Examples:

As is seen, the diminutive is formed by the repetition of the primitive or by adding to the latter the affix ay or hay.

The primitive is repeated when it has not more than two syllables. As,

from

The affix ay or hay is added when the primitive has more than two syllables; ay being used in cases where the noun ends with a consonant, or a vowel with a grave or angular accent; and hay being employed when the primitive ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented or a vowel that is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it, or is preceded by more than one consonant. As,

from

But the dissyllabic primitive is not repeated when its first vowel is followed by more than one consonant, or when the last vowel has an acute accent or is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it. In such cases the affix ay or hay is employed, the rules established for the use of these affixes being applicable to such diminutives. As,

from

Generally, as it has been observed in the preceding examples, the adjectives follow the same rules. As,

from

But in must of the adjectives formed with ma (a particle bearing the idea of abundance) and ha6 (a particle that bears the idea of place), like maopay, mabusag, mapulá, hatáas, halabà, the prefixes ma or ha are disregarded in the formation of their diminutives, their abstract roots being the only elements taken into consideration, as if such [12]adjectives were dyssillabic. Thus, opay, busag, pulá, táas, lubà, being the abstract roots of the last mentioned adjectives, their diminutives will be:

from

There are some adjectives that have irregular diminutives. Such are the following:

We call those nouns figurative that are applied to the objects which, not being of the same nature as that which is expressed by their roots, show nevertheless analogy or similarity with those represented by the corresponding primitive, in their meaning, form, use, or application.

Examples:

from

When the primitive has not more than two syllables, the formation of its figurative follows the same rules as those for the dissyllabic diminutive. As,

from [13]

But when thy primitive has more than two syllables, or its last vowel is preceded by more than one consonant or is pronounced separately from the consonant—preceding it, its figurative is formed by adding to the root a prefix composed of its first syllable if it begins with a consonant or of its first vowel if it begins with a vowel and the syllable ro (a particle that bears the idea of imitation, repetition, or collection). As,

from

NOTE.—Many of the figurative nouns have the same forms as the collective. There are few figuratives among the adjectives; of these, those having the form of figuratives are really comparatives.12

These are formed from the verb-root transformed by particles referring to the agents or the objects of the roots.

Examples:

from

• sáyau (to dance)
  • parasayáu (dancer),
  • tigsayáu (person who sometimes dances),
  • magsarayáu (person appointed to dance)
  • sarayauán13 (place designed for dancing). [14]
  • sarayauón (dance or musical piece to be danced)14;

from

• umá (to farm)
  • paraúma (farmer),
  • tig-úma (person used to do farming),
  • mag-urúma (person in charge of farming),
  • urumáhan, contracted urúmhan (place designed for farming),
  • urumáhon, contracted urúmhon (ground or plant to be cultivated);

from

• surat (to write), the similar verbals as above, so far as the idea of the root and the use permit, with this variant:
  • susurátan, not sururátan,
  • susuráton, not sururáton;

from

• toóc (to weep), the similar verbals, so far as the root and the use permit, and this besides:
  • matóoc (weeper);

from

• bóong̃ (to break), the similar verbals, and this:
  • maboroóng̃ (liable or expected to be broken);

from

• inóm (to drink), the similar verbals, and the following:
  • mainominóm (an inviting drink);

from

• sosón (to correct), the similar verbals, and this:
  • hinóson (person fond of or bold in correcting);

[15]

from

• útang̃ (to borrow),
  • hing̃útang̃ or hing̃ung̃utáng̃15 (person fond of or bold in borrowing).

It may be observed that not all of the verb-roots produce the same number of verbal nouns. It depends on the particular character of every idea conveyed in the root, and mainly on the use.

From the preceding examples, it is seen that the transformative particles of the verbal nouns are various, the said particles being the prefixes para, tig, mag, ma, hi, the interfixes16 r, ro, um or the affixes an, on. These particles are very important in Bisayan as they greatly help to enrich the limited vocabulary of this tongue.

For the sake of clearness, we shall see first the affixes.

The use gives the following:

We consider under this heading the nouns derived from other nouns. Those originated from a verb are already treated as verbals. Most of the derivatives are adjectives.

The derivatives, like the verbal, are formed with particles, prefixes, interfixes, and affixes.

The usual particles are ca, ma, maca, mag, maqui, hi, pala, tag, as prefixes; r, in as interfixes; and an, on as affixes. As,

[24]

Ca bears the idea of quality, and is used alone or in combination with the affix an. As

It is sometimes combined with the interfix in and the joined affix anon, as

Ma conveys the idea of abundance and future condition. In the first case, it is added at the beginning of the primitive, which is the form of great many adjectives, as,

and when it means future condition, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive, as,

The particle ma is frequently combined with the interfix in and the affix on or ánon. In plural, the ma is appended with g. As

It is also used without any affix, and then the primitive is doubled as from tubâ (a wine) matubatubâ (person or thing that smells as tubâ).

Maca has the idea of potentiality, and is added to the beginning of the primitive, by doubling the first syllable of the primitive or by using the intermix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive. As,

Mag conveys the idea of mutual relationship, and also [25]of continuity in a few cases. It is simply added at the beginning of the primitive.

Relationship. Examples:

It is sometimes appended with tala, as from amáy (father), magtalaamáy (father and son, or father and daughter).

The derivatives formed with mag conveying the idea of mutual relationship, are always in plural.

Continuity. Examples:

Maqui signifies the idea of fondness, and is employed without any other transformative particle, as,

It is used in very few cases to form verbals, as

Hi, as transformative particle of derivatives, conveys the idea of boldness, and also of consideration, or of payment. We have seen that it means boldness when joined to verbs to form verbal nouns28. As to its use, it follows here the same rules as when employed with verbs. Examples:

Pala means resemblance. It is combined with the affix an. As,

Tag conveys the idea of ownership or authorship. It is simply added to the primitive. As

It is sometimes used to indicate distribution, and then it is frequently combined with the prefix ma preceding it. As

These last particles are sometimes replaced by iquina which expresses the same idea. As

[27]

The interfix r, which bears no particular meaning, is here employed under the same rules as those established for its use in the figurative and verbal nouns.

The interfix in expresses imitation. It is added at the beginning of the primitive if the latter commences with a vowel. Otherwise, it is placed before the first vowel of the primitive. As,

An and on among the derivatives, signify the idea of abundance or participation, an frequently conveying the idea of place. Both are appended to the primitive without any other particle, and complemented with an h, in the same way as in the formation of verbals.31 Examples:

[28]

These particles are sometimes employed jointly, the an preceding the on. This compound affix, anon, bears the idea of great abundance, or birth or residence place, and is preceeded by an h according to the same rules established for an and on. Examples:

OBSERVATIONS. There are other forms of derivatives, viz: ca cat iquina or quina, taga, tagum or tagun, hi.

Ca means also company, as from tupad (to be side by side) catúpad (the person side by side). [29]

Cat means season, as from “áni” (harvest), “cat-aní” (harvest time).

Iquina or quina expresses nature, as from “táuo” (man), “buhi” (alive), “iquinatáuo” (property peculiar to men), “quinabuhi” (life).

Taga, means origin or residence, posession, or measure, as from “Leyte” (Island so called), “súndang̃” (bolo), “íroc” (armpits), we have: “taga Leyte” (from Leyte), “tagasúndang” (one who bears a bolo), “tagairoc” (up to the armpits). When this particle taga means measure, it is sometimes replaced by pa, as from “háuac” (belly), “paháuác” (up to the belly).

Tagum expresses the idea of power, virtue, or peculiarity. When the primitive commences with n, the m of tagum is suppressed. When the primitive begins with a consonant not labial, the said m is replaced by n. It is sometimes combined with the affix an, As: from “matá” (eye) “baba” (mouth), “lipong” (confusion), we have “tagumatá” (peculiar disease of the eye), “tagumbabáan” (person whose words have a peculiar power or virtue), “tagunlipóng̃an” (one who has the power to make himself invisible).

Hi is also combined with the interfix r and the affix an, as from “polós” (profit), “himorólsan” (profitable). Among verbs ha is used instead of hi, as from “cáon” (to eat), “hacaraón” (eatable).

NOTE.—The past participles take sometimes the affix an, as

from	cauil	(fish-hook),	quinauilán	(fish caught with “cauil”)
	bitánà	(a kind of fishing net),	binitanáan	(fish caught with “bitanà”).

There are other transformative particles not so important as those already mentioned, and which the use will show to the student.

Like in other tongues there is in Bisayan a distinction between proper and common nouns. Tacloban, Catbalaógan, [30]Ilong̃-ílong̃ (Iloilo), Espanya (Spain), Pedro (Peter), Guillermo (William), etc., are proper nouns; bucad (flower), bató (stone), áyam (dog), etc., are common.

The Bisayan language has also familiar names for persons. As

Among the names of places, there are a few formed by the preposition can (which means possession or property), and the particles ca (which denotes abundance), and guin (which conveys the idea of past passive action), as

NOTE.—The names of persons among the Bisayan people are all Christian at the present time. Many of the surnames are Spanish, many others being of Bisayan origin as Lágbas, Pócpoc, Macasáit, Cabaobao, Balasbas, Yagomyom, etc.

To indicate relationship, as the English papa, mamma, and respect, confidence, or tenderness, there are a number of Bisayan nouns, which show by themselves the relation between the speaker or writer and the person to whom the noun is applied. Examples:

• for papa, tátay or tatáy, tátang̃ or tatáng̃, itáy, or itáng̃;
• for,, mamma, nánay or nanáy, nánang̃ or nanáng̃, ináy, or ináng̃.

There are others applied to grandfathers and grandmothers, and also to those persons who act or are considered as fathers or mothers. Examples:

• Mano, manóng, mamo, mamoy, babay, dudoy, dudù inco, tutoy, yuyu, iyô (applied to elder brothers, uncles or elder male relatives of any degree, even to persons not related to but respected by the speaker or writer).
• Mana37 manang, manáy, mama, mamay. manding, duday, duda, insi tutay, yuya, tuta (applied to elder sisters, aunts or elder female relatives of any [32]degree, even to women not related to, but respected by the speaker or writer).
• Tío, or tí, tia or tí (applied as á form of politeness and respect, respectively to men or women not related to or unknown by the speaker or writer).
• Idoy, íntoy, budóy, busóy, and idáy, inday, udáy, idíng, iyíng, bididay, nonay, neneng, (applied with tenderness to boys or girls respectively).

NOTE.—The word cuán (so and so), not meaning anything by itself, is applied to persons or things whose names the speaker or writer does not know, or venture, or wish to express. As the phrase “so and so”, it helps a great deal in a conversation, and is used also instead of the verbs and other parts of speech.

The words inín (contracted of iní nga) and adâ (I guess, perhaps) are also used in the conversation, as auxiliary particles, they being then equivalent to the English why.

Examples:

• Question.—“¿Guinsorat mo na an balos?” (Have you already written the answer?)
• Answer.—“Oo guincoan co na gad” (Yes I already have).
• Q.—¿Háin an basahón? (Where is the book?)
• A.—Inin … aadto ada ha ac solód (why … I guess it is in my room)
• Q.—Mapiráu, ¿ano in bubuhaton co? (I am sleepy, what shall I do?)
• A.—Ada … catúrog (Why … to sleep).

As in other languages, there are three degrees for adjectives, also used for substantives in Bisayan. These degrees are positive, comparative and superlative.

Nothing particular needs be observed about the positive degree, except what is mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs: [33]

The comparatives are formed exactly in the same way as the figuratives38, the number of syllables being disregarded, as if all has more than two syllables.

In the formation of adjectives prefixed with ma, this particle is preferably disregarded, as if such particle did not exist, as

There is another form of comparative consisting in the use of the combined particles labi (more) and ca, as

This last form is sometimes used for superlatives.

The superlatives are of three classes:

Those which do not admit any comparison, and which we call absolute or supreme superlatives, as

those which are not so absolute, and which we call ordinary superlative, as,

capín ca maópay		(very good);
maopay nga capín
maopay hin sogóng̃39

and those which convey the idea of excess, and which we call excessive superlatives, as [34]

uraúra40 ca maópay		(to good).
maópay ng̃a uraúra

As is seen from the preceding examples, the supreme supertive is formed by adding to the beginning of the primitive the prefix gui and by appending to said primitive the affíx i. The first syllable of the primitive may be doubled as use permits. As,

The first form is also adopted for the substantives to show the highest degree of identity as in this phrase:

• An guiaamáyi mo gud an natauág ha imo
• (It is your very father who calls you).

The ordinary superlative is formed with the particles capin ca or labí ca placed before the primitive, or with the particles caópay, ng̃a capin, or hin sogong̃ put after the primitive. As,

from	mabido		(sorry)
	capín ca mabidò		(very sorry)
	labí ca mabidò
	mabidò caopay
	mabidò ng̃a capín
	mabidò hin sogóng̃

Some of the adjectives formed with particle ma, have another form for ordinary superlative, in doubling their root and disregarding the prefix ma, as from “masiróm” (dark), “masiromsiróm”41 (very dark).

The excessive superlative is formed with the particle [35]uraúra ca placed before the primitive, or the particle ng̃a uraúra located after the root. As,

from	maasín		(salty)
	uraúra ca maasín		(excessively salty)
	maasín ng̃a uraúra

The idea of the excessive superlative is also expressed sometimes with the particles “lapás ca” (excessively), or with the phrase “dirí sonô hin ca” or “dirì socól hin ca” (out of measure), placed before the primitive, as

• lapás ca maasín
• dirì sonô hin ca maasín
• dirì socól hin ca maasín.

NOTE.—The particles “labi” and “capin” take sometimes the affix an, as

The cardinal adjectives are the following:

As it is noticed above, the cardinals are formed by the preposition “cag” (and), the prefix “ca” (which means collection) and the affix “an”, added to the primitives “usá, duhá, tuló, upáo, lima, unóm, pitó, ualó, siyám, napulo, gatós, yocót, ribo”, the phonetical reasons being taken in consideration. Thus we say:

• caruhaán, not caduhaán,
• catloan, not catuloán,
• cap’atán not caupatán,
• calim’an not calimahán,
• caúnman, not caunoman.

The word “usa” is frequently contracted, especially in familiar language, by the supression of the last vowel. Thus:

us ca gatos		instead of “usá” ca etc.
us ca yocót
us ca ribo

[37]

In reading the numbers, the English way is followed, the particles “uga may” being sometimes employed especially in cases of large amounts. Thus, to read this number

987654321,

we would say:

“Casiyamán cag ualó cayocót, pitó cagatós caúnman cag limá caribo, ng̃a may upát ca yocót, tuló ca gatós caruhaán cag usá.”

NOTE—In Bisayan, there is no word corresponding to the English zero (0). However, its figure is used in Bisayan. It is suggested that the word “lung̃ág” (empty), or “uaráy” (nothing) be adopted as corresponding to the word “zero” which is derived from modern Latin zephiram from Arabic cafrun, cifrun or sefer (empty).

The ordinals are formed by employing the particles “ica” (which bears the idea of order), placed before the cardinal. As

• ica usá,
• ica napulò
• ica calim’an
• ica upat ca gatós
• ica siyam ca yucót
• icá pito ca ribo.

The ordinal of usa has also simple forms, as siyahan, siyapá, and frequently admits the particle icag instead of ica, as icag usá.

The partitives have exactly the same form, as the ordinals, except in that the ordinals cag usa, siyahan and siyapá are never used as partitives; and that there is the form tung̃â and its variants catung̃â, tung̃â or catung̃â hin or ng̃a (half), employed instead of icaduhà.

The phrase ca bahín (part) is frequently used in the partitives to avoid confusion. Thus [38]

The particle ica is sometimes contracted into caas “catung̃a” (half), “cauróg” (most).

The distributives are formed by adding to the cardinals the particle tag (which conveys the idea of distribution). As

When the distributive bears the meaning of portion, the particle iquina is combined with tag. As

The collective nouns are formed by adding at the beginning of the primitive the prefix ca (which bears the idea of collection or reunion) and the affix an. As,

These forms are very frequently used to make the plural of the nouns, as of the singular batá we make the plural.

NOTE—The particle ca is also employed to express abstract ideas, as

The particle pag is sometimes added at the beginning of the particle, as

The collectives take also the form of the figuratives with or without the particles ca and an, as the use may permit, as [39]

NOTE.—There is another class of nouns which may be called depreciative. They are limited in number. The following belong to such class:

for batà (child),

• nagbobóto (a being born thru an explosion)
• lumátud (person of big abdomen)
• lugtuc,46
• motatô47
• motó, from botó (report of a gun, explosion);

for anác (son or daughter)

• nahólbot (past participle of “hólbot” to pull out of a hole);

for baba (mouth)

• nasárag (of “sárag” to put something in the mouth);

for camót (hand)

• camrauón (from “cámram”, what an eagle does with its fingers);

for tiil (foot)

• sincádol48 etc.

There are despectives derived from their primitives, as,

• for húbya (lazy), “húbsac”49

The variations to which the Bisayan names are subject, are: gender, number, and cases. [40]

The gender is scarcely regarded. We have however for few nouns the natural and grammatical genders.

Examples of natural gender:

Examples of gramatical gender:

The plural is determined by the particle mga or by those for collectives as formerly seen53, or by the interfix g among the adjectives. Examples:

• of táuo (man) “mg̃a táuo,” or “catauóhan” (men),
• of dacò (large), dagcò (large, plural). [41]
• of matam-is (sweet), magtam-is (sweet, plural),
• of hatáas (high), hagtáas (high, plural).

When the noun is preceded by numeral adjectives, the singular keeps its form, as

• usá ca táuo (one man), napulò ca tauo (ten men),
• usá ng̃a baláy (one house), calim’an ng̃a baláy (fifty houses).

Some adjectives do not admit the interfix g, for euphonical reason, as

• of hubyà (lazy), mg̃a hubya, not húgbyà, etc.

There is no inflection for Bisayan nouns to distinguish their different cases, as in Greek and Latin. The cases are determined by the prepositions and by variable parts of speech preceding the noun.

There are great many Bisayan nouns composed of the same letters, but which have different meanings according to the accent they bear. Of these are the following:

They are the following:

They have the same forms both for the singular and plural, as follows:

When used before the nouns, they have the particle nga after them; said particle being frequently contracted with the pronun. As

The form itón sometimes takes again the particle ng̃a. So it is said itón ng̃a batâ (that boy or girl).

Adí, adto in some places have their variants yadi, yadto.

In plural, the particle mga is placed after the preceding combinations;

They have two cases: subjective and objective.

They are the following:

The forms co, mo, ta are used only after the nouns. [51]

The same distinction exists between aton and amon, as between quitá and camí.64

They have also two cases: subjective, and objective.

They are as follows:

These pronouns, except hin’o and bisan hin’o have no inflection for cases.