which the Spanish reconnoitering expedition carried by assault in 1570. It has undergone comparatively little external change in three centuries. There are plenty of traditions connected with the old place—stories of cells below [45]the river level for the “unintentional” execution of inconvenient persons, and of chambers found filled with dislocated skeletons. Though none of these places are now identifiable, it is a historical fact that one cell, either in the fort or in the wall to the east of it (since removed), was the scene, as late as the night of the 31st of August, 1896, of a tragedy much resembling that of the Black Hole of Calcutta. Fifty-six out of sixty Filipinos who had been crowded into it, on being arrested on suspicion of complicity in the insurrection then raging, were the victims of the poisoned atmosphere or of the desperate struggle that took place within.

Pursuing your travels around Manila you see an admixture of the quaintly native, of the mediæval, and of the strictly modern. In architecture, you see splendid examples of Grecian, Moorish, Spanish, Renaissance, Gothic, and Byzantine. Likewise you see many native nipa houses, small yet cool and cozy, and exceedingly appropriate for the needs of the climate.

Three Manilas For in reality there are three Manilas, which are still noticeable. First, there is the Manila of the original Malay, which, with its nipa shacks, its carabaos, and its quaint fishing boats, exists much as it did in the days of Raja Lacandola. Secondly, there is the Manila of the sixteenth and seventeenth century Spaniard—adventurer, merchant, and crusader in equal parts—who, in the churches and convents, the walls and gates, and the half-Moorish domestic architecture, has left ineffaceable memorials of the fact that this, the oldest of the European settlements in the East, was in its day among the chief glories of the “once imperial race.” Finally, there is the Americanized Manila of to-day, the town of electricity, motor cars, macadamized roads and sewers and steel bridges, well on its way to become one of the beautiful cities of the world.

Costumes The costumes of the women are admittedly unique and attractive. Old Spain gave the peasant’s neckerchief that has evolved into the pañuelo; the court train of her damas [46]gave the saya; her priests gave the tapis; the ground plan is Malayan, the sleeves swelled to suit the climate. This, which has changed but little in over three centuries, is the predominating model; but America, Paris, half Asia, and the South Pacific contribute also to the revue des modes: georgette crèpe and coconut fiber rain cape and skirt, white duck and rengue, all in the same rain shower on the same block.

The Shops Modern shops with plate-glass fronts, office buildings with their elevators, elbow in between the open-fronted Chino shops of the Rosario. And the carabao snails by, and the “little gray hawk” that “hangs aloft in the air,” happens to be an aëroplane.

The Pasig Down by the entrance to the Pasig River modern steamers are warped to the river wall, and farther up dumpy river launches shuffle about their work of conveying to the big household of Manila chickens, pigs, fruits, and vegetables; a string of bamboo-roofed cascoes lie in wait by the market; sturdy bargemen with thirty-foot bamboo poles shove the unwieldy lorchas about, and the tiny bancas now toddle bravely along, now reel and wobble from the cuffs of their elders. The river is navigable for miles, and a trip upstream reveals successive combinations of meadows, high banks fringed with feathery bamboo, and here and there a village with its nipa houses and its gray stone church embowered in groves of coconuts and mangoes.

OTHER PLACES OF INTEREST

Churches You will find them at every turn. To see her churches alone, in detail—St. Augustine’s, built in 1599, with its ceiling of solid stone nearly four feet thick, and the illustrious dead beneath its hardwood floor; St. Sebastian’s of solid steel made in Belgium and brought out in sections and assembled; St. Ignatius’ and others with exquisitely carved woodwork, the work of Filipinos; their altars, statues and paintings—to appreciate their architecture and the engineering skill [47]that erected them would require not days or weeks, but months.

The Cathedral Special mention should be made of the Cathedral, the historic edifice which has witnessed so many rare and brilliant ceremonies. It is a most ornate and yet harmonious structure. The massive dome can be seen from far out at sea. The nave of the cathedral is of most majestic proportions and its pillars and clusters, with their gilded capitals, are handsome. The cupola rises to an immense height and has an inside balcony. Its four corners are frescoed, and the subjects are the “Four Evangelists.” A beautiful sky, with angel heads, upon which stands the statue of the Immaculate Concepcion, is just above the high altar and around it, in sort of a frieze, are the heads of the apostles, while in the transepts, are the heads of the prophets, kings, and patriarchs. The architecture of the cathedral is of Roman Byzantine Style.

The Ayuntamiento On the right hand side of the cathedral, the traveler sees the Ayuntamiento, a two-story building, the original seat of the Spanish government, now the headquarters of the House of Representatives and of the six departments of the Philippine government. The cornerstone of this building was laid in 1735. On the main landing of its imposing staircase is a statue, a replica of that in the “Biblioteca Nacional” at Madrid, of Juan Sebastian Elcano, the navigator who, after the death of Magellan, brought to a safe conclusion the first voyage around the world. The doors in either side of the statue lead to the Marble Hall, named from its marble floor, where the house of representatives sits and where official receptions and state entertainments are often held.

University of Santo Tomas In the rear of the Ayuntamiento, and occupying the other half of the same block, stands the building of the University of Santo Tomas, founded in 1619, the oldest educational institution of collegiate rank under American sovereignty. It is under the direction of the Dominican Order and has departments for the education of students in all the principal professions. [48]It keeps a valuable and extensive collection of zoölogical, ethnological, and other scientific specimens which is open to male visitors only (the university being by origin a monastic institution) on Sunday mornings from 9 to 11. In the little plaza on which the building fronts is a statue of Miguel Benavides, the second Archbishop of Manila, and founder of the University.

The Dominican Church At the end of this plaza stands the great Gothic Dominican Church, one of the very few examples of that style in the city. It has very fine doors and a beautifully decorated altar and pulpit. Connected with it, as with all the old churches of the friar orders, is an enormous convent, very plain outside, but containing much of interest within—ancient libraries and some very quaint courtyards, cloisters, refection halls, and a series of religious pictures.

Just back of this church is the gap in the wall, thru which the car line from the commercial center of the city enters. Hard by is the Intendencia Building, in which is located the Insular Treasury and the offices and session hall of the Philippine Senate. Behind this, on the river front, is a modest monument to Magellan, the one memorial of the great discoverer in the capital of the land he brought in contact with Latin civilization.

Avenues The Walled City, except for a short space where the battlements of Fort Santiago are washed by the river, is completely surrounded by fine avenues, all bordered on the inside by the stretch of green which has replaced the former moat. The Magallanes Drive runs for a short distance between the walls and the Pasig river to the northeast. To the west is the Bonifacio Drive, with an avenue of palms. This is now bounded on its farther side by the new Port District, but in old days was the seaside promenade of Manila. The circuit of the wall is completed by the Bagumbayan Drive (now Burgos Drive), which sweeps in a beautiful acacia-bordered quadrant around the east, southeast, and south.

[49]

This avenue will, in a few years, be completely lined with Government buildings and grounds. It begins at the river, near the end of the Jones Bridge. Continuing down it toward the bay the traveler passes first the Mehan Gardens, really a public park, of moderate size, finely kept. It was the result of the work of a Spanish botanist and forester, Sebastian Vidal y Soler, of whom a statue stands in its midst. The garden was completely neglected and used as a camping ground during the insurrection, but was restored by the present Government. Beyond the garden in succession, are the buildings of the Bureau of Printing and the present temporary City Hall. The street branching off to the left between these is Calle Concepcion, on the right hand side of which, immediately back of the City Hall, are the buildings of the Young Men’s Christian Association.

Turning to the left from the riverside of the Botanical Garden and crossing the Pasig River on the Santa Cruz Bridge, then turning to the right, the traveler comes across another important and imposing avenue, called the Rizal Avenue. This avenue begins from the heart of the commercial district of the city, and leads to the northern suburb of Manila, which is destined to be one of the best residential sections.

The principal attractions on this avenue, are the Grand Opera House where periodical performances are held by foreign opera companies, the Stadium where prize fighting is held between Filipino boxers as well as between Filipino and foreign boxers, the Central Methodist Church, and the San Lazaro Hospital.

Bilibid Prison This avenue is intersected by an equally broad thoroughfare formed by Azcarraga Street, on which are numerous small shops, several theaters of various grades, and several residential homes. On the sea-side of this thoroughfare is situated the Cathedral of the Independent Filipino Church, an institution headed by Archbishop Aglipay, and having about 3,000,000 members. Other places of interest are the Zorrilla [50]Theater, the Centro Escolar de Señoritas, a private school for girls, being the biggest institution of the kind in Manila, and Bilibid Prison, the great central penitentiary of the Philippines and one of the largest and best-managed institutions of the kind in the world.

The average number of inmates of Bilibid Prison is between 2,500 and 3,000. The main part of the prison, which altogether covers twenty acres, consists of well-ventilated wards radiating from a central tower; cells are little used. There is a fine hospital, a school, and a highly developed system of industries. Visitors are admitted everyday for the ceremony of retreat, which occurs at about 4:30 in the afternoon. The salesroom, where the products of the prison shops may be seen and purchased, are open to the public during the regular office hours. Perhaps the best work is to be found in the furniture of native hardwood; but the wicker furniture, the desk sets, and other small articles of hardwood, the silverware, and the local curios are well worth inspection.

Taft Avenue Another wide and picturesque avenue branches off from Burgos Drive, a short distance from the City Hall. This is called the Taft Avenue, after the first civil governor of the Philippines, Honorable William H. Taft, now Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Along this avenue are several modern concrete buildings, the most important of which are the Philippine Normal School, the Normal Hall, a dormitory for ladies, the Santa Rita’s Hall, the Central School for American and European children, the Nurses’ Home, and the Philippine General Hospital.

Turning to the right, on Padre Faura Street, the traveler comes across a number of the buildings of the Philippine University, all of which are of reinforced concrete and modern in every respect. The large vacant space behind these buildings is the University Campus where athletic exercises and military drills are held almost every afternoon.

Central Observatory Further on to the left on this same street, is the Central Observatory of the Philippine Weather Bureau. This intensely [51]interesting institution is open to the public on Tuesdays from half past 2 to half past 4 in the afternoon and on Saturdays from half past 8 to half past 11 in the morning. It is one of the oldest and best of its kind in the East, having been founded in 1865 by the Jesuits and operated continuously since then, even in 1898, while hostile armies were contending for the possession of the city. The founder and director for many years was Fr. Frederic Faura, after whom the street on which the building stands is named. The present head is Fr. Jose Algué, who has made for himself a world-wide reputation as a meteorologist. It is still directed by specially trained Jesuit priests and supported financially by an arrangement with the Philippine Government. Its great renown has been gained through its work in the field of earthquakes and typhoons.

The Luneta At the extreme end of Burgos Drive, the traveler comes out on the broad expanse of a park, of partly natural and partly made land, on the inland side of which is the most famous recreation place of Manila—the Luneta. This is an oval stretch of lawn where, nearly every evening, the music of the fine band of the Philippine Constabulary or that of some military organization combines with the sea breeze and the gorgeous sunsets behind the top of Mount Mariveles to bring together a crowd so varied and brilliant as to make this gathering one of the most distinctively picturesque sights of the city. Hundreds of carriages and motor cars draw up along the curb or make the circuit of the driveway, while thousands of pedestrians throng the walks and lawns. It is a gay and cosmopolitan gathering—Government officials, wealthy Chinese merchants, Spaniards, officers of the Army and Navy, American women in the light and dainty gowns of the Tropics, and Filipino women of every class in the picturesque national dress of gorgeous semi-transparent native cloth, that has caused one observer to describe them as “jet-crowned butterflies.”

[52]

On the green of the Luneta facing Manila Bay is the monument to the national hero of the Philippines—the physician, novelist, and patriot—Dr. Jose Rizal. It was designed by the Swiss sculptor Richard Kissling, whose work was selected out of many in a contest for a substantial prize. The monument consists of a granite obelisk, about fifty feet high, serving as a background for a bronze statue of heroic size.

The Manila Hotel To the north of the Luneta is the well-known Manila Hotel, reputed to be the finest in the Orient. Immediately opposite the hotel site, on the green at the corner of the former moat, is the monument to Miguel Lopez de Legaspi and Andres Urdaneta, the civil and ecclesiastical founders of Manila. This, as a work of art, is far superior to anything else of the sort now actually standing in the city. The pedestal supports idealized figures of the mailed warrior and the priest, holding aloft the banner of Castile and the Cross. These were cast in Spain and sent out prior to the change of sovereignty, but was never put up. They were found by the American conquerors in a warehouse, and it is to them that the monument owes its erection in its present excellent location. On the side of the green opposite the hotel and the Legaspi monument are the new buildings of the Elks and the Army and Navy Clubs.

The Museum To the north of the Manila Hotel is the Philippine Museum, housed in a modern building. Those interested in the fauna and flora of this part of the globe, and in archeological collections will find in this museum an hour well spent.

The Carnival Grounds To the East of the present Luneta, immediately across the road, is the large tract of land known as Wallace (formerly Bagumbayan) Field. It is the site of athletic grounds and of the annual Carnival. It boasts a gruesome past and a distinguished future. Under the old régime it was a public execution ground for political prisoners, and here on the 30th of December, 1896, in the shadow of the old Luneta outwork, [53]since removed, Dr. Jose Rizal met his death before the Spanish firing squad. In a few years more, under the name of “Government Center,” it will be the site of the new Capitol, and of other Government buildings.

For the present this tract is the scene, for a week or more every February, of the great Philippine Carnival, which has become one of the established institutions in the Islands and one of the greatest attractions of Manila. While it lasts most of the town puts on festal garb and takes a series of half holidays, and dominoes become familiar sights on the public streets. Within the grounds are the usual amusement features—the merry-go-round, the whip, shooting galleries, a hippodrome with spectacular performances, and extensive and interesting exhibits of the products of the Islands, sent by the provincial governments, the schools, and private concerns. Elaborate parades—military, industrial, and carnival—and great balls in an immense auditorium, both exclusive and popular, complete the program. The industrial and commercial exhibits are under the supervision of the Government.

Dewey Boulevard Capping the ensemble of all these attractions around the Luneta is a beautiful boulevard, comparable with the best anywhere, which leads from where the buildings of the Elks and the Army and Navy Clubs are situated and extends until the city limits, near Pasay, a suburb on the Manila South Road. This boulevard is a favorite driveway in the evening. The chain of lights that illuminate its entire length makes it attractive beyond comparison. To the right will be heard the splash of the waters of Manila Bay dashing against the rocks that fringe the Boulevard. To the left are some of the most imposing residences of the City. The steamers anchored in the bay present a lovely sight, especially in the stillness of the night. It is from this boulevard that the Philippine sunset, so entrancingly beautiful, can be seen without obstruction, while in the distance, to the left, is the City of Cavite, to which the Boulevard will in time lead, and hence has been originally named “Cavite Boulevard.” It was only recently that its name was changed to “Dewey Boulevard” in memory [54]of Admiral Dewey who, a short distance out into the bay, by defeating the Spanish Squadron, sealed the fate of colonial Spain in this part of the globe.

Clubs and Societies All of the great fraternal orders have their branches in Manila—The Masonic Order, The Knights of Columbus, The I. O. O. F., The Elks, and The Knights Templars. Religious, charitable, social, musical, literary, athletic, and other associations, also abound. There is a National Federation of Women’s Clubs, having about 400 branches in all parts of the Archipelago and also a Catholic Federation of Women. All the foreigners also have their respective clubs and societies.

Cemeteries The Cementerio del Norte is the municipal cemetery. It is the only modern garden cemetery in Manila. It covers a very large area (133 acres), only a small part of which has been developed. There are sections for Americans, Filipinos, and Chinese, each showing the distinctive emblems with which the several races mark the resting places of their dead. There are beautiful monuments and well-kept lawns.

Adjoining the municipal cemetery is the Catholic cemetery and the chapel of La Loma. The Chinese also have an exclusive cemetery nearby. All the ground in this vicinity is historical, for much of the fighting of the early days of the insurrection centered about the district; there was a block-house which formerly stood back of the La Loma Chapel. Paco cemetery on San Marcelino is closed now, but once a year, on All Saints Day, it is opened and in the evening, brilliantly illuminated.

Monuments Among the most notable monuments are the Rizal monument in the Luneta; the Legaspi and Urdaneta monument near the Manila Hotel; the Anda monument at the foot of the Malecon Drive; the Magallanes monument near the Treasury building; the Statue of Elcano in the Ayuntamiento; the Statue of Benavides at Plaza of Sto. Tomas; and that of Charles IV at Plaza McKinley, and Queen Isabela II in [55]Malate. The finest of the recent ones, are the monument of Balintawak, a short distance out, to commemorate the first cry of the revolution, and the monument to the Katipunan and the Liga Filipina at Raxa Matanda, Tondo.

LIFE IN MANILA.—In Manila is felt the pulse of the world’s activity—the currents of political, commercial, and intellectual thought of the world—more keenly than in New York or London. The reason is simple. Each man here is an individual machine; in the larger cities he is a cog. The elements of absolute economic dependence being absent, the inhabitants are forced into contact with many nations, together with all the social and economic relations which that contact entails. In the press Manila is not overwhelmed with a mass of unimportant news. The immensity of non-essential topics of no general interest is spared the residents. Only the essential and all the essential reaches them. Their horizon is not bounded by 42nd Street nor by neighbor Peet’s farm. One of the many reasons for the happier life in Manila than in other cities of the world, so far at least as foreigners are concerned, is the natural selection of the fit and strong, which is invariably taking place. There are no crippled and weak, no poor nor invalid people in Manila to pester you. They do not come—they seldom dare. Only those looking for adventure, those fitted to care for themselves, those determined to survive that come to make this part of the world his temporary or permanent abode.

No Vexing Conventionalities The conventionalities and prescribed forms of daily living are absent. There is no Madam Gruncy to hector, there are no rules of the elite class or the would-be Four Hundred. You come and go unquestioned. You have absolute sovereignty over your own affairs. There are no neighbors to tell the foreigner what to think or how to vote. Neither a Democrat nor a Republican is disgraced for being so. A society of men and women from all corners of the globe accord respect to your judgment. Not living in San Francisco you are not disturbed by its claims of superiority to Seattle or New York. [56]

There is less attention paid to inconsequential details and boresome routine than in the complex centers of the Old and the New World. It is of less importance to know what Lady Jane wore at the ball than to know how she will run her embroidery establishment. More thought is given to one’s failure and success and struggles with new conditions than of a man’s politics. The interrelationship of races, the development of a virgin country, the wide latitude for one’s activities accustom you to thinking in the large. Men talk little in the Tropics, but what they say has meaning.

There is less violence in the Philippines than in any other land. The people are gentle and courteous. In provincial towns, in lonely districts, an American or European woman can remain alone for days without fear of molestation. One can take long trips through the wildest mountain in perfect safety. Firearms for self defense need not even be thought of.

Competition Less Severe Competition in Manila is not as severe as in other cities. Success is attained with greater ease. The routine of life is pleasant, and days pass quickly. In occidental cities one generally rushes through breakfast and rushes to his office. Also he rushes all the morning until 12 o’clock. Not so in the Philippines. He dictates in a few minutes his day’s correspondence which will probably leave port a week later, depending on the schedule of boats. Then he has new schemes to think over and conferences to hold with confrères. After this there is usually considerable time for ice cream and further conferences outside. He probably visits his bank and the cable office, and does some more thinking. If he is a salesman, he has to talk with prospective customers. At all events he is a very busy man, with a dozen plans for expansion working in his brain; but there is time, aeons of time. There is so much to be done and so little danger that the field will be overworked before he gets to it that he fears nothing. At 12 o’clock or thereabouts he goes back to his room for lunch. Afterwards he sleeps for two hours and drops back to his office. At 4 o’clock he goes out for tea, [57]and at 5 o’clock, if the day has been a hard one, he knocks off for golf or tennis or a swim, or goes back to his siesta chair for rest. After supper at 8 o’clock, if he is socially inclined, he organizes a party for a cabaret and spends a pleasant evening. Otherwise he plays cards or billiards at his club. The next day repeats, and so on. He is never hurried, never tired, never worried.

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On the outskirts of the City of Manila, lies one of the most beautiful scenic routes in the tropics—the expanse of country extending from the city itself to what is known as the Montalban Water Works, in Rizal Province, from which the city derives its water supply. At the head of a picturesque gorge, the Mariquina River is impounded by a dam, and the water is brought to the City of Manila, 39 kilometers distant, through aqueducts of cast iron.

The ride to the gorge through the heart of the Mariquina valley, one of the most fertile regions of the Island of Luzon, is a veritable scenic fairyland. Lowland, mountain, hill, stream, field, bridge, road, village, and town combine to form a landscape that invariably fascinates the visitor. The scene is restful and pleasing to the eye at almost every vista that presents itself.

Crossing the Ayala Bridge and passing through General Solano Street, the visitor proceeds on his way to the famous valley. On both sides of General Solano stand old Spanish residences practically as they were in the days of the Spaniards. This was then the fashionable residential section of the city and its glories as such have not as yet entirely departed.

The Malacañang Palace Soon, the Governor-General’s palatial home known as the “Malacañang Palace,” is reached on the right, immediately after the only brewery in the City of Manila. The palace is beyond doubt the finest residence in the islands. The gardens are particularly well-kept, Governor-General Harrison having improved the residence and the grounds making it a sumptuous and fitting place for the first executive of the land.

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Immediately next to the Governor’s palace is the executive building housing the offices of the Governor-General’s staff and cabinet. It is an elaborate structure decorated with hardwood carvings.

After a detour to drive thru the grounds of the palace, the visitor proceeds on his way towards Santa Mesa. The next place of interest is known as the “Rotonda”—a circular Plaza at which two important thoroughfares and some of lesser importance intersect. In the center of the Rotonda stands the Carriedo Fountain built in memory of Francisco Carriedo, the Spanish engineer who installed the first gravity water system in Manila sometime in the 19th century.

Santa Mesa Soon the visitor arrives at another residential section known as Santa Mesa. This section is on top of a hilly district overlooking the city. Fine bungalows and villas surrounded by beautiful lawns adjoin one another. Americans, Europeans, and Filipinos live here side by side. Mingled with the sumptuous abodes found in this section are several patches of nipa huts, furnishing a startling contrast—the almost primitive native residence common throughout the archipelago, especially in the barrios, as compared with the architecturally highly developed occidental type of residence. In the midst of this ensemble of residences are rice fields cultivated in typical native fashion with terraces, ditches, carabaos, etc.

San Juan Bridge and Heights The visitor now comes across a country that is more open, and cultivated patches of land become a more frequent sight. In a few minutes, he reaches the famous “San Juan Bridge,” a historical landmark. It was here, on February 4th, 1899, that the first shot of the Filipino-American war was fired. Two days later, the treaty of Paris ceding the Philippines to the United States was ratified, and the Filipinos continued to revolt.

After crossing the bridge, the visitor reaches San Juan Heights, a suburban development project in the municipality of San Juan del Monte. Less than two years ago, an [60]enterprising American formed a company and divided this property up into lots and started selling the parcels on the instalment plan. The project was a success and now a good sized community has settled on this district. Other parcels of land in the vicinity have been similarly divided into lots, and Manila suburban property is now rapidly undergoing development in the familiar American manner. Among these other parcels are the San Juan Heights Addition, the Rosario Heights, and the Magdalena Estate, the latter being an immense tract of land extending for several miles into the country.

The Reservoir Nearby is located the distributing reservoir of the Manila Water Supply system, called “El Depósito.” It was constructed in Spanish days, but has now grown to be entirely too small for the ever-growing needs of the city.

Along the side of the reservoir is the “Boys’ Reformatory School,” where wayward and recalcitrant youngsters are won back to good behaviour and useful life at the expense of the city and the Insular government.

Turning back to the main roadway, the visitor sees the palatial residence of the Ex-Mayor of Manila, now Senator Hon. Ramon Fernandez.

The Mariquina Valley From this point on, there is an entirely rural scenery, an immense plain bounded by mountains in the north and east. This is the Mariquina Valley. Somewhere on this valley just outside the municipality of San Mateo, was the spot where General Lawton was shot by the Filipino insurgents. This whole region was intensely fought over by the contending forces, the Filipino insurgents retreating to the mountains to the north and east.

The Town of Mariquina Soon afterwards, the town of Mariquina is reached. It is a typical Filipino community. Proximity to the Philippine metropolis does not seem to have altered its appearance in the least. It has a rural air and atmosphere and the people evidently belong to the hard-plodding farmer-class. [61]

An excellent road makes driving a pleasure through the Mariquina Valley. The combination of colors and light, tropical vegetation and houses, the undulating mountain divides, the brilliant green of the palms and bamboo, contrasted with the intense verdure of the rice fields, present a vista that can be expressed adequately only by painting.

The Payatas Estate After Mariquina comes the town of San Mateo, centrally situated in the Mariquina Valley. It was here that tenants of the vast Payatas Estate in the vicinity combined and bought the property from the Japanese owners three years ago. The enterprise was the first cooperative agricultural Filipino effort on a large scale and has proved to be a success. The purchase price was $775,000, and all of this amount but $100,000 has been paid up.

At the Dam Then the dam is reached. It is in the town of Montalban, 35 kilometers from Manila. The road winds in and out along the banks of the river, the banks of the river themselves become steeper and steeper, and soon the towering white limestone sides of the Mariquina gorge loom up several hundred feet, and the reservoir inclosure is reached.

Those who desire to go as far as the dam must be sure to obtain permits from the Metropolitan Water District before leaving Manila, otherwise the trip will have to end at the head of the deep gorge at the gate of the reservoir. With such a permit the visitor is allowed to enter the reservoir gate and he proceeds up the shaded walk to the dam and reservoir.

The walk to the reservoir is only a few minutes, up a well-kept path lined with shrubs, trees, and flowers with the rushing water of the river below to the left.

The reservoir, surrounded by the green mountain sides, makes a pretty picture reminding the visitor of some of the descriptions of lakes in the Scottish Islands, as depicted by Sir Walter Scott in some of his works. [62]

Different Return Route The return to Manila may be made by way of Pasig, the capital of the Province of Rizal, after leaving Mariquina where the roads branch. On this way back, Fort Wm. McKinley is worth visiting. It is said to be the largest army post under the American flag and one of the best administered. It cannot fail to impress the visitor because of its fine buildings, spacious parade grounds and attractive officers’ quarters. [63]

The Philippine Archipelago is a compact group of islands. The distances between each island require only a few hours of sailing. They therefore have been said to possess strategic unity. From the northernmost port, Aparri, to the southernmost Zamboanga, the total distance is 895 miles. It takes only 36 hours from Manila to Aparri and about 72 from Manila to Zamboanga. With faster boats, the time required will be much less.

In each island the provinces and the important towns are easily accessible. They are connected by good roads. In the bigger islands the Manila Railroad operates lines, such as in Luzon, Cebu, and Iloilo.

The trip through the provinces should be taken whenever possible. Barring the usual discomforts of a tropical clime, there are delights galore for everyone, even for the hardy sportsman—pristine forests, crystal streams, splashing falls. The panoramas that unfold as the traveler motors from province to province or cruises about from island to island present a continuous series of scenic pictures of infinite variety. In other lands nature and man have combined their efforts in forming recreation spots of compelling charm. In the Philippines it is only nature that has done the work.

The services of a guide should in all cases be secured in order to expedite the visits. Applications for guides should be made to the Director of the Bureau of Commerce and Industry.

LAGUNA PROVINCE.—The Province of Laguna is situated on a narrow plain which lies to the east, south, and southeast of Laguna Lake, commonly known as Laguna de Bay. It is a very fertile province and has a very pleasant [70]climate, the usual temperature being several degrees cooler than Manila. It produces coconuts, rice, sugar-cane, abaca, corn and a great variety of fruits and vegetables.

In industrial enterprises the province is very progressive. Some of the largest kind of hemp cables are made in the rope factory of Santa Cruz. Buntal hats and pandan mats are made in Majayjay and Luisiana, pandan hats in Cavisti, Sabutan hats in Mavitac, rattan chairs in Paquil and Los Baños, wooden slippers in Biñan and Calamba, and abacá slippers in Lilio. Furniture is also made in Paete, soap in Santa Cruz, crude pottery in Lumban, better grade of glazed pottery in San Pedro Tunasan, coconut wine in the upper towns, and embroidery in Lumbang. Mineral waters are bottled in Los Baños, Pagsanjan, and Magdalena. A steam saw mill is located in Santa Maria. In Los Baños is a stone quarry that supplies crushed stone for the Provinces of Bulacan, Rizal, Cavite, Batangas, and Tayabas.

The province, besides having a rich soil, has an abundance of water supply. The Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the Philippines, permits of easy and cheap transportation. Fifteen of the 28 municipalities are reached by water and a line of steam launches provides a daily service between the lake and the city of Manila. The lake abounds in fish. The swamps along its eastern shores are overgrown with pandan groves. The bay is covered during the rainy season with the pink-flowered lotus plant. Along the low shores are veritable hunting grounds which abound in snipe and wild ducks.

The province also abounds in picturesque sceneries, in the San Pablo Valley there are nine beautifully-set crater lakes. Banahaw, a mountain having an elevation of 7,382 feet, is covered with vegetation of all kinds. In the crater of San Cristobal which has an elevation of about 5,000 feet there is a beautiful fresh water lake.

San Pablo is a progressive town well worth visiting. It is one of the largest towns in the Islands and is up-to-date in every respect. A large park overlooks a lake of rare beauty with the majestic San Cristobal mountains in the [71]background. A long flight of white stone steps leads from the cliff above down to the lake shore, and the park is a favorite picnic ground. The veteran’s monument at this point always attracts much attention. The town has numerous private residences of striking architectural design.

Pagsanjan Falls One of the prettiest and wildest spots lies within easy reach of Manila—Pagsanjan Falls. Pagsanjan, the town, in itself worth seeing for its beautiful residences and the surrounding forests, can be reached in three and one-half hours by train or automobile through a lovely coconut country. There are good hotel accommodations with clean beds and food. Everything is done for the tourist; arrangements are made for boats and guides, and launches are provided.

From the hotel you walk a short distance to a long row of bancas, prow on shore, and a noisy throng of men clamoring for the favor of your patronage; but you have probably chosen men at the hotel and are conducted to certain boats by your guide. In the center of your boat is the seat, a split bamboo chair with reclining back and bottom of bamboo splints. The two boatmen take their places at the ends of the boat and push off into the small stream for a few hundred yards to Pagsanjan River.

The boat is paddled up the river past large rafts of coconuts, by great trees dipping their leaves into the water. Along the shores are parties of laughing people—some bathing and some washing clothes. Now there are long reaches of quiet water, clear and deep; then banks begin to rise above you; there is a swirl here, a ripple there, and a swish below the gunwales. You are drawing toward the rapids. The boatmen get put into the water and pull and tug and shove; the water sucks viciously. The boat enters the gorge and its shadows. The river becomes silent stretches of black water, and the air is cold. Above, for hundreds of feet, tower the great cliffs of Pagsanjan to which cling vines, desperate trees, and dripping shrubs. On all sides are falls breaking upon the rocks and filling the canyon with a pleasant murmur; then more rapids and sweeps of fierce [72]water. Great boulders have fallen into the river. Unable to paddle against the current or to wade, the men now fight painfully forward by clinging to vines, the rocks, anything. Then out of the boat again, lifting it and you bodily up steps of pouring water, around corners, shooting across a quiet pool into a fury of cascading foam. At times you scramble out of the boat and detour a little over intervening rocks, while the fight with the river goes on. For two hours the journey continues, until you come to the end—a large pool—above you, Pagsanjan Falls, the largest waterfall in the Islands, around, the insurmountable cliffs fringed above by shining palms. Monkeys and iguanas scurry over the slippery bluffs complaining at intrusion.

You should go prepared to rough it. Only a bathing suit is worn in the boats and except at times of low water, kodaks had better be left at the hotel, for rapids lap over the side. Indeed many have been the spills in the swift water. But there is no danger, and a wetting is of no consequence. The whole trip need cost no more than twenty pesos nor occupy more than a day and a half.

It is a wonderful trip for those who enjoy the wilds. The gorge is considered one of the beauty spots of the world.

RIZAL PROVINCE.—To the north of Laguna de Bay, is Rizal Province, named after the national hero of the Filipinos. Pasig, the capital is an important commercial town. It is located on the Pasig River, a stream which is navigable thruout the year. Malabon, noted for her fisheries and fish ponds, furnishes the City of Manila with choice fish to the value of hundreds of thousands of pesos a year. A flourishing poultry industry may be seen at Pateros. Parañaque is noted for its embroideries while in Mariquina the chief industry is the making of shoes and slippers. Along the borders of the Pasig River much grass is cultivated to furnish the Manila market with green fodder for horses and carabaos.

In this province are the towns of Pasig, San Juan del Monte, and Caloocan where the first blood of the Philippine [73]Revolution against Spain was shed. Here also is to be found the historic spot of Balintawak where Andres Bonifacio and his followers sounded the well-remembered “Cry of Balintawak,” the call for the outbreak of the Revolution.

Antipolo Antipolo has the shrine of Our Lady of Peace and Prosperous Voyages. It is a town about half an hour’s ride from Manila. It is built on a mountainous section of the province of Rizal. The road is rather steep and the scenery quite wild and impressive.

The image of the Virgin, commonly known as the “Virgin of Antipolo,” was originally brought from Mexico by the Spaniards to insure the safety of the galleons from the anger of the sea, and from the attacks of the pirates who used to lie in wait in the San Bernardino Strait and Verde Island Passage.

Shrine The shrine is the most famous of all Philippine shrines. To it thousands of devout Filipinos journey annually to pay their respects. The Virgin is dressed in a robe that falls in a cone stiff with gold and other jewels. It is estimated that the value of her decoration is as high as ₱1,000,000.

The true history of the image is interesting, but still more remarkable is the crust of legend with which the facts have become overlaid. It was actually brought to the Islands in 1626 by Juan Niño de Tabora, who had just been appointed Governor-General, and in 1672 it was removed to its present home. According to the legends, the Virgin crossed the Pacific eight or nine times, in addition to the original voyage, and, on each one, calmed a tempest. On other occasions she is said to have descended and appeared among the branches of the antipolo or bread-fruit tree (whence the name of the present church), to have survived the roaring fire in which the Chinese rebels cast her in 1639, and to have given the Spaniards a complete victory over twelve Dutch warships off Mariveles!

CAVITE PROVINCE.—This province is in the southwestern part of Luzon lying along the shore of Manila Bay. It has [74]a fine harbor in the city of Cavite, actually the site of the United States Naval Station.

The most important agricultural products are rice, hemp, sugar, copra, cacao, coffee, corn, and coconuts.

The city of Cavite, the capital, noted for its dock-yards is just across the bay from Manila. It is an old town of historic interest. It was there that the ships used in the Manila-Acapulco trade and in the expeditions against the Mohammedan pirates in the south were fitted out. In 1647 a Dutch squadron suddenly made its appearance off the coast of the city and bombarded the fort. It is said that the Dutch fired more than 2,000 cannon balls at the place, but in the end, however, were forced to withdraw.

In 1872, a military mutiny led by Lamadrid took place in Cavite. This mutiny though insignificant in itself had important political results. The government made it an excuse for the execution of three leading native priests, Dr. Jose Burgos and Fathers Gomez and Zamora, and for the exile of many Filipino leaders of the liberal movement of 1869–1871.

Zapote Bridge From the beginning to the very end of the Revolution, Cavite Province was the center of military operations. Zapote bridge, for example, was more than once the scene of hard fighting. Practically every town in the province was at one time or another fought over. Many of the leaders of the Revolution, like Emilio Aguinaldo, who was President of the Philippine Republic, his cousin Baldomero, Noriel, Trias, and others are sons of Cavite. Moreover, when the Revolutionary Government was established, Bacoor was really the first capital.

Radio Station The city of Cavite is the United States’ Navy base and radio station in the Philippine Islands. The arsenal as well as the modern wireless station in the extreme end of the peninsula should not be missed. The city is about an hour’s ride by automobile passing through the towns of Parañaque, Las Piñas, Kawit, Noveleta, and San Roque. In the church at Las Piñas [75]may be seen the famous bamboo organ, old and quaint, yet still serviceable. It was made by a priest exclusively from the native bamboo tree. Cavite can also be reached by water, there being small boats plying between the city and Manila at regular intervals.

Kawit Kawit or Cavite Viejo is the town of General Emilio Aguinaldo. He has his home there, which is noted for its historic interest. It is preserved as it was during revolutionary days. Visitors can still see the desk used by the General during the revolution as well as the holes made by a cannon ball from Admiral Dewey’s flagship “The Olimpia.”

BATANGAS PROVINCE.—Batangas Province is immediately south of Cavite Province. It has an irregular coastline and has many important ports, such as Nasugbu, Calatagan, Balayan, Calaca, Lemeri, Taal, San Luis, Batangas, Lobo, and San Juan.

At Laiya on the coast between San Juan and Lobo are the famous Lobo submarine gardens. During fair weather the water here is as clear as crystal and the submarine growth may be seen in all its varied colors.

The valleys and slopes of the province are extremely fertile because of the disintegrated volcanic rock that is carried down from the mountains by the river. Sugar, hemp, citrus fruits, coconut, corn, mangoes, and other fruits and vegetables are grown in abundance. The province is especially noted for its delicious oranges, grown in Tanawan and Santo Tomas. Great herds of horses famous throughout the archipelago as well as carabaos and cattle are raised on the mountain slopes. Bawan and Lemeri are famous for the fine jusi and piña cloths manufactured there and for the knotted abaca that is sent to Japan for the manufacture of hats.

Historical Incidents Throughout the 17th century the coast towns of Batangas suffered greatly from Moro attacks. Stone forts were erected at various points along the coast—in Lemeri, Taal, Bawan, and Batangas—but still the Moros came. In 1754 [76]as many as 38 Moro vessels appeared off the coast. In 1763 the northern part of the province was visited by the British in search of the treasure of the galleon “Philippine.” The expedition failed to find the treasure but went as far as Lipa and plundered the town. Batangas was one of the first provinces to start the revolution of 1896. Two of the great leaders of the period were sons of the province, namely, the great lawyer and statesman, Apolinario Mabini, and Miguel Malvar, the famous general.

Attractions Among the attractions are the old picturesque buildings of Lipa and Taal, the San Juan sulphur springs, the Bawan hot springs, and the Rosario fresh water spring. There are also several caves and grottos. The two largest are found in the slopes of Mount Pulan, Suya, and Kamantigue of San Juan. One of the caves has an opening of 40 meters in circumference. Issuing therefrom is an underground river which empties into Lake Taal. Along its course are extensive galleries and chambers lined with fantastically shaped stalactites and stalagmites. At the approach of an eruption of the Taal Volcano nearby, the cave emits a weird sound, audible at great distances.

Taal Volcano Taal Volcano is the great scenic asset of the province. Almost at the doors of Manila it is easily reached with practically none of the discomfort which a trip to nature’s wild spots usually involves. The volcano is commonly known as the “cloud maker” and “the terrible.” How long this volcano has been emitting sulphurous smoke is not known; all that is known is that back in the geologic past, volcanic outbursts of enormous magnitude disturbed the regions about it. In the 18th century the volcano erupted several times, and ruined many towns in the neighborhood. The last and perhaps the worst eruption occurred in January, 1911.

Then, after a long interval, old Taal, in a paroxysm of volcanic activity, showed that he was still lusty and capable of making a huge disturbance. In addition to the steam [77]which had been coming from the crater more or less continuously, the volcano began throwing out mud. This activity increased, and culminated in a great explosion at about half past 2 on the morning of January 30th. The hot water, mud, and ashes completely devastated about 90 square miles of country; while some mud and fine ashes fell over an area of more than 800 square miles. Many villages were destroyed and the official estimate of the dead was 1,335. The spasm of activity died away until the volcano again assumed its normal state about February 8th. Since then it has been very quiet, though a small mud geyser has started up along the old fault line which extends from Taal to the coast. This is located on the beach at the village of Sinisian.

Before the eruption the floor of the crater stood about five feet above the level of Lake Bombon. In it were four prominent features: Two small lakes of hot water, one green, the other more or less red; near the center a gas vent five or six feet in diameter, from which the hot gases roared as from a blast furnace; and just a little distance away a triangular obelisk of hard volcanic rock. During the eruption all of the material in the bottom of this crater, to a depth of about 230 feet, was heaved up and spread broadcast over the country. Later on, this hole filled up with water, which seeped in from the lake almost up to the level of the old floor, or about that of the lake itself. There is now one large body of steaming water in place of the former features, but the old obelisk still stands defiantly in its place.

The volcano consists of an active crater near the center of a low island not over 5½ miles in its longest diameter. The island is situated at the center of Taal Lake (Bombon) which is about 17 miles long and 10½ miles wide. The lake is 10 meters deep and is 2.5 meters above sea level.

A small launch carries those who would look down into the crater across the lake to the island from which the volcano rises. The volcano is about a thousand feet in height and is fairly easy to climb.

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TAYABAS PROVINCE, the second largest, is on the Pacific coast of the Philippine Islands. The province is noted for its copra, abacá and corn which are raised for export. Mineral resources are abundant in the Bondoc Peninsula where gold, coal, and petroleum are found. Aside from agriculture and mining, however, there are other industries such as hat-making and lumbering. There is a lumber camp at Guinayañgan and a modern saw and planing mill in Lucena. The Botocan Falls, where a stream 40 feet wide makes a leap of 190 feet, could supply the entire province with light and power for all its needs.

Lucena and Atimonan The spin to Lucena and Atimonan, both in the Province of Tayabas over the South Road, is a favorite one. On the east are the little town of Binañgonan de Lampon, a celebrated port in the sixteenth century in the galleon trade, and the landlocked harbor of Hondagua, destined to be the direct port of call of steamers coming from the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada.

On the way, stop can readily be made at the town of Calamba, Laguna, about 37 miles from Manila. This is the birthplace of the Filipino author, and patriot Dr. Jose Rizal. Although the house where he was born is no longer standing, the site can easily be found opposite the church and market. Calamba has an added importance in that the town has a modern sugar central, which the traveler should not fail to visit.

Los Baños A short detour can readily be made also at Los Baños (“The Baths”), a town which owes its name and its importance to the hot mineral springs which abound in the neighborhood and have been found to be of great medicinal value especially for the treatment of certain skin diseases and rheumatism. The springs have been known for a great length of time. Even during the Spanish days the town was a much frequented resort, a hospital with pools and vapored rooms having been built as far back as 1571. [79]

College of Agriculture A short distance from Los Baños, and occupying an extremely picturesque side are the palms and buildings of the College of Agriculture of the University of the Philippines, an institution which trains young Filipinos in a calling which must for many years to come be the foundation of the economic prosperity of the islands.

THE BICOL PROVINCES.—Farther south, are the provinces of Albay, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, and Sorsogon, known as the Bicol Provinces, because inhabited by Bicolanos. All four provinces are noted for their beautiful mountain views and extensive plantations of coconut and hemp. In Albay the forests are extensive, providing timber, rattan, pili-nuts, and gum for export. Gutta-percha and Para rubber trees are extensively cultivated. There are wide pasture grounds for horses, cattle, carabaos, goats, and sheep. The temperature is even and the nights are cool and refreshing. There are also salubrious mineral springs, the best known being the Tiwi Hot Sulphur Springs in the town of Naga.

The Province of Catanduanes abounds in gold, copper, and iron. The Batan coal mines which are being operated are supplying several manufacturing and gas plants. There are quarries of marble in Pantaon; gypsum deposits in Ligao; and lime in Guinobatan and Camalig.

Camarines Norte is rich in mineral resources. Gold is found in many places, exploitation being actually carried on in Paracale. There are also deposits of iron, silver, lead, and copper.

Camarines Sur, on the valley of Bicol River and the Caramoan Peninsula, is noted for its rattan industry. Hemp planting and fishing and coconut growing are the other principal industries.

Sorsogon occupies the southernmost tip of the Bicol Peninsula. The largest indenture in its irregular coast is the gulf of Sorsogon, a land-locked body of water and one of the finest harbors in the Philippines. The land is mountainous and covered with excellent lumber suitable for ship-building [80]and furniture making. In the forests rattan grows in abundance and is exported to all the provinces. The chief products are abaca and coconuts.

Sorsogon, the capital, located on the gulf, is an important commercial town. Pilar is noted for her shipyards; ships, lorchas, and boats are built here from the fine timber grown nearby.

Sceneries Among the sceneries are the Guinulajon waterfalls, near the capital, the wild vegetation and the cataracts along the Irosin River, the medicinal hot springs of Mombon, Bujan, and Mapaso, together with the beautiful panorama from the Bulusan Volcano are especially striking. Like Mount Vesuvius, Mount Bulusan has an old crater, and a new cone that has appeared on the slopes. Inside the crater, about 500 feet deep, are two pools of hot water which form the basin from which the Irosin River rises.

A great event in the history of Sorsogon was the invention of a hemp-stripping machine by a priest named Espellargas, about 1669. The invention was made in Bacon, where it seems hemp then abounded. The contrivance was ingeniously constructed and was quite well adapted to local conditions.

Historical Incidents Many of the galleons that the Spanish Government used in the Manila-Acapulco trade were built in Sorsogon, especially on the Island of Bagatao, at the entrance of Sorsogon Bay. Many of these ships were wrecked while navigating the waters of Sorsogon, because they laid their course for Mexico via the San Bernardino Strait, a passage which abounds in dangerous currents, shoals, and rocks. The galleon San Cristobal was wrecked in 1733 near the Calantas Rock. In 1793, the galleon Magallanes also ran aground at this place. Other vessels went down in this neighborhood from time to time, as the Santo Cristo de Burgos, in 1726, near Ticao, and the San Andres, in 1798, near Naranja Island.

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Volcanoes Peerless Mayon of the perfect cone is in Albay, the volcano of Isarog in Ambos Camarines, and Bulusan in Sorsogon.

For those who love mountain climbing, the ascent to the peak of Mayon Volcano should not be missed.

The actual ascent, though arduous, is perfectly practicable. It requires from a day and a half to two days from Albay. By leaving the latter place on horseback at noon it is possible to ride one-third of the way up before dark. Leaving the horses at the camping place, the summit can be reached and the return trip made to Albay on the following day. A vivid description of the trip, written by Dr. Paul C. Freer, Director of the Bureau of Science, follows:

“This great volcano rises from the seacoast, between Legaspi and Tabaco, in the form of an almost perfect cone—the white houses and church towers of the surrounding settlements and the deeper-colored verdure of the trees at its base, higher up the brilliant green of the bare glass streaked here and there by old lava flows, and still higher a grayish black cinder and ash cone tapering to the peak, with a small plume of steam escaping apparently from the extreme summit. The ascent is interesting, but may, if proper precautions are not taken, be dangerous. The rise of the land in the first part is scarcely perceptible, the road winding through forest interspersed with great plantations of manila hemp; above, as it becomes steeper, the latter give way almost entirely to tropical jungle; and finally the path emerges into cogonal, which extends as far as the angle of the slope will permit. Here and there the entire slope is cut by deep ravines, indicating old lava flows. The way up the cone at first invariably lies in one of these ravines, but now and again the mountain climber is compelled to cross rolling cinder beds only a few inches deep, and lying upon a harder base, almost invariably with an abrupt descent below. The angle is so great that every precaution must be taken, as a slip would prove fatal. A good steelshod alpenstock is practically indispensable. The last five hundred feet are along the perpendicular lava and tuff crags of the summit, the ambitious climber clinging to the latter with hands and toes, wherever support is possible and slowly [82]working his way to the edge of the crater. Finally, standing upon the rotten foothold afforded by the latter he looks down into what appears to be a deep dark well from which small quantities of sulphur-laden gas escape. Around him on the margin jets of steam arise; the ground on which he stands is hot, the boys carrying the canteens are far below, the dry breeze helps the evaporation, and he realizes that he is very, very thirsty. However, the view from the top repays all effort. The entire southern portion of Luzon is visible, stretching away in a succession of fields, forests, and diminutive villages, to the straits of San Bernardino, across which Samar may be seen, and even Leyte, on a clear day. The lake of Bato, the interisland waters, and finally Burias are seen to the west; to the north there appears apparently one unbroken stretch of land with here and there a glimpse of the sea; and the Gulf of Albay with the towns of Legaspi, Tabaco, and Daraga, as well as the smaller islands to the east, seem to be almost within a stone’s throw. I have been high up on the slopes of Etna, at the entrance to the Val del Bobe, from which many travelers maintain the finest in the world is to be obtained, but I certainly think that from the summit of Mayon the vista surpasses the one from its sister volcano in Sicily.… Mayon Volcano is decidedly one of the show places of the Philippines, and the wonder is that many of our visitors do not take the opportunity to make the ascent.”

BULACAN PROVINCE is named from the Tagalog word “bulac” meaning “cotton” which was once the principal product of the region. Together with the Provinces of Pampanga, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija, the province forms what is commonly known as the region of Central Luzon.

Description and History The soil, which is of alluvial and volcanic origin, is rich. Rice, corn, sugar, pineapples, bananas, betel nut, mangoes, and all sorts of vegetables are raised in the well irrigated and low-lying lands. The nipa swamps which supply most of the nipa thatches, vinegar, and alcohol are the principal stand-by of a great many people. The forests cover over 89,980 hectares and yield good commercial timber and many minor forest products. [83]

Aside from agriculture and mining, the industries of the province are making hats (Baliuag) and silk textiles, weaving, tanning, fish breeding, distilling alcohol, and furniture-making. Baliuag, Meycauayan, Obando, Polo, Hagonoy, and San Miguel are the centers of these industries.

In the events which followed the arrival of the British in 1762, the province figured conspicuously, serving as a center of resistance during British occupation of Manila. The Spanish Governor, Anda, just before the capitulation of Manila escaped to this province where he organized a government of his own to carry on hostilities against the British and to hold the country in its loyalty to Spain. In the encounters, however, between Anda’s forces and the British, Anda’s resistance was overcome, and Bulacan like the other provinces fell into British hands.

Some of the most notable events in the Philippine revolution took place in Bulacan Province. It was at Biac-na-Bato, in the mountains of Bulacan, where in December of 1897 the famous Pact of Biac-na-Bato was concluded, and the town of Malolos was for some time the capital of the Philippine Republic. Here, in the historic church of Barasoain, the Congress which drafted the Constitution of the Republic held its sessions. Conspicuous figures of the revolution like M. H. del Pilar and Mariano Ponce whose names are connected with the period of propaganda are sons of this province.

Attractions Among the other attractions are the Mineral Baths at Marilao, on the Manila north road, and Sibul Springs near San Miguel de Mayumo. This is a popular health resort only about three hours ride from Manila. The water of the springs have enjoyed a considerable reputation for a long time. They are very beneficial in diseases of the intestinal tract, especially those of a chronic and catarrhal nature. Owing to the gases which the water contains the baths are most refreshing.

PAMPANGA PROVINCE is said to be the lowest and most level of all the provinces. It is the chief sugar raising province in Luzon. Some of the islands’ modern sugar [84]centrals are there. Besides farming, sugar making, lumbering, and fishing, the people are engaged in several other industries such as distillation of alcohol, buri hat making, and pottery.

Historical Incidents About the middle of the seventeenth century, two great rebellions broke out in the province. The first of these took place in 1645 as a result of the injustices connected with the collection of tributes. It spread quickly and extended to Zambales. The second revolt took place fifteen years later as a result of the forcible employment of natives in the work of cutting timber and of the failure of the Government to pay for large amounts of rice collected in Pampanga for the use of the royal officials. The leader of the rebellion was Francisco Maniago. It spread rapidly among the inhabitants of the towns along the banks of the Pampanga River, and was only suppressed after drastic measures were taken by Governor-General de Lara.

Pampanga was one of the first provinces to start the Revolution. During the early part of the war Mariano Llanera commanded the Revolutionary forces. Later Tiburcio Hilario took possession of the province as governor in the name of the Revolutionary Government.

Attractions Among the attractions are the sugar centrals, Camp Stotsenberg, one of the principal Army posts and an airplane station of the United States, dome-shaped Mount Arayat, about 3,300 feet in height and fairly easy to climb, and San Fernando, the capital, with its handsome capitol and school buildings grouped about the pretty plaza.

Arayat, a picturesque village lying at the foot of the mountain of that name is an ideal spot for those desiring to camp out. Nearby is the little barrio of Baño where there is an ancient tile bath constructed by the Spanish Friars. It consists of a tile lined tank some forty feet in length and of varying depths, filled by a crystal-clear spring which gushes into it from a grassy bank just above. [85]

Mount Arayat is a perfect cone that rises majestically from the immense plain of Central Luzon, and is visible for miles around, presenting the same conical shape no matter from what direction viewed.

Several trails lead to the top of the mountain from where a wonderful panorama can be seen. It was an insurgent stronghold during the war, but its heights were scaled by American troops and its defenders dispersed. Scientists state that the mountain is an extinct volcano and local tradition has it that the original town of Arayat was destroyed by an eruption and covered by ashes.

TARLAC PROVINCE is also in the central plain of Luzon. The province has two distinct geographical areas. The northern and eastern parts consists of an extensive plain while the rest is covered with mountains which abound in timber suitable for building material and furniture making. The minor forest products are anahaw, palasan, rattan, honey and bojo for sawali.

There was an uprising in this province somewhere in 1762 headed by Juan de la Cruz Palaris. In 1896 the province was one of the original eight provinces where a state of war was declared to be in existence against the Spaniards. When Malolos was evacuated by the Philippine Revolutionary Government, the town of Tarlac became for a time the central headquarters.

Among the attractions are the medicinal springs in O’Donell in the municipality of Capas and those of Sinait.

NUEVA ECIJA PROVINCE is the rice granary of the Philippine Islands, being first in the production of the cereal, Pangasinan coming second. The rolling hills towards the mountains are suitable for pasture lands. The mountains are thick with untouched forests that yield fine wood and other minor products. In the mountains and rivers gold is found. The province was one of the first eight provinces to raise the standard of revolt in 1896. It has a number of flourishing towns at present, due to the continuous boom in the rice market. There are many mineral hot springs, the [86]ones at Bongabon and Pantabañgan being the most important. Among the attractions are the irrigation system in San Jose which supplies water over an extensive territory and the Government Agricultural School at Muñoz which is attended by many students from all the provinces, and which is noted for its unique method of practical instruction.

Attractions BATAAN PROVINCE occupies the whole of the peninsula lying between the China Sea and Manila Bay. It is a province of various peculiar phenomena. Northwest of Dinalupihan is a small conical mountain, 250 meters high, which has a fresh water lake at the top. In the neighborhood of Malasimbo are a few shallow marshes, the shores and waters of which are tinted red by dust said to be formed from the remains of microscopic animalculæ. Near Orani is a bed of iron hydride which the people of the region used to make into paints for walls and carriages. There are also deposits of clay of which “pilones” are made. There is also a large deposit of shells which are burned for lime used in the indigo and sugar industries. On the shores of Orani is a fresh water spring that rises from a spot covered daily by the tides. Near the town of Orion is a quaking bog, impassable by either man or beast. Another, smaller one, is found in Ogon, Balanga.

Historical Incidents During the first two decades of the seventeenth century, the coast of Bataan was more than once the scene of battles against the Dutch. The first of these encounters took place in 1600 off the coast of Mariveles. The Dutch were commanded by Admiral Van Noort, while the Spanish-Filipino army was led by the historian, Antonio de Morga, then an order of the Manila Real Audiencia. The Spanish-Filipino squadron suffered heavy losses, but the Dutch were nevertheless forced to retreat. Nine years later, the Dutch again appeared off the Mariveles coast. This time they were led by Admiral Wittert, against whom Governor Silva sent a hastily fitted out squadron of six small vessels manned by Spaniards and Filipinos. The Dutch were defeated. In spite of these [87]reverses, the Dutch continued their hostile visits to the Philippines. In 1646, they bombarded Zamboanga, unsuccessfully attacked Cavite, and finally effected a landing in Abucay, Bataan. Here they committed depredations and massacred more than four hundred Filipino soldiers who had laid down their arms. They were not driven away until after a long siege.

Mariveles The town of Mariveles and Mount Mariveles are the principal attractions. The town has an important harbor where the ships are detained and fumigated when necessary before entering or leaving Manila Bay. West of the town is a quarry of white stone called by the Spaniards, “mármol de Mariveles.” This stone has served as material for the pedestal and column of the statue of Charles IV in Manila. A well near the quarry produces siliceous water.

There is a beautiful legend connected with the town of Mariveles. A Spanish girl by the name of Maria Velez, who was a nun in Santa Clara Convent, fell in love with a friar, with whom she later eloped to Kamaya, there to await a galleon on which they intended to secure passage for Acapulco. The elopement caused excitement in Manila, and the corregidor (magistrate) with a few men was sent to Kamaya in search of the refugees. It is said that in memory of the persons involved in this story Kamaya was given the name of Mariveles, the big island to the south was named Corregidor, the little island to the west was called Monja (nun) and another small island, off the Cavite coast, was called Fraile.

Mount Mariveles Mount Mariveles rises in the midst of the whole peninsula of Bataan. It is about 4,700 feet in height and forms a conspicuous object from the city especially when illuminated by the brilliant hues of the sunset sky. Though once an active volcano its sides are now covered with vegetation and practically the whole of its slopes down to a very short distance off the shore are virgin tropical jungles. The ascent of the mountain can be conveniently made from a day and a half to two days from Lamao, where the Philippine Government maintains [88]a scientific experimental farm. The trail up the mountain passes along a ridge with here and there steep but short slopes. As the ascent is made the trees become noticeably smaller and orchids, ferns, mosses and the like much more abundant. From the first peak 2,800 feet high, the traveler can obtain a view of what Agassiz termed the greatest wonders of nature—the sea, the mountains, and the tropical forests.

The view from the very top surpasses that from the first peak. To the east lies the bay, with Manila and Cavite in the distance; to the south nestles Corregidor Island with the surf beating its shores; beyond is the China Sea, dotted here and there with specks of vessels bound to and from Hongkong or the other islands; to the north and west is a semi-circle of forest-covered peaks, standing as sentinels guarding the amphitheater-like crater; and to the northeast lie the cultivated fields of rice and sugar cane, studded here and there with the church steeples that mark the sites of the towns.

ZAMBALES PROVINCE.—North of Bataan along the western coast of Luzon is the Province of Zambales. It has two important harbors that are well sheltered—Olongapo and Subic. Olongapo is a naval station which boasts of one of the largest floating dry docks in the world.

Zambales was also visited by the Dutch during the early part of the seventeenth century. It was in 1617 that Admiral Spielbergen, with a powerful fleet appeared off the coast of Playa Honda. The Government forces, under the command of Juan Ronquillo, sallied out and engaged the Dutch squadron. Spielbergen displayed much bravery, but was defeated.

Naval Station The only points of particular interest are the Naval Station along the coast which is, however, practically abandoned, and the fortifications on Grande Island, at the entrance to the bay. To visit either of them permits from the military or naval authorities are necessary. The floating dry-dock Dewey whose voyage [89]from the United States was a matter of much public interest in 1906 is now located here.

PANGASINAN PROVINCE is the second largest rice producing province in the archipelago. Tobacco and coconuts are also principal products. The swamp lands and the tide flats are sources of nipa thatches and alcohol. Mongo, cogon, sugar cane, and mangoes are also raised extensively.

Salt Making and Industries Along the tidal flats, salt making is so universal that the province has been named “Pangasinan,” meaning, “the place where there is salt.” Large parts of these same tidal lands are converted into artificial fish ponds with suitable gates that admit water during high tide. Even as far south as Bayambang, the overflowed lands of the Agno River have been converted into similar ponds where quantities of fresh-water fish are obtained and shipped to Manila in large baskets containing water.

The famous Calasiao hat made from the leaf of the buri palm comes from Pangasinan. Mat-making is an industry in Bani and Bolinao. Lingayen uses the palm fiber for making sugar sacks and San Carlos for the “salacot” or native helmet. Calasiao, Mañgaldan, and San Carlos prepare the “tabo” or native cup from the coconut shell. Binmaley and Dagupan manufacture the “sueco” (wooden shoe), from the woods cut in the Zambales mountains. San Carlos, Binmaley, Santa Barbara, Malasiqui, and Bayambang have brickyards and manufactories of pottery. Mañgaldan is famous for its indigo blue and blue-black dyes.

Historical Events Historically the province is important in that it was there that in 1574 the Chinese pirate Limahong after his repulse in Manila appeared with his vast army at the mouth of the Agno River and tried to found a settlement on its banks. This attempt, however, was a failure.

During the period from 1660 to about 1765, two important revolts occurred in Pangasinan. The first was in 1660 led by Andres Malong, who attempted to establish a great kingdom [90]with Binalatoñgan as capital and comprising all of northern and western Luzon as far south as Zambales and Pampanga. The second revolt was led by the famous Pangasinan leader, Juan de la Cruz Palaris, often known as “Palaripar.” It took place in 1762, caused by the injustices of the tribute. Its center was also at Binalatoñgan. It lasted over two years, ending with the capture and execution of Palaris in 1765.

MOUNTAIN PROVINCE.—The Mountain Province is the third largest province in the Philippines. It comprises the vast mountainous territory between the Provinces of Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, and the Ilocos. It is made up of several sub-provinces.

Bakun district in the sub-province of Amburayan has some of the most striking rice terraces thousands of feet high. It is a region surrounded by high precipices, so that parts of the trails to Bakun consist of ladders hundreds of feet high on the sides of the cliffs.

The sub-province of Apayao contains one of the richest virgin forests in the Philippines but because of the difficulty of transportation lumber is not cut on a commercial scale. There are also deposits of copper and ore as well as limestone but they are little explored.

The sub-province of Benguet is at present the most important gold-mining district in the Mountain Province. The Igorots had exploited the mines long before the coming of the Spaniards and it is said that because of the experience already acquired, the Igorots are today more skillful gold miners than those who use their knowledge of chemistry and mining engineering. Hot springs are found at Klondikes, Daklan, and Bungias. Coal deposits exist in Mount Kapangan.

The city of Baguio, the capital of Benguet, is situated in the southwestern part of the province. About 160 miles to the north of Manila, it is built high up among the Benguet mountains. It ranges in elevation from 4,500 to over 5,500 [91]feet, and is surrounded practically on all sides by high mountains. The city at present is the summer capital of the Philippines. For a fuller description see page 61.

The sub-province of Bontok is exceedingly mountainous. Besides agriculture and pottery making, the principal industries consist of basket making, lumbering, weaving, and metal working. The women by means of their hand-looms weave a great deal of high colored cloth out of yarn which they get by barter from the people of Isabela and Abra. The men manufacture head-axes and knives.

Ifugao Rice Terraces The sub-province of Ifugao is famous for the remarkable rice terraces along its mountain sides. Nowhere in the Philippines is irrigation developed to the point reached in this sub-province. There are approximately 100 square miles of irrigated rice terraces that are watered by great ditches several miles long. The terraces are all buttressed with stone walls which measure a total length of about 12,000 miles. These terraces have been built without any knowledge of engineering. It is believed that the construction of the present terraces and irrigation systems has taken from 1,200 to 1,500 years of time. Generation after generation had toiled on them patiently. The Ifugaos have so utilized every drop of available water supply that in most places no more ditches can be constructed for lack of water.

The terraces are built of stones mined near by, of which there are extensive areas. No animals are used for field work everything being done by hand. Salt springs and deposits of rock salts are also found in several places.

The sub-province of Lepanto is next to Ifugao in the number of rice terraces. Camotes, pineapples, sugar cane, and cotton are also raised. Lepanto and Benguet are the regions having the most minerals in Luzon. All the mountain ranges have millions of pesos worth of copper ore deposits. Mankayan is the center of the copper mining industry. Here the Spaniards found the natives using the Chinese method of mine smelting. [92]

Gold Mining and Industries Suyok is the gold mining center. Here is found one of the most striking features of the world. The whole side of a range of mountains, about 15 kilometers across, slides down to the valley, and on this slide, named the Palidan Slide, are found parts of gold veins which must have their connection somewhere else.

The household industries are well developed. Clay products, such as pots, jars, and pipes are made for export. The men are experts in metal-working. They make weapons, pots, and spoons out of copper which they mine and smelt by native process. They also manufacture iron or steel spears, bolos, knives, and tools of all sorts, which they sell to or barter with the natives of the lowlands. They also carve wood into images, bowls, ornaments, and other utensils.

The women make sufficient cloths for their own use and for sale. They spin, dye, and weave the cotton raised there.

LA UNION PROVINCE occupies a narrow strip of land immediately north of the Province of Pangasinan and west of the Mountain Province. Tobacco, rice, sisal, hemp, sugar, coconuts, corn, and cotton form the most important products. At the foot of Mount Bayabas is a hot salt spring. The Manila Railroad operates lines as far as Bauang. San Fernando, the capital, may be reached either by boat or by automobile from Bauang.

Industries ILOCOS SUR PROVINCE.—Immediately north of La Union is the Province of Ilocos Sur, a region specially adapted to the cultivation of maguey the fiber of which constitutes the principal export. But because the soil will not support the population a great many persons have turned to manufacture and trade. This has given rise to industrial specialization in different towns. Those along the coast extract salt from the sea water and export it in great quantities to inland provinces. In San Esteban, there is a quarry of stone from which mortars and grindstones are made. San Vicente, Vigan, and San Ildefonso specialize in woodworking, the first in carved wooden boxes and images and the others in household [93]furniture. Most of the wood used in these handicrafts is imported from Abra and Cagayan. Bantay is the home of skilled silversmiths. In the other towns saddles, harness, slippers, mats, pottery, and hats are made and exported to some extent. Sisal and hemp fiber extraction and weaving of cotton cloth are common household industries throughout the province.

The province embraces within its confines some of the oldest towns in the Philippines. Besides Vigan several other towns already existed in this region before the close of the sixteenth century; namely, Santa, Narvacan, Bantay, Candon, and Sinait.

Just above Narvacan, on the highway which runs along the beach is an ancient watch-tower and a stretch of road bordered by a curious brick retaining wall of Spanish construction. Numerous ancient shrines are also to be seen along the Ilocos roads where the pious prayed that Heavenly favor might be shown them in their journeys.

The towns of Paoay and Batac are noted for their magnificent churches which are worth traveling a long distance to see.

Historical Two important uprisings are recorded in the history of Ilocos Sur—the Malong rebellion in 1660 and the Silang rebellion in 1763. Malong, who was trying to carve out a kingdom for himself in Pangasinan and the neighboring territory, sent his two able generals, “Count” Gumapos and Jacinto Macasiag to the north to effect the conquest of this region. Gumapos and Macasiag, however, proceeded only as far as Vigan, from which place they were recalled by Malong. Diego Silang, who led the great rebellion of 1762, dominated the greater part of Ilocos Sur. He fought pitched battles with the Spanish forces at Vigan and Cabugao and practically succeeded in establishing a government of his own in Ilocos Sur.

ILOCOS NORTE PROVINCE occupies the whole of the coastal plain in the northwestern corner of Luzon. This province is noted for the many revolts that occurred there, [94]from the beginning of Spanish rule to the first decades of the nineteenth century. The two most important were those caused by the general discontent over the tobacco monopoly and over the wine monopoly, which occurred in 1788 and 1807 respectively.

The mountains surrounding the province are covered with fine timber trees. Resin, honey, and wax are also found on their slopes. A few grottos or caves are found in the interior. There are a number of stone quarries. Limestone is found in at least three places, while the beach supplies a great amount of coral for road building. There are also deposits of manganese and asbestos which are being exploited.

The weaving of textiles—towels, blankets, wearing apparel, and handkerchiefs—is the principal industry among women. Mat-making and the pottery industry are also well developed.

Laoag, the capital, has a population of about 40,000. It is entered from the south by crossing the longest bridge in the islands. Laoag plaza, on which the provincial buildings front, is well cared for and the ancient bell tower on the opposite side is said to resemble a famous Italian campanile.

Bangui is “farthest north” in Luzon where the highway ends. Its climate is cool resembling that of a California summer. Woolen clothes may be worn with comfort in the cold season. It is always swept by cool breezes. The view of sea and land from the crest of a hill just before Bangui is entered will hold the attention of even the most travelled tourist.

ABRA PROVINCE is south of Ilocos Norte. It is a beautiful mountainous region. It is considered to be the seismic center of Northern Luzon. It is drained by the voluminous Abra River which is the highway to the Province of Ilocos Sur. The valley drained by this river and its tributaries is covered with luxuriant vegetation. Corn, tobacco, and rice are the most important products. The mountains are covered with forests containing timber eminently suitable for construction. There is gold dust along the Binoñgan [95]River in the town of Lacub. Of mineral springs that of the Iomin River is the most important. This has a temperature ranging from 70 degrees to 80 degrees Fahrenheit with a flow of 3 to 4 cubic centimeters per second.

Cagayan River THE CAGAYAN VALLEY.—Adjoining the Mountain Province in the very northeastern corner of Luzon is the Province of Cagayan. Together with the neighboring Provinces of Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya to the south it forms what is known as the Cagayan Valley. Something of these great tobacco provinces can be seen by taking the steamer from Manila to Aparri and then sailing up the Cagayan River. This is a Mississippi, a Nile of a river, navigable by interisland steamers for twenty-five miles. Its chief importance lies in its periodical inundations, which, leaving their deposits of alluvial loam along the strips of lowland by the banks of the stream, make it the finest tobacco country of this part of the world. This crop has for a very long time been the staple source of wealth, though other plants can be cultivated with success. How great is the productivity of the soil, despite the exhausting effect of tobacco upon it, may be gathered from the following remark made in an official report. “The ‘good land’ was understood to be those parts fertilized annually by the overflow of the river.… The other land was not considered first class because it could only produce tobacco for ten or twelve years without enrichment, the subject of fertilizing never having received any attention from the planters of that region.”

By small boats it is possible to reach Cauayan, Isabela. From there the road is so nearly completed that autos can be taken to Santa Fé, Nueva Vizcaya, where it divides, one branch, an automobile road, leading to San Jose, Nueva Ecija, and thence to Manila; the other a horseback trail to San Nicolas, Pangasinan, a short and easy stage to the railroad. Among the sights is a salt-incrusted mountain, a dazzling landmark for miles around in Nueva Vizcaya. The people thereabouts often place small objects, such as baskets, under the drip of the salt springs. These become coated [96]with salt in such a manner that they appear to be of pure marble.

Isabela and Palanan Like many other provinces Isabela Province was the scene of important uprisings. In 1763, for example, stirred by the influence of the Silang rebellion in Ilocos, the people of Isabela revolted, led on by Dabo and Juan Morayac. The centers of rebellion were Ilagan and Cabagan. Again in 1785, another revolt broke out. This time the rebellion was led by Labutao and Baladon. The rebellion was caused by the grievances of the people against the collection of tribute and the enforcement of the tobacco monopoly.

The historical spot of Isabela is the little town of Palanan on Palanan Bay, on the Pacific Coast. The bay is exposed to the weather and the anchorage is reefy, while the town is separated from the rest of the province by great mountains which make communication and travel difficult and dangerous. It was in this town that General Emilio Aguinaldo retreated and maintained his headquarters until his capture by General Funston by a ruse in March, 1901.

Salinas Salt Springs NUEVA VIZCAYA PROVINCE is south of Cagayan on the Pacific Coast of Luzon. It contains vast areas of fertile public lands suitable for rice, tobacco, sugar, coconuts, beans, potatoes, coffee, and abaca, practically untouched, as well as virgin forests filled with all classes of valuable timber. The province is the gateway to and granary of the tobacco-producing provinces to the north. The climatic conditions of the province are unsurpassed. There are places the climate of which is similar to that of Baguio. There are also places of scenic beauty, such as Salinas, which are not inferior to world-famous objectives of tourist travel. The salt springs at Salinas have been from time immemorial the source of this essential food element to the peoples of even distant regions.

MINDORO PROVINCE is named after the Spanish phrase “mina de oro” or “gold mine,” as mining is said to have once been a great source of wealth in the region. The province is co-extensive in territory with the Island of Mindoro, [97]southwest of Luzon. Rice, copra, abacá, sugar, and corn are the principal products. Along the coast are extensive nipa swamps.

Mineral Deposits Gold is found in the Rivers of Binabay, Baco, Bongabong, and Magasauan Tubig. Coal of good quality is found north and west of Bulalacao, white marbles northwest of Mount Halcon, slate deposits near the headquarters of Pagaban and other rivers of the western coast, sulphur, and gypsum on Lake Naujan, and south of Calapan, hot springs between the sea and the northwestern part of Lake Naujan, and salt springs in Damagan, Bulalacao. Guano deposits are found in the caves.

Submarine Garden An interesting two-day trip from Manila is that to the landlocked harbor of Puerto Galera at the northern end of the island. The attraction of the place lies in the fine scenery along the coast and in the unusual transparency of the water, which permits visitors, especially if glass-bottomed boats are at hand, to inspect the varied life which teems in the depths below. There is here as on the coast of Batangas a marine garden of bewildering and exquisite beauty. Nature seems to have made special effort to crowd beneath a few acres of sea all of the most entrancing wonders of the deep. There is coral of every design, color, and variety. There are thousands of plants which present a wealthy and gorgeous harmony of color. There are myriads of wonderful fish which outrival the coral and the vegetation in variety and richness of hue. Some are as green as grass, others as gold as a guinea.

There are at present no regular boats making the trip and special arrangements will have to be made in order to be able to visit the place.

PALAWAN.—The province of Palawan occupies the long and narrow Island of Palawan situated between Mindoro on the north and Borneo on the south. Besides this long and narrow island the province includes about 200 other small islets. A great part of the island is still unexplored, the island itself not being accessible to the traveler. The chief [98]industries of the people are fishing, gathering trepangs, sea-shells, and edible birds’ nest on the limestone cliffs near the shore.

The proximity of the island with the Dutch East Indies and to Borneo puts it in a very advantageous position commercially. It is also favored by valleys of great fertility and by well protected harbors.

Iwahig Penal Colony Among the places of special interest in Palawan may be mentioned Balabac on the island of the same name. It was to this island that many of the Filipinos were exiled in 1896 because of alleged complicity in the Katipunan which in August of that year raised the standard of revolt. The Iwahig Penal Colony about 8 miles from Puerto Princesa, the capital, is also easy of access. This is a novel experiment in the reformatory treatment of criminals. Here have been gathered under the name of “colonists” over 500 convicts who have conducted themselves well at Bilibid prison in Manila. They are put at entire liberty without any armed guard or any special restraint. All of the petty officers are prisoners as are also all the police. Agriculture and various trades are carried on, and, under certain conditions, the prisoners are given an allotment of land and their families are allowed to join them.

Culion Leper Colony To the north of the province is the little Island of Culion where the leper colony is situated. There is no regular transportation except by the government cutter that makes periodical trips, and the colony itself is not ordinarily open to visitors. There are about 2,000 inmates in the colony and they are well taken care of by the Philippine Government, many having been cured completely of the unfortunate malady. In minor matters the lepers form a self-governing community electing their own council and supplying the policemen and other subordinate officials.

Underground River On the west coast of Palawan, almost uninhabited and still largely uncharted, there is a very remarkable underground [99]river. This has been explored several times by Government officials, a launch having in one instance entered the mouth and proceeded under the mountain for more than 2 miles. At present the river can only be reached by taking a long and expensive trip away from the main routes of travel, but it is destined some time to be known as one of the remarkable sights of the world.

ROMBLON PROVINCE.—The Province of Romblon has nothing of special interest to the tourist except the town of Romblon which has one of the best natural harbors in the islands and the extensive marble deposits which have been quarried and used for years and are now disappearing.

THE VISAYAS.—The “Visayas” is the general name given to the central portion of the Philippine Archipelago. It includes the large Islands of Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, and Samar, and a very great number of smaller islands and islets. Though greatly broken up by mountains, these contain the most thickly populated districts in the Islands and constitute by far the largest area inhabited by a single stock (the Visayan) and speaking, though with many dialect variations, one language. Within this area are the best sugar and some of the best hemp lands, and many other important products of the Islands grow well. To the tourist, perhaps, they do not, outside of the cities of Cebu and Iloilo, abound in “sights.” But the larger islands exhibit many fine vistas; and the smaller ones, mostly mountainous, form with the surrounding tropical waters a combination which, for color and variety of outline, rivals the Inland Sea of Japan at its best.

SAMAR PROVINCE comprises the whole Island of Samar which is the fourth largest island in the Archipelago. It lies southeast of Luzon and is separated from the Province of Sorsogon by the San Bernardino Strait. The island is very rugged and nearly all of the towns are located near the coast. Another characteristic feature of the mountain regions is the presence of caves of which the most noted [100]is the Sohotan cave near Basey. River transportation is the chief means of communication.

Where the Spaniards first landed To Samar belongs the distinction of being the first island of the Philippine Archipelago to be discovered by the Spaniards. On March 16, 1521, Ferdinand Magellan sighted the island, and the day following, landed on the little island of Homonhon. In 1649 the greatest part of the Island of Samar became involved in a great rebellion which became the signal of general uprising in the Visayan Islands and in parts of Mindanao. The cause of the uprising was enforced labor in connection with shipbuilding. It lasted about a year. The rebels fortified themselves in the mountains and there established an independent settlement. From here they sallied forth from time to time and harassed the Spanish forces sent against them.

ILOILO AND CAPIZ.—The Provinces of Iloilo and Capiz occupy the entire eastern portion of the Island of Panay, immediately south of Romblon Island. They consist of an extensive plain extending far back to the foot of a range of mountains that traverses the western part of the island.

The Panay line of the Philippine Railway Company cuts directly through this plain extending as far as Capiz, the capital of the province of the same name, immediately north of Iloilo Province.

Attractions The trip over the railroad takes the traveler past several points of interest. Just beyond Ventura there are seen to the west of the tract a series of high mountain cliffs of white coral rock. These are honeycombed by caves of wonderful structure and great beauty. One of the most beautiful resembles an immense stage, set with elaborate scenery. Another of great extent and variety is entered by descending through a shaft resembling a well. An hour’s walk from the entrance leads the traveler to a place where the roof has collapsed [101]and trees have grown to gigantic heights, the cave continuing to an unknown distance.

The natural bridge of Suhut in the town of Dumalag, Capiz, is also worth visiting. Near the natural bridge is a spring of sulphurous and salty water.

The City of Iloilo is described elsewhere, page 64.

Haciendas and Sugar Centrals THE ISLAND OF NEGROS.—This island is divided into two provinces—Occidental Negros and Oriental Negros. Occidental Negros is about three hours’ ride by boat from the City of Iloilo. It is the most important sugar producing district in the Philippines. About 75 per cent of all the exported sugar comes from this province. Bacolod, Bago, Talisay, San Carlos, Binalbagan, and La Carlota are the centers of the sugar industry. There are about 518 haciendas and about half a dozen sugar centrals in actual operation. The sugar centrals are well worth the visit and the traveler should not miss them. Other principal places of interest are Mount Canlaon, an active volcano and the Mambucal Hot Springs, which is recommended by medical authorities.

The trip to Oriental Negros has to be made direct from Manila, although there are boats from Cebu and Iloilo calling occasionally at Dumaguete, the capital.

Silliman Institute The principal points of interest in Dumaguete are the old watch-tower on the plaza, built to guard against surprise by piratical Moro fleets, and the buildings of the Silliman Institute. This latter is a high-grade Protestant endowed school, with preparatory, classical, and industrial departments; in it are enrolled some 500 students, representing a wide range of localities. It was founded in 1901 with a gift of Dr. Horace B. Silliman, of New York, and is now maintained by the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions. The buildings are located on the beach, about five minutes’ walk from the central part of the town. [102]

Other Places of Interest There are a few other places of some interest within a moderate distance of Dumaguete. Among these are some hot springs, about 6 kilometers (about 4 miles) west of the town. There is a fairly good horse trail to within a few minutes’ walk of them, and the scenery along the route is picturesque. Of more interest is the active Volcano of Magaso, which lies 14 kilometers to the south. It is accessible by a good trail; and a horse can be ridden to the top of the crater. The descent into the latter is not difficult.

CEBU PROVINCE.—The Island of Cebu which is co-extensive with the province of that name was discovered by Magellan on April 7, 1521. The town was then under the rule of Raja Humabon, a powerful chief who had eight subordinate chieftains and a force of some two thousand warriors under him. Magellan made friends with Humabon and succeeded in baptizing him, his wife, and as many as eight hundred of his men. Magellan also endeavored to bring the people of Mactan under Spanish influence. In this attempt, he was killed while engaged in battle with the people of Opon who were then under Chief Lapulapu.

First Spanish Settlement Forty-four years after Magellan’s time, Legaspi occupied the town of Cebu which was then under the rule of Tupas. Here Legaspi founded the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines which he called San Miguel. The town, which was planned in the shape of a triangle, was defended on the land side by a palisade and on the two sides facing the sea by artillery. The name of the town was later changed to the City of the Most Holy Name of Jesus “in honor of an image of the Child Jesus which a soldier had found in one of the houses.”

The establishment of the Spanish settlement in Cebu brought to this island the Portuguese who then disputed the ownership of the Archipelago. In 1566, 1568, and 1570, Portuguese expeditionary forces were sent to Cebu to drive away the Spaniards. First in 1568 and again in 1570, the [103]Portuguese blockaded Cebu, but in both cases the blockade resulted in a failure.

The plains yield as many as three crops of corn a year. Coconuts, sugar cane, abaca, peanuts, bananas, pineapples, camotes, and tobacco are other products.

Industries The island is rich in minerals, of which gold and coal are the most important. Industries are well developed in Cebu. Good fishing banks found along the coast furnish the people with food for local use and for export. Hogs and goats are raised for local use. Poultry raising enables the people to export chickens and eggs to neighboring islands and even to Manila. Cotton cloth, woven for local use and sinamay made from the fiber extracted from banana and pineapple leaves, are exported. Much tuba, a native wine, is collected in the coconut regions.

The town of Cebu, however, existed as a prosperous native settlement before the discovery of the Philippines by Magellan. For a description of the places of interest in the city, see page 63.

BOHOL PROVINCE, the island southeast of Cebu, is noted for the two big rebellions against the Spaniards which occurred in 1622 and 1744, respectively. The leader of the revolt in 1622, which was really an armed protest against Jesuitical influence, was one by the name of Tamblot. The uprising rapidly spread throughout the entire island; only the towns of Loboc and Baclayon remained peaceful. The rebels retreated “to the summit of a rugged and lofty hill, difficult of access,” and there fortified themselves. It took the government six months to suppress this rebellion.

Rebellions Another rebellion, no less formidable than the Tamblot uprising, broke out in 1744. It gained strength in 1750 under the leadership of Dagohoy, who for a long time was the whole soul of the movement. The rebellion affected almost the entire island and lasted for over eighty years. The government sent several expeditions to put it down, but without success. The rebels [104]established a local government and lived as an independent people. This was, perhaps, the most successful revolt the Filipinos ever conducted from the viewpoint of duration of resistance.

Attractions Among the attractions are the mineral springs in Guindulman as well as those in San Juan, Candon, Napo, Lubod, and Cambalaguin which are reputed to be efficacious for curing skin diseases. Edible birds’ nests are gathered in the Cananoan Cave. Other caves are found in Baclayon, Guindulman, Jagna, and Sierra Bullones. “Buri,” “ticog,” and “salacot” hats are made in almost every town. The weaving of “piña” and “sinamay” cloth is a specialty in Baclayon, Loboc, Jagna, and Duero, and “saguaran” weaving in Talibon, Inabanga, Baclayon, and Jetafe. The commercial exploitation of the pearl and shell banks in the Bohol seas has only recently been begun. The catching of the flying lemur and the tanning and preparation of its hide is a new occupation. Most of the towns are found along the coast so that a great portion of the inhabitants are engaged in coastwise and interisland trade.

LEYTE PROVINCE and island, one of the largest and most fertile regions in the Visayan group, is situated southwest of Samar and is separated from Samar by the San Juanico Strait, said to be one of the most beautiful water-ways in the world. Hemp and copra are the most important products exported. Coal is found in the towns of Leyte, Ormoc, and Jaro. Asphalt is being mined in Leyte for street paving purposes. Gold is found in Pintuyan and San Isidro; sulphur in Mahagnao; mineral springs in the crater of Mahagnao, Ormoc, San Isidro, Mainit, and Carigara.

Where Mass First Celebrated Limasawa, a little island south of Leyte, has the unique distinction of being the place where mass was first celebrated in the Philippines. Toward the end of March, 1521, Magellan discovered this little island, which then appeared to be a prosperous community. It was here that Magellan met Raja Calambu and Ciagu, who feasted the Spaniards and exchanged presents with them. The Island of Leyte itself, then called Tandaya, [105]was the first island of the Philippine Archipelago to receive the name of “Felipina.”

THE ISLAND OF MINDANAO.—This island is the second largest and potentially perhaps the richest of the archipelago. It is divided into seven provinces—Zamboanga, Misamis, Lanao, Bukidnon, Cotabato, Davao, Agusan, and Surigao.

Origin of Name The term “Mindanao” or “Maguindanao” was originally given to the town now known as Cotabato and its immediate vicinity. (See page 104.) The word is derived from the root “danao” which means inundation by a river, lake, or sea. The derivative “Mindanao” means “inundated” or “that which is inundated.” “Maguindanao” means “that which has inundated.”

Islam Islam was successfully introduced and firmly established in Mindanao by Sharif Mohammed Kabungsuwan. He is believed to have established himself in this region toward the end of the fifteenth century. He was also the founder of the Sultanate so that today most of the inhabitants of Mindanao are Mohammedans. The Christian population came from the northern islands. They immigrated into Mindanao to exploit the rich sections of the islands. They have built their homes along the river basins and near the bays accessible to commerce. In many cases they hold the important municipal positions such as tax-collectors and teachers. The Moros who inhabit the interior valleys have acknowledged the authority of their Christian brothers from the north and are living peacefully with them.

THE PROVINCE OF ZAMBOANGA includes the whole of the western peninsula of the island. The central portion is covered with dense forests containing much valuable hardwood timber. Abaca and copra are the principal products though sugar, cacao, hemp, and rice are cultivated to some extent. Among the important forest products are guttapercha for insulating cable wires and almaciga for varnish. Basilan Island nearby is covered with forests, and lumber mills are in operation. There are also plantations for the growing of rubber in this island. [106]

As a whole the interior of the province is not at present very accessible, and most of the attractions center in the capital City of Zamboanga at the extreme end of the peninsula, which is described on page 65.

COTABATO PROVINCE is in the southwestern portion of Mindanao. The term “Cotabato” signifies a “stone fort.” Cotabato is the capital and is located near the mouth of the river called Cotabato also. The Cotabato River system, though not as swift as the Rhine River of Germany, serves the same purpose to Cotabato as the Rhine to Germany in the sense that it forms the chief means of communication and transportation for conveying finished products and raw materials from the different towns to the coast.

On the valley of this river are some of the most fertile and productive regions of the whole Philippine Archipelago, although due to the scarcity of population and of laborers very little cultivation has been done.

On the eastern side of the valley are many extensive but shallow swamps, such as the Liguasan and Libungan. Large lakes as Buluan and Cebu, and many small ones abound. These natural basins yield an immense wealth for the country. On the marshes, mangroves and nipa grow in abundance, while the lakes teem with the rarest and choicest fish.

Attractions Sulphur is abundant near and around Mount Apo, an extinct volcano, 9,610 feet high, being the highest peak in the archipelago. The difficult ascent and the lack of transportation facilities make exploitation impossible at present. Mineral springs can be found near the town of Cotabato.

The land is well adopted to the cultivation of coconut and rice. The mountains are densely wooded. With the exception of the small portion around Sarangani Bay where logging is being carried on most of the forested area is not yet exploited. The most important forest products, which are at present exported in great quantities, are the candlenut, almaciga, and guttapercha. [107]

Fertility BUKIDNON PROVINCE occupies the great fertile plateau of Mindanao immediately north of Cotabato. It contains immense areas of fertile soil unsurpassed for grazing and general farming. There are at least 300,000 hectares of open grass-covered land which would yield rich returns under the plow. The Bukidnons themselves, learning to use modern agricultural implements, are taking advantage of their opportunities, this being clearly evidenced by the beautiful fields of corn surrounding their settlements, by the increased plantings of rice and camotes, and by the great increase in the exportation of hemp and coffee. The lower levels of Bukidnon produce the best grade of hemp in northern Mindanao. Corn grows to a height of 13 feet on the Bukidnon plateaus, the stalks supporting two ears. Two crops may be grown annually.

There are some Manobos and a few Moros in the province, but the greater part of the inhabitants are Bukidnons who are timid, peaceable farmers.

LANAO PROVINCE.—Between Bukidnon and Zamboanga is the Province of Lanao which includes the region centering about the large Lake of Lanao. It consists for the most part of a plateau (altitude, about 2,200 feet), with an invigorating climate and fine stretches of grazing land. The soil is in the main excellent and, at various altitudes, produces a very great variety of crops, including the usual staples, some fruits like the “durian,” unknown or rare in the northern islands, coffee, and a variety of wild rubber, for which plant, in its cultivated form, the district is well adapted.

For many years this valuable country has been the scene of the lawlessness of the Lanao Moros, but after the institution of civil government among them they have settled down and are living peacefully side by side with the immigrants from the northern islands. The same is true with the other provinces in the Island of Mindanao.

Much of the scenery in the Lanao Province is said to be among the finest in the world, while the Moros are extremely [108]interesting and manufacture many small articles of great artistic value, especially brasswork and weapons.

Attractions Among the attractions is Lake Lanao, believed to have been formed as a result of the subsidence of the land accompanying the eruption of the volcanoes in the surrounding country. There are three of these volcanoes, which are still active. The climate, especially around Lake Lanao, is very cool. Dansalan nearby is the favorite resort of the people in the lowlands of Mindanao and bears the promise of being the Baguio of the southern islands.

Other attractions are the Maria Cristina Falls about 191 feet high and the Mataling Fall about 40 feet in height, both of which are on the road to the lake.

DAVAO PROVINCE occupies the southeastern part of Mindanao. Though perhaps less fertile for some crops than the neighboring Province of Cotabato, Davao comprises the finest hemp land in the archipelago and there is a considerable colony of Japanese, American, and Filipino planters.

More than half of the population, however, are pagans, the Mandayas and Bagobos predominating in number. These two pagan tribes have the best primitive civilization among all the non-Christian peoples of the archipelago. Their women weave excellent cloth which is dyed in curious and ornamental patterns and the men make daggers, spears, and other articles of metal.

The town of Davao is the capital and principal port. It is well laid out and has a number of interesting monuments.

AGUSAN PROVINCE, north of Davao, occupies the whole northern Valley of Agusan. The soil is of the greatest fertility, holding a constant moisture. The rainfall is very evenly distributed throughout the year, and there has been no drought or destructive typhoon recorded. Abaca and coconuts thrive well in this region. A splendid rice crop is produced without irrigation. Bananas, papayas, and other tropical fruits are grown in great abundance, the famous [109]Mindanao papaya attaining its perfection in the region about Butuan.

The numerous lakes and the extensive area of swampy land are sources of incalculable wealth. Choicest fish abound in the lakes, while nipa from which tuba and alcohol are obtained, and mangroves for fuel and tanning purposes, grow wild in the fenlands.

Gold deposits exist in abundance. Most of these deposits are found in the mountains on the eastern side of the valley. The location of these mines is favorable, being near rivers. There are several gold mining claims at present under operation.

Butuan, the capital and most important town of the province, is near the mouth of the navigable Agusan River. This river port serves the same purpose for the settlements built along Agusan River and its tributaries, as the town of Cotabato to the well-scattered towns of the Cotabato Valley.

SURIGAO PROVINCE, north of Agusan, occupies the whole northeastern part of the Island of Mindanao. Abaca, copra, and corn are the most important agricultural products. There is much fine timber in the forests, the best obtainable equalling iron and concrete in durability. Gold is at present mined in some parts of the province.

THE SULU ARCHIPELAGO.—The Sulu Province includes all of the islands of the Sulu Archipelago, a region which is often visited by earthquakes, the Sulu Sea being the seismic center. The climate of this region is warm and moist, being near the equator.

Fishing is the most important industry. Jolo is the center for most of the pearling fleet. Sitanki, Omapui, Tumindao, Balimbing, Landubas, Laja, and Siasi are other important fishing centers. The sea turtle, fish of all kinds, and the trepang are caught. Beautiful trays and combs and other articles are made from the back of the sea turtle, and the fish and trepang are cured and exported. [110]

The Sulu Archipelago, especially Jolo, the capital and principal port, trades with Zamboanga, Borneo, and Singapore. Chinese merchants traded with Sulu long before the arrival of Legaspi in the Philippines. When Manila and Cebu were yet small settlements, Jolo was already a city, the most important in the Philippines.

Introduction of Mohammedanism Mohammedanism was introduced and firmly established in the Archipelago by three men—Makdum, Raja Baginda, and Abu Bakr. Makdum was a noted Arabian scholar who, after introducing Mohammedanism into Malacca, visited almost every island of the Sulu Archipelago toward the end of the fourteenth century and made numerous converts especially in Bevansa and Tapul. Raja Baginda, soon after the arrival of Makdum, came by way of Zamboanga and Basilan. He was of princely rank and is believed to have come accompanied by ministers of state. He settled in Bevansa and became the supreme ruler of Sulu. Abu Bakr, who seemed to have been quite a learned man, arrived in Bevansa about the middle of the fifteenth century. Here, he lived with Raja Baginda, teaching the people the Mohammedan religion. He later married Parasimuli, the daughter of Raja Baginda, and succeeded his father-in-law as sultan.

The reign of Abu Bakr (1450–1480) was noteworthy not only because of the firm establishment of Mohammedanism, but also because of the governmental reforms then effected. Abu Bakr reorganized the government of Sulu, dividing it into five main administrative districts, each under a Panglima. He promulgated a new code of laws which became the guide for all officials of the state. During his reign, Sulu’s power was felt not only in Mindanao and the Visayas, but even in Luzon.

The administration of Governor-General Sande (1575–80) was the beginning of a continuous state of warfare between Spain and Sulu which lasted to within two decades before the end of the Spanish rule. Sande wanted to reduce Sulu to a subject state, impose tribute on its people, secure for the Spaniards the trade of the Archipelago, and convert the [111]inhabitants to Catholicism. To attain these ends, he sent Captain Rodriguez de Figueroa to Sulu with a large army. This expedition, however, accomplished nothing beyond the arousing of the Sulus to hostility and the inception of numerous Moro raids on the Visayas and Luzon.

The Sultan and His Present Position The whole Archipelago is still under the nominal sway of the Sultan of Sulu, who lives in the Island of Jolo and enjoys pensions from the Philippine Government and the British North Borneo Company. All of the Moros in Mindanao and in Sulu have long ago recognized the authority of the central Philippine Government in Manila, and the hostility which has existed between the Moros and the inhabitants of the northern islands during Spanish rule, has long passed away. The policy of attraction inaugurated by the Philippine Government has succeeded wonderfully. Disturbances among the Moros are now very few and far between. They have their own senator in the Philippine Senate and they have their own representatives in the House.

Results of the Policy of Attraction Considering the past history of these southern islands, it is almost incredible that such results have become possible. Many of the non-Christians in the interior of Mindanao-Sulu have even changed their manner of dressing and have adopted the garb of the Christians, whom they are endeavoring to imitate as much as possible, mingling with them in their work, and assisting in maintaining law and order. The Moros themselves have changed a great deal; the juramentado (running amok) is practically a thing of the past; they show greater religious tolerance and a high sense of responsibility; they cooperate in every way possible with the Christians and the Government authorities in the maintenance of a government of law and order, and do everything they can to identify themselves with the inhabitants of the north. For this reason more beneficial and lasting changes have been accomplished in the last five years, in moral, social, and political respects, as well as in the material [112]development of the people, than had been accomplished for several centuries past. This progress is principally due to the efforts of the Philippine Legislature, which furnished the Department of Mindanao and Sulu with large annual appropriations and thus made the policy of attraction a success.

The town of Jolo The town of Jolo is the political and commercial center of the archipelago and is reached from Manila direct. The trip through island-studded Sulu Sea, is one of great scenic beauty.

Jolo consists of a picturesque little walled city and a considerable town outside. The population is cosmopolitan. The town is more Malayan, more Arabic, and more Oriental than Zamboanga. Thus it has many attractions for the traveler.

The part within the walls has excellent streets and walks and is adorned with parks, gardens, and fountains. One of the most curious sights is furnished by the half-tame deer, which run at large about the streets. The point of greatest interest in the outer town is the “Chinese pier,” a rickety affair, on which most of the merchants of that nationality have their shops, both as a measure of safety and for convenience in handling cargoes. These shops are the best places to go to for Moro curios.

Attractions The town as a whole is an excellent place in which to see the daily life and occupations of the Moro people in their most characteristic forms. The fact that it is the chief center of the pearl fisheries of the Islands puts the pearling boats when in port, the market where the pearls and shell are sold, and the places of manufacture and sale of the shell ornaments, among the principal sights. Leading from the town to the barracks at Asturias is a fine coconut avenue, known as “Ariolas’ Walk.” It is named after its builder, who was the Spanish military governor of the place in the early years of the last century. [113]

THE LANGUAGE FOR THE TOURIST.—Spanish and English are the languages universally used in the archipelago. As a general rule, however, an English speaking tourist can travel in the different places described in this book without knowledge of any except his mother tongue. Almost all of the officials and employees of the government speak English and, if there is no one else, a school child can generally be found to do the interpreting.

English-Speaking Filipinos Statistics show that there are at present more Filipinos who can read, write, and speak the English language than those who can read, write, and speak the Spanish language. The last Census (1918) gives the following figures:

As a matter of fact the English language serves at the present time as a common medium of communication among the inhabitants of the Philippines who still speak their own dialects. Because of the work of public schools during the last quarter of a century it is the language which is most widely spoken in the whole Archipelago.

Business between the central government and the provinces and municipalities is transacted in English. The proceedings of the Philippine Legislature although still in Spanish, are translated into English. In commercial transactions the English language prevails throughout the islands. It will not be very long before the language will be the official language even in the courts and the language which is more generally used in private life. The present leaders of the people have a working knowledge of the language and many can read and write it fairly. The younger generation has a [114]thorough knowledge of English and speaks and writes it in most cases.

The spread of the language as the common language of the inhabitants is assured, not only because it is the basis of instruction in the public schools and in the universities, but also because it is essential to the best interest and political future of the people. [115]

The Philippines are eminently an agricultural country. Agriculture is the principal source of the Islands’ wealth, and the bulk of the exports consists mostly of agricultural products.

Hectares under cultivation An estimate of the number of hectares under cultivation during the year 1922, shows the following:

This is only about 10 per cent of the total area of the Islands.

Extensive areas of agricultural lands which remain undeveloped are the Agusan Valley in eastern Mindanao; the Cotabato Valley in central Mindanao; sections of the plains of central Luzon and of the Cagayan Valley; the central plain of Panay and the meadowlands of Palawan, Samar, and Mindoro. There are also the coastal plains of Zamboanga, Mindanao, Leyte, and Negros.

The average area of farms in the Islands according to the Census of 1918 is 2.33 hectares, as against 3.47 hectares in 1903. [116]

Farms owned by Filipinos Out of the 1,955,276 farms in the Islands today 1,946,580 or 96 per cent, are owned by Filipinos, 2,678 by Americans, 949 by Europeans, 1,612 by Asiatics, and 3,457 by other nationalities.

Exports THE PRINCIPAL CROPS.—The principal crops produced by the islands are rice, abaca (Manila hemp), coconut, sugar, and tobacco. All of these except rice are articles of export. The following table shows the respective values of these exports:

Rice is almost exclusively the staple foodstuff of the people; but corn in some provinces constitutes an important part of the daily diet. Although the production of rice has been increasing steadily since 1910 the Philippines has had to import rice from other countries, especially Indo-China, for a part of its supply. The government is now exerting every effort towards solving the problem. Immense sums are being appropriated for the construction of irrigation systems so indispensable in the successful growing of rice.

Fibers Abaca (Manila hemp).—The Philippines is the only source in the world for abaca, commercially known as Manila hemp. There are two other commercial fibers, however, that grow in the islands. These are sisal and maguey. Although other kind of fibers grow in other countries especially in Mexico, the world must always use a certain amount of the Manila hemp for binder twine and for high grade ropes. [117]

[118]

Coconuts.—In the production of coconut, the Philippines is the third most important source in the world. It is excelled only by the Dutch East Indies and the Federated Malay States. It is estimated that there are some 84,536,710 trees in the islands which in 1922 produced 366,808,888 kilos of coprax, valued at ₱44,057,045.

The traveler in Philippine waters always notices along the coast the extensive groves of coconut palms which extend miles and miles into the hinterland as far as the eye can reach.

Uses of the Coconut In the Philippines the coconut tree serves many ends. The meat is eaten as a delicacy. The leaves supply roofing for houses. The shell of the nut is used for dishes, cups, and spoons; the oil for soap and illumination; in some sections the same oil is used as a frying fat for cooking purposes. The fiber from the husk is used for ropes and mats. The husk itself is used for fuel. The water inside the nut is an ever-ready delicious drink.

Oleomargarine comes from coconut oil fat, an industry which has developed considerably in Denmark and Germany and also in the United States.

Copra, or coprax—Other by-products.—Copra, or coprax as it is sometimes called, is the dried meat of the ripe coconut. It is obtained by breaking the nut into halves and drying them in the sun or artificially in kilns until the nut-meat is separated from the shell. [119]

The exportation of coconut oil from the Philippines since 1913 is shown in the following table:

[120]

Copra meal Another by-product of the coconut oil is known as copra meal. It is the meal remaining after most of the oil has been expressed. This is used as cattle feed in Germany and Denmark.

Soap Recently, certain corporations in the Philippines have gone so far as to use their oil to manufacture many of the varied products which were formerly made only in the United States and Europe. Soap was the first product to be manufactured locally. There are two companies now, however, which manufacture lard substitutes under their own trade names. There is an attempt also to manufacture coconut butter for sale in the islands.

Desiccated Coconut The manufacture of desiccated coconut is an infant industry in the Philippine Islands. The demand for this in Europe and particularly in the United States is very large and is mostly filled by Ceylon or by factories in the United States which import the whole nuts from the West Indies. Last year, however, the desiccated coconut from the Philippines gained a strong foot-hold in the United States and it is expected that Ceylon will be ousted from this field in the near future due to the free trade relations between the United States and the Philippines. On desiccated coconut imported into the United States from foreign countries, a duty of 3½ per cent is levied. At present there are six factories of desiccated coconut in the Islands.

Coir Another opportunity for development lies in the use of coir, the tough fiber of the husk surrounding the nut. In other countries this is worked up into door mats, rope, twine, etc., but in the Philippines the husks are usually burned as fuel except in a few instances where they are utilized for domestic purposes. It is also possible that some day other minor parts of the palm may be used. At present the midribs of the palm leaflets are used in making brooms and baskets, but the demand for exports is still small. [121]

The exportation of copra from 1913 to 1922 is as follows:

[122]

Until the production of copra in the Philippines is much higher than at present, it will be impossible to keep all the expellers and presses now installed working at full capacity. It is therefore proposed to start a campaign for the planting of quick-growing crops of oil-bearing seeds. Among the plants that were most popular at first was the tañgan-tañgan, or castor bean. This grows very rapidly and yields a very high percentage of castor oil, which was sold at high prices during the war as a lubricant for aeroplanes and other delicate machinery. At the present writing, however, it is generally thought that the mills will do better if they can turn to the production of peanut oil, using imported peanuts to begin with and enlarging the return as the domestic yield increases.

Sugar.—Cane-sugar ranks first among the islands’ agricultural exports.

As early as 1795 the United States have been importing sugar from the Philippine Islands; for that year 132 long tons were imported.

Up to the middle of the nineteenth century, however, the production of sugar-cane in the Philippines was confined largely to the provinces of Luzon near Manila. But shortly after the Crimean war the demand for sugar in Europe increased, and interest in the industry was greatly stimulated in the Islands. This resulted in the extension of the industry into the Visayan Islands, Occidental Negros becoming the largest cane producing section of the Archipelago, and so continues until the present day.

As late as 1914 most of the sugar produced in the Islands was muscovado. It was not until the establishment of modern sugar centrals that centrifugal sugar was produced. The production of sugar became so stimulated as a result, and in 1922, as many as 455,404,427 kilos were produced. There are now 28 sugar centrals in the Islands as against one in 1910, and several are in process of construction. [123]

The following table shows the growth of the sugar industry from 1913 to 1922:

The quantity and value of the exportation of this product is shown below:

Tobacco—The Manila cigar.—The Manila cigar is just as well known to the world as the Manila hemp. It is among the few manufacturing enterprises that have developed factory conditions in the Islands.

History For generations the Spaniards conducted the tobacco business in the Philippines on the basis of Government monopoly. The monopoly came to an end in 1882 when the Filipino workers defied both the Spanish government and those directing the work in the factories because of the harsh and cruel treatment they were getting.

Thereafter, for many years, the tobacco business suffered extreme depression, and it was not until American occupation that the industry received anything of a stimulus. The Manila cigar, however, was then at a disadvantage in comparison with cigars from other countries, because the latter were allowed a discount from the tariff, while the Manilas were required to pay the full customs duty.

With the establishment of free trade, however, between the islands and the United States the Manila cigar has been able to compete with other cigars in the United States, by far the greatest market therefor. This fact accounts for the unprecedented steady increase of the amount of cigars exported from the islands. In 1904 the exports amounted [125]to 104,753,000 cigars, valued at ₱2,011,790. In 1919 the exports had risen to 392,339,000 worth ₱18,157,707.

The Tobacco Region Although tobacco is grown in many parts of the islands, all that which is exported comes from the Provinces of Cagayan, Isabela, and Nueva Vizcaya, in northern Luzon. All grown elsewhere is consumed locally, also exported to European and other countries. The tobacco growing districts in these three provinces lie in the valley of the Cagayan River, a stream which is about 160 miles long. The valley is from 2 to 14 miles wide. During the rainy season, which is between the time that one crop is harvested and the next one planted, the Cagayan River rises to a height of 40 feet inundating all of the lowlands. This overflow never fails, and it always leaves on the valley a deposit of rich soil, renewing the fertility of the entire valley and making the use of fertilizers unnecessary. On one field in Cagayan Valley, crops have been produced without interruption and without fertilizer for one hundred and thirty-five years.

Government control and Guaranty No cigar in the world today is produced under such carefully prepared and rigidly enforced regulations as the Manila cigar. The Philippine government has assumed control of the industry, has established invariable standards of excellence, and has guaranteed the production under its own official stamp. If you will examine the next box of Manila cigars you see, you will find that it bears a label stating that its contents are guaranteed by the Philippine government. One of the regulations enforced provides that, under certain limitations, cigars which reach the American dealer in a damaged condition may be returned to the Philippines at the expense of the Philippine government. Another regulation is to the following effect:

“To be up to the standard established by the Government, Philippine cigars are required to be made from good, clean, selected tobacco, properly cured and seasoned, exclusively the product of the Provinces of Cagayan, Isabela, and Nueva Vizcaya, well made with suitable spiral wrapper and with long filler from which [126]must have been removed all stems dust, scrap or sun-burned tobacco; cigars to be properly assorted and packed in clean receptacles of wood not before used, manufactured from native wood known as Calantas or from imported cedar. No cigars made between sunset and sunrise may be graded as standard.”

The Cigar Factories The factories in which the Manila cigars are made are worth visiting. They are counted among the show-places of the city. Visitors are always welcome and given an opportunity to follow the entire process of manufacture from the time the bales of tobacco reach the warehouses until the finished cigars are packed in air-tight cases for shipment to all parts of the world.

In these factories every precaution is taken to guard against dirt and disease. No one is employed except after a searching physical examination and thereafter all the employees are regularly examined twice a month. Every now and then, government inspectors visit the factories, and these have a right to condemn a lot of cigars which they do not think is up to the standard.

No scraps of any kind are used in the making of Manila cigars. There are no broken leaves and no dust. There is nothing in the cigar but long, clean leaves of tobacco. The Manila cigar is the mildest made. It is the most pleasant and satisfying smoke that can be had at any price.

[127]

SECONDARY FOOD PRODUCTS.—Corn leads in importance among the secondary food products. In 1918 there were 1,035,067 acres grown to corn producing 11,269,258 bushels valued at $10,686,061. The other food crops worth mentioning under this heading are sweet potatoes, cassava, sesame, mongoes, peanuts, bananas, mangoes, citrus, lanzones, and a great number of tropical fruits and vegetables. Including the edible algæ and fungi there are more than 100 species of plants in the Philippines, either wild or cultivated, that find a place in the dietary system of the people. So rich is the country in food producing plants.

PROSPECTIVE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES.—The plants from which the various other tropical staple products in the world’s markets are derived, such as rubber, coffee, tea, cacao, pepper, cinchona, and cassava are all known to thrive well in the Philippines, although the growing of those enumerated is yet of comparatively little importance. Rubber has the greatest future of these. The great Island of Mindanao, which is outside the typhoon zone, has been found to be suitable to the growing of rubber. All the large rubber plantations of the Philippines are located on Mindanao or the adjacent Island of Basilan.

During the early years of American occupation, when the acreage planted to rubber in other countries increased by [128]leaps and bounds, the erroneous impression somehow gained ground that the Philippines were unsuited to rubber. And it is not very many years ago that a planter was able to demonstrate beyond doubt that rubber could be grown in the Islands successfully. The company he heads now has some 80,000 rubber trees planted. The success of its operations has induced others to plant rubber, and while the Philippine output of rubber is still insignificant, it may be said that the rubber industry has come to stay.

IRRIGATION.—Irrigation has been practiced in the Philippines in some form for centuries, for, in general, it may be said that the certainty of a rice harvest depends upon irrigation to supplement the natural rainfall. When the rainfall is copious and well distributed during the rice growing season, there is little demand for artificial irrigation but in the event of a drought or irregular rainfall irrigation has to be used to insure a normal rice crop. With irrigation it is also possible to grow two crops of rice a year, whereas without it the planting of one is often hazardous. Prior to 1908 very little attention was given to the development of irrigation systems so that the only irrigation works constructed were by private and communal enterprise. These old systems are found in different parts of the Islands, the most notable being the extensive systems with permanent dams, tunnels, and ditches constructed by the friars and the remarkable side hill terraces built by the mountain people in the subprovince of Ifugao.

Studies of irrigation possibilities have now advanced sufficiently to warrant the Bureau of Public Works recommending a ten-year program for the construction of 40 irrigation systems in 20 of the principal rice producing provinces to water an area of approximately 750,000 acres. It is estimated that these 40 systems will cost about $25,000,000. With these systems completed and operating, there will be no further need of importing rice from other countries.

Rural Credit RURAL CREDIT ASSOCIATIONS.—The Rural Credit Law has removed the restriction in the Corporation Law requiring [129]₱200,000 paid-in capital before a bank may be started. Under the new law, associations may incorporate with a paid-in capital as low as ₱100 or as high as ₱10,000. The Government does not furnish any financial help except that the organizing staff is paid and maintained by it. To give security to small investors the bonded municipal treasurer acts as treasurer ex-officio of the association and Government auditors audit its books.

The purpose of the Rural Credit Law is to encourage small farmers to coöperate and furnish their own capital. Only one association may be incorporated in a municipality to avoid rivalry and factions.

On October 19, 1916, the first rural credit association was incorporated, and after practically six years, there are now 544 incorporated associations with a paid-in capital of ₱807,178.

Background The Philippines are practically alone among tropical countries in having, through a fortunate chain of historical circumstances, a population advanced in civilization and able to become a part of the complicated organization which modern commerce demands. The business machinery of collecting the products from the plantations and getting them to Manila has long been in the hands of Filipinos and in this they are rarely assisted financially by Americans or foreigners. In connection with man power, however, there is a problem very difficult to solve—the scarcity of manual labor—the population of the Islands being insufficient to till their fertile acres and get their products ready for commerce. Probably only time can remedy this.

The stability of the Government of the Islands during a time of growing Filipino participation is a proof to the world that when the time comes for the government to be entirely in the hands of the Island’s inhabitants, both as to internal and external affairs, foreign commerce need not fear for loss of credit or trade, due to any of the great political upheavals which have been so common in other countries which were once colonies but are now independent.

Trade Routes ECONOMIC POSITION.—Lying within thirty-six hours’ sailing from the port of Hongkong, the Philippine Archipelago bears promise of being an important distributing center for goods destined for the markets of the Far East. The ports and harbors have exceptional advantages of anchorage, and port facilities are easily obtained. The islands are close to the main trade route between America and Europe, via the Pacific. They are also close to the route from the extreme Orient to [148]Europe and to the route from the ports of southern Asia to the two Americas. Furthermore, they lie on one of the most promising trade routes between Australia and Asia. Manila, however, is in competition with such ports as Hongkong, Singapore, Saigon, and Batavia, which are in most respects better situated especially for European trade. As regards American bound traffic, however, Manila has the advantage. Feeder lines are actually operated from Singapore to Manila and Zamboanga, and from Batavia to the ports of Mindanao. For goods coming from the United States for the east, direct sailings are conveniently made from the Pacific coast of Canada to the ports of the Philippine Islands, where transhipments can be made for any of the ports of Asia, Japan, India, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, and even Australasia.

Filipino capital The port of Manila has now a marine terminal that can compare favorably with any in the Orient. There are three piers provided with modern conveniences, and there is a good-sized basin inclosed with strong breakwater. If the development of the Philippine resources, however, should in the future proceed as rapidly as the development during the last decade, and if shipping opportunities generally in the East are taken advantage of, there will be need for a still larger marine terminal and for efficient ship-repairing and dry-docking facilities. But there will always be available sites on Manila Bay.

To emphasize the importance of Manila as a trade center, attention is drawn to the chart of page 146 where a circle, drawn with Manila as a center and having a radius of 1,700 miles, will comprise within its circumference no less than 20 cities of equal importance and would reach a population of no less than 125,740,711, while a radius of 3,500 miles would make the circumference of the circle reach into the interior of Siberia and China to the north, all of India and Colombo to the west, and about two-thirds of Australia to the South. [149]

Filipino capital THE PERSONNEL OF PHILIPPINE COMMERCE.—Before the coming of the Spaniards, the Filipino people were known traders, their interisland life leading naturally to a use of the sea as a means of communication. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries trade was controlled by the Spanish residents. The result of limited Filipino participation was a disinclination, through lack of knowledge and practice, to engage in trade, and it is only within the last few years that Filipino business men have been an appreciable factor. Dozens of enterprising and well-educated young men are now venturing into business. Filipino capital has hitherto been invested in great estates; the millionaires of the Islands with few exceptions have obtained their incomes from rentals and produce. All that is rapidly changing; oil companies, shipping firms, and importing houses are now financed by Filipino capital and managed by Filipino brains; but Filipino participation in the trade of their country has not yet assumed commanding proportions.

Foreigners The people of all the great trading nations have established houses in Manila and have a vital part of the Islands’ commerce, transacting a considerably greater proportion of the foreign trade. Of these, Americans are, of course, the most numerous, having as a basis the political bond between the two countries. A large part of these are ex-Government employees, who saw the opportunities for business development during their terms of service in the Insular Government.

The British probably occupy second place, though the Spaniards and their descendants in the Islands are important factors, their houses handling every branch of import and export trade. The British firms are for the most part long established, and their trade has the strong aspect characteristic of British trade the world over. They specialize in the export of the staples hemp, sugar, and tobacco. The French and Swiss have houses, which were here prior to American occupation. The Japanese are a new element; [150]they have of late been invading every branch of commerce, with increasing momentum. Millions of Japanese capital are being invested in the basic industries of the Islands, and each month sees the incorporation of new companies. The post-war depression, however, has reduced their number and commercial activities very materially.

AMERICA’S MONOPOLY IN PHILIPPINE TRADE.—The old saying that “trade follows the flag” has held true in the Islands. At the time of the American occupation a very small portion of the Islands’ commerce was with the United States; now it is about two-thirds, seven times that of any other country.

In the beginning, the growth was slow, and what growth there was, was due to the increasing American civil population. The few American houses were young and struggling with inexperience and lack of capital. The older foreign houses, with their branches in the provincial centers and established clientele, had a very strong hold on import trade.

Effect of Free Trade In 1909 a tariff law providing for reciprocal free trade between the United States and the Islands was passed, with a few limitations which were removed in 1913. Immediately following the passage of this law American goods sprang to the fore and trade increased threefold from 1909 to 1912, $24,000,000 worth having been imported in that year.

MEDIUMS OF TRADE.—Generally speaking, there are three methods by which goods coming from foreign countries are brought to consumers in the Archipelago.

Some manufacturers establish branches throughout the Islands and sell only their particular line. For others having a smaller volume of trade various commission and indent houses stand ready to handle their goods together with other lines. Still other manufacturers having a large volume of business in the Islands transact business thru a branch or agent direct without any intermediary. [151]

TRADE WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—The following table shows the volume of trade between the Philippines and the other countries of the world for the years 1917 to 1922:

[152]

The values of imports and exports and the trade balance for each year, from 1913 to 1922, follow:

[153]

[156]

Because the products of the Islands are usually exported to the countries where the imports come from, there have been established firms which deal in exports and imports of every variety, and have buying and selling organization both in the Islands and abroad. This double business, so to speak, besides being very profitable, lends itself to large scale enterprises and millions of capital have been brought together under one managing head.

SHIPPING.—The foreign, as well as the domestic trade of the Philippines, will always depend on an adequate supply of shipping. As fast as the agriculture and industries of the Islands develop, the supply of shipping must correspondingly increase, otherwise, the commercial development of the Islands will be retarded. Hemp, oil, and sugar are bulky and the surface they require when exported is large in proportion to their value. Practically, all Philippine goods are carried thousands of miles before they reach their destinations, either to New York or London and the continent—half way around the world. Because of this, reasonable wages and a regular supply of surface for cargo in the ships calling at the ports of the Islands are indispensable. Because of this, also, it is necessary for the Islands to have a merchant marine of its own in order that products therefrom can be easily transported to the markets of the world.

INTERISLAND TRANSPORTATION.—Water transportation is the key to the interisland trade of the Islands. For hundreds of years before the coming of the steamboat, the Philippine seas were dotted with small sailboats of every description, made out of a log, or of rough hewn planks surmounted by a sail made from abaca cloth. They were manned by sturdy, courageous voyagers inured to hardships, who dared to go forth even into strange oceans, through typhoon and tempest.

The following table shows the entrances and clearances of vessels in the Philippine Islands by nationalities during 1920–1923: [157]

Not until the coming of the cargo steamer, however, could the bulky products of the Islands be gathered together in large quantities and become an important factor in the world’s commercial necessities. Every portion of the Islands is now covered by steamers, plying regular routes. [158]

Interisland Lines To the north a route leads to Aparri, the outlet from the fertile Cagayan Valley, a tobacco country, where thousands of hectares of rich unoccupied prairies await only the touch of capital. To the southward are the main channels of trade. Cebu is the metropolis of the Southern Islands, and to this port come the hemp and copra of all the Visayas, there to be transferred to Manila. Some ocean liners load direct at Cebu for the homeward voyage, saving the haul to Manila. Cebu harbor accommodates vessels of 30-foot draft, which can anchor at the sea wall, close to the warehouses of the principal commercial houses. From Iloilo comes the sugar of Negros and Panay. Here, too, is a harbor of sufficient depth to allow ocean vessels of fair tonnage to load. Ships of the Spanish lines in particular are accustomed to procure their cargoes here and omit Manila. Commercial routes encircle Mindanao, drawing from it copra and hemp, and supplying in return cotton cloth, canned goods, rice, and other commercial staples. Smaller vessels ply between the Bicol provinces, Masbate, Leyte, and Manila, carrying hemp principally.

Control over Rates The steamers of the Philippine Islands are not allowed to charge the prices “the traffic will bear,” without any recourse by shippers. The Public Utility Commission fixes the maximum rates for all classes of traffic and for all ports of the Islands. In this way the interests of the producing and consuming public are protected, and destructive rate wars between shipper and carrier and among the several companies are avoided.

The number and tonnage of vessels engaged in domestic shipping are as follows: [159]

Number and registered tonnage of vessels engaged in domestic shipping, by ports of entry, 1918–22

[Source: Bureau of Customs]

[160]

Patterned after American system The government of the Philippine Islands as it now exists and functions resembles in structure the Federal and State governments of the United States. It is reared on the same fundamental principles of representative democracy which have made the United States government the model for other states, so that the Philippine government is just as much a republican government as that of the United States; the will of the majority rules.

The law of public officers as observed in the United States is in effect in the Philippine Islands. The principle of division of powers is recognized, and the functions of government are distributed among three departments, the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The principle of checks and balances is likewise observed, and the legislature and the courts are prohibited from delegating their powers. The passage of irrepealable laws is forbidden. The government is immune from suit at the instance of private individuals except with its consent.

DEPARTURES FROM AMERICAN STANDARDS.—There have been several departures, however, from the American standard of government that have been made by the Filipinos. For instance, the budget system has been adopted previous to its adoption in the United States to provide for economy and certainty in expenditures. The Council of State was created as a coördinating and advisory body to the Governor-General. It is made up of the Governor-General as presiding officer, the six members of the cabinet, the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. [161]It also serves to bring the executive and the legislative departments into close relationship. The creation of the council seems to indicate a tendency to adopt in the future a parliamentary or semi-parliamentary system of government.

In addition to the foregoing departments there is the further innovation conferring on either house of the legislature, the right to call and interpellate the secretaries of departments before it. The secretaries of departments in turn have the right to be heard in the legislature. The chairmen of the appropriation committees are also empowered to require the attendance of chiefs of bureaus and offices, thus bringing the executive and legislative departments in close harmony.

Autonomy All of the officials of the government are Filipinos with the exception of the Governor-General and the Vice-Governor-General and the majority of the members of the Supreme Court who are Americans, appointed by the President of the United States. There is thus a practical autonomy, the American chief executive having supervision and control of the government in theory but in actual practice rarely acting on matters of domestic concern except with the advice of the Council of State.

Appointments made by the Governor-General are with the advice and consent of the Philippine Senate.

THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL.—The Governor-General is appointed by the President by and with the consent of the Senate and holds his office at the pleasure of the President and until his successor is chosen and qualified. Through the Secretary of War, he is responsible to the President and the American people for his acts. He has a more responsible position than that held by the Governors of the several states of the union. He is paid a handsome salary from the Philippine government and is given free quarters. As chief executive of the Islands, he is in charge of the executive control of the Philippine government; which he exercises [162]either in person or through the secretaries of departments. He can veto laws passed by the Philippine Legislature.

THE VICE-GOVERNOR.—The Vice-Governor is also appointed by the President of the United States with the consent of the Senate. He acts at the same time as the Secretary of Public Instruction and may be assigned such other executive duties as the Governor-General may designate. In case of vacancy in the office of the Governor-General, the Vice-Governor acts.

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS.—There are six executive departments. At the head of each is a department secretary, who, with the exception of the Secretary of Public Instruction, must be a citizen of the Philippine Islands. As Secretary he is assisted by an under-secretary who temporarily performs the duties of department secretary in case of vacancy. The executive departments and bureaus, offices, and boards pertaining to each are given below:

• Governor-General:
  • Bureau of Audits.
  • Bureau of Civil Service.
  • All other offices and branches of the service not assigned by law to any Department.
• Department of the Interior:
  • Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes.
  • Philippine General Hospital.
  • Board of Pharmaceutical Examiners.
  • Board of Medical Examiners.
  • Board of Dental Examiners.
  • Board of Optical Examiners.
  • Board of Examiners for Nurses.
  • Board of Dental Hygiene.
  • Executive Bureau.
  • Philippine Constabulary.
  • Public Welfare Commissioner.
• Department of Public Instruction:
  • Bureau of Education.
  • Philippine Health Service.
  • Bureau of Quarantine Service.
  [163]
• Department of Finance:
  • Bureau of Customs.
  • Bureau of Internal Revenue.
  • Bureau of the Treasury.
  • Bureau of Printing.
  • General supervision over banks, banking transactions, coinage, currency, and except as otherwise specially provided, over all funds the investments of which may be authorized by law.
• Department of Justice:
  • Bureau of Justice.
  • Courts of First Instance and Inferior Courts.
  • Philippine Library and Museum.
  • Bureau of Prisons.
  • Public Utility Commission.
• Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources:
  • Bureau of Agriculture.
  • Bureau of Forestry.
  • Bureau of Lands.
  • Matters pertaining to colonies and plantations on public lands.
  • Bureau of Science.
  • Weather Bureau.
  • Matters concerning hunting, fisheries, sponges, and other sea products.
• Department of Commerce and Communications:
  • Bureau of Public Works.
  • Bureau of Posts.
  • Bureau of Supply.
  • Bureau of Labor.
  • Bureau of Coast and Geodetic Survey.
  • Bureau of Commerce and Industry.

The Executive Bureau and the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes, both of which are under the Department of the Interior, exercise supervision over the provincial and municipal governments. The Executive Bureau has charge of the so-called regular provinces, and the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes of those inhabited by the backward inhabitants of the Philippines including the Moros in Mindanao and the Igorotes of the mountain regions of Luzon. The functions of these two bureaus are practically identical, the difference lying only in the degree of civilization of the inhabitants over whom they have supervision. [164]

THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT.—The legislative branch of the Philippine government is vested in the Philippine legislature. It is made up of two separate coördinate bodies, the Senate and the House of Representatives. All the senators and representatives are elected by direct popular suffrage with the exception of the representatives and senators from the Mountain Province, the Province of Nueva Vizcaya, and the provinces in Mindanao and Sulu who are appointed by the Governor-General with no restriction as to residence or length of office. The elective representatives hold their office for terms of three years and the senators for terms of six years.

Laws dealing with certain special subjects such as the tariff and the mining laws require the approval of the President of the United States.

The Senate has twenty-four members consisting of two senators from each of the twelve senatorial districts. The lower house has ninety members, determined by the population of each province. Appropriation bills originate by custom in the House of Representatives.

THE JUDICIARY.—An independent judiciary system completes the governmental structure. The administration of justice is entrusted to the Supreme Court, the Courts of First Instance, the Municipal Court of the City of Manila, and the courts of justices of the peace in each municipality.

The Supreme Court is the highest legal entity in the judiciary system. It has an appellate jurisdiction in all actions and special proceedings brought to it from the Courts of First Instance and from other inferior tribunals from whose decision appeals to the Supreme Court are allowed. The justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President of the United States with the consent of the United States Senate and serve during good behavior. It is made up of nine justices, the chief justice and eight associate justices. The chief justice has always been a Filipino. It seats in banc to transact business. It also seats in divisions for the same purpose, and when it so sits, four [165]justices constitute a quorum so that two divisions may sit at the same time.

Appeals to the Supreme Court of the United States are allowed in certain cases only.

The judges of the Court of First Instance are appointed by the Governor-General with the consent of the Philippine Senate and serve practically for life, the only restriction being that they must retire upon reaching sixty-five years of age. The justices of the peace are also appointed by the Governor-General with the advice and consent of the Philippine Senate.

PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT.—The Philippine Archipelago is divided into 46 provinces, 34 of which are designated as regular provinces and the remaining 12 as special provinces.—The chief executive of a regular province is the provincial governor, who is an elective official. He, together with two other elective members, form the provincial board which constitutes the legislative branch of the provincial government. In the special provinces, with the exception of Mindoro, Palawan, and Batanes, the provincial governors are appointive officials.

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT.—As the name indicates, this branch of the Government has charge of the municipalities or towns. The chief executive of a municipality is called the municipal president. The municipal council, which is the legislative branch of the municipal government, consists of from 8 to 18 councilors, depending on the size of the municipality. There is a vice-president who substitutes the president during his absence or disability and who is ex-officio member of the council. All these officials are elected by the people.

EXPENSES OF THE PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT.—All the expenses of the Philippine government are paid for from the Insular Treasury. The United States government pays for nothing in the administration of the Islands except for the army and navy and the salaries of the resident commissioners [166]from the Philippines who are stationed in Washington and granted the privileges of members of Congress.

An investigation into the expenses incurred by the United States for the Philippine Islands, exclusive of the maintenance of her army and navy, elicits the following facts:

1. That the Philippines has always been a self-supporting country; all expenditures have been drawn from ordinary revenues.

2. That the sum of $267,663.26 pertaining to the former government of Spain and seized by the United States, and therefore legally pertaining to the latter country, was subsequently turned over into the general fund of the insular government.

3. That the Congress of the United States appropriated the sum of $3,000,000, known as the “Congressional Relief Fund,” for the purchase, distribution and sale of farm implements, farm or draft animals, supplies and necessaries of life, extermination of pests, relief for sufferers due to fire and other calamities, etc. This amount has been, at different times, appropriated by the Philippine Commission for the purposes above mentioned. The unexpended balance from this fund was subsequently turned over into the general funds.

Aside, therefore, from the Spanish seized funds and the expenses for the army and navy, the only amount expended by the United States directly for the benefit of the Philippine Islands was the Congressional Relief Fund. The Philippine government having always had, at the end of every year, an excess of ordinary revenue over ordinary expenditure, the United States could not have any other occasion to give direct pecuniary aid for the maintenance of the Islands.

FINANCIAL STATUS.—The Philippine government today is on a solid financial basis as any government in the world. It is self-supporting, its taxation is adequate to its needs, the per capita tax of the people is low. The Filipinos bear a [167]smaller burden of taxation than the natives of Great Britain, United States, Japan, Argentina, and Brazil. The year, 1922, was presented with an aggregate surplus of approximately $64,000,000 in central, provincial, and municipal governments including the City of Manila. This goes to show that both the central and local governments are on a sound financial basis.

A clearer comprehension of the financial standing of the government may be had from an inspection of the following tables:

[169]

[170]

CURRENCY.—At the time of the American occupation, the Mexican dollar and the Spanish peso were in circulation in the Islands as a part of the currency. The Mexican dollar had been introduced because of the trade between the Philippines and Mexico, which was fostered by the Spanish galleons. Besides the Mexican dollar and the Spanish peso, there also circulated the silver peso or dollar of the various South American countries. For fractional currency, however, the Spanish coins predominated. The denominations were half peso, peseta, and media peseta. Gold pieces were of ₱1, ₱2, and ₱4 denominations.

The first mint in the Islands was installed during the reign of Isabela II. It was then that the Philippine peso, both in gold and silver, was first coined.

Currency Legislation America early decided to make the currency system more stable and scientific. On March 2, 1903, Congress passed the Philippine Coinage Act which established the conant or Philippine peso as the official coin of the Islands. The effect of this Act was to drive away all the previous coins in circulation, and it is the basis of the present currency system in the Philippine Islands. The coins provided for were of the denomination of the peso, half-peso, peseta, media peseta, 5 centavos, 1 centavo, and one-half centavo, while the silver certificates were in the denominations of ₱2, ₱5, ₱10, ₱20, ₱50, ₱100, ₱500. The peso was issued on the basis of two Philippine pesos (₱2) to one dollar ($1) gold, United States currency. To maintain the parity the Gold Standard Act was passed by the Philippine Commission in October, 1903. There are gold deposits in the banks of the United States to guarantee every Philippine Government certificate in circulation. This places the Philippines practically on an actual gold basis.

Notes The notes in circulation at the time the Americans came were those issued by the Banco Español-Filipino. They were in 10, 25, 50, 100, and 200 Mexican denominations. After the introduction of the Philippine peso, ₱1 notes were also allowed to circulate. In 1912, this same Banco Español was allowed [171]to change its name to that of the Bank of the Philippine Islands, and thereafter, a new series of notes were issued, having the same size as the certificates issued by the Philippine Government, but of the denominations of ₱5, ₱10, ₱20, ₱50, ₱100, and ₱200.

When the Philippine National Bank was established in 1916, it was authorized to issue notes to be known as circulating notes. In accordance with this authorization, denominations of ₱1, ₱2, ₱5, and ₱10 began to appear.

The stability of the currency system in the Philippines depends solely on the maintenance of the parity of the Philippine peso with the gold dollar on the established basis of 2 to 1. This can be easily accomplished by keeping always intact the gold deposits in the United States.

ELECTORS.—The total number of electors registered in the election of June 3, 1919, was 717,295 and the votes cast was 672,722, which is a very fine percentage when compared to the interest in elections shown in other countries. In the elections of 1912, 248,154 voters registered, of which 235,786 voted. Of the number of voters registered in 1919, 407,346 possessed educational qualifications, while only 81,916 were educationally qualified in 1912. It should be noted that the Philippine voters must have either property or educational qualifications, so that these figures show the progress of the people in political matters and in education in general during the last few years. In the elections of June, 1922, there were 824,058 voters registered. [172]

The minority party has always accepted the decision of the majority, unless it thinks that the election has been vitiated by some illegal act, in which case it takes the matter up with the courts for decision. The practice of revolutionary countries where defeated minorities take the law in their own hands or use violence against the triumphant party, or utilize every other means to hinder the working of the government, has never been resorted to in the Islands. [173]

Original Policy The Second Philippine Commission sent out to the Philippines by President McKinley on March 16, 1900 were given the following instruction, among others:

“That in all cases, the municipal officers who administer the local affairs of the people are to be selected by the people and that wherever officers of more extended jurisdiction are to be selected in any way, natives of the Islands are to be preferred, and if they can be found competent and willing to perform their duties they are to receive the offices in preference to any others.”

These instructions were confirmed by President Roosevelt when he said that the Government of the Philippine Islands would cease to be a government of Americans aided by Filipinos and instead would be a government of Filipinos aided by Americans. And in 1908 after the opening of the Philippine Assembly, President Roosevelt in his message to Congress added:

“I trust that within a generation the time will arrive when the Filipinos can decide for themselves whether it is well for them to become independent or continue under the protection of a strong and disinterested power, able to guarantee to the islands order at home and protection from foreign invasion.”

Filipinization In pursuance of all this policy the placing of Filipinos in government offices was hastened from 1913 to 1921, the turning over of power into Filipino hands having been virtually made complete by the passage of the Jones Law in 1916. This law provided for the creation of an elective Senate and House of Representatives and for the appointment of heads of departments and [174]other government officials. Appointments made by the Governor-General were made to be with the advice and consent of the Philippine Senate.

The proportion of Filipinos to Americans in the Philippine Government during the period 1914–1921 is shown in the following table:

Instruments of Autonomy The principal agencies that gave the Filipinos effective control over domestic affairs in conformity with the spirit of the Jones Law, were the following:

1. The creation of a Council of State on October 16, 1918, to help and advise the Governor-General on matters of public importance. In this council many prominent leaders of the Filipino people have figured prominently.

2. The creation of the Philippine Cabinet by which the Government Departments were organized and the work of the Executive Department divided among them. The aim was to have them undertake the work expressly entrusted to them, and to have in each branch of the administration a head responsible for its policy and direction. Each Secretary of Department assumes responsibility for all the activities of the government under his control and supervision. To this end he has the power to initiate, the power [175]to regulate, the power to direct and inspect, and the power to appoint and remove.

3. The several laws that had given to the Council of State and to the Chairmen of the two houses of the Legislature the power to supervise and control the execution of the laws.

4. The liberal policy followed by Governor-General Harrison in accordance with the liberal tenor of the Jones Law, a policy really preparatory for the independence of the Philippines.

Speaking of this policy, Governor-General Harrison on September 1, 1916, said:

“I firmly believe that the Chief Executive should consult the people through their representatives who are called upon to serve them. This is the very life-blood of self-government. It should never be possible for a Chief Executive—and it will now never be possible here—to ride ruthlessly over the people he has been sent here to govern, without taking into account their feelings, and without due consideration to their desires.”

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE FILIPINO GOVERNMENT.—The outstanding achievements of the Filipinized government are summarized below.

I. REORGANIZATION OF DEPARTMENTS.—The Reorganization Act, as finally passed by the Philippine Legislature (Act No. 2666 as amended by Act No. 2803), has provided the Philippine government with a more logical and scientific grouping of bureaus and offices. It has given the new department heads more authority and power over the offices and bureaus under them. They are now empowered to promulgate rules, regulations, orders, circulars, memorandums, and other instructions for the harmonious and efficient administration of each and all of the offices and dependencies of each department. Secretaries of departments may be called by either of the two Houses of the [176]Legislature for the purpose of reporting on matters pertaining to their departments. In this case they are also responsible to the two Houses. The six departments created by the Reorganization Act correspond to the six principal purposes of a fairly well organized government, to wit:

Functions of the Departments (1) The maintenance of order and political direction of local administrative units, such as departments, provincial and municipal governments, and special governments—the Department of Interior;

(2) The guardianship of the State over the mental development and physical welfare of the citizens—the Department of Public Instruction;

(3) The collection of the public revenues and administration of the finances and business of the government—the Department of Finance;

(4) The enforcement of the law and safeguarding of the citizens and their rights—the Department of Justice;

(5) The guardianship in connection with the preservation of the natural resources and the development of the country’s sources of wealth—the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources; and

(6) The carrying out of such work and services as cannot be performed by private citizens, conducive to the common welfare and public prosperity—the Department of Commerce and Communications.

II. ADOPTION OF A BUDGETARY SYSTEM.—A scientific budgetary system has been adopted. Under the system the estimates are made under the supervision and control of the department heads who have the power to add or cut down items. These different estimates are then submitted to the Secretary of Finance, who coördinates them. Any conflict between a departmental head and the Secretary of Finance is submitted to the Council of State for decision. Once the budget is definitely approved by the Council of State the Governor-General submits it with a message to the Legislature.

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The lower house is the first one to take up the budget. The corresponding Department Secretary appears before it to explain the details of the budget for his Department and to answer all questions by the members. Once the budget is approved in principle it is sent to the Committee on Appropriations with instructions to draft the appropriation bill in accordance therewith. When the appropriation bill is approved by the house, it is sent to the Senate and practically the same procedure is followed.

The Emergency Board To make the budgetary system sufficiently elastic to meet changing conditions, there has been created the so-called Emergency Board composed of the Secretary of Finance as Chairman, two members of the Legislature, the Insular Auditor and the Attorney-General as members. In the general Appropriation Act, this board is given a substantial amount with which to supply the additional funds that the various units of the government may need for the purpose authorized by the appropriation law. As an additional safe-guard, the actions of the Emergency Board do not become operative until after approval by the Governor-General and the presidents of both houses.

III. PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS.—In public improvements, the following was the record of the Filipinos within the last nine years. The mileage of first-class roads was more than doubled increasing from 2,172 kilometers in 1913 to 4,782 in 1922, not to speak of the second and third class; 7,562 permanent bridges and culverts are now in existence; 725 permanent government buildings were built, including schools, public markets, hospitals, provincial capitols, and large and beautiful edifices for the university and the Insular government; a network of wireless stations was erected throughout the provinces; a vast program of improvements in port works was launched, and a bond issue of ten million pesos was sold in the United States for harbor improvements in Manila alone; irrigation works estimated to cost about ten million pesos, and designed to benefit 150,000 [178]acres of land in sixteen different localities, were initiated; 949 artesian wells in the different provinces, an average of one to each municipality, were drilled at a total cost of nearly two and one-half million pesos, and 55 new water-works systems were installed with 36 more under active construction, to cost more than three million pesos.

IV. AGRICULTURE AND TAXATION.—The progress in agriculture was remarkable. The chief point of interest here is that the placing of Filipinos in control of the agricultural departments greatly enlarged the power of the Government to influence the people to increased production. Of rice alone, 1,285,385 acres more were planted during the last nine years (1913–1922); 544 rural-credit societies were established with a membership of 75,114 and coöperation in agriculture, a new spirit among the farmers, encouraged and explained.

Taxation was revised and increased, and the government revenue from this source which in 1913 had been only ₱39,236,007, rose to ₱62,900,403 in 1919 and ₱64,259,776 in 1922; there are twelve banking institutions in the Islands, now, instead of only six, and the money in circulation has risen from ₱50,000,000 in 1914 to three times that figure.

V. PUBLIC ORDER.—Public order, the first requisite of a stable government, has been splendidly maintained through the agency of the Philippine Constabulary and the municipal police. The Constabulary has always been dependable and thoroughly efficient. There is hardly any country in the world more peaceful than the Philippines.

VI. EDUCATION.—The present school system in the Philippines has been one of the principal uplifting agencies in the colonial enterprise undertaken by the United States as a result of the Spanish-American war. Immediately after the capitulation of Manila, an army officer acting as superintendent of schools opened schools. Everywhere the army went afterwards a public school was established and put into operation. [179]

The school system is supported entirely from Philippine revenue. The advance has been rapid, there now being about a million pupils in the schools being taken care of by the Philippine government. The attendance of almost a million is entirely voluntary, there being no compulsory education law.

The public school system has received the unstinted support of the Filipino people. The first bill passed by the Philippine Assembly in 1907 was the appropriation of one million pesos for the building of rural schools. In 1918 the thirty million-peso act was passed, which provided that thirty million pesos be set aside, over and above the regular annual appropriation, for school-housing and equipment. The law is expected to provide school facilities for every boy and girl of school age in the Islands by 1924.

The head of the public-school system is the Vice-Governor-General who is at the same time Secretary of Public Instruction. The executive control is centered in the Bureau of Education headed by a director, who is responsible for the conduct of public schools and has the authority necessary to make his control effective.

School divisions.—The Islands are divided into forty-nine school divisions, each division generally coinciding with the boundaries of a province, except the City of Manila, and four Insular schools—the Philippine Normal School, the Philippine School of Arts and Trades, the Philippine Nautical School, and the Central Luzon Agricultural School—each of which is considered as a distinct division. A division is under the immediate charge of a superintendent who is the representative of the Director of Education. The Division Superintendent in the province is generally assisted by a provincial industrial supervisor and an academic supervisor. Each provincial division is divided into different districts consisting of one or more municipalities and several barrios or villages, each under the charge of a supervising teacher. [180]

There are 50 provincial high schools. There are 20 provincial trade schools and 14 provincial shops, the principals of which are responsible directly either to the principal of the provincial school or to the Division Superintendent of Schools.

The original feature of all school work was the academic. Soon the Bureau of Education labored to make industrial work a part and parcel of the curriculum. This was followed by making physical education a vital part of the courses. And now the aim is to maintain a proper balance in the academic, industrial, physical, and social work.

The English language is the only medium of instruction.

There are seven elementary grades—four primary and three intermediate. The secondary courses take four years. There has been built up an English-speaking Filipino teaching staff—a distinctive achievement reflecting credit on Filipinos and Americans alike.

Vocational instruction.—Graded vocational instruction occupies an important place in the school curricula. Approximately 14 per cent of the total time in the primary grades and about 17 per cent of the total time in the general intermediate course is devoted to this form of instruction. The special intermediate vocational courses include farming and trades for boys and housekeeping and household arts for girls. The chief aims of industrial instruction are: first, industrial intelligence; second, industrial skill; and, third, industrial sympathy. The educational and economic values of industrial education are kept in view. It may be of interest to mention that the Bureau of Education annually receives orders amounting to $150,000 a year from various firms abroad, especially from America, for handicraft articles; that trade school production yearly is over $100,000 and that the yearly agricultural production of the schools is over $281,000. [181]

Agricultural education.—The Philippines being essentially an agricultural country, agricultural education is given considerable attention. The Bureau of Education at present maintains 13 large agricultural schools, 15 farm schools, and 162 settlement farm schools. The agricultural school range in area from about 125 to about 3,000 acres; the farm schools, from about 40 to 125 acres; the settlement farm schools, from about 30 to about 100 acres. In addition to these, the Bureau of Education has an extensive program of school and home gardening and maintains numerous agricultural clubs for boys and girls. Under the stress of the world-wide economic crisis brought about by the World War, the general office appealed to the country for increased productions, and in response to this appeal, the schools now have over 4,000 school gardens and over 100,000 home gardens. Annually there are held over 20,000 Garden Days where there are over 143,000 pupils’ exhibits and about 40,000 farmers’ exhibits.

Athletics.—The system of physical education here compares favorably with the best in the world. The temptation of developing only a few “stars” has been valiantly resisted and the athletic slogan of “Athletics for Everybody” has been stressed instead. As a result of this policy over 96 per cent of the pupils enrolled in the elementary and secondary schools take active participation in the program of athletics and games during the year.

Primary and Secondary Curriculum.—In the seven years’ course the studies are principally language, reading, good manners and right conduct, arithmetic, civics, hygiene and sanitation, writing, drawing, music, and Philippine history and government, in addition to a definite vocational training and organized play and athletics. Besides the regular secondary course, specialized secondary courses such as the normal, commercial, trade, agricultural, and domestic science are offered. [182]

Number of pupils.—The enrollment of pupils in the public schools below the University of the Philippines from the school year 1913–1914 to 1920–1921 is as follows:

Number of schools and teachers.—The number of schools rose from 2,934 in 1913 to 7,670 in March, 1922, representing an increase of 128 per cent. The average annual decrease in the number of schools from 1909 to 1913 (5 years preceding Filipino autonomy) was 181, or 4.8 per cent, while the average yearly increase from 1914 to 1920 was 416.

The number of Filipino teachers increased from 7,671 in 1913 to 24,017 in 1922, which means an increase of 16,346, or 213 per cent. The number of American teachers dropped from 658 in March, 1913, to 347 in March, 1922.

Number of school buildings.—The number of permanent school buildings constructed up to 1913 was 624, which number rose to 1,301. In other words, during nine years (1913–1922), 108 per cent more permanent buildings were erected.

Universities.—Foremost among the universities in the Islands is the University of the Philippines, which corresponds to a state university. It gives courses in liberal arts, the sciences, education, medicine and surgery, dentistry, pharmacy, agriculture, veterinary medicine, engineering, law, forestry, music, and the fine arts. Collegiate degrees are [183]conferred upon graduates in all the courses mentioned with the exception of the last two, for which diplomas of proficiency are issued to the graduates.

The enrollment in the University for the school year 1922–1923 is 4,839, so that in 10 years the attendance rose from 1,400 in 1911–1912 to 4,839 in 1922–1923, representing an increase of 237 per cent. The University has now 45 buildings of permanent materials.

The Santo Tomas University was the first to be established. It has the distinction of being the oldest university under the American flag, having been founded a quarter of a century before Harvard. It gives courses in law, medicine, pharmacy, civil engineering, philosophy and letters, and theology, and has about 700 students. The medium of instruction is the Spanish language.

Besides these two universities there is the National University with upwards of 4,500 students and the Manila University with almost 3,000. The presidents of the last two universities are Filipinos.

The overwhelming majority of the faculty in all the institutions of high learning in the Islands are Filipinos.

VII. SANITATION.—In sanitation the progress attained by the Philippines during the Filipinized government has also been rapid. The sanitary work is now controlled by a central bureau called the Philippine Health Service. With this centralization of activities health measures can be enforced more economically and more effectively than in previous years.

The municipalities are grouped into sanitary divisions, each of which is in charge of a competent official. With few exceptions the men in charge are qualified physicians. At the end of the year 1921, there were 307 sanitary divisions comprising 792 out of the 846 municipalities. In other words, nearly 94 per cent of the total number of municipalities in the Philippines form a part of these sanitary divisions. [184]

Some of the important functions of the Philippine Health Service are as follows:

1. Control and supervision of all hospitals for dangerous communicable diseases, and the isolation of persons suffering from such diseases.

2. Control of sanitation of schoolhouses and premises, prisons and all other places for the detention of prisoners.

3. Establishment and maintenance of internal quarantine in times of epidemic and the systematic inoculation of the inhabitants with virus, sera, and prophylactics.

VIII. LOCAL AUTONOMY.—Greater autonomy has been extended to the provinces and municipalities especially as regards local taxes, education, sanitation, and permanent public improvements.

One of the significant and substantial results of the new policy is the remarkable improvement in the finances of the provinces and municipalities. During the period 1914 to [185]1920 a general revision of assessment of real properties was conducted in all the provinces. From this assessment we find an increase of 1,703,449 in the number of lots of taxable real property on December 31, 1920, as compared with the corresponding figure on September 30, 1913, representing an increase of about 100 per cent. The increase, of course, means increased revenue from the real property taxes for the local government.

A study of the revenues of the provinces and municipalities during 1914 to 1920, as compared with the period 1909 to 1913, shows an increase of 1,090 per cent, the average percentage of yearly increase being 155.5 per cent. In 1922 the revenues of the provinces were ₱19,264,264; those of the municipalities were ₱32,486,068.

IX. PUBLIC WELFARE.—One of the first acts of the Philippine government since control was turned over into the hands of Filipinos was the creation of the so-called Public Welfare Board entrusted with the task of coördinating the work of private and public welfare agencies. The board acts as the agency for controlling the disbursement of public charity funds to semi-public institutions like the Anti-tuberculosis Society, the Gota de Leche, and the Women’s Clubs.

On February 23, 1916, an act was passed by the Legislature appropriating ₱1,000,000 for the protection of early infancy and the establishment of branches of the “Gota de Leche.” Local organizations were granted aid from this funds as much as what they raised.

In 1917 the government established an orphanage for destitute and dependent children from all over the islands, managed according to the most modern methods.

Public Welfare Commissioner On February 18, 1918, the public welfare board membership was reduced to five and its administrative control placed under the Department of the Interior. The administration of the million-peso funds for the protection of early infancy and the establishment of maternity and child-welfare centers were also placed under the control of the Secretary [186]of the Interior on March 22, 1920. Later these activities were all grouped together by Act 2988, enacted February 24, 1921, into one office—the office of the public welfare commissioner—which started operation on May 1, 1921.

The aim of the office is summarized thus: To promote all work directed towards the early reduction of infant mortality in the Philippines by employing adequate means for this purpose and for carrying out other activities intended to bring about the general welfare of the community, especially that which concerns children.

A central executive office is maintained in Manila. It investigates social conditions and compiles sociological information for distribution. Social centers are being established throughout the Islands. On December, 1922, 183 puericulture centers were in existence as against 80 on December, 1921.

X. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.—The Supreme Court of the Philippine Islands presided over by a Filipino has always enjoyed the respect and confidence of every citizen. It is above all influence, being composed of men of integrity and of exceptional talent.

The Courts of First Instance have also a comparatively good record as is evident from the number of decisions affirmed, reversed, and modified by the Supreme Court. The figures are as follows:

The foregoing figures indicate that there was a larger percentage of decisions affirmed and smaller percentage of decisions reversed by the Supreme Court during the time [187]when the Filipino people were given substantial autonomy proving that the administration of justice has been considerably improved with the Filipinos in control.

In 1913 there were 12,000 pending cases disposed of; in 1921 the number rose to 16,874; in 1922, 20,632.

From 1907 to 1913, for a period of seven years before Filipino autonomy, the average yearly number of decrees of titles to land issued by the Philippine courts was only 1,935; while from 1914 to 1920, during seven years of Filipino self-government, the average yearly number of land titles settled was 12,396, six times more than the preceding period.

XI. GOVERNMENT ENTERPRISES.—In order to hasten the economic progress of the Islands, the Philippine government has been compelled to organize and engage in certain business enterprises of national importance that private initiative and capital have so far failed to develop. There are now four of these government owned enterprises—the Philippine National Bank, the Manila Railroad, the National Coal Company, and the National Development Company. The underlying motives behind these ventures are:

(1) To conserve the resources of the Islands for Filipinos; (2) to protect the people against exploitation; (3) to safeguard against profiteering; (4) to facilitate the extension of credit to private concerns.

The Philippine National Bank.—The need for a national bank in the Islands has long been felt. Previous to its establishment, Filipino farmers and merchants had to go to foreign banks in order to secure the necessary capital. The Philippine government had also to deposit its money with foreign banking institutions which gave a very low rate of interest. All the foreign banks made very little investments in the Islands, preferring to deal almost exclusively with export and import trade.

To remedy these conditions the Philippine National Bank was organized. From a modest beginning the bank grew by leaps and bounds, especially during the war. [188]

Constructive Service In spite of the many criticisms hurled against it, the constructive service that the bank has rendered to the community stands out in bold relief—the financing of the liberty loans, the handling of the sale of alien property, the financial assistance extended in time of dire need to two banks doing business in the islands, the financing of sugar centrals, the giving of loans to agriculturists, and the extension of banking facilities to merchants and manufacturers.

The post-war depression caught the bank unprepared to meet the emergencies and it suffered heavy losses. The bank, however, is now in a fair way to sound footing. But as an institution, despite its reverses, it has come to be part and parcel of Philippine financial life. The Filipino people regard the bank as indispensable in the economic development of the islands.

The Manila Railroad.—The Philippine railroads were taken over by the government in 1916. They were bought from an old English company. The principal motive that impelled the purchase of the lines from the English owners was the failure of the owners to operate the lines with profit. This failure resulted in the imposition of greater burden on the taxpayers in the way of payment for interest on railroad bonds guaranteed by the government from the early days of American administration. The secondary motive was of course to nationalize this most important medium of communication and to put it at government disposal in case of emergency.

From 1914 to 1916 the aggregate net deficit of the company was about $600,000. Under government management the railroad has been gaining steadily. In 1917 the gain was $400,000; in 1918, $130,000; in 1920, $120,000; and in 1921 $148,000, with the added advantage that the government has not been called upon to pay any interest on the bonds.

The National Coal Company.—During the war the coal shortage was one of the great problems that the government had to solve. The Philippine Islands are rich in coal deposits, but very little private capital has been invested in its [189]exploitation. The Philippine Legislature, therefore, chartered the National Coal Company and supplied it with a capital of $1,700,000. The company is now ready to furnish at least the coal needed by the government, which is about 120,000 tons a year, heretofore imported from foreign countries.

The National Development Company.—The company was organized for the purpose of financing isolated commercial, industrial or agricultural enterprises that the government may desire to establish for the general welfare of the country, the motive being that whenever or wherever there was profiteering the government should enter into competition with the profiteer and compel him to reduce the cost of his goods.

The stock of the company is controlled, as in other government companies, by a committee of three, composed of the Governor-General, the President of the Senate, and the Speaker of the House of Representatives.

Other development companies which have been established by law, some of which have not yet begun to function, are the National Cement Company (2855), the National Coal Company (2705), the National Iron Company (2862), and the National Petroleum Company (2814). [190]