The Republic of Costa Rica

The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Republic of Costa Rica, by Gustavo Niederlein

Produced by: John Campbell, Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)

THE REPUBLIC
OF COSTA RICA

Introduction.

THIS monograph treats of the topography, geology, mineral wealth and soils of Costa Rica; it describes its climate and presents the details of its flora and fauna with reference to their economic value; it displays the distribution of population according to race, wealth, communities and social conditions; it examines the agricultural development of the Republic, including its live stock and forests; and, finally, it recounts the most important features of its commerce, industry, finance, and of its economic and political conditions.

It is made up of observations and studies pursued in 1897 and 1898, during seven and a half months of economic and scientific explorations in Central America, and of facts garnered with great care from authoritative manuscripts, books and official documents and publications. Respect has been shown to the work of men of originality in research and thought, and care has been taken to adhere closely to the original text when either quoting or translating. I am especially indebted to Professor H. Pittier, whose great qualifications for a scientific exploration of Costa Rica cannot be overestimated; to Mr. Anastasio Alfaro, the Director of the National Museum; to Mr. Manuel Aragon, the Director General of the National Statistical Department; to Dr. Juan Ullua, the Minister of Fomento; to Joaquin B. Calvo, Minister Resident in Washington; and Mr. Rafael Iglesias, the able President of the Republic of Costa Rica.

I.

TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND MINERAL WEALTH.

Costa Rica, the southernmost Republic of Central America, is advantageously situated within the North tropical zone, adjoining Colombia, the most northern state of South America. It is between the two great oceans, having also the prospect of one inter-oceanic ship-canal at one extremity and another ship-canal near the other.

Costa Rica is between 8° and 11° 16′ N. latitude and 81° 35′ and 85° 40′ W. longitude from Greenwich. Its area is between 54,070 and 59,570 sq. kilometers, the difference arising from the boundary line unsettled with Colombia. We follow here Colonel George Earl Church’s paper in the London Geographical Journal of July, 1897, which gives in a condensed form all important results of extensive explorations by Professor H. Pittier as well as well-written abstracts of important publications of the “Instituto fisico geografico Nacional” and of the “Museo Nacional” of Costa Rica.

The mountains of Costa Rica are not a continuous Cordillera, although in general they extend from the frontier of[8] Colombia to within a few miles of Brito. The entire country may properly be divided into two distinctive groups by a natural line running between the mouths of the Reventazon and Rio Grande de Pirris; groups which can be called “volcanic mountains” or “mountains of the northwest,” and “Talamanca mountains” or “mountains of the southeast.” It is clear that the Caribbean Sea once joined the Pacific Ocean through this valley of the river Reventazon in which the Costa Rica Railway now climbs to reach Cartago. In weighing existing data there seems to be no room for doubt that the highlands of Costa Rica once formed part of a vast archipelago extending from Panama to Tehuantepec. The lowest inter-oceanic depressions between the Arctic Ocean and the Straits of Magellan are the divide between the two oceans at Panama which is 286 feet above the sea-level, and the narrow strip of land separating Lake Nicaragua from the Pacific, which has only about 150 feet elevation.

The “volcanic mountains” or “the mountains of the northwest” can again be divided into two sections. The first comprises the part situated between the Rio Reventazon and a depression which connects San Ramon with the water-shed of San Carlos, including the groups of the volcanoes Turialba (11,000 feet), Irazú (11,200 feet), Barba (9335 feet) and Poas (8675 feet). The second section comprises the part which extends from the Barranca River to the Lake of Nicaragua with the groups of Tilaran, Miravalles, La Vieja and Orosi.

The first section may be called “Cordillera Central” or “Cordillera del Irazú” and the second “Cordillera del Miravalles.” The three masses which form the volcanic Cordillera of Irazú are separated by two depressions: first by that of La Palma, 1500 meters above the sea, between Irazú and Barba, and second by that of Desengaño, 1800 meters above the sea, between Barba and Poas.

The basis of the two western masses seems to be formed of basaltic rocks, while the trachytes dominate in the eastern mass. Irazú and Turialba, which is part of the same mass, seem to have ejected lavas in a compact state. The height of volcanoes diminishes towards the west.

The three orographic groups which dominate the[9] northern central plateau do not show the regular conical form which usually characterizes a volcano. The general line of the southern slopes ascends in an imperceptible manner towards the summit, notwithstanding that they are composed of a succession of terrace plains. On the Irazú, for instance, eight such terraces are observable from Cartago to the summit. The northern declivity is more precipitous, being over 60° on the Irazú.

The peak of the Irazú is a point from which go various spurs and secondary mountains in opposite directions, one to the west and one to the east, the latter terminating in a crater where the Parismina River takes its origin. The western mountains trend first in a westerly direction to the Cerro Pelon, where they divide, one part descending south to the pass of Ochomogo, 1540 meters above sea-level; the other, after taking a northwesterly direction, terminating in the plain of La Palma, which is a part of the water-shed of the two oceans. On the south various mountains follow the rivers Pirris and Turialba. The Irazú has various craters, formed successively, each one contributing to the gradual rising of the mass.

The Irazú, which had eruptions in 1723, 1726, 1821 and 1847, has now an altitude of 3414 m. (11,200 feet), and from its summit both oceans are visible, and also the great valleys of San Juan and of Lake Nicaragua, as well as the mountains of Pico Blanco, Chirripo, Buena Vista and Las Vueltas. Turialba had a famous eruption of sand and ashes which began on the 17th of August, 1864, and lasted to March, 1865. Its heaviest ejected matter fell to the west, and Seebach classifies it as andesite. Another eruption, occurring on February 6, 1866, was accompanied by heavy earthquakes and sent its ashes as far as Puntarenas.

The Cordillera del Miravalles commences with the volcano Orosi, situated near the southwest extremity of Lake Nicaragua. In its southeast trend it recedes more and more from the lake and the San Juan River. It is an irregular, broad and volcano-dotted chain, about sixty geographical miles long, breaking down gradually on the northwest from Orosi to the Sapoa River, one of the southern boundaries of[10] Nicaragua. In this short distance are found the Cerro de la Vieja (6508 feet), the Montemuerto (8000 feet), the beautiful volcano Tenorio (6700 feet), the volcanoes Miravalles (4665 feet), the Rincon (4498 feet), and the Orosi (5195 feet).

These mountains, as far as they have been examined, are found to be of eruptive origin, basalts and trachytes predominating, but extensive sedimentary rock formations are also found upon their slopes, as well as vast deposits of boulders, clay, earth and volcanic material.

The peninsula of Nicoya, forming a part of Guanacaste, is partly an elevated plain and partly consists of hills and mountain ridges seldom attaining a greater elevation than 1500 feet. It is also composed of eruptive rocks and sedimentary formations, the latter being especially visible in the valley of Tempisque.

Between the northern volcanic section and the more regular Talamanca range is the notable “Ochomogo” Pass, about twenty miles broad, and a little more than 5000 feet above the sea-level at the water parting.

To the eastward through this gap, and in a broad, deeply eroded valley, runs the tumultuous Reventazon River, and to the westward the Rio Grande de Pirris. On the south of this depression the Chirripo Grande mountain mass sends off east and west two immense flanking ranges. A part of the western range, lying between San Marcos and Santa Maria, for a length of about six miles, is known as the Dota ridge, to which former explorers gave great importance.

This lofty, transverse and precipitous mountain system almost forbids communication between the northern and southern halves of the Republic, and, as Colonel Church says, must at all times have had a marked influence on the movement of races in this part of Central America. Both the northern and Talamanca sections present mountains in masses instead of sierrated like many Andean chains of North America. Those of the Talamanca section are Rovalo (7050 feet), Pico Blanco (9650 feet). Chirripo Grande (11,850 feet) and Buena Vista (10,820 feet). There are no signs of recent volcanic activity in the Talamanca range. The Talamanca mountains have narrow crests and are very precipitous[11] on the Atlantic side, with evidences of extensive denudations and erosions caused by the ceaseless rain-laden trade-winds.

Professor William M. Gabb, in his geological sketch of Talamanca, observes that the geological structure of the entire region is very simple. The greatest expanse is occupied by recent sedimentary rocks raised and nearly entirely metamorphosed by the action of volcanic masses.

At several points along the Atlantic coast, there are found masses of rocks of still later date. Professor Gabb maintains that the nucleus of the great Cordillera of the interior is formed by granites and syenites, which, like the sediment that covers them, are broken through here and there by dikes of volcanic origin identical with the eruptive material found on a greater scale in the northern part of Costa Rica. The syenites are intrusive and have their culminating point and greatest development in the Pico Blanco or Kamuk, a mountain of great altitude, unusual ruggedness and scarred with deep and precipitous cañons. All these dikes are of more modern formation and are porphyritic. Professor Gabb also notes a thick deposit of conglomerates and sandstones, schists and limestones, the schists being the most abundant; although the conglomerates, found all over the region, indicate the previous existence of an older sedimentary formation.

The pebbles which form the conglomerates are composed of metamorphic clay, having a character distinct from all the other rocks found in the country. The cement is also clay or sand. The absence of crystalline rocks in the conglomerates is irrefutable proof that, when these were deposited, the syenites and granites had not yet appeared from the interior of the earth. The limestone and sandstone represent a less developed geographical horizon of the sedimentary group, the latter appearing occasionally in layers, interstratified with conglomerates or more recent schists. In no place in Talamanca have fossils been found in these sandstones, although the same rocks are very fossiliferous near Zapote on the River Reventazon.

In regard to fossils, Professor Gabb saw at Las Lomas Station, about seven hundred feet above the sea, in the Bonilla[12] Cliffs cutting, shark’s teeth, compact masses of sea shells, fish, etc., and at an elevation of 2500 feet large deposits of compact shell limestone.

The schists have a fine, leaf-like texture, and are easily decomposed and reduced to a black mud, if they have not been metamorphosed. In this rock fossils have been found which belong to a Miocene age.

Along the Talamanca coast calcareous deposits are found in horizontal layers, and are probably elevated coral reefs, a rock which Professor Gabb calls “antillite,” and which is developed in the entire Caribbean region. It belongs to the post-Pliocene formation, the last of the Tertiary series.

In the interior valleys a thick deposit of pebbles and clays of recent origin is observed. The limit between the syenites of the high mountains and the metamorphosed Miocene formation is found in proximity to the Depuk River. In the slopes of the hills the schists are usually decomposed and covered with red clay, a sub-soil above which is found a small cap of fertile vegetable mold. In the valley of Tsuku the schists are profoundly altered and transformed in a magnesic or semi-talcous rock. The schists are more silicified in coming near to the limits of the syenites.

Higher up, the granitic rocks extend in the direction of the Pico Blanco without interruption. The Pico Blanco itself is of granite. Three hundred feet below the summit porphyry is observed, while the summit itself shows a greenish-brown trachyte with black spots.

In regard to the Pacific side of this Talamanca section, Professor H. Pittier says, “The southern coast Cordillera, as a whole, is formed of a nucleus of basaltic or syenitic rocks, above which are found successively limestone in very deep banks and sometimes fossiliferous: then argillaceous and marly schists; again, sandstone and conglomerates, the latter forming generally the crests of the hills and giving way very easily to atmospheric action, which produces its decomposition and is the cause of sterile lands characterized by savannas and the absence of forests on the upper parts of the mountains, as well as in certain lower and denuded parts.[13] The conglomerates are made up of heterogeneous elements whose resistance to erosion is variable. Some disintegrate as soon as they are exposed to erosion, while others remain unaltered for a long time. For this reason the savannas are in many places covered with stones of varied sizes.”

The lower valley of the Pirris presents a cap of impervious red clay, and, as the waters do not readily drain off they become stagnant and make an unhealthy district.

Dr. Frantzius, referring to the same region, speaks of diorites and syenites, also of calcareous deposits of the Miocene age covered with sandstone formations containing useful lignites. In his opinion the mountain of Dota is formed almost entirely of dioritic rocks with some syenitic nucleus. The same scientist says further that the high plains of Caños Gordas are formed of conglomerates of ashes ejected by the volcano of Chiriqui and brought there by the trade-winds which prevail in Central America.

The Pacific slope, which comes boldly to the water’s edge, is margined almost throughout by headlands and lofty hills, and has fewer evidences of extensive denudations and erosions than the Atlantic coast.

There is also a notable difference between the outlines of the two coasts. The eastern is regular and slightly concave to the southwest, while the western is indented with large and small bays and gulfs.

The most northern of these bays is the Salinas, belonging partly to Nicaragua and partly to Costa Rica. It is a spacious deep-water harbor, overlooked by the volcanic peak of Orosi. It is separated from the adjoining bay, the Santa Elena, by Sacate Point.

Continuing south, we come, south of Cacique Point, to Port Culebra, which is a mile wide, with a depth of eighteen fathoms. At the outlet of this harbor lies Cocos Bay, capacious enough for a thousand ships to anchor in the roadstead. The coast line south of Cocos Bay, bordered by numerous and lofty hills and cut into gorges by small impetuous water courses, presents no harbor as far as Cape Blanco, which is at the western entrance of the extensive Gulf of Nicoya. The gulf extends fifty miles to the northwest and is[14] a magnificent sheet of water, surrounded by green scenery, rivaling, if not surpassing, that of the Bay of Naples, the Bosphorus, or the harbor of Rio de Janeiro. Some twenty islands, large and small, nearly all bold, rocky and covered with vegetation, contribute to its beauty, while many small rivers, draining the slopes of the Miravalles and Tilaran sierras and the mountains of the peninsula of Nicoya, flow into it and diversify the scenery. The principal river, the Tempisque, enters at the head of the gulf, and with numerous small branches irrigates much of the province of Guanacaste.

All of the streams have bars at their mouths, composed generally of mud and broken shells, and but few of them are navigable even for a short distance inland, and then by very small craft. The whole eastern part of the peninsula of Nicoya is broken into hills and low mountains, wild and rarely cultivated, although there are many beautiful and fertile valleys. The west side of the gulf is full of reefs, rocks, violent currents, eddies that run from one to three and a half miles an hour, and is subject to violent squalls coming from the northwestern sierras. The eastern shore is less beset by obstructions, and small craft go along it with ease, and at high tide penetrate a few of its many rivers. It rises rapidly a short distance inland, but is at times bordered by mangrove swamps.

Near the mouth of the river Aranjuez, on a sand spit three miles long, stands Puntarenas, the only port of entry of Costa Rica on the Pacific coast, and which had, from 1814 until recently, nearly the entire foreign trade of the country. Ocean vessels anchor from one to two miles off in the roadstead. There is an iron pier for loading and discharging.

From Puntarenas southward to the unnavigable Barranca River there is a broad beach lying at the foot of the high escarpment of Caldera.

The Rio Grande de Tarcoles, which enters the gulf south of the Barranca, has a dangerous bar, but once inside it may be navigated a few miles. Its upper waters irrigate the table-land of San José, Alajuela and Heredia. In the neighborhood of these towns is garnered nearly the entire coffee crop of Costa Rica. The coast line south is rocky and precipitous[15] until near Punta Mala, or Judas, at the southeastern mouth of the gulf, and is low and surrounded by reefs and rocks.

From Point Judas, low and covered with mangrove swamps, the coast trends southeast in a long angular curve for about one hundred marine miles to Point Llorena. It is dominated by lofty hills, cut through at intervals by short impetuous streams and a few estuaries. The only safe and excellent anchorage in this one hundred miles is Uvita Bay, behind a rocky reef. From the precipitous headline, called Punta Llorena, to Burica Point, the southern limit of Costa Rica, the coast is abrupt, soon rising into ridges and peaks from 300 to 700 meters high (985 to 2300 feet). These give birth to a few short turbulent streams. About half way between these two points the great Golfo Dulce, having a main width of six miles, penetrates inland northwest about twenty-eight miles. It has an average depth of one hundred fathoms.

Cape Matapalo, which marks its western entrance, is deep and forest-covered, but Banco Point, opposite to it, is low. At the head of the gulf is found the little Bay of Rincon. From here to the Esquinas River, at the northeast angle of the gulf, the shore is hilly, and thence to the harbor of Golfito, which is surrounded by high hills, the country rises rapidly inland, but between Golfito and the entrance to the gulf it is lower and less broken, and thence to Platanal Point and Burica Point, the coast is bold, the country descending gradually from the northeast.

From Point Llorena to Point Burica the coast is wild and almost uninhabited. The coasts of Golfo Dulce have but a few hundred half-breeds as their sole occupants.

There are but two rivers in the long coast line from the Gulf of Nicoya to the Golfo Dulce, the Rio Grande de Pirris, and the Rio Grande de Terraba, the head waters of the former flowing through deep canyons with steep sides, which are almost bare of vegetation until the region of Guaitil is reached, where dense forests are encountered. The valley of the Rio Grande de Terraba is one of the most beautiful, extensive and fertile of Costa Rica, but is occupied by only a few families. Formerly it was the home of a large indigenous population.

In the angle made by the River Buena Vista and Chirripo there is a vast ancient cemetery, the graves of which contain many ornaments of gold, principally eagles. An ancient road runs by near this place.

Turning to the hydrographic basin of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua, the northeastern slope of the Miravalles range is found to send off several small streams to the lake.

Between Cuajiniquil, two and one-fourth miles east of Rio Sapoa, and Tortuga, six miles further east, are the little streams, Lapita, El Cangrejo, Puente de Piedra, La Vivora, Guabo, Genizaro and Tortuga, the latter the greatest in volume, being about one hundred and sixty feet wide at its mouth and navigable. In the further distance of seventeen miles going east, we cross the rivers Zavalos, Cañitas, Quesera, Mena, Mico, Sapotillo, Quijada, Quijadita, Santa Barbara, Sardinia, Barreal, Cañas, Perrito and, finally, Las Haciendas which is navigable by small boats. From here to San Carlos, at the outlet of Lake Nicaragua, the distance is sixty-four kilometers, and the principal rivers which cross this tract are El Pizote, Papalusco, Guacolito, Zapote, Caño Negro and Rio Frio. The Rio Frio is of considerable magnitude, and with its many branches drains a large area of the territory lying on the slopes of the volcanoes of Miravalles and Tenorio. It pours much sedimentary matter into Lake Nicaragua, and has thrown an extensive mudbank across the lake entrance to the River San Juan.

For three or four miles above the mouth of the River Frio the lands are low and swampy. Several of its branches can be reached and navigated by canoe, and even a small river steamer can ascend a few miles from the lake.

The San Carlos River joins the San Juan sixty-five miles from Lake Nicaragua. The depth of its mouth, which is obstructed by a sand-bar, varies from eight to twenty feet, according to the season.

The San Carlos has numerous affluents which at times have a volume of water altogether disproportionate to their lengths. The distance up to the first rapid of the San Carlos River, which is at El Muelle de San Rafael where there are from four to six feet of water is roughly fixed at sixty-two[17] miles by the course of the river. Small steamers could reach this point, although with difficulty on account of many snags. The floods sometimes rise to their full height in twenty-four hours and carry with them a great number of trees and much sand, from which floating islands are formed.

Should the plans of Engineer Menocal for the Nicaragua Canal be realized, the waters of the upper San Juan and the lower San Carlos would be impounded and form an arm of Lake Nicaragua, which would flood a large area in Costa Rica. The interval between the San Carlos and the River Frio is an extensive forest, covering an undulating plain with occasional low hills and watered by numerous little streams. This territory is fertile and beautiful.

The next great river, the Sarapiqui, reaches the San Juan about twenty miles east of San Carlos. It is 600 feet wide at its mouth, and has numerous affluents from the sides of the volcanoes Poas, Barba and Irazú, the principal ones being the Toro Amarilla and Sardinal from the west, and the River Sucio from the east. The river is navigable for large canoes up to its confluence with the Puerto Viejo. Its banks as high up as to the River Sucio are low. The lands are extremely fertile. El Muelle Nuevo is the head of navigation, forty-five miles from the River San Juan and sixty-six miles by the road across the mountains from San José.

From the Sarapiqui River to the River Colorado, a branch or bayou of the San Juan, the banks of the latter in Costa Rica are but slightly elevated. The lands are low and swampy, but occasionally a hill is found from fifteen to eighteen feet high.

Below the Machuca Rapids the San Juan River is broad and deep as far as the junction with its Colorado outlet, about seventeen miles from the sea. Here it turns about nine-tenths of its volume of water into the Colorado. It is navigable for river steamers at all seasons, but has a dangerous bar at its mouth where the sea breaks heavily, and on which there are only from eight to nine feet of water.

From the Colorado Junction to Greytown, some twenty miles distant, the San Juan averages about three hundred[18] feet in width for sixteen miles and 100 feet for the remaining four, with a depth at high water of from six to eight feet.

The Colorado has several islands in its course, but has excellent anchorage at its mouth. This river forms several lagoons which communicate with each other by caños or bayous perfectly navigable, the principal being the Agua Dulce, a short distance from the sea, eleven miles in length, 800 feet in width and from ten to forty feet in depth.

Passing from the difficult Caño de la Palma in the midst of swamps, the Caño de Tortuguero is reached, the entrance to which from the sea is called Cuatro Esquinas. It is approximately thirty-eight miles long, about one thousand feet in width, with a depth of from fifty to sixty feet. The rivers Palacio and Penetencia, navigable for boats, empty into this caño. The River Tortuguero, which gives name to the plains watered by its affluents, is formed from several of these caños, as the Caño Desenredo, Caño Agua Fria and Caño de la Lomas. The Caño de Tortuguero communicates with the Parismina by the caños California and Francisco Moria Soto, which are also navigable. The margins of the Parismina are swampy. It has as its affluents the Guasimo, Camaron, Novillos and the Destierro.

The lower district drained by the Tortuguero is raised but little above the ocean, and in flood time the river communicates by several caños with the Matina and with the delta of the Colorado, as well as with the lagoon of Caiman, lying south of the Colorado. Its numerous upper streams rise in the spurs of Irazú and Turialba.

The Sierpe and Parismina rivers flow into the sea south of Tortuguero. The former is short, but the Parismina with its several branches is a child of Irazú. Its lower course is sometimes considered to be a part of the River Reventazon, which however has its confluence with the former a few miles from the sea.

The Reventazon River has carved its way to a profound depth around the south and southeastern bases of Irazú and Turialba, and, flanking the latter volcano, it turns northward to join the Parismina. It receives many tributaries from the northern slope of the Talamanca range, and interweaves its[19] head waters with those of the Rio Grande de Tarcolles and the Rio Grande de Pirris, which flow into the Pacific Ocean.

The Pacuare River, once known as Suerre, enters the sea about half way between the mouth of the Reventazon and that of the Matina. Its waters, in 1630, instead of flowing to the sea, joined the Reventazon, closing the port of Suerre, but in 1651 Governor Salinas closed the northern channel, deflecting its waters and restoring the port.

The Matina River is a short stream with a large volume of water, which enters the sea just north of Port Limon near the roadstead of Moin, where, up to 1880, ocean craft anchored. The River Matina is navigable by small steamers over the bar and by large ones above the bar to the point where it receives its principal affluents, the Chirripo, Barbilla and Zent. It yearly overflows its lower valley, depositing an inch or two of exceedingly fertile mud highly appreciated by the banana planters.

The entire mainland of the coast, from the River Colorado to the Matina, is separated from the Caribbean Sea by a continuous narrow sand bank, between which and the mainland is a lagoon, said to be navigable the whole distance by boats. The intermediate rivers pour into this narrow lagoon, driving their currents across it, and, cutting through the sand bank, enter the sea. Sometimes a violent gale closes one of the openings, which are all shallow, but the river again forces an exit to the ocean through the obstruction. This whole coast for sixty-five miles, is forbidding and dangerous, and has but little depth of water within a mile of the shore, upon which a monotonous, heavy surf breaks during the entire year. It is only frequented from April until August by fishermen, who find their way to the River San Juan through the intricate system of rivers and caños described.

Port Limon, in latitude 10° north and longitude 83° 3′ 13″ west from Greenwich, is the only port of entry of Costa Rica on the Caribbean Sea. The first house was built there in 1871. The harbor faces the south, and is formed by a little peninsula on which Limon is situated. It is behind a narrow coral reef. The site, which now has perhaps 3500 to 4000 population, is being raised with earth about four[20] feet, and its port will become one of the smoothest of the Caribbean Sea. A small island, called Uvita, lies east at a distance of 3660 feet from the town. Port Limon has a wooden pier 930 feet long, accommodating two sea-going ships, but an iron pier is about to replace it, which will berth four large ones of deep draught.

The Talamanca coast lying south of Limon is low, flat and swampy, except where it is broken by hills. The little River Banana is the first one met with going south, and its valleys produce large quantities of timber and bananas. Next comes the Estrella, also a short stream; then follows the Teliri, called in its lower course the Sicsola. It is the largest stream in Costa Rica south of Port Limon. It runs along the southern base of the great eastern mountains of the Talamanca range, through a spacious, undulating, wooded valley of 100 to 150 square miles area, partly low grounds in some places dry and in others swampy. It has several branches, like the Uren coming from the slopes of the Pico Blanco, the Supurio and others. At the entry of the high valleys of the Teliri and Coen rivers, the pyramid-like mountains of Nefomin and Nenfiobete appear, at the foot of which the interior plain of Talamanca, fifteen kilometers in length and eight kilometers in width, extends from southwest to northeast, and so uniformly that the water courses run indifferently and frequently change their beds.

Southward of Sicsola is the Tilorio or Changuinola, which makes a turbulent way to the sea from the Talamanca mountains. Along its lower margin mud flats spread to a great width, and, from its mouth towards the northwest, cover a region which surrounds also the lagoon of Sansan, and extends up the rivers Zhorquin and Sicsola. Behind the muddy zone the lands rise rapidly into hills, which in a few miles reach an altitude of several thousand feet, at times intermingling with the Cordillera. Along the entire sea margin of Talamanca runs a narrow sand-belt of firm land, at times not a hundred feet wide, like that described between the Matina and San Juan rivers.

Within this sand-belt are long, narrow, deep lagoons filled with half-stagnant water from the mud flats. These[21] lagoons usually open into the rivers which descend from the mountains.

Between the Sicsola and the Tilorio lies the already mentioned, crooked and deep lagoon called the Laguna de Sansan.

At Limon, Cahuita and Puerto Viejo, the hills, which are connected by spurs with the more elevated country of the interior, extend to the ocean coast. Between them, in plains extending from one to five miles inland, are forest-covered swamps, overflowed with not less than ten feet of water in the rainy season and only traversable in the dry.

Costa Rica claims sovereignty on the Atlantic side southeast as far as the Island of Escudo de Veragua, including the ancient Ducado de Veragua, whose frontier follows the coast of Chiriqui Viejo to the crest of the Cordillera, and crosses it to the head waters of the River Calobebora, then down this stream to the Escudo de Veragua.

Since their independence Colombia and Costa Rica have been in dispute in regard to their boundary line. Colombia has never ceased to claim jurisdiction over the entire Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, and even over that of Nicaragua as far north as Cape Gracias á Dios. In November, 1896, both governments signed a convention submitting their dispute to the arbitration of the President of the French Republic, or, in the event of his failure to act, to the President of Mexico or of the Swiss Confederation.

The principal lakes of Costa Rica are the Laguna Manatí, northwest from the Sarapiqui River; the Lagunas de Poas and de Barba, each on a volcano bearing its name; Lagunas de Sansan and Samay, towards the east and near the Sicsola River, in Talamanca; Laguna Tenoria, in Guanacaste; Laguna San Carlos, in the plains of San Carlos; Laguna de Arenal, between Las Cañas and San Carlos, and Laguna de Sierpe, in the south, northward from the Golfo Dulce.

Far away from Costa Rica, in the Pacific Ocean, lies the Cocos Island, about two hundred and sixty-six miles to the southwest of the Golfo Dulce, in N. latitude 5° 32′ 57″ and longitude 86° 58′ 25″ W. of Greenwich. Its highest point reaches 2250 feet, whence the descent is gradual to a bold,[22] steep coast, which has many irregularities and rocks and a surf-beaten shore. Chatham Bay is its best harbor, having room for a dozen ships. The interior is broken into numerous fertile valleys, but there is probably not a square kilometer of level ground in the entire island. Other islands are Chira, Venado, San Lucas, Caño, etc.

Mineral Wealth.—In regard to the mineral wealth of Costa Rica, petroleum has been discovered near Uruchiko on the Talamanca coast, and coal in certain sandstone formations on both the Atlantic and Pacific sides of the Talamanca section.

In the province of Alajuela, a little to the north of the cart-road which runs from San José to Puentarenas, is Monte Aguacate, part of an old mountain range which extends far to the northwest, and not very distant from the Gulf of Nicoya. In general, it is of metamorphic formation, principally of diorite and porphyry.

Here, in a good climate, at 2000 feet elevation, are found auriferous veins of great richness. They are of quartz mixed with decomposed feldspathic rocks, and have yielded very lucrative bonanzas. The first mine was Guapinol, one bonanza of which produced $1,000,000. Several other mines were worked, from one of which (Los Castros) $2,000,000 were taken in a few years. It is estimated, from the best data obtainable, that about £1,000,000 have been taken from Monte Aguacate. Several of these veins are from six to seven feet wide, but that called the Quebrada Honda is sixteen feet wide. Most of the ore is of a high grade and of refractory character. It is probable that the whole southwestern slope of the Guatusos and Miravalles ranges of mountains is auriferous. The rocks in the northwestern extension of this district consist principally of feldspar, porphyry, basalt and dolorite.

The gold veins nearly all ran northeast and southwest, and are encased in feldspar, sometimes in porphyry, and occasionally in basalt. They consist, in great part, of crystalline quartz, and are from two to forty feet wide. Professor Pittier also found gold in the slopes of the Buena Vista mountain. Gold is further found in the Talamanca mountains, especially[23] in the placer grounds of the Duedi River, and on the inferior hills between the Lari and Coen rivers.

Along the latter, and near Akbeta, also on the shore of Puerto Viejo, iron exists.

Copper and silver, Professor Pittier says, have been discovered in Diquis, between Paso Real and Lagarto, and native copper in Puriscal. Other mines are included in the following table:

It should be stated that, with the exception of gold and some silver, little is mined. The deposits of coal, petroleum, copper and silver have thus far yielded, under present methods of management, outputs of no commercial value.

However, anthracite is found at Santa Maria Dota, Department of Puriscal. A specimen of it, analyzed by Dr. L. J. Mátos, chief of the laboratories of the Philadelphia Commercial Museum, gave these results:

It is a good quality of anthracite coal and compares very favorably with the best grades that are mined in Pennsylvania. Color, black; slight tendency to show iridescence; fracture, conchoidal, brittle; analysis, specific gravity, 1,343; weight per cubic foot, 83.93 pounds.

There are to be mentioned also some mineral waters, as, for instance, those near the mouth of the Isqui River, on the Talamanca coast; those in Agua Caliente, about five miles from the City of Cartago and belonging to the Bella Vista Company; those of Orosi and Salitral, of Poas, Miravalles, Ausoles, Bagaces, San Carlos, Liberia, San Roque, etc.


Name of Mine.	Canton.	Location.	Product.

La Trinidad	Esparza	Rio Ciruelitas	Gold and silver ores.
La Union	Puntarenas	Shores of Rio Seco	”	”
Sacrafamilia	Alajuela	Monte de Aguacate	”	”
La Minita	”	” ”	”	”
Mina de los Castros	”	Corralillo	”	”
San Rafael	”	”	”	”
Mina de los Oreamuno	”	”	”	”
Quebrada Honda	”	Quebrada Honda	”	”
Machuca	”	Corralillo	”	”
Trinidad de Aguacate	”	”	”	”
Peña Grande	San Ramon	Cerro de San Ramon	”	”
Mina de Acosta	”	Shores of Rio Jesus	”	”
Palmares	”	Cordillera de Aguacate	Gold, silver and lead ores.
Las Concavas	Cartago	Rio de Agua Caliente	Copper ore.
Mancuerna	Sardinal	Sardinal	”
Mata Palo	”	”	”
Puerta de Palacio	”	”	”
Hoja Chiques	”	”	”
Chapernal	”	”	”

II.

CLIMATE OF COSTA RICA.

The climate of Costa Rica depends on its situation in the tropics, on the position of the sun at different times of the year, and on the topography, but, owing to the narrowness of the country and its situation between the two great oceans, it is well-tempered by the alisios (northeast trades) and other winds.

The average atmospheric pressure of San José, the capital of the country, is 665.21 mm. The maximum occurs regularly during the months from October to March inclusive, at nine o’clock a. m., and during the rest of the year at eleven o’clock p. m. The minimum occurs always in the afternoon at four o’clock during the first eight months of the year, and at three o’clock during the last four months.

The prevailing wind is from the northeast, or, better, north-northeast and east. During August, September and October an increase of the northwest winds causes the heavy rains of that season. West-northwest and northwest winds blow also from May to August.

At seven a. m. the most frequent winds blow from S. E., to N. E.; at ten o’clock a. m. from E. to N. N. E; at one o’clock and at four o’clock p. m. from E. N. E. to N.; from seven o’clock p. m. the movement is retrograde. The velocity is least from seven to ten o’clock a. m., and most from one to four o’clock p. m.

In 1889, during the time of observations at San José, there were noted 13 hours of north winds, 186 N. N. E., 571 N. E., 227 E. N. E., 93 E., 58 E. S. E., 25 S. E., 6 S. S. E., S. none, S. S. W. none, 1 S. W., 3 W. S. W., 4 W., 83 W. N. W.

The number of calms is small. The wind is nearly always moderate, but during the dry season the dust whirled up in the cities is very disagreeable. The climate of the uplands is an eternal spring.

The coldest month is January; December and February are relatively cold. The hottest months are May and June. The heat is, at all times, moderate and agreeable. The course of the temperature has all the characters of an insular climate, without having so much humidity. The oscillation of the average temperature is greatest in March and during the dry season, as at that time the sky is clear and the soil exposed to uninterrupted insolation during the day, while the earth’s radiation of heat during the night is rapid. Also the daily oscillation is considerable during the dry season, and continues during the first month of the rainy season, according to the condition of the sky.

In 1890 the sun shone in San José 1911 hours, that is an average of five hours and fourteen minutes per day. February is the month of most sunshine and least nebulosity. The hour of most sunshine during the year is that between eight and nine a. m., and that of the least is in the afternoon.

The oscillation of the temperature of the soil is, at a depth of one meter, 2, 13° C., per year. At a depth of three meters, the temperature of the soil is lowest in February and March, when it is 20, 48° C., and highest in August, when it is 20, 75° C.

The daily variation is almost nothing during the first three months of the year, and the sky is relatively clear, while, from May to October, not one day is clear. During the hottest hours of the day the sky begins regularly to be darkened by clouds, due to ascending atmospheric currents.

In San José the sky is ordinarily clear between midnight and noon, even during the most rainy months, and cloudy the rest of the twenty-four hours. Although the rainfalls are abundant here from May to October, with rare exceptions they do not last more than a few hours each day. The mornings are generally splendid and the air very pure, and nearly every day the sunset can be clearly observed.

From May to November there are about two hours of copious rain daily between one and four o’clock in the afternoon, averaging, with great regularity, from ten to twelve inches a month, and from seventy to eighty inches during the year. Towards the end of June there is a short dry period called “Veranillo de San Juan.”

Through the Desengaño and Palma Passes the northern rains penetrate a short distance every day, and the northern descent of the Palma towards Carillo is probably the most rainy district of the Republic.

At Tres Rios, having an elevation of 4140 feet, six miles east of San José, at the western foot of the Ochomogo Pass, the rain record for 126 days out of ten months showed a fall of 100 inches, while at San José, during the same period of ten months there were 147 rainy days, with a fall of eighty-four inches. In the month of May Professor Pittier, to whom we owe these excellent data, measured nine inches in rainfall in one and one-half hours.

Rainfall in 1896 at Stations of Costa Rica of Different Altitudes,
by Days and Precipitation in Mm.

The daily curve of rainfall shows a minimum very accentuated in the first half of the day. Rain begins to fall about eleven o’clock, and continues to augment rapidly from hour to hour until it reaches its maximum between four and five o’clock p. m.; from this time on it diminishes gradually until morning. The daily maximum of rain is reached about sunset, although in January the heaviest rainfalls are observed between one and two o’clock p. m. The most probable hour of rain is between four and five o’clock p. m. It seldom rains between three and four o’clock, and very seldom during the morning hours.

Thunderstorms reach their maximum in May. The relative humidity of the air is such that the climate can be considered a favored one. Its annual curve shows three minima and three maxima. The minima are observed between February and March, in July, and between November and December; the maxima in June, September and December. These lines, of course, are parallel with those indicating the distribution of rain. The maximum is noted at sunrise, the minimum at two o’clock p. m., with an average oscillation of twenty-four per cent.

From 1866 to 1880, the rain gauge record kept by Mason at San José shows a yearly average precipitation of sixty-four and one-fourth inches, or 1631 millimeters.

There is every year a number of slight earthquakes in San José, generally undulating from west to west-northwest, and occurring mostly between eleven p. m. and six a. m. The greatest number are observed at the beginning of the rainy season.

The rainy season on the Caribbean slope of the country does not correspond to that of the Pacific. In fact there are no continuously dry months, and on the northern declivities of the volcanoes of Turialba, Irazú, Barba and Poas, it rains more or less during the entire year; also near Lake Nicaragua it rains nearly continuously, and the mountains of the Guatuso country and the surroundings of the volcano of Orosi are seldom without clouds. At times there are cloud-bursts of tremendous power, broadening rivers for miles. Port Limon is said to have an annual rainfall of eighty-nine inches, but it is greatly exceeded by that of Colon, which averages 120 inches. The mean rainfall at Greytown for 1890, 1891, 1892, was 267 inches yearly. The late United States Commission estimated the average at Lake Nicaragua at eighty inches, and in the basin of the San Juan River at 150 inches.

The climate of Talamanca is for the same reason very unhealthy in the proximity of the coast, and also in the lower course of the rivers a similarly deadly climate prevails. In normal years there are two dry and two wet seasons. The rains commence regularly in May or June and last until the end of July. The months of August and September are more or less dry. In October there are some heavy showers, and extensive rains begin which characterize the months of November, December and January. The driest months are February, March and April. The high region is extremely humid, giving rise to fogs and rains. The mosses which almost completely envelop the stems of the trees are constantly dropping water, and the rivers in this section are almost impassable.

The climate of the great valley of the Rio Grande de Terraba is similar to that described for the terrace lands. Both regions have distinctly marked characters. Rains begin in April, grow heavier towards September, and cease about the[31] end of November. During the rest of the year dry weather prevails, although sometimes heavy showers relieve this arid condition. In the lower zone pronounced radiation causes a heavy dew and extensive fogs, and both are characteristic of this section.

The excessive heat felt on the lowlands diminishes gradually with the rising of the land towards the high mountains, but at times a height of 1500 feet will be found cooler than one of 3000 feet. In the Santa Clara district, for instance, it is cooler at 500 feet elevation than it is in the Reventazon valley at 1500 feet. In general, the torrid lands of the country, ranging from the sea to 150 feet above it, and, if not clear and well-drained, even up to 400 and 500 feet, abound in malarial fevers; but as high ground, having an elevation of from 1500 to 3000 feet is reached, the fevers are of light type and not dangerous, while from 3000 to 5000 feet the diseases are those of the temperate zone, and are due less to local conditions of soil and climate than to personal neglect.

There were no epidemic diseases in 1897. In October 30, 1894, sixteen medical districts were established by law, and so were a number of hospitals and quarantine stations in the ports of the Republic.

III.

CHARACTER OF VEGETATION.

This chapter I begin with a phyto-geographical classification given by Dr. Carl Hoffman and published in Bonplandia in 1858. He distinguishes:

Dr. Polakowsky enumerates cultivated lands, virgin forests, open forests and savannas.

Another division is given by Dr. Moritz Wagner. He mentions a littoral (as appears on next page) zone, a tropical forest zone and a zone of savannas.

He also distinguishes on the volcano of Chiriqui the following successive regions:

Dr. Wagner calls special attention to a noted uniformity of the flora on the coasts of both oceans, and Professor Pittier affirms that the vegetation between Colon and Greytown on one side, and between Panama and San Juan del Sur on the other side, is remarkably uniform. The littoral zone has a width of about four maritime miles. The predominating flora is composed of Rhizophora mangle, Hippomane mancinella, Cocos nucifera, Chrysobalanus icaco, Crescentia cujete, Acacia spadicigera, Cæsalpinia bonducella and other Leguminosæ; Acrostichum aureum, Ipomœa pescapræ, Avicennia nitida, Uniola Pittierii and also Euphorbiaceæ, etc.

The zone of tropical forests shows, especially on the Atlantic side behind the coast region, a strip of from twenty to twenty-two miles in width, with lofty trees of Rubiaceæ, Myrtaceæ, Melastomaceæ, Sterculiaceæ, Euphorbiaceæ, Meliaceæ, Urticaceæ, Moraceæ, Anacardiacæ, Sapindaceæ, Leguminosæ and Palmæ. It is relatively free from ligneous undergrowth, having more monocotyledonous plants, such as Cycadeæ, Scitamineæ, Cannaceæ, Marantaceæ, Cyperaceæ, Filices and Bromeliaceæ, underneath. The latter orders figure, also with Orchideæ and Loranthaceæ among the epiphytes and parasites which cover the trees. Among the most characteristic plants of this region we name the coyol palm (Acrocomia), corozo (Attalea cohune), biscoyol (Bactris horrida), palmiche (Elæis melanococca) and Raphia nicaraguensis which forms almost forests along the River San Juan; further, Tecoma pentaphylla, Bombax ceiba, Eriodendron, Spondias, Croton gossypifolius, Hymenæa courbaril, rubber trees (Castilloa costaricencis and C. elastica), Geoffræa superba, Simaba cedron, species of Enterolobium, Cæsalpinia, Liquidambar, Copaifera, Cedrela, Swietenia, Sapota, Pithecolobium, Palicourea, Cinchona, Piper, Ficus, Cecropia; still further, smilax, vanilla, etc. Many of these characteristic plants are largely social, such as the piper, ferns, palms and others.

Moritz Wagner states that all along the southern limits of Costa Rica a likeness of climatic and geological conditions gives to the vegetation a nearly uniform character, while further northward a notable contrast is observed between the Atlantic and Pacific slopes of the mountain groups[34] and on the interior terrace lands. The Atlantic slope, with more constant humidity of air, is characterized by vast, dense, evergreen, virgin forests, while the Pacific lands, with a relatively dry climate and rainless summer, present more open forests and savannas, with many deciduous trees and shrubs. However, deep river valleys and some slopes near the water-shed have dense, evergreen forests, and their vegetation does not differ much from that of the Atlantic slope. The flora of the high terrace lands has been so altered by thorough cultivation as to have almost lost its original character.

The Atlantic virgin forests, as well as those in the region of the San Juan River and of Lake Nicaragua, which comprise two-thirds of Costa Rican territory, show such a dense vegetation that its interior can be penetrated almost only by way of the rivers, and its general character and its enormous extension be studied only from high mountains. Owing to the very mountainous character of the country, over half of its area lies between 900 and 2100 meters above the sea, and is almost wholly covered with virgin forest. This forest here and there ascends still higher, reaching the upper limit of the oak region about 2700 meters above the sea.

Dr. Polakowsky, in an interesting publication entitled “Flora of Costa Rica,” calls the forest region of the San Juan River, in view of its luxuriant character, “The Central American Hylæa,” and this name Professor Pittier applies also to the entire Atlantic region, attributing to it a distinctly South American character.

The zone of the open forests and savannas, which has park-like features, is rarely found away from the Pacific side, where it forms a belt from sixteen to eighteen miles in width, interspersed with more densely forested river valleys, islands of higher and thicker virgin forests, isolated trees or groups of trees, sometimes also with catingas and meadows flecked with shrubs and matorrales.

The savannas and open forests spread to a considerable extent over Guanacaste, where they are a continuation of those of Rivas in Nicaragua; also over the plains of Terraba, especially in the region of Buenos Aires and Terraba; and over the coast-lands of Golfo Dulce. There are some[35] small similar tracts near Alajuela, Turialba, Santa Clara and at some other points, as well as catingas and paramos in the high mountain ridges of the south. The paramos are found on poor soil and have a vegetation more herbaceous than ligneous, which, when moist, takes on the character of turf.

The trees of the savannas are generally of little height, excepting the Enterolobium cyclocarpum (the guanacaste), the pochote and ceiba. The grass lands are almost wholly composed of Gramineæ and Cyperaceæ, especially in the savannas of Guanacaste. The most characteristic plants are Digitaria marginata and Paspalum notatum, besides species of Setaria, Panicum, Eragrostis, Andropogon, Isolepis, Cyperus, Rhynchospora and Scleria, as well as of ferns (Pteris aquilina) and Schizæa occidentalis.

Other abundant plants in the open forests and savannas are Compositæ (Zemenia, Pectis, Spilanthes); Rubiaceæ (Spermacoce); Polygalaceæ; Iridaceæ; Moraceæ (Maclura, Ficus); Melastomaceæ (Miconia, Clidemia, Conostegia, Leandra); Cyperaceæ; Convolvulaceæ; Euphorbiaceæ; Bombacaceæ; Sauvagesia. Further, Myrtaceæ (Psidium, Alibertia edulis); Curatella americana (chamico); Roupala (danto hedliondo); Byrsonima crassifolia (nance); Miconia argentea DC. (santa maria); guacimo macho (Luhea), guacimo de ternero (Guazuma ulmifolia); burio (Bombax apeiba); ñambar (Cocobola); Davilla lucida; Duranta Plumieri; Proteaceæ; and Acacia scleroxyla Lonchocarpus atropurpureus, Dalbergia and many other Leguminosæ, especially Mimosa pudica, which gives large tracts in many places a special character, and still more so as, being often very abundant and the plants tangled together, a general movement all around is caused when one is touched.

Among the epiphytes and parasites may be mentioned small ferns, Peperomia, Epidendrum, Loranthus, Aroideæ, Tillandsia and other Bromeliaceæ, mosses, lichens, etc.

Professor Pittier attributes to this flora of the Pacific slope a more northern origin.

During the dry season the vegetation of the savannas almost disappears, the greater part of the trees and bushes shed their leaves and herbs become dry and brittle. Only[36] along the rivers is some freshness observable. Toward the border of Nicaragua cacti appear, mostly species of Cereus, Opuntia, Phypsalis and Mammilaria. Professor Pittier also mentions an oak forest of Quercus citrifolia between Liberia and the Rio de los Ahogados, at a height of about one hundred meters above the sea. The peninsula of Nicoya is noted for a large lumber industry among its different cedars (Cedro dulce, C. amargo, C. real, etc.), mora and other trees. Towards the upper limits of the Atlantic tropical forests, below the oak region, Chamædorea, Geonoma, Bactris, Euterpe longepetiolata and other palms of the same groups, as well as Gulielma utilis (the pijivalle palm) and Carludovica microphylla are seen in great abundance, mixed with tree ferns like Alsophylla pruinata, Hemitelia horrida, Hemitelia grandifolia, etc. Higher up appears the region of oaks, principally Quercus retusa, Quercus granulata, Quercus citrifolia and Quercus costaricensis, with Buddleia alpina, Rubus, Lupinus, etc. Here is also the region of the common potato. This oak region slopes gradually down from east to west. The vegetation on the summits of the high mountains of Costa Rica is of a marked subalpine character, having a great number of northern genera, as Vaccinium, Pernettya, Alchemilla, Cardamine, Calceolaria, Spiræa, etc.

Certain types of vegetation are often more due to the sterile nature of the soil than to elevation.

Although a northern flora is frequent on the high terraces of San José and Cartago, that character is not general because of the introduction of cultivated tropical and other plants peculiar to Costa Rica.

On the southern high mountains two species of Podocarpus (P. taxifolia and P. salicifolia), one of Alnus (Alnus Mirbelii Spach.) and one of Weinmannia occur quite generally among the oak forests. Other distinct floral groups are represented by the vegetation along roads and fences, on potreros, in cultivated regions and along river shores. The latter especially are rich in herbaceous plants, grasses, bushes and woods of Bignoniaceæ, Myrtaceæ, Euphorbiaceæ, Mimoseæ, etc.

The potreros are characterized by Tagetes, Sida, Hyptis,[37] olanum, Salvia, Mimosa pudica and M. sensitiva, etc. Along fences there grow nearly everywhere Erythrina corallodendron, Yucca aloifolia, Bromelia pinguin, Agave americana, Cereus, Spondias, Bursera, Cestrum, etc.

Prominent characteristic plants, besides the already mentioned species and genera, are the Piperaceæ and Melastomaceæ; further, species of Iriartea, Bactris and Raphia of the palm order, and Alsophylla, Schizæa occidentalis and Pteris aquilina of the ferns; still further Castilloa costaricana, Gunnera insignis, Ochroma lagopus, Gliciridia, Inga edulis, Chusquea maurofernandeziana, Erythrina corallodendron, Drymis Winterii Forst., Acacia Farnesiana, etc.

The passage from one flora to another is one of insensible gradations. Cultivated lands, as already stated, do not show any longer the original vegetation.

The plants which are now mostly cultivated are: Coffea arabica (coffee), Saccharum officinarum (sugar cane), Zea mays (corn), Musa paradisiaca and Musa sapientium (bananas), Phaseolus (beans), Oryza sativa (rice), Solanum tuberosum (potato), Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco), Batatas dulcis (sweet potato), Lycopersicum esculentum and Lycopersicum Humboldtii (tomatoes), Capsicum annuum (chile), Ananas sativa (pine-apple), Carica papaya (papaya), Persea gratissima (aguacate), Anona cherimolia (cherimoya), Manihot aipi and Manihot utilissima (yucca or mandioca), Indigofera anil (indigo), Gossypium barbadense (cotton), Cichorium Intyous (chicory), Asparagus officinalis (asparagus), Psidium guava (guayaba), Mammea americana (mamey), Theobroma cacao (cacao), etc.

Before giving the lists of the woods, tannings, dyeings, gums, balsams, resins, rubber, waxes, textile and medicinal plants, oils and oil seeds, etc., of Costa Rica, it is advantageous to research to name those collectors and scientists who, having traveled through Costa Rica or established themselves there, have especially contributed to the knowledge of the natural resources of the country. They are Professor H. Pittier, A. S. Oersted, Dr. C. Hoffmann, Dr. H. Polakowsky, Dr. M. Wagner, Captain J. Donnel Smith, C. Warszewicz, Neudland, A. Tonduz, P. Biolley, Dr. A. von Frantzius, Dr.[38] Franc Kuntze, Professor W. M. Gabb, José C. Zeledón, Anastasio Alfaro, Juan J. Cooper, and Bishop Bernardo Augusto Thiel, D. D.

IV.

FAUNA.

In regard to the fauna, there are in Costa Rica about one hundred and twenty-one species of mammalia, of which ten are domesticated and four of Mus introduced, leaving 107 as indigenous to Costa Rica.

There are only a few species peculiar to Costa Rica, and also but a small number peculiar to Central America, among which are the Tapirus dowi alston and three species of monkeys. About one-fifth of the total number also belong to South America and one-seventh to North America. The rest are found as well in North as in South America. With respect to the avifauna, there are 725 known species. This great variety of the avifauna is due to especial climatic conditions, to the very rich flora, to the geographical position between two oceans and to the vicinity of so many islands of the Caribbean Sea.

It is composed of 67 Neoarctic species, which are also found in the north of Mexico; of 247 Neotropical or South American species, of 260 autochthonous or exclusively Central American species, and 128 newly described species which live as well in the northern as in the southern continent. The rest, comprising 23 species, have a doubtful origin. The best singing birds are the Gilguero, Yigüerro, Toledo, Mozotillo, Cacique, Mongita, Comemaiz, Setillero and Agüillo.

There are over 130 species of Reptilia and Batrachia in Costa Rica. Those known and described are 36 Batrachia, 28 Lacertilia, 60 Ophidia and 6 Testudinata. Poisonous snakes are the Toboba, Bocaracá, Oropel, Terciopelo and Cascabel.

Costa Rica is also very rich in Fishes. Those in the Pacific are almost entirely different from those of the Atlantic Ocean. Also its tributary waters have more varied species than those of the Atlantic slope.

In correspondence with the varied topographical, climatological, and botanical conditions of Costa Rica is also the invertebrate fauna. And here the National Museum, under Mr. Anastasio Alfaro, and the “Instituto fisico geografico Nacional.” under Professor H. Pittier, are doing equally excellent work in bringing them to our knowledge, as they have done like service in other branches of Natural History.

The most interesting species of the fauna in Costa Rica among the mammalia are the monkeys (Mycetes palliatus, Ateles geoffroyi, and Cebus hypoleucus), the tigre (Felis onca), marrigordo (Felis pardalis), puma (Felis concolor), the coyote (Canis latrans), tigrillo (Urocyon cinereo), pisote (Nasua narica), martilla (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus), comadreja (Mustela brasiliensis), chulomuco or tolumuco (Galictis barbara), Zorro hediondo (Conepatus mapurito), nutria or perro de agua (Lutra felina), manati or vaca marina (Trichecus australis), danta (Elasmognathus bairdii and E. Dowi), salimo (Dicotyles tajacú) cari blanco (Dicotyles labiatus), venado (Dorcelophus clavatus), cabro de monte (Mazama temama), ardillas (Sciurus hypopyrrhus, Sc. æstuans hoffmanni, Sc. Alfari), puerco espino (Synetheres mexicanus), guatusa (Dasyprocta isthmica, D. punctata), tepeizcuintle (Coelogenys paca), conejo (Lepus graysoni, L. gabbi), perico ligero (Bradypus castaneiceps), perezoso (Choloepus hoffmanni), armado de zopilote (Dasypus gymnurus), armadillo (Tatusia novemcincta), oso hormiguero (Myrmecophaga jubata), oso colmeno or tejon (Myrmecophaga tetradactyla), serafin de platanar (Cyclothorus didactylus), zorro pelon (Didelphis marsupialis aurita), zorro isi (Marmosa cinerea) and zorrito de platanar (Marmosa murina).

Among the birds the following may be mentioned, following the enumeration of José C. Zeledón: The sensontle (Mimus gilous), the jilguero (Melanops), the yigüerro (Turdus grayi), the picudos (Cæreba cyanea and C. lucida), the rualdo (Chlorophonia callophrys), the caciquita (Euphonia[45] elegantissima), the monjita fina (Euphonia affinis), and other species of Euphonia; further pipra mentalis, la viuda (Tanagra cana), el cardenal (Pyranga leucoptera and P. rubra), cyanospiza, sps., alcalde mayor (Rhamphocœlus) the oropéndula (Ocyalus waglieri and O. montezumæ), the choltote or trupial (Icterus pectoralis and I. giraudi), the rajon (Cotinga amabilis), colibris or gorriones (Trochilidæ), the quetzal (Pharomacrus costaricensis), resplandor (Muscivora mexicana), the curré (Ramphastus carinatus), the quioro (R. tocard), the curré verde (Aulacorhamphus cæruleigularis), carpintero (Campephilus guatemalensis and Centurus hoffmanni), the lapas rojas and lapas verdes (Ara militaris and Chryosotis diademata, C. guatemalæ and C. auripalliata), the periquitos (Conurus petzii and Brotogerys tovi).

Further mention is made of the aguila (Trasætus harpyia), camaleon (Falco sparverius), carga-hueso (Polyborus cheriway), the rey de zopilote (Gyparchus papa), the zopilote (Catharista atrata) and the zonchiche (Cathartes aura). To these may be added the tortolita (Columbigallina passerina), the pavon (Crax globicera), the pava (Penelope cristata), pava negra (Chamæpetes unicolor), the codorniz (Ortyx leylaudi) and chirraxua (Denitortyx leucophrys); still further, the martin peña (Ardea virescens) and other garza (Tigrisoma cabanisi, Nycticorax americanus, Gallina aquatica, Eurypyga major), zarzetas (Numenius and Totanus); also the pijijes (Totanus flavipes and Charadrius vociferus), the patillo (Colymbus dominicus), the piche (Dendrocigna autumnalis), pelicanos and alcatraz (Pelecanus), etc.

We have further to mention the great turtles from both oceans, the (Nacar de perlas) or pearl shells from Golfos Dulce and Nicoya, the oysters from Puntarenas, the purple snail (Murex), also sponges, corals, etc.

V.

THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

Colonel George Earl Church says in regard to the Indians: “There are many indications that Costa Rica was once the debatable ground between the powerful Mexican invader and the warlike Caribs of northern South America.”

“The Caribs were a tall, muscular, copper colored race who, when the New World was discovered, occupied the coast from the mouth of the River Orinoco to that of the River Amazon, and stretched inland over all the half-drowned districts and far up the valley of the Orinoco. Their nomadic spirit led them to the conquest of many of the Windward Islands, and, I am disposed to believe, urged them to invade all the countries bordering the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico having estuaries and rivers which could be penetrated by their war canoes. These carried from twenty-five to one hundred men each and were of sufficient size to make long voyages.”

Along all the Caribbean coast districts of Yucatan, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Chiriqui, and throughout the province of Panamá, the Carib has left traces of his presence.

It is evident that an offshoot of the highland Mexican race pressed south and east from Chiapas, Mexico, into and through the long strip of the Pacific coast occupied by the Chorotegas or Mangues, followed the Pacific slope of the Cordilleras and the narrow space between Lake Nicaragua and the Ocean, penetrated into northwestern Costa Rica, settled and helped the Mangues to develop a considerable civilization in the district of Guanacaste and Nicoya, and in[47] part subdued all the volcanic region lying north and west of the valley of the River Reventazon.

It is notable that inhabitants of volcanic countries crowd around the slopes of its volcanoes, due probably to the fertilizing quality of the ejected ash.

The Mexicans have left abundant traces of their language in Costa Rica, especially throughout its northern half. Many of their words are now in common use and incorporated into the Spanish spoken there. Notably such words occur in the names of plants, animals and geographical localities.

In 1569 the Adelantado Peráfan de Rivera made an elaborate detailed enumeration of the Indians and found their total number to be 25,000.

Mr. M. de Peralta says the Nahuas (Aztecs) and Mangues (Chorotegas), Güetares, Viceitas, Térrabas, Changuenes, Guaymies, Quepos, Cotos and Borucas were the principal people who occupied the territory of Costa Rica at the time of the conquest. The Nahuas came from the north, and if the Mangues did not go from Chiapas, it is necessary to infer that from the Gulf of Nicoya and the shores of the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua they extended to the south of Mexico, where, up to a few years ago, their language was spoken at Acalá.

The Mangues, or Chorotegas, at the time of the Mexican invasion, occupied the peninsula of Nicoya and all the lands surrounding the gulf of that name. They were then, no doubt, the most powerful and advanced people in Costa Rica, and carried some of their arts, such as pottery, sculpture, weaving, and tilling the ground, to greater perfection than any people occupying the region between their territory and that of the Chibcas on the table-land of Colombia. In their graves are found gold ornaments and specimens of the ceramic art showing taste in design superior to any that the present civilized Costa Rican Indian can manufacture. These graves also contain beautiful specimens of obsidian, greenstone and even finely wrought jade tools and jade ornaments, knives, axes, arrowheads, amulets, rings and a multitude of stone idols, seats, etc. The Mangues appear to have manufactured gold extensively into jewelry.

The Güetares made their homes on the slopes of the Turialba. Irazú and Barba to the southeast of the Mexicans and Chorotegas, and, in a less degree, they shared in the skill and advancement of the latter, but their pottery was inferior in artistic method and quality of material and workmanship, judging from collections in the National Museum of Costa Rica.

Peralta says, “The Nahuas and Mangues of the regions of Nicoya have completely disappeared, although the first still survive in Mexico, and the latter are represented here and there by a descendant in Masava (Nicaragua) and in Acalá (Chiapas).” The Nahuas (Aztecs) left notable monuments of their material civilization and of their scientific attainments, and a language that served as the instrument of a cultivated and thoughtful race.

During the colonial period the Spaniards, in several efforts to explore the River Frio, were driven back by the Guatuso Indians, who still occupy the greater part of its valley and the slopes of the volcanic mountains. It was not until 1856 that a small expedition penetrated across the country to the Rio Frio from the mouth of the River Arenal, a branch of the San Carlos. They reported fertile, hilly slopes in its upper reaches, and beautiful plains for most of the distance traversed to its mouth.

The rubber collectors of Nicaragua for many years have ascended the Rio Frio and other rivers in canoes and plundered the settlements, plantations and property of the Indians, forcing them to retire further up the river. The Guatusos live in palenques (stockades), and their houses are similar to the maloccas among Amazon tribes. Each palenque shelters several families, who cook their food at separate fires built on the ground. They live principally on plantains, yucca, maize, sugar cane, cacao, game and fish, the latter being abundant in the Rio Frio. They also cultivate and smoke tobacco.

Their weapons are bows, arrows, stone axes, and wooden knives. They drink chicha, made by fermenting roasted green plantains, and also chicha mascada de maiz. As the bishop of Costa Rica, Dr. Bernardo A. Thiel, a very noted ethnologist and archæologist, says:

“The Guatuso country is probably one of the most delightful portions of Costa Rica. Every tropical product can be grown there in abundance, for the lands are immeasurably rich and the climate one of the best in the tropical belt.”

Of the Talamanca Indians, Professor H. Pittier distinguishes two tribes, the Brilio and Cabécar. The first live in the valleys and mountains of Urén and Arari and along the lower course of the Coen River, while the Cabécars dwell in the upper parts of the Coen. Other Indians, probably of the Tiribi tribe, live in the upper part of the Teliri valley.

The Talamanca Indians have a higher grade of civilization than the neighboring Boruca or Brunca and Térraba Indians.

The Térrabas and Bruncas or Boruca Indians are located on the Pacific slope of the Talamanca mountains, and especially in the great valley of the Diquis or Rio Grande de Térraba, although there are also a few Indian palenques in the neighborhood of the Chirripo. The Borucas or Bruncas are dolichocephalic. The men are large, the women short and plump. They are more intelligent and active than the Tishbi of Térraba. Professor Pittier counted in the Boruca valley and at Palma, Punta Mala and La Uvita 65 to 75 ranchos scattered around, with about 389 inhabitants, while he found 50 to 60 ranchos with about 250 inhabitants in the town of Térraba and 25 to 30 ranchos with about 300 inhabitants in the town of Buenos Aires. There are also some Indians near the Golfo Dulce.

Taken in all, about 4000 uncivilized Indians are estimated to remain in Costa Rica.


Palenques.	Men.	Women.	Children.	Total.	Graves.

On the river Tojifo:
Tojifo	26	12	9	47	25
Margarita	24	13	17	54	60
Pedro Joaquin	15	11	13	39	101
Sabara	8	5	7	20	18
Culolo	9	8	4	21	23
Napoleon	8	5	3	16	36
On the river Cucaracha:
Juana	8	5	4	17	26
On the river La Muerte:
Congo	10	3	3	16	9
La Muerte	8	3	1	12	—
On the river Pataste:
San Juan	5	1	1	8	—
Grecia	11	4	2	17	—

Total	132	70	64	266	298


	Male.	Female.	Total.	Married.

Lari	263	269	532
Coen	172	176	348	—
Teliri	67	71	138	2
Urén	424	393	817	44
Total	926	909	1835	50

VI.

POPULATION.

The population of Costa Rica is nearly all white and mostly descendants of Spaniards from Galicia. The Indians are not numerous and are completely distinct from the civilized race. The Negroes and mixed breeds live almost exclusively on the coast-lands.

The Costa Ricans are a well formed, robust and healthy people with regular features. The women are gracious, have splendid eyes and abundance of hair, and appear affable in manner. The men are intelligent, industrious, economical, honest and peaceable, as well as polite, truthful and generous. They respect order and property, love to work, and are proud of their wealth and of the independence of their nation.

Every Costa Rican owns property of some kind. The better class of women follow in their dress the fashions of Europe; the lower classes have gowns of muslin or calico, and wear petticoats, rebozos and very often panama hats. Some adorn themselves with earrings and other jewelry and some wear shoes.

The men dress in European style. The lower class, consisting of hard-working farmers, owners of small coffee plantations and ox-carts and oxen for internal traffic, wear coarse cloth coats, drill or cotton trousers, and straw or felt hats. Most of these people go barefooted.

The houses of the wealthy have all modern conveniences. Those of the poorer classes are nearly comfortless. They are mostly low and built of adobes, with a roof of tiles, and are arranged in regular streets crossing each other at right angles. The public buildings are spacious and ornamental.

Among the principal buildings in San José are the New National Theatre, in which about 1,000,000 pesos were invested; the National Palace; the Palace of Justice; the Executive Mansion; the Episcopal Palace; the National Distillery; the Market; the University; the High School for Young Ladies; the High School for Young Men; the Custom House; the Mint, etc.

The city possesses charitable institutions, such as hospitals, orphan asylums, insane asylums, etc., all under the management of corporations and associations constantly laboring for their improvement. The cemeteries are under the supervision of charitable associations. There are several parks, a Museum, a Public Library and scientific, legal, medical, literary and musical societies, an International Club and a German Club, etc.

The streets are mostly macadamized or paved with stones and lighted by electricity. Nearly every city is well-supplied with water conducted through pipes.

The food of the poor comprises meat, beans, corn, rice, tortillas and plantains.

Saturday is the especial market day of the cities, and from sunrise till noon the market-places are crowded with sellers and buyers. Here can be found all kind of vegetables and fruits, potatoes, corn, beans, coffee, tobacco, sugar, cheese, meat and other food, besides earthenware, hammocks, hats, rebozos, charcoal, etc.

The last census, that of 1892, gave 243,205 as the entire population of the Republic.

The following table shows the population of the different “cantones” in 1892 and 1897:

The following table shows the constant natural increase of the population, beginning with the year of 1868:

Province of San José.

Canton.	1892.	1897.

San José	39,112	46,410
Escazú	6,522	7,735
Desamparados	6,471	7,616
Puriscal	6,845	8,092
Aserri	6,030	7,140
Mora	5,814	6,902
Tamazú	2,583	3,070
Goicoechea	3,341	3,975

Total	76,718	90,940

Province of Alajuela.

Canton.	1892.	1897.

Alajuela	19,300	22,967
San Ramon	9,928	11,781
Grecia	8,797	10,472
Atenas	6,208	7,373
San Mateo	3,353	3,986
Naranjo	6,847	8,092
Palmares	2,770	3,296

Total	57,203	67,967

Province of Cartago.

Canton.	1892.	1897.

Cartago	25,898	30,821
Paraiso	7,819	9,282
La Union	4,256	5,058

Total	37,973	45,161

Province of Heredia.

Canton.	1892.	1897.

Heredia	16,480	19,635
Barba	2,964	3,522
Santo Domingo	5,118	6,069
Santa Barbara	2,845	3,379
San Rafael	4,204	4,998

Total	31,611	37,603

Province of Guanacaste.

Canton.	1892.	1897.

Liberia	5,883	7,021
Cañas	2,165	2,570
Bagaces	1,476	1,749
Santa Cruz	5,948	7,021
Nicoya	4,577	5,438

Total	20,049	23,799

Comarca de Limon.

Canton.	1892.	1897.

Limon	7,484	8,925

Comarca de Puntarenas.

Canton.	1892.	1897.

Puntarenas	8,869	10,472
Esparta	3,298	3,927

Total	12,167	14,399

Costa Rica being a country of immense resources, with great opportunities for success in industrial, agricultural and commercial enterprises, it may be interesting to know its smaller subdivisions, called barrios or districts, as presented in the following table, taken from the latest census, that of 1892:

Costa Rica had in 1892, taking this census as a basis, 313 communities distributed as follows:

As may have been observed, there is a great repetition of names in Costa Rica, especially of places named in honor of saints, which for commercial convenience will probably be changed. Of communities there are not less than

Of these 313 communities, distributed in 5 provinces with 28 cantones and in 2 comarcas with 3 cantones, the following table gives their relative importance:

In order to give an idea of the density of the population, there is roundly presented in the following table the area of each province and comarca, its total population and its population per square kilometer:

In regard to the age of the population, the census of 1892 shows that there were:

The military census gives the following figures of able-bodied men in the different cantones, provinces and comarcas:

The movement of the population in regard to births, deaths and increase was in 1892 as follows:

During the first half of 1897 there were in the capitals of the same provinces or comarcas the following births and deaths:

These data show in favor of births over deaths an increase of 337, of whom 148 were males and 189 females.

In regard to social conditions, the population of Costa Rica was distributed in 1892, by percentages, as follows:

With respect to instruction there were 28,208 individuals who could read, and 48,215 persons who could read and write, leaving 166,782 illiterates, or 68.58 per cent of the entire population who could not read or write.

It will be interesting for the economist to know the percentage of the population capable of reading, or writing and reading. It is as follows:

In the capitals of the different provinces and comarcas the proportion was as follows:

For these cities the total literates were 23,488 persons or 59.5 per cent. of their population.

There were, out of the total number, 17,483 school children, who were taught by 451 teachers in public schools.

A distribution of the people by their principal occupations in the different cantones was as follows:

There were 4022 delinquencies punished by the police courts, namely: 1,295 in San José, 626 in Alajuela, 678 in Cartago, 520 in Heredia, 200 in Liberia, 424 in Puntarenas and 279 in Port Limon. Of these there were convictions of

There were also 989 criminal sentences recorded in the Court of Second Instance, together with 124 criminal and civil judgments in the Court of Cassation.

The national “Presidio de San Lucas” contained at the same time 170 prisoners. Costa Rica in 1896 had 1744 prostitutes, mostly between sixteen and twenty-five years of age, under supervision. Nearly half of this number were in San José, the rest in the ports and in Heredia, Alajuela and Cartago. Nearly 300 women were in the hospitals being treated for venereal diseases, while 502 individuals were registered in the “Department de profilaxis venerea.”

There were during the same year thirteen commercial insolvencies, two cases of absolute and three of partial divorce.

The different courts of the country, during the year of 1896, entered 5417 civil and testamentary judgments, including a number concerning mining and national land claims.

The people of Costa Rica must be considered as standing high above those of the neighboring countries in regard to morals and civilization. The mass of the people is industrious, honest, sober, clean, comparatively well-clothed, economical, obedient to the authorities and respectful of the laws.

VII.

IMMIGRATION AND COLONIES.

Immigration to Costa Rica has been small. During the first half of 1897 there entered 1533 individuals by Port Limon and 389 by the Port of Puntarenas; but during the same time 1150 persons left Costa Rica through Port Limon and 344 through Puntarenas. The result is a gain of only 428 persons in favor of the country. In 1896, the excess of registered immigrants over emigrants was 1112 persons, there having entered 3980 and departed 2868 persons. Several times attempts have unsuccessfully been made by foreigners to establish colonies.

Still there is a colony in the Department of Guanacaste, called “Colonia de Nicoya,” which was commenced by Cubans, headed by Maceo, the late Cuban revolutionist chief. This colony possesses a sugar factory and five trapiches, producing 720 quintals of sugar and about 3000 quintals of mascabado. Only five colonists still cultivate tobacco. The colony has a school for boys and another for girls, the latter attended by thirty and the other by forty pupils. Besides there is here postal service and a telegraph office.

A second colony located in the San Carlos district is known as “Colonia de Aguas Zarcas,” and has 500 lots, but it does not progress for lack of roads and markets easy to reach.

A third colony was established in Santa Clara, on a branch of the Atlantic Railroad. But there are actually there only eight families with about seventy hectares of cultivated land, one trapiche and a saw-mill.

Another colony was started by the River Plate Trust, Loan and Agency Company, Limited, in Turialba, near the railroad between Limon and San José. There were 500 acres sold for 15 pesos each, 2071.9 acres for 20 pesos each, 750 acres for 25 pesos each, and 1381.1 acres for 30 pesos each, the land being situated on the Tuis River and Cabeza de Buey. Besides a contract was made with W. C. Beal from Portland, Oregon, U. S. A., for the sale of 14,000 acres on condition of procuring each year for seven years the settlement of a number of families to cultivate these lands. In order to give easy access to the markets, a cart-road is in process of construction, which will connect the colony with the nearest railroad station.

The Government of Costa Rica is now preparing new laws in regard to immigration, colonization and sale of national lands. The former laws have been suspended, the Government being convinced that the lands appropriated in former years are more than sufficient to respond to the requirements of the next twenty years. The Government also thinks it to be preferable to promote by restrictive laws the subdivision of these lands and their cultivation than to consent to new grants under the former statutes. Exceptions are to be made for colonization companies and enterprises adapted to the economic development of the country.

In former years the Government of Costa Rica has often offered inducements in the way of land-grants for European immigration. In 1849 a grant of land of twenty leagues in length by twelve in breadth was made to a French company for 1000 colonists. The conditions of the contract were not carried out, though a considerable number of immigrants formed under it an establishment. A similar grant was made on the Atlantic coast to a British company, which had no result.

Still another concession was made, May 7, 1852, to a German company organized at Berlin with Baron von Bülow as Director. This enterprise died with its manager in 1856.

A further attempt was made in 1852, by Crisanto Medina, to whom a large grant of land was made for colonization purposes[76] at Miravalles, about 2500 feet above the sea, but this project too was abandoned after settling about thirty-seven Germans on the grant. In 1856, some French immigrants came, and in 1858 another colonization law was passed, and ever since the Government has persisted in the policy of augmenting the population by offering inducements to foreigners to settle in Costa Rica. All these Government proffers have, however, proved ineffectual.

VIII.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

Elementary instruction of both sexes is compulsory and at the expense of the Government.

The following data are obtained from the Minister of Public Instruction, Licentiate Ricardo Pacheco. In 1896 Costa Rica had 327 primary schools with 21,913 enrolled pupils, or 53 per cent. of all the children of school age, as can be seen in the following table:

This great number shows a marked predisposition of the people in favor of education. It is also a fact that Costa Rica holds the first place of all Latin American nations in regard to public instruction.

The number of school buildings is 215, besides 29 in process of construction and 50 projected. These 215 buildings[78] are the property of the “Juntas de Educacion.” Besides these, 107 buildings are rented and 6 loaned. There are

Costa Rica has more teachers than soldiers. The number of the former reaches the figure of 784, of whom 337 are men and 447 women, distributed in the following way:

There are over 250 “Juntas de Educacion” in the different Departments, Cantones and Districts.

The National Government aided them with 95,587.59 pesos, in the following manner:

To aid these Juntas a special school-loan has been made; besides the taxes on slaughtering are turned over to them.

Higher education is given in the Liceo de Costa Rica, with 206 enrolled students, and in the Colegio Superior de Señoritas, with 223 students, both in San José; also in the provincial Institutes of Cartago, Alajuela and Heredia.

There is in addition a school for medicine and pharmacy in San José with seventeen students, and a law-school dependent on the “college of lawyers.”

For other higher studies the Government pays the expenses of ten Costa Ricans in European universities and high schools. Further, the Government of Chile allows six Costa Ricans to study at its expense in the pedagogical Institute of Santiago.

Another very important national institution is the “Instituto fisico-geográfico,” under the direction of the very competent Professor H. Pittier, with three sections; a geographical section for topographical study and a construction of maps, also a meteorological and a botanical section. Their excellent publications have proved the great usefulness of this institution, and it is to be wished that its able and learned director will get adequate aid to carry out his promising studies of the physical features of Costa Rica.

Another useful institution is the “National Museum,” under the intelligent direction of a young Costa Rican scientist. Mr. Anastasio Alfaro. It has an interesting section of archæology and ethnography, and a section of zoology, already rich in cabinets, to which is attached a small zoological garden.

A third useful institution is the “National Library” with 10,242 catalogued books and about 5,000 more ready to be registered and incorporated.

The first steps towards the organization of educational institutions were taken in 1824, under the administration of Don Juan Mora Fernandez. Then public instruction was declared an obligatory duty of the State. The institution, which afterward became the University of Santo Tomas, was founded in 1844, at the instigation of Dr. Castilo. The efforts of Costa Rica to advance education have been great and sustained,[80] and it is to be remarked that those in office have constantly shown laudable interest in the matter. In 1869 the Normal School was opened and a system adopted in harmony with modern standards.

As related to the subject of public education, the following list enumerates the names of the principal daily and weekly papers, periodicals and annual publications:

IX.

TRANSPORTATION, POST AND TELEGRAPH.

Port Limon on the Atlantic and Puntarenas on the Pacific Ocean are first in importance among the means of communication of Costa Rica.

In 1894 there entered the Port of Limon 294 vessels (271 steamers, 20 barks and 3 goletas), with a tonnage of 348,355 tons. Of these, 16 vessels bore the national flag, 142 the English, 12 the French, 26 the German, 27 the Swedish-Norwegian, 47 that of the United States, 11 the Nicaraguan, and 3 the Colombian flag.

During the same year there entered the Port of Puntarenas 158 vessels (125 steamers, 24 barks, 5 paileboats 4 launches), having a tonnage of 155,869 tons. Of these, 14 carried the national flag, 34 the English, 1 the Italian, 23 the German, 3 the Swedish-Norwegian, 4 the Danish, 74 that of the United States, and 5 the Colombian flag.

In 1895 there entered the Port of Limon 311 vessels, with a tonnage of 281,361, while in the Port of Puntarenas there entered 147 vessels, with a tonnage of 146,313.

In 1896 there entered the Port of Limon 258 steamers and 41 sailing vessels, while 152 vessels entered Puntarenas, of which 73 were steamers of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, 28 steamers of an English cattle transporting company, 8 German steamers of the Cosmos and Kirsten lines, 9 Colombian paileboats, 16 German barks, 11 Norwegian barks, 3 English barks, 2 Italian barks, and 1 French bark.

The agents of the different steamship lines in the capital, San José, are, for the Port of Limon: Mr. Juan Knöhr for the Hamburg American Steamship Company; Mr. John M. Keith for the Atlas Line; Mr. I. R. Sasso for the Italian[82] Line, La Veloce; Messrs. Lyon & Co. for the Royal Mail Line; Messrs. W. J. Field & Co. for the Prince Line; Mr. Minor C. Keith for the Spanish Transatlantic Line; Messrs. Alvarado & Co. for the French Transatlantic Line; Mr. Minor C. Keith for the New Orleans lines; while Messrs. Rohrmoser & Co. are the agents for the Port of Puntarenas of the Hamburg Pacific Steamship Company, the Kosmos Line and the Pacific Mail Steamship Company.

There are two important railroads, the Atlantic and the Pacific Railroads. The Atlantic Railroad goes from the Port of Limon westerly to Alajuela, a distance of 190 kilometers. The stations on the line are Limon, Moin, S. Mouth, Matina, Siquirres, La Junta, Pascua, Torito, Turialba, Las Pavas, Tucurique, Juan Viñas, Santiago, Paraiso, Cartago, Tres Rios, Curridabat, San Pedro, San José, San Juan, Santo Domingo, Heredia, San Joaquin, Rio Segundo, Alajuela.

A branch of this road starts from La Junta, a point about thirty-four kilometers west of Port Limon, and runs first northward and then westward until it reaches Guapiles, a recently founded colony on the plains of Santa Clara. It was originally intended to lay the track to Carrillo and through the La Palma Pass to San José, but this plan has not been carried out.

Another branch goes from Port Limon to the Banana River, a distance of about five kilometers.

This road has a number of good station-buildings, and a pier at Port Limon with all facilities for the quick handling of freight, especially of bananas. The freight rates are relatively very high.

The Pacific Railroad, about fourteen miles (or twenty-two kilometers) in length, belongs to the Government, and runs from Puntarenas east to Esparta, about seven hundred feet above the sea. It received in 1896, 18,486.60 pesos from freights and 19,392.80 pesos from passengers.

Another railroad, on Government account, is under construction to connect San José with the Pacific coast, and a million pesos are annually set aside for the work. It is to be about ninety kilometers long and to run most of the way through the valley of the Rio Grande. The western end for about twenty-four kilometers will cross a roughly broken country in order to reach the roadstead of Tívives.

An important line of railway is projected to run from Jimenez, on the Guapiles branch of the Costa Rica Railway, fifty-six miles from Port Limon, to the mouth of the Rio Frio, near its entrance into the Lake of Nicaragua.

It is to cross the River San Carlos near El Muelle, from which point it is proposed to extend the line through a low pass of the Miravalles mountains, about two thousand feet above sea-level, to Culebra Bay on the Pacific. Such a railway would contribute enormously to the development of northern Costa Rica. The region traversed by the line is highly fertile. A connection of the Costa Rica Railway with Lake Nicaragua would also give to the State of Nicaragua[84] a much needed convenient access to the Atlantic Ocean for nearly its entire trade.

Another important project President Iglesias contemplates. It is a ship-canal along the coast line from Matina to the Colorado River, and even on to the mouth of the San Juan, a total distance of over sixty-five miles. This coast consists of a continuous narrow sand bank between which and the mainland there is an inlet or arm of the sea, said to be navigable now for the whole distance.

This ship-canal would open an extensive banana region as well as excellent lands for the cultivation of cacao and rubber trees and many other tropical plants.

With respect to other internal communications, there exists a fairly good cart-road, opened about sixty years ago, from Cartago via San José to Puntarenas. Over this road nearly all export and import traffic was done until the Atlantic Railroad was opened in 1891.

Another cart-road runs across Guanacaste to Nicaragua. Besides these roads there is a small number of shorter and more local roads, not counting a well-paved one, about twenty-five miles long, now partly abandoned. It goes through the La Palma Pass towards Carrillo, Santa Clara and the Atlantic coast.

There is a tramway in Cartago, connecting the city with its suburbs and Aguacaliente. In San José a trolley line is soon to be established. Away from the conveniences now enumerated the people are wont to ride on horse or mule trails. The Government, however, takes care to increase and improve the cart-roads and other means of communications. During the last fiscal year over one hundred and ninety-four thousand pesos were spent on roads and bridges, and there is no doubt that Costa Rica, in this respect, too, is far ahead of the other Central American countries. Most of the Government expenditure named was spent on the national cart-road, the roads to San Carlos, Puriscal, Tablazo and Sarapiqui and on bridges over the Rio Grande, Reventazon, Bagaces, etc. In each district there is a “Junta Itineraria” for the conservation and improvement of roads, every proprietor participating in proportion to his property.

The following itinerary of roads and water routes, their distances and character, is reproduced from Mr. Richard Villafranca’s “Costa Rica:”

The postal service is performed by seventy local post-offices. Correspondence is dispatched twenty-six times per month to foreign countries by steamers, and four times per month overland to the neighboring countries. From the port of Limon the mail goes to Europe, via Hamburg, twice a month, the 12th and 29th; by the Royal Mail on the 9th day of each month; and via Marseilles on the 12th of each month; to Europe and the United States via New York every Friday, and to Europe, the United States and Mexico via New Orleans every Monday.

From the Port of Puntarenas the mail goes to the West Indies and South America, via Panamá, three times a month, and as often also to the States of Central America. Overland to Nicaragua the mail is sent, via Liberia, every Thursday. In the Gulf of Nicoya are three steamers in the postal service,[88] namely the “Puntarenas,” “Fernandez” and “Dr. Castro.” The principal post-offices in Costa Rica are these:

The entire postal service comprised the movement of 3,494,515 pieces, 23,843 money orders and 6919 parcels. The receipts of the postal department were 48,318.69 pesos. On postal money orders there were paid 358,280.76 pesos.

There are 1190 kilometers (744 miles) of telegraph lines connecting the following 65 offices:

The number of private telegrams dispatched in 1896 to the interior was 270,284; of official messages to the interior was 69,172; official telegrams transmitted to Central America, 1086; private telegrams to Central America, 6554; telegrams received from Central America, 5413; cablegrams received, 26,762; cablegrams transmitted, 2845.

The total receipts from the telegraph service amounted in 1896 to 183,791.75 pesos, and the rates are very cheap. The nearest cable station is San Juan del Sur in Nicaragua.

There are also 203 miles of telephonic wire between San José and other communities and plantations, with about 2500 daily calls.

X.

AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK.

Agricultural enterprise in Costa Rica is chiefly devoted to coffee. The proper coffee zone lies between 800 to 1400 meters of elevation on both ocean slopes. Experiments have proved that the coffee-tree can also be successfully cultivated at a height of 600 meters, and still lower down, by moderating the glare of the sun with adequate shades and by pruning to correct excessive growth and fructification.

“Coffee was introduced into the country from Havana in 1796 by Francisco Javier Navarro, as were also the mango and the cinnamon. The first seeds were sown in Cartago. Much credit for the propagation of coffee culture in Costa Rica is due to Padre Velarde, under the government of Don Tomas de Acosta, who took great interest in agriculture.

“During the administration of Don Juan Rafael Mora (1849-1857) farming received a remarkable development, for it was much promoted by the construction of important roads. The cultivation of coffee and sugar cane then absorbed the attention of the country to such an extent that, in 1861, 100,000 quintals were exported.” (J. B. Calvo’s book on Costa Rica).

Altogether Costa Rica, in 1892, had 8366 coffee-fincas with 26,911,078 coffee-trees, and a crop of 378,224 quintals or 17,388,704 kilograms, valued at 10,954,744 pesos.

It may be interesting to learn the amount of the coffee crops since 1883, given in sacks of fifty-nine or sixty kilograms each.

Another important agricultural product of Costa Rica is the banana. Its cultivation was begun on the Atlantic coast in 1879, and the first 360 bunches were shipped, February 7. 1880, by steamer “Earnholm” from Port Limon to New York.

In 1884 there were 350 farms, comprising over four thousand acres of land, containing 570,000 banana plants, from which, in that year, 420,000 bunches were obtained. Before 1879 banana plants were set out in coffee plantations to shade the young trees and shelter their berries. The bananas were used to feed pigs. The laboring classes kept a few plants, using the fruit boiled with salt, or roasted on hot coals instead of bread.

Sugar cane is used largely in Costa Rica as fodder and in the manufacture of aguardiente; also to produce the raw sugar or dulce, which is consumed entirely by country people.

In San José on 4819 acres; in Alajuela on 5076 acres; in Cartago on 1466 acres; in Heredia on 1114 acres; in Guanacaste on 719 acres; in Puntarenas on 1471, and in Limon on 122 acres. The aggregates were 14,787 acres, and a production of 1,368,000 pounds of sugar and 18,454,000 pounds of dulce.

Cacao culture has received but little attention in Costa Rica, because the more profitable coffee plantations absorb all the time and capital. The number of plantations regularly established up to 1888 was 198, having in all 56,426 trees that yielded in the same year 331,900 pounds valued at 165,770 pesos. Most of the cacao was cultivated in Aserri, Atenas, Naranjo, Heredia, Paraiso, Guanacaste and Limon.

Excellent cacao was grown during Spanish colonial days around Matina, but none is exported now.

With respect to wheat, up to 1860 there was sufficient for the consumption of the country. It was so intelligently cultivated that the finer grades were produced. The rise in the price of coffee and the competition with the flour of the United States and Chile drove out the native wheat almost entirely, and to-day the cultivation of this grain is badly neglected. To-day the only flour-mill in this country grinds imported wheat.

Tobacco was a monopoly for many years, and only recently has the culture been taken up by the people.

The cultivation of rice in Costa Rica demands very little care and no irrigation to produce two crops a year of a very superior quality. Beans and corn are successfully grown everywhere in the country, while the raising of potatoes is almost wholly confined to the hillsides of Cartago and Alajuela, where they acquire an extremely fine quality.

According to the census of 1892, the average annual[94] production of these crops for that and the two preceding years was in liters as follows:

Important agricultural districts are, besides the Central Highlands about one hundred and fifty kilometers in length by sixty kilometers in width, the great valleys of Talamanca, Santa Clara, Tortuguero, San Carlos and Rio Frio. Along the Pacific the great valley of Térraba and the plains of Golfo Dulce and Guanacaste are fertile regions, which, if properly tilled, would offer advantages equal to the Central Highlands, where nearly the entire population of Costa Rica is concentrated.

Plants characterizing fertile lands, rich in humus, on the Atlantic slope, are Piper, especially that with large leaves, Loaseæ, and certain Acanthaceæ. On the Pacific side such characteristic plants are Piper, with smaller leaves, the Pacaya Palm, and some ferns. Especially are the Aspidium and Polypodium found in large quantities.

Considering the future of Costa Rica, the question of farm labor is of vital importance. There are only a few Indians, and they are rapidly decreasing. It looks as though the fertile lowlands on the Atlantic and Pacific sides, as well as those in the extensive and fruitful San Juan valley, must be turned over to the Negro race as the only one capable of enduring so inhospitable a climate. These regions are the richest of all and could sustain a large population.

The live stock of Costa Rica, though in general superior to that of the rest of Central America, is not yet sufficiently large to supply the local demand. Although there has been recent improvement in breeding cattle and horses, yet the high grade animals, which could be easily introduced into a[95] country of so many natural advantages, are still lacking. At different times the development of this industry has been attempted. Costa Rica has vast pasture lands splendidly adapted to cattle. It has very nutritious forage plants, like arrocillo, cola de venado, zacate de guinea, zacate de castilla, zacate pará, zacate ancho, grama, guate, caña de azucar, gamalote, sabanilla, teosinte, lengua de vaca, guácimo, jengibrillo, platanillo, etc.

Further official reports disclose that in the capital the consumption of meat is quite uniform during the entire year, while in the country it is greater from August to January than from February to July.

The total value of the natural, agricultural and live stock products of the country has been calculated at 19,000,000 pesos.

XI.

COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY.

Joaquin Bernardo Calvo, in his work on Costa Rica published in 1890, observes that “at the beginning of the Colonial Government the Port of Suerre, on the Atlantic coast, had some commercial importance, but that the Port of Rivera on the west coast of the Gulf of Nicoya was greater, as were also Coronado del Norte on the Island of Caño and the Golfo de Ossa, now Golfo Dulce.

“All the ships then plying on the Pacific between Mexico, Panama, Perú and intermediate ports were wont to ride at anchor at the Island of Caño. The most important centre of commerce in those times was the City of Santiago de Talamanca, now extinct, whence cargoes were sent in three days’ time to Porto Bello. The exports of that age were cacao, potatoes, honey, wax, sarsaparilla and hemp. When the city was destroyed its traffic was dispersed.

“In 1638 the opening of the Matina road was the beginning of a new era. The cacao haciendas in the valley of that name acquired a new importance. At the same time the Gulf of Nicoya became a centre of traffic. Costa Rica was then in a flourishing condition and would have prospered finely but for the pirates and Mosquito Indians, who constantly menaced its welfare and whose vandalism ravaged the coast settlements.

“After that period Costa Rica was reduced to woeful misery, carrying on an insignificant commerce overland with Panama by mules and sending a few unimportant articles to Nicaragua. Thus more than a century passed.

“In the present century (1813) the Captaincy General imposed severe restrictions on the commerce of the Province.[97] At the time of declaring independence the situation of Costa Rica was wretched.

“Just beginning an independent career, struggling to inaugurate a system of government wholly new and opposed to the preceding one, contending with poverty, in a state of complete upheaval, the work undertaken by the forefathers of the present Costa Ricans was full of difficulties.

“Coffee culture gave a new impulse and importance to Costa Rica. At the close of the first half of the Nineteenth Century commerce was carried on with the north through Matina and Sarapiqui, and through Caldera on the Pacific.

“The greater facilities available on the Pacific coast, however, especially when a line of steamers connecting with the Panama Railroad opened a new way to the Atlantic, turned the course of business to Puntarenas, a new port which soon became the sole commercial route.

“This state of things, unnecessarily adding to the expense of importations, continued for years. When the Port of Limon was opened to commerce the competition of two routes and the new facilities of a railroad and a wagon road to the Atlantic greatly promoted traffic and contributed to the general wealth.”

In 1848 seventy vessels entered Puntarenas, having a registration of 7180 tons. In 1884 this number had increased to 113, having 137,368 tons registration, and in the same year there entered Port Limon 121 vessels of 126,875 aggregate tonnage. In 1894 there entered 158 vessels with 155,869 tons at Puntarenas, and 294 vessels with 348,355 tons at Port Limon. The freight in 1858 on coffee to Panama by steamer alone was five-eighths of a cent per pound. In 1870 the West India and Pacific Company’s steamers received as freights from Puntarenas to Liverpool, £5 10s. 0d. per ton; from Puntarenas to London, £6 2s. 6d. per ton.

In 1888 freights from Puntarenas to European ports were £4 per ton, and from Port Limon £2. To-day the freight rates are cheaper still.

The present tariff is in many ways inequitable. It is based on no principle, and, with the exception of some later laws especially enacted, it does not correspond with the[98] economic condition and commerce of the country. Yet on a great number of articles the tariff is less than in Mexico, Guatemala, Salvador, Peru, Bolivia and Uruguay.

The custom-duties are collected on gross weight, and generally amount to from twenty to twenty-five per cent. on the valuation of imports. They are paid one-half down and one-half within three months’ time. All goods for Costa Rica have to come accompanied by corresponding consular invoices. The principal importations are silk, wool, linen, cotton, machinery, implements and tools for agriculture and other industries, furniture, glassware, tinware, hardware and haberdashery, ornaments, articles of luxury, mercury and perfumery, beer, wines, liquors, soap, coffee-sacks, flour, sugar, shoes, saddles, harnesses, butter, etc.

The following list, which I owe to the amiability of the highly competent Director General of the National Department of Statistics, Hon. Manuel Aragon, shows the principal articles of import and their value in gold pesos by countries since 1893:

Among other countries Spain, including Cuba, imported in 1893, alcohol ($26,346), cigarettes ($11,418), cognac ($8976), liquors ($14,719), cotton cloth ($19,416), and wines ($126,417); in 1894, alcohol ($15,500), cigarettes ($7753), wines ($30,436); in 1895, alcohol ($81,000), cigarettes ($10,800), tobacco ($6288), wines ($46,957).

Colombia imported in 1893, alcohol ($7783), cacao ($4229), cattle ($115,847); in 1894, cacao ($9710); in 1895, cacao ($11,720), tobacco ($6959).

Italy imported in 1893, marble ($4623), wines ($14,791); in 1894, wine ($3491); in 1895, butter ($2209), hats ($1240), cotton cloth ($1568), and wines ($6933).

Central America imported in 1893, tobacco ($112,418), sugar ($9895), cacao ($2846), maize ($6891), butter ($2893), cigars ($7626).

In regard to coffee there were exported from October 1, 1896, to June 30, 1897, 231,904 sacks (13,843,088 kilos), of[105] which 84.67 per cent., or 196,343 sacks, in oro, and 15.33 per cent., or 35,561 sacks, in pargement. From this amount 87.93 per cent., or 203,913 sacks (12,184,027 kilos), went through Port Limon and 12.07 per cent., or 27,991 sacks (1,659,061 kilos), through Puntarenas.

From Limon 61.329 per cent. was transported by the Atlas Line, 32.300 per cent. by the British Royal Mail, 2.271 per cent. by the French Steamship line, 3.299 per cent. by the German Line, O.801 per cent. by other lines.

It will be interesting to know the places to which this large amount of coffee is shipped. These particulars are found in the following list:

In connection with the coffee trade there are here given interesting statistics concerning the average annual consumption of coffee per capita of the population of different countries:

Industries.—The scarcity of working people and the absence of capital were formerly the greatest barriers to the[106] progress of industry, while at the same time the abundance and relative cheapness of imported articles rendered useless all attempts at home production.

In regard to industrial and manufacturing establishments and workshops, there were in 1892:

There are in San José the San José Foundry and the National Workshop, which contributed greatly to the progress of mechanical arts, iron manufactures, cabinet work, machinery, implements, farming utensils, tools, etc.

There also exist a silk and cotton factory, manufacturing fine articles like shawls, scarfs, wraps, in the favorite colors of the people; also an ice factory, a shoe factory and a flour-mill.

Among the miscellaneous companies we have to mention the Agency Company for unloading and loading vessels, capital 200,000 pesos; San José Market Company, capital 215,000 pesos; Cartago Market Company, capital 100,000 pesos; Heredia Market Company, capital 100,000 pesos; Monte de Aguacate Mining Company, capital 500,000 pesos; La Trinidad Mining Company, capital 250,000 pesos; Costa Rica House Construction Company, capital 250,000 pesos; Costa Rica Pacific Gold Mining Company, Limited; Electric Light Company.

XII.

FINANCE AND BANKING.

The revenue of the Government of Costa Rica is derived from custom-house duties, revenue stamps and stamped paper, liquor monopoly, tobacco revenue, coffee tax, sale of public lands, tax for registering property, tax on slaughtering live stock, etc.

Expenditures during the fiscal year ending in 1896 amounted to 6,697,326.51 pesos, distributed in the following manner:

The foreign debt contracted in 1871 and 1872, in England, against the will of the nation, has been disastrous to it. It amounts to £2,000,000 in five per cent. debentures. Lately an arrangement was made under which the amortization of this debt will begin in 1917, instead of 1898, and with £10,000 per year, instead of £20,000. The government is also authorized to buy in its own bonds for their immediate liquidation.

The floating debt chiefly consists of private deposits, of the school-loan, amortization of which is made annually, of paper money which is received in very limited amounts, and of bills payable, mostly given for sugar and syrups to the “National Liquor Distillery” and drawn on thirty days’ sight. The rest of the floating debt scarcely amounts to 50,000 pesos.

In figures the interior debt of Costa Rica may be represented as follows: 79,155.75 pesos in notes of war emission; 1,037,628.43 pesos for various accounts, private deposits, cash orders, municipal fund, ecclesiastical fund, etc., making a total of 1,116,784.18 pesos.

Another important factor in the commercial and economic life of Costa Rica is the money in circulation. Including every kind of emission, notes of the Costa Rica bank, national paper money, war-emission paper money, silver and gold coin, the money in circulation amounted in

There were in circulation, in 1895-96, currency valued in pesos as follows: 3,820,404 of Costa Rica bank notes, 2764 national paper money, 98,669 war-emission paper money, 1,500,000 coined silver money, 300,000 coined gold money, total 5,721,837; or 20.08 pesos per capita of the population of Costa Rica.

As above indicated, the Government of Costa Rica is beginning to displace the notes of the Banco de Costa Rica by others issued by the government, maintained at par and guaranteed by a gold reserve or by gold certificates.

This monetary question is of such interest and importance, that the following translation is given from such parts of the reports of the Minister of Finance as relate thereto.

“The emission of gold certificates is necessary, as it would be impossible to keep the gold coins in circulation so long as the quantity of paper money issued by the bank, is far greater. Again, in order to avoid the difficulties which would arise from the constant retirement of this paper money, the gold certificates must be issued to furnish an adequate supply of currency. In this way also the Government has the advantage of utilizing the quantities of gold in deposit, and of acquiring by means of those certificates resources for fresh coinage of gold pieces.”

“In order to avoid embarrassment in the commercial and economic life of the country it has been agreed with the Banco de Costa Rica to maintain parity between these certificates and its notes. By the monetary law of October 24, 1896, also parity with the actual silver peso was established. It was further agreed that the ‘colon de oro,’ the new gold coin, should correspond in intrinsic value with this standard of ratios.”

“For these purposes, there had to be taken into consideration: First, the actual state of the national wealth, estimated in the already established credit circulating medium; second, the average range of international exchange during a number of years, and third, the average ratio of silver to gold during the same period. There had further to be considered the outstanding obligations of the interior and of the exterior debt, as well as pending negotiations as to exportable products, and the relation of the intrinsic value between gold and silver.”

“In this way the following conclusion was reached:[112] That the ‘colon de oro’ should contain 700 milligrams of fine gold, in order not to complicate the situation created by the circulating notes of the Bank of Costa Rica, and in order to include an average exchange of 110 per cent. with respect to the pound sterling, and of 115 per cent. with respect to the American gold, as well as to create a relation of 1 to 26 between silver and gold. In consequence of this and for the purpose of giving to the ‘colon de oro’ the same fineness as has been given to the American gold coin, and as has been adopted by the Union Latina, it was established that the ‘colon de oro’ should have 778 milligrams of gold of 900-1000 fineness. Its relation to the gold coins of either nations is as follows:

“In the contract with the Banco de Costa Rica, it was agreed that the Government should coin gold periodically. There are already 600,000 ‘colones de oro’ in pieces of 10 colones in Costa Rica, and the Government ordered furthermore a second emission of 400,000 colones in pieces of 20 colones each, which will soon be issued. It is further willing to coin half a million more in the near future. The Costa Rican Bank, on the other hand, is obliged to retire a corresponding amount of its notes from circulation, and later, as soon as sufficient gold can be put in circulation, the exchange of bills is to be made by this bank in gold instead of silver.”

There are sufficient reasons for believing that the Costa Rican Government will succeed in the realization of this highly important economic change without difficulty. As the Costa Rican Bank no longer has the exclusive privilege of issuing paper money, new banks must be established, with authority to issue circulating notes. As these banks will have to keep a reserve of national gold coins for the redemption of their paper money, there will be an abundance of currency of a fixed value. As the fineness[113] of the ‘colon de oro’ constitutes the best type of international exchange, there will in the future be slight fluctuations, and this will prove a most valuable guaranty of the stability of public wealth.

The value of the National Government property is estimated at 8,522,714.94 pesos. The principal items are:

The private property owners are numerous and the orderly habits of the Costa Ricans are marked. Costa Rica being an essentially agricultural country, the necessity of a mortgage law was apparent to maintain and secure the equities of all. Hence an official registry of titles and mortgages was opened in 1867.

The landed property of the people of Costa Rica is registered in the “Registro Publico” in the following way:

The following list gives the number of fincas (properties) and the amount in pesos for which they were mortgaged.

In the last fiscal year from April 1, 1896, to March 31, 1897, the Public Register shows the following movement:

For the same period the “Public Register” furnishes the following statistics of mortgages on real estate estimated in pesos:

Since 1865 the mortgage law permits this mode of converting real estate; upon due official registration its value may be divided into shares, each represented by a cedula or bond, on which as collateral security money can be raised at any time with perfect safety.

This law is included in the Codizo Civil of 1887 and[117] since that time cedulas to following amounts have been issued:

The municipal taxes are not high. The owners of real estate are required to pay only the taxes devoted to the maintenance of municipal police, street lighting and the domestic supply of water.

Other municipal taxes comprise license fees for commercial business, for slaughtering cattle and hogs; for wine houses; taxes for registering of dogs; taxes on tanneries, breweries, coffee-cleaning establishments, cemeteries, etc.

Other important factors of the economic life of Costa Rica are the existing banking establishments. The first bank of Central America was established in 1857, in Costa Rica, by Crisanto Medina. This institution ceased and, in 1863, was replaced by the Banco Anglo-Costaricense with an authorized capital of 2,000,000 pesos and a paid-up capital of 1,200,000. This bank still exists, together with the Banco de Costa Rica established in 1867 with a paid-up capital of 2,000,000 pesos. It incorporated with itself the former Banco de la Union established in 1877.

The Bank of Costa Rica has had from the Government the privilege of issuing paper money to the extent of four times its cash on hand. The average circulation of these bank notes since 1882 has been as follows:

This issue privilege was withdrawn in 1897 on the introduction of the ‘colon de oro,’ and a special arrangement was made with the bank to uphold the contemplated change from a silver to a gold standard.

The Banco de Costa Rica, on July 15, 1897, had a reserve fund of 745,000 pesos and a dividend account of 50,000. It has branches in Heredia, Cartago and Alajuela. The situation of this bank at the same date was in pesos as follows:

The bank is ready to retire 540,000 pesos of its own notes in correspondence with the first gold deposit of 600,000 pesos. In view of the satisfactory transactions of the Bank 20 per cent. was distributed in dividends for the fiscal year ending in 1897. Its manager is Mr. José Andrés Coronado. Its Board of Directors include Messrs. Francisco Peralta, Aniceto Esquivel, Fabian Esquivel, Daniel Nuñez and Manuel Sandoval.

The manager of the Banco Anglo-Costaricense is Mr. Percy G. Harrison, and its Board of Directors is composed of Messrs. Adrian Collado, Simeon Guzmán, Telésforo Alfaro, Gerardo Jager and Mariano Montealegre.

The situation of the Banco Anglo-Costaricense on June 30, 1897, was in pesos as follows:

Foreign commercial obligations were settled through these banks on the following terms: Drafts at three days’ sight on Paris cost one per cent. less than on London on same time; those at ninety days’ sight on Paris or London cost one per cent. less than at three days’ sight; those at sixty days’ sight, on New York, cost two per cent. less than on three days’ sight. Submarine cable transfers of money cost two per cent. more than by three days’ sight drafts with the cost of telegraphing added.

Until the 24th of March, 1897, the Bank of Costa Rica sold drafts on New York for five points more than for those on London. Since the 25th of March, 1897, the difference of exchange between those cities has been eight per cent.

The rates on London, in October and November, 1897, were 127, and those on New York were 135.

XIII.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION.

Costa Rica is a republic, the government of which is representative, the representatives being classified so that one-half retires every two years. Since 1825 Costa Rica has had nine constitutions, the last one having been promulgated in 1871.

The government is administered through three distinct branches; namely, the legislative, executive and judicial.

Legislative powers are vested in a single house whose members are chosen, one for every 8000 inhabitants, for a term of four years by an electoral college. This body is called the “Constitutional Congress” and assembles every year on May 1 for a sixty days’ session, which may be extended for thirty days more.

The executive power is vested in the President of the Republic who is elected for four years and has the power of naming or removing his four cabinet ministers.

Annually, in May, Congress appoints, for a term of one year, three substitutes called “designados.” During the intervals between sessions of Congress legislative power is represented by a board of five commissioners appointed by Congress.

Judicial power is lodged in a Supreme Court and in subordinate tribunals as constituted by law. The judiciary is changed every four years.

Suffrage is restricted to popular conventions which choose a limited number of electors. These meet in a body called the electoral assembly and proceed to choose the President of the Republic and the Congressmen.

The Republic is divided into five Provinces and two Comarcas or Territories. Both are divided into Cantones, and the Cantones are subdivided into districts.

Each Canton has a municipal organization popularly elected and a political chief named by the President.

In each of the Provinces or Territories there is a Governor, and a military commandant also named by the President, and a Judge of First Instance appointed by the Supreme Court.

Costa Rica, as soon as she became a member of the Central American Confederation, organized a judiciary of her own consisting of a superior court, several tribunals of first resort in the provinces, and the alcaldes of towns who were justices of the peace with jurisdiction over petty affairs both civil and criminal. The Supreme Court has since undergone many changes.

The Supreme Court is a Court of Law composed of five justices. Two Courts of second instance have three magistrates each.

In each of the Provinces and in the Comarca of Puntarenas there are judges having criminal and civil jurisdiction.

In the chief towns of each Canton the alcaldes act in civil cases of minor importance, and in criminal cases are judges of petty offenses, and for graver charges are committing magistrates.

In the districts the justices of the peace and the police are charged with maintaining the public peace and they act for small misdemeanors in a summary way.

For fiscal affairs there are an Inspector General of Hacienda, an alcalde of Hacienda, and a National Judge of Hacienda. There is also a special judge of mines residing at San Mateo.

Punishments are generally neither cruel nor protracted. They comprise confinement in a prison or penitentiary, transportation, or a fine. The penitentiary is on the island of San Lucas.

In 1841 Costa Rica codified its civil and penal jurisprudence, amending the code materially seventeen years later. This has been the basis of her legal progress and is in force except as modified by subsequent statutes. Among the more important amendments are these: by the Penal Code in effect since 1880 the death penalty is abolished, as well as humiliating and cruel punishments; 1886 there was promulgated a new Civil Code, in which are prominent civil marriages, the right of divorce and the civil equality of woman.

The Code of Commerce in force, founded on Spanish customs, was issued in 1853. The Fiscal Code of to-day went into effect in 1885.

The Military Code of 1871 was superseded in 1884 by another more in accordance with modern institutions.

The Municipal Statutes prevailing to-day were issued in 1867; the General Police Regulations in 1849.

The “Ley Organica” of tribunals was framed in 1845 and modified slightly in 1852.

In 1865 there was promulgated the law for a creditor’s proceedings; the mortgage law was passed in 1865.

Higher and professional education was provided for in 1843 by a law known as the “Statutes of the University of Santo Tomas,” and in 1886 there was enacted a law for common education.

The Registry of property and mortgages was opened in 1867, since which time various reforms have been introduced into the Mortgage Law.

There are besides many special laws, like the Mining Statutes decreed in 1830; the Water Law of 1884 now in force; the Consular Regulations, and others.

By decree of 24th of November, 1863, the decimal system for moneys now in use was adopted. By decree of 10th of July, 1884, the metric system was adopted for weights and measures.

All Costa Ricans between eighteen and fifty years of age are obliged to do military service according to law.

The army is divided into two parts; the first includes, under the head of active service, all soldiers from eighteen to forty years of age; the second comprises all the rest under the head of “Reserve.”

There is a third division, known as the National Guard, including all citizens capable of shouldering arms outside of the foregoing.

XIV.

HISTORY.

Until 1540 Spain reserved for the Crown that part of the territory of Veragua lying west of the portion which had been granted to the heirs of Columbus, but in that year it was erected into a province called Costa Rica. According to the narrative of Colonel G. E. Church, within a period of sixty years from the date of its discovery some ten feeble exploring and colonizing expeditions, mostly from Panama, were fitted out to occupy Costa Rica, but they all proved disastrous, the only result being the exasperation of the natives whom the Spaniards plundered, butchered and treated with signal barbarity.

Between 1560 and 1573 the limits of Costa Rica were defined and confirmed by Philip II., those on the Atlantic Coast being the same as to-day, so far as Nicaragua is concerned.

In 1562 Juan Vasquez de Coronado was named Alcalde and Mayor of the Province of Costa Rica and Veragua. He founded the City of Cartago which remained the capital until 1823.

Up to 1622 fifteen governors succeeded Vasquez, but disappointed in their efforts to find gold, to enslave the Indian population, or to make the country prosperous, they allowed it to lapse into a barbarism far worse than it was at the time of its discovery.

Barrantes says that in 1622 it had but fifty Spanish families, and these were in a condition of extreme poverty.

A report, which the King ordered to be made about that time for purposes of taxation, stated: “In Costa Rica no mines of any metal are worked; no gold-washings, no[126] indigo cultivation, no sugar-mill exist. The people cultivate only maize and wheat. There is no money. The poverty is such that the flour and biscuits which are not consumed are exchanged for necessary clothing.”

When Gregorio de Sandoval was named Captain-General, in 1634, and reached his port from the Atlantic Coast, he noted the importance of having a better port than that then existing at the mouth of the river Pacuare, and, therefore, in 1639 founded that of Matina, connecting it by a mule-trail 102 miles long with Cartago.

From 1666 to the end of the century both the Caribbean and the Pacific coasts were ravaged by piratical expeditions.

In 1718 Diego de la Haya y Fernandez was appointed Captain-General. The following year he reported to the King on the condition of Costa Rica, which he pronounced the “poorest and most miserable of all America. The current money is the cacao seed, there not being a piece of silver in the entire country. There is not an eatable sold in street or shop. Every family has to sow and reap what it consumes or expends during the year. Even the Governor has to do this or perish. Meanwhile the inhabitants of the province are contentious, chimerical and turbulent, and among the whole of them there are not forty men of medium capacity.”

In 1797 the governorship and military command were conferred on Tomas de Acosta, but after ruling for twelve years he wrote: “There is not in the entire monarchy a province so indigent as this, for some of the inhabitants are clothed with the bark of trees, and others, that they may go to church, hire and borrow from their friends.”

This may be said to have been the condition of the country when the domination of Spain ended.

The fifty-eight Governors, who, since 1563, had followed the ill-fated Vasquez de Coronado, had been little more than managers of a neglected farm, which scarcely yielded sufficient to enable its laborers to eke out a miserable, half-starved existence. They had killed off or[127] enslaved the indigenous population. Their poverty had precluded the opening of roads or the clearing and cultivation of the lands, while the exactions of Spain and its barbarous political and fiscal policy had smothered all commercial interests. In fact, Costa Rica had, during three centuries of Spanish domination, constantly retrograded, and when the Spaniard retired from it, he left it less civilized than when he entered it in 1502.

On September 15, 1821, Costa Rica joined Nicaragua in a decree of independence. On January 10, 1822, she proclaimed her union with the Iturbide Empire of Mexico under “the plan of Iguala,” but in 1824 she resumed her independence, declared herself a Republic, elected Juan Mora as President, who remained in office for eight years, and became one of the United Provinces of Central America. This weak, unmanageable union underwent a slow disintegration from 1838 to 1839. It fell in pieces for want of internal communications, like the old Columbian federation of New Granada, Venezuela and Ecuador.

Among the twenty-four presidents and dictators who have governed Costa Rica since 1824, several have been men of marked intelligence and devoted patriotism, and under their administration the country has slowly emerged from its former depression, until to-day it may be said to be in a healthy political and commercial condition.

Costa Rica is very much indebted to its first President, Juan Mora. Other successful Presidents were: Juan Rafael Mora, from 1850 to 1859; General Tomas Guardia, from 1872 to 1876, and again from 1878 to 1882; Bernardo Soto, from 1885 to 1889, and Rafael Iglesias, since 1894.

Since its independence there have been but few stirring events to agitate the country. The most important of them was the efficacious aid it gave to Nicaragua in 1857 in crushing the filibuster Walker, whose object was to add Nicaragua as slave territory to the United States.

CENTRAL AMERICA.
Listing of Provinces, Lakes, Towns etc. in each Central American country.

COSTA RICA.—Provinces, Lakes, Mountains, Rivers, and Towns.

Provinces.

Lakes.

Mountains.

Aguacate, Q-20.
Barba, Q-21.
Blanco, S-24.
Cordillera de Chirique, T-25.
Cordillera de Dota, R-22.
Herradura, S-21.
Irasu, Q-22.
Mira Valles, P-19.
Orosi, P-19.
Poas, Q-21.
Rincon de La Viega, P-19.
Rovalo, S-25.
Sierra de Tilaran, Q-20.
Tenorio, P-20.
Turialba, R-22.
Ujum, S-23.

Rivers.

Amarillo, P-21.
Arenal, P-20.
Bananas, T-25.
Barr, S-22.
Barros, S-25.
Bolson, Q-19.
Chirripo, R-23.
Coen, S-24.
Colo, T-24.
De Orol, R-19.
Dulce, T-23.
Espino, T-23.
Esquinas, T-23.
Frio, P-20.
Golfito, T-24.
Grande de Terraba, S-23.
Guapiles, Q-22.
Haciendas, Q-19.
Higueron, Q-19.
Hone, R-24.
Lion, S-23.
Matina, Q-23.
Negro, P-20.
Nino, O-19.
Nosara, R-19.
Parismina, Q-22.
Paron, T-24.
Pecaare, R-22.
Penas Blancos, Q-20.
Pirris, R-21.
Platanares, P-20.
Rio Grande, R-21.
Rovalo, T-25.
San Carlos, P-21.
Sapoa, O-19.
Sarapiqui, P-22.
Sicsola, R-24.
Sierpe, Q-22.
Sierpe, T-23.
Teliri, R-24.
Telirio Sicsola, R-25.
Tempisque, Q-19.
Toro, Q-21.
Tortuguero, Q-22.
Tuorio Changuinola, S-24.
Viejo, P-19.
Waranjo, R-22.
Zapatero, P-19.

Towns.

GUATEMALA.—Departments, Lakes, Mountains, Rivers, and Towns.

Departments.

Lakes.

Acquioc, C-10.
Amatitlan, I-9.
Atitlan, H-7.
Ayarza, H-10.
Itza, C-9.
Izabal, F-11.
Peten, C-9.
San Pedro, C-8.
Santa Clara, B-11.
Tipu, B-11.

Mountains.

Rivers.

Cahabon, F-10.
Chajul Lacandon, E-8.
Chixoy, E-9.
Chixoy, G-8.
Coylate, I-7.
Cuilco, G-6.
Dolores, F-6.
Guacalate, I-8.
Huista, F-6.
Ixcan, F-7.
Itquia, I-6.
Machaquila, E-10.
Madresieja, I-7.
Micharaya, I-8.
Moca, I-7.
Montaqua, G-11.
Muxania, E-11.
Nauranjo, H-5.
Negro, G-8.
Nima, I-6.
Obete, E-10.
Paz, J-10.
Polochie, G-10.
Rapide, C-11.
Sacchich, B-9.
Samala, I-6.
San Francisco, G-12.

Towns.

HONDURAS.—Departments, Creeks, Lakes and Lagoons, Mountains, Rivers, and Towns.

Departments.

Bay Island, E-17.
Choluteca, K-15.
Colon, F-16.
Comayagua, H-14.
Copan, H-11.
Gracias, I-12.
Intibuca, I-13.
La Paz, I-14.
Olancho, H-18.
Santa Barbara, H-13.
Tegucigalpa, I-15.
Yoro, G-15.

Creeks.

Lakes and Lagoons.

Brus, F-30.
Caratasca, G-22.
Elon, F-20.
Guaranta, G-21.
Ibentara, H-22.
Tilbalacca, G-21.
Yojoa, H-13.

Mountains.

Camasca, I-18.
Campamento, G-16.
Comayagua, H-14.
Canchia, G-14.
Costa de Leon, F-15.
Juticalpa, H-19.
Lepatcrique, I-15.
Mesa de Yojoa, H-18.
Mirandon, I-11.
Misoco, I-16.
Pijo, G-15.
Puca, H-12.
Salaque, I-13.
San Juan, I-13.
Sulaco, H-13.
Tompo, I-19.

Rivers.

Agalta, H-18.
Agua, G-17.
Blanco, G-14.
Chamelicon, G-13.
Chapaqua, F-18.
Choluteca, K-15.
Colorado, G-15.
Congrehoy, F-16.
Croats, H-22.
Cuero, F-15.
Guaranta, H-21.
Guayambre, I-19.
Guayape, I-18.
Honey, F-19.
Ibentara, H-21.
Jafan, I-18.
Juan Lopez, F-16.
Lepaguare, I-18.
Maria, F-16.
Nacaome, J-15.
Negro, F-19.
Negro, K-15.
Papeloteca, F-16.
Patuca, H-20.
Platano, F-20.
Poyas, F-19.
Roman, G-18.
Sacate, F-16.
Secre, G-20.
Segovia, I-21.
Sangrelaya, F-19.
Salaco, H-14.
Santa Barbara, H-13.
Santiago, G-12.
Seco, G-18.
Tinte, F-13.
Ulna, G-13.
Wanks, J-19.

Towns.

NICARAGUA.—Departments, Creeks, Lakes, Mountains, Rivers, and Towns.

Departments.

Chinandega, L-15.
Chontales, N-20.
Granada, M-17.
Leon, L-16.
Managua, M-17.
Masaya, N-17.
Matagalpa, K-19.
Rivas, O-18.
Segovia, J-19.

Creeks.

Lakes.

Mountains.

Corcovada, L-15.
Cordillera de Yoloma, N-21.
Coseguina, L-14.
Guanacaro, K-15.
Huapi, L-19.
Las Pilas, M-16.
Loma del Tigre, M-16.
Madera, O-18.
Monkey Ridge, M-22.
Ometepe, O-18.
Prata Hills, I-22.
Telica, L-16.
Teluca, K-18.
Viejo, L-16.

Rivers.

Anistaga, N-19.
Bambano, K-21.
Bluefields, M-22.
Cama, M-21.
Camusa, O-20.
Chocoyos, L-18.
Coco, K-18.
Congrejal, N-19.
Escondido, M-21.
Español, O-21.
Grande, L-17.
Grande, L-16.
Great, K-22.
Indio, O-21.
Kukallaya, J-21.
Kurringwas, L-21.
Lakwas, I-22.
Lea Marias, O-20.
Locuoro, K-16.
Maiz, O-21.
Maria Falso, O-20.
Mavales, N-19.
Mico, M-20,
Molacatoja, M-18.
Murro, M-20.
Oyate, N-19.
Perlas, L-21.
Poderoso, N-19.
Prinzapulka, K-21.
Rama, N-21.
Rio Grande, K-21.
San Juan, P-21.
Sebaco, L-18.
Siquia, M-21.
Sualalaque, L-16.
Synagapa, L-17.
Telpaneca, K-17.
Tepanonusapa, O-21.
Tepitapa, M-18.
Toongla, K-21.
Walpasixwa, K-22.
Wanks, H-21.
Wawa, I-21.

Towns.

SALVADOR.—Departments, Lakes, Rivers, and Towns.

Departments.

Ahuachapam, J-10.
Cabanas, J-12.
Chalatenango, I-12.
Cuscatlan, J-12.
La Libertad, J-11.
La Paz, K-12.
La Union, K-14.
Morazan, J-13.
San Miguel, J-13.
San Salvador, J-11.
Santa Ana, I-11.
San Vicente, K-12.
Sonsonate, J-10.
Usulutan, K-13.

Lakes.

Rivers.

Barranca, K-11.
Comalapa, K-11.
Goascoran, K-14.
Isalco, J-10.
Jiboa, K-11.
Las Salinas, K-10.
Lempa, K-12.
San Miguel, K-13.

Towns.

BRITISH HONDURAS.—Creeks, Lakes and Lagoons, Mountains, Rivers, and Towns.

Creeks.

Black, B-13.
Blue, B-12.
Irish, B-12.
Labouring, C-12.
North Stann, D-13.
South Stann, D-13.
Yalbac, C-11.

Lakes and Lagoons.

Faber’s, A-13.
New River, B-12.
North, C-12.
Revenge, B-13.
Savanna, A-13.
South, C-13.

Mountains.

Rivers.

Belize, C-11.
Booths, B-11.
Braro, B-11.
Deep, E-12.
Hondo, A-12.
Manatee, C-13.
Monkey, E-12.
Mullins, C-13.
New, B-12.
Old, C-12.
Sibun, C-12.

Towns.

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Moisture	2.60	per cent.
Volatile matter	3.56	”
Fixed carbon	88.20	”
Ash	5.64	”
Total	100	”
Sulphur	.4319	”
Coke	93.84	”
Coke per ton of coal	2002.01	pounds.
Fuel value	9.14	”
Fuel ratio	1 : 24.77


	Temperature in C.°			Evaporation.	Humidity.	Atm’sph’ic Pressure.

	Max.	Min.	Average.	Average.	Average.	Average in mm.

				Per cent.
January	28.5	10.8	18.60	26.97	78	665.86
February	31.8	10.5	19.24	33.97	74	665.39
March	32.4	12.2	19.84	42.77	70	665.38
April	28.4	14.8	20.13	19.65	84	664.87
May	29.2	15.8	20.10	19.84	83	665.32
June	28.8	14.9	20.32	18.67	84	665.09
July	29.2	15.8	20.10	19.84	83	665.32
August	29.2	14.7	20.17	22.81	82	664.38
September	26.6	14.4	19.97	17.87	85	664.83
October	28.4	14.8	20.13	19.65	84	664.87
November	29.0	14.2	19.78	19.93	84	664.70
December	27.7	11.9	19.30	25.29	80	665.36
Average	28.71	13.73	19.81	23.94	81	665.21


	Temperature in C.°			Evaporation.	Humidity.	Atm’sph’ic Pressure.

	Max.	Min.	Average.	Average.	Average.	Average in mm.

				Per cent.
January	29.5	13.1	19.25	30.77	78	665.53
February	31.9	8.2	19.78	44.89	70	666.52
March	31.7	10.9	20.51	36.68	72	665.70
April	32.7	12.2	21.02	36.80	74	665.59
May	30.3	14.0	20.52	24.29	82	665.52
June	29.3	15.5	20.40	16.40	85	665.32


Name.	Commercial Part.	Use.

Achiote	Seed	Dyeing.
Aguacate	Seed	Tanning.
Añil	Extract	Dyeing.
Brazil	Wood	”
Catazin	Wood	”
Encino blanco	Bark	Tanning.
Encino colorado	Bark	”
Gavilan	Bark	”
Guanacaste	Bark	”
Guanacaste	Fruit	Dyeing and tanning.
Mangle	Bark	”””
Mora	Wood	Dyeing.
Nacascolo	Fruit	Dyeing and tanning.
Nancite	Bark	”””
Ojo de venado	Seed	Dyeing.
Ratoncillo	Bark	Tanning.
Sacatinta	Plant	Dyeing.
Sangre de drago	Sap	”
Yuquilla	Root	”


Name.	Character.	Name.	Character.

Acacia	Gum.	Gallinazo	Gum.
Arrayan	Wax.	Guapinol	Resin.
Aroma	Gum.	Hule	Rubber.
Balsamo negro	Balsam.	Incienso	Resin.
Barillo	Resin.	Jinote	Gum-resin.
Copal, fossil amber	”	Jocote	Gum.
Copal	”	Jobo	”
Camibar	Balsam.	Jenizaro	Gum-resin.
Caraña	Resin.	Mangle	Gum.
Copaiba	Balsam.	Mastate	Milk.
Cedro	Gum.	Nispero	Chewing gum.
Cera vegetal	Wax.	Ojoche colorado	Milk.
Cerillo	”	Ojoche macho	”
Chilamate	Milk.	Pochote	Gum.
Chirraca	Balsam.	Quiebracha	”
Espino blanco	Gum.	Sangre de drago	Sap.
Guanacaste	”	Tuno macho	Chewing gum.
Guayacan	Resin.	Palo de vaca	Milk.

		Page
Introduction		5
Chapter I.	TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND MINERAL WEALTH.	7
Chapter II.	CLIMATE OF COSTA RICA.	25
Chapter III.	CHARACTER OF VEGETATION.	32
Chapter IV.	FAUNA.	43
Chapter V.	THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.	46
Chapter VI.	POPULATION.	51
Chapter VII.	IMMIGRATION AND COLONIES.	74
Chapter VIII.	PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.	77
Chapter IX.	TRANSPORTATION, POST AND TELEGRAPH.	81
Chapter X.	AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK.	90
Chapter XI.	COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY.	96
Chapter XII.	FINANCE AND BANKING.	108
Chapter XIII.	POLITICAL ORGANIZATION.	121
Chapter XIV.	HISTORY.	125
Map of Central America		end of book (128)
Proposed line of Nicaragua Canal		end of book (128)
Reverse side of Map		end of book (129)

(Part 1 of 2)	Alt. = Altitude in meters.

	Alt.	Jan.		Feb.		Mch.		April.		May.		June.
	Alt.	Days.	mm.	Days.	mm.	Days.	mm.	Days.	mm.	Days.	mm.	Days.	mm.

Boca del Rio Banana	3	15	292	16	184	17	140	24	1030	19	132	13	272
Port Limon	3	?	224	?	210	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
Gute Hoffnung	40	—	—	18	443	14	132	24	1065	19	302	11	182
La Colombiana	250	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Juan Viñas	1140	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Aragon (Turialba)	600	21	353	12	49	12	65	22	629	23	237	17	267
Tuis	650	21	291	12	159	14	44	22	403	19	270	19	223
San Rafael de Cartago	1476	15	106	12	72	6	20	16	141	14	123	16	153
San Diego de la Union	1300	7	49	3	6	1	1	12	227	16	190	12	239
La Palma	1400	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
San Fransisco Guadelupe	1200	10	55	0	0	—	1	12	138	19	173	16	182
San José	1160	6	54	—	—	1	1	12	132	11	167	19	165
La Verbena	1140	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Nuestro Amo	850	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—

(Part 2 of 2)	Alt. = Altitude in meters.

	Alt.	July.		Aug.		Sept.		Oct.		Nov.		Dec.		Year.
	Alt.	Days.	mm.	Days.	mm.	Days.	mm.	Days.	mm.	Days.	mm.	Days.	mm.	Days.	mm.

Boca del Rio Banana	3	24	405	23	477	14	109	15	262	17	335	23	481	220	4119
Port Limon	3	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
Gute Hoffnung	40	24	399	25	414	14	95	11	106	16	318	23	569	—	—
La Colombiana	250	28	269	23	378	12	129	11	114	16	280	22	564	—	—
Juan Viñas	1140	19	205	11	183	14	194	11	121	19	247	16	515	—	—
Aragon (Turialba)	600	25	257	20	327	14	298	25	142	19	210	15	475	225	3310
Tuis	650	21	267	23	204	21	254	20	134	19	217	27	366	238	2831
San Rafael de Cartago	1476	17	132	16	72	18	97	9	125	16	135	17	164	172	1339
San Diego de la Union	1300	11	110	9	46	19	377	17	239	16	179	8	66	131	1728
La Palma	1400	30	370	30	272	21	229	24	241	25	360	29	835	—	—
San Fransisco Guadelupe	1200	21	232	17	127	21	190	21	241	19	304	11	78	157	1721
San José	1160	19	209	17	124	23	207	20	200	18	300	8	77	154	1642
La Verbena	1140	16	156	10	86	24	238	16	117	19	260	5	41	—	—
Nuestro Amo	850	13	136	8	143	21	376	9	212	?	?	?	?	—	—


	Jan.	Feb.	Mar.	Apr.	May.	Jun.	Jul.	Aug.	Sep.	Oct.	Nov.	Dec.	Total.

1866	33	7	—	29	139	123	320	156	274	250	171	122	1619
1867	98	56	7	98	209	206	214	190	314	213	244	14	1397
1868	—	—	181	13	83	150	102	130	224	393	144	17	1436
1869	7	—	7	28	202	218	150	132	393	281	78	102	1562
1870	1	6	31	17	333	276	240	284	240	262	184	33	1905
1871	28	3	8	13	290	203	364	307	245	333	114	11	1925
1872	3	3	15	50	244	255	192	378	397	504	142	21	2197
1873	64	—	3	71	64	205	145	85	387	262	121	11	1418
1874	46	1	20	60	336	167	162	181	319	191	42	20	1543
1875	—	—	—	28	252	180	93	294	279	339	21	32	1492
1876	14	—	11	6	247	237	153	192	206	117	70	28	1282
1877	14	—	—	—	240	167	223	159	259	95	121	79	1357
1878	—	—	38	50	142	187	205	149	329	238	223	20	1580
1879	13	—	45	192	220	330	460	283	351	231	61	8	2193
1880	8	—	—	15	254	210	104	436	165	278	92	—	1562

Average	22	5	24	44	217	208	208	222	299	266	122	35	1631

90,940	inhabitants	in the	Province of	San José.
67,972	”	”	”	Alajuela.
45,161	”	”	”	Cartago.
37,603	”	”	”	Heredia.
23,769	”	”	”	Guanacaste.
8,925	”	”	Comarca de	Limon.
14,399	”	”	”	Puntarenas.

1868	131,510	1878	163,633	1888	216,650
1869	134,416	1879	167,248	1889	224,250
1870	137,387	1880	170,943	1890	232,034
71	140,423	1881	174,720	1891	240,126
72	143,525	1882	178,581	1892	248,500
73	146,696	1883	182,528	1893	257,155
74	149,937	1884	188,895	1894	266,122
75	153,250	1885	195,483	1895	275,400
76	156,636	1886	202,297	1896	285,003
77	160,097	1887	209,357	1897	288,799

Canton de San José.

Barrios, etc.		Males.		Females.		Total.

Ciudad	{ Distrito del Carmen	1,941	}	2,243	}
or	{ ” La Merced	2,713	} 9,265	2,544	} 10,061	19,326
Capital de	{ ” Catedral	1,758	}	2,095	}
San José.	{ ” Hospital	2,853	}	3,179	}
Barrio de San Pedro		1,273		1,418		2,691
” de San Juan		1,061		1,236		2,297
” de Curridabat		957		973		1,930
” de Zapote		485		509		994
” de San Isidro		974		997		1,971
” de San Vicente		797		867		1,664
” de Alajuelita		1,428		1,416		2,844
” de San Francisco		286		276		562
” de Uruca		675		737		1,412
” de San Jeronimo		187		169		356
” de Mata Redonda		456		486		942
” de Hortillo		194		180		374
” de San Sebastian		361		434		795
” de Las Pavas		470		484		954

Total		18,869		20,243		39,112

Canton de Escazú.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Escasú (Centro)	440	521	961
Barrio de San Antonio	741	757	1,498
” de San Rafael	835	870	1,705
” de Santa Ana	761	699	1,460
” de Salitral	475	423	898

Total	3,252	3,270	6,522

Canton de Desamparados.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Desamparados (Centro)	556	651	1,207
Barrio de San Juan de Dios	486	512	998
” de San Miguel	479	515	994
” de San Cristobal	191	238	429
” de San Rafael	384	391	775
” de Rosario	226	205	431
” de Patarra	225	209	434
” de Los Frailes	186	215	401
” de San Antonio	385	417	802

Total	3,118	3,353	6,471

Canton de Goicoechea.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Guadalupe (Centro)	667	702	1,369
Barrio de San Francisco	161	182	343
” de Ipsis y Purral	260	298	558
” de Blancos y San Gabriel	277	303	580
” del Charco y Rancho Redondo	146	117	263
” de Mata de Platano	103	125	228

Total	1,614	1,727	3,341


Name.	Product.	Name.	Product.

Algodon	Cotton.	Limon montes	Bast.
Balsa	Silk-cotton.	Luffa	Fruit.
Banana	Leaves.	Majagua	Bast.
Barrigona	Silk-cotton and bast.	Maguey	Leaves.
Burio	Bast.	Mastate	Bast.
Cabuya	Leaves.	Palma	Leaves.
Ceiba	Silk-cotton.	Peine de mico	Bast.
Corteza blanca	Bast.	Pie de venado	Bast.
Coco	Fruit fibre.	Piña	Leaves.
Cucanilla	Bast.	Piñuela	Leaves.
Guarumo	Bast.	Pochote	Bast and silk-cotton.
Itavo	Leaves.	Pita	Leaves.
Juco	Bast.	Ramio	Bast.
Junco	Leaves.	Soncollo	Bast.

1864	120,499
1844	79,982
1835	74,565
1826	61,846
1778	24,536

Canton de Mora.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Pacaca (Centro)	435	456	891
Barrio de Los Altos y Tienfres	369	332	701
” de Jateo	166	164	330
” de Brasil	138	140	278
” de Guajabo y Jaris	416	452	868
” de Rodeo	53	53	106
” de Morado	283	295	578
” de Tabarcia	261	238	499
” de Picagres	190	198	388
” de Piedra Blanca	206	201	407
” de Piedras Negras	388	380	768

Total	2,905	2,909	5,814

Canton de Cartago.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Ciudad de Cartago (Centro)	1,638	1,853	3,491
Barrio de San Nicolas	1,357	1,407	2,764
” de Los Angeles	1,192	1,338	2,530
” de San Francisco	1,134	1,203	2,337
” de Carmen	988	1,066	2,054
” de San Rafael	892	995	1,887
” de La Concepcion	891	920	1,811
” de Guadalupe	961	1,075	2,036
” de Pascon y Pacayas	786	714	1,500
” de Santa Cruz y Capelladas	667	550	1,217
” de Corralillo	350	312	662
” de San Juan de Tobosi	270	278	548
” de Quebradilla y Bermejo	201	194	395
” de Tablón	170	171	341
Pueblo de Cot	399	418	817
” de Tobosi	395	360	755
Aldea de Cervantes	397	356	753

Total	12,688	13,210	25,898

Canton de Puriscal.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa del Puriscal (Centro)	597	604	1,201
Barrio de San Rafael	398	373	771
” de San Pablo	371	319	690
” de Barbacoas	245	224	469
” de Desamparaditos	234	257	491
” de San Antonio	299	299	598
” de San Juan	234	211	445
” de Grifo Alto	216	212	428
” de Grifo Bajo	176	183	359
” de Mercedes	358	316	674
” de Candelarita	366	353	719

Total	3,494	3,351	6,845

Canton de Aserri.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Aserri (Centro)	587	652	1,239
Barrio de Monte Redondo	265	258	523
” de Pirris	49	52	101
” de San Ignacio	428	399	827
” de La Legua	189	132	321
” de Sabanillas	320	270	590
” de Cangrejal	176	170	346
” de Tarbaca	195	171	366
” de Cacao	198	199	397
” de La Ceiba	97	78	175
” de Ococa	105	90	195
” de Poas	124	125	249
” de Guaitil	251	223	474
” de Palmichal	114	113	227

Total	3,098	2,932	6,030

Canton de Tarrazú.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de San Marcos (Centro)	437	378	815
Barrio de San Pablo	241	230	471
” de San Andrés	111	93	204
” del General	149	135	284
” de Santa Maria	432	377	809

Total	1,370	1,213	2,583

Canton de Alajuela.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Ciudad de Alajuela (Centro)	1,750	2,078	3,828
Barrio de San Pedro	797	794	1,591
” de San Rafael	632	733	1,365
” de San José	741	798	1,539
” de Santiago Este	528	538	1,066
” ” ” Oeste	483	507	990
” de Concepcion	755	784	1,539
” de Sabanilla	734	722	1,456
” de San Antonio	681	720	1,401
” de Turrúcares	420	388	808
” de Desamparados	436	455	891
” de Tuetal	249	261	510
” de Garita	249	254	503
” de San Isidro	330	333	663
” de Itiquis	279	290	569
” de Sarapiqui	106	61	167
” de Carrillos	196	218	414

Total	9,366	9,934	19,300

Canton de Palmares.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Palmares (Centro)	324	417	741
Barrio de Esquipulas	280	266	546
” de Buenos Aires	271	294	565
” de Zaragoza	289	273	562
” de La Granja	190	166	356

Total	1,354	1,416	2,770

Canton de San Ramon.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de San Ramon (Centro)	912	1,077	1,989
Barrio de Santiago Norte	261	249	510
” ” ” Sur	621	615	1,236
” de Concepcion	281	268	549
” de Piedades Norte	502	486	988
” ” ” Sur	544	536	1,080
” de San Juan	729	733	1,462
” de San Isidro	346	361	707
” de San Rafael	595	622	1,217
” de Los Angeles	112	78	190

Total	4,903	5,025	9,928

Canton de Grecia.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Grecia (Centro)	663	716	1,379
Barrio de San Isidro	388	405	793
” de Sarchi Norte	523	509	1,032
” de Sarchi Sur	291	267	558
” de Sirri	383	372	755
” de Puente Piedra	293	334	627
” de San Jeronimo	279	252	531
” de San Roque	297	299	596
” de San Pedro de la Union	190	191	381
” de San José	393	366	759
” de Tacares	265	239	504
” de Los Angeles	215	198	413
” de San Juan	196	186	382
” de Guatuso	77	10	87

Total	4,453	4,344	8,797

Canton de Atenas.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Atenas (Centro)	388	423	811
Barrio de Jesus	581	544	1,125
” de Mercedes	432	446	878
” de Santiago	254	268	522
” de Concepcion	364	365	729
” de San Isidro	255	232	487
” de Candelaria	196	209	405
” de San José	265	248	513
” de Los Angeles	177	190	367
” de Santa Eulalia	188	183	371

Total	3,100	3,108	6,208

Canton de San Mateo.

Barrios etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa San Mateo (Centro)	340	361	701
Barrio de Santo Domingo	384	357	741
” de Desmonte	244	217	461
” de Ramadas	198	186	384
” de Mastate	293	226	519
” de Jesus Maria	146	125	271
” de Maderal	141	135	276

Total	1,746	1,607	3,353

Canton de Naranjo.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa del Naranjo (Centro)	777	830	1,607
Barrio de San Juanillo	444	546	990
” de Zarcero	374	334	708
” de San Miguel	392	413	805
” de Candelaria	281	283	564
” de Buena Vista y Tapesco	291	267	558
” de Barranca	280	219	499
” de Concepcion	259	246	505
” de San Carlos	189	112	301
” de Laguna	161	149	310

Total	3,448	3,399	6,847

CONTENTS

Introduction.

I. TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND MINERAL WEALTH.

II. CLIMATE OF COSTA RICA.

III. CHARACTER OF VEGETATION.

IV. FAUNA.

V. THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

VI. POPULATION.

VII. IMMIGRATION AND COLONIES.

VIII. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

IX. TRANSPORTATION, POST AND TELEGRAPH.

X. AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK.

XI. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY.

XII. FINANCE AND BANKING.

XIII. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION.

XIV. HISTORY.

CENTRAL AMERICA. Listing of Provinces, Lakes, Towns etc. in each Central American country.

COSTA RICA.—Provinces, Lakes, Mountains, Rivers, and Towns.

Provinces.

Lakes.

Mountains.

Rivers.

Towns.

GUATEMALA.—Departments, Lakes, Mountains, Rivers, and Towns.

Departments.

Lakes.

Mountains.

Rivers.

Towns.

HONDURAS.—Departments, Creeks, Lakes and Lagoons, Mountains, Rivers, and Towns.

Departments.

Creeks.

Lakes and Lagoons.

Mountains.

Rivers.

Towns.

NICARAGUA.—Departments, Creeks, Lakes, Mountains, Rivers, and Towns.

Departments.

Creeks.

Lakes.

Mountains.

Rivers.

Towns.

SALVADOR.—Departments, Lakes, Rivers, and Towns.

Departments.

Lakes.

Rivers.

Towns.

BRITISH HONDURAS.—Creeks, Lakes and Lagoons, Mountains, Rivers, and Towns.

Creeks.

Lakes and Lagoons.

Mountains.

Rivers.

Towns.

THE REPUBLIC
OF COSTA RICA

I.

TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND MINERAL WEALTH.

II.

CLIMATE OF COSTA RICA.

III.

CHARACTER OF VEGETATION.

IV.

FAUNA.

V.

THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

VI.

POPULATION.

VII.

IMMIGRATION AND COLONIES.

VIII.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

IX.

TRANSPORTATION, POST AND TELEGRAPH.

X.

AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK.

XI.

COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY.

XII.

FINANCE AND BANKING.

XIII.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION.

XIV.

HISTORY.

CENTRAL AMERICA.
Listing of Provinces, Lakes, Towns etc. in each Central American country.

Canton de Paraiso.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa del Paraiso (Centro)	932	967	1,899
Barrio de Juan Viñas y Turialba	1,293	870	2,163
” de La Flor	366	331	697
Pueblo de Orosi	590	596	1,186
” de Tucurrique	347	292	639
” de Chirripo	158	122	280
Aldea de Cachi	278	238	516
” de Palomo y Ujarrás	227	212	439

Total	4,191	3,628	7,819

Canton de la Union.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de la Union	530	547	1,077
Barrio de San Diego	394	408	802
” de San Rafael	333	328	661
” de Concepcion	293	259	552
” de Dulce Nombre	185	182	367
” de San Juan	243	238	481
” de San Ramon	167	149	316

Total	2,145	2,111	4,256

Canton de Heredia.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Ciudad de Heredia (Centro)	2,873	3,174	6,047
Barrio de San Pablo	891	904	1,795
” de San Joaquin	815	826	1,641
” de San Isidro	970	1,003	1,973
” de Mercedes	547	588	1,135
” de San Antonio	559	648	1,207
” de El Barreal	356	347	703
” de Sarapiqui	307	164	471
” de La Rivera	292	330	622
” de San Francisco	430	456	886

Total	8,040	8,440	16,480

Canton de Barba.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Barba (Centro)	419	493	912
Barrio de San Pedro	490	496	986
” de San Pablo	251	262	513
” de Santa Lucia	122	130	252
” de San Roque	161	140	301

Total	1,443	1,521	2,964

Canton de Santa Barbara.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Santa Barbara (Centro)	326	362	688
Barrio de San Pedro	290	278	568
” de San Juan	294	302	596
” de Santo Domingo	167	136	303
” de Jesus	315	375	690

Total	1,392	1,453	2,845

Canton de Santo Domingo.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Santo Domingo (Centro)	948	1,032	1,980
Barrio de San Miguel	516	477	963
” de Santo Tomas	393	417	810
” de Santa Rosa	359	395	754
” de San Vicente	177	214	391
” de Paraisito	95	95	190

Total	2,488	2,630	5,118

Canton de San Rafael.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de San Rafael (Centro)	808	804	1,612
Barrio de San José	481	494	975
” de Los Angeles	277	257	534
” de Santiago	341	383	724
” de Concepcion	172	187	359

Total	2,079	2,125	4,204

Canton de Liberia.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Ciudad de Liberia (Centro)	1,095	1,131	2,226
Barrio de Sardinal	567	540	1,107
” de Filadelfia	388	390	778
” de Cañas Dulces	463	335	798
” de Palmira	296	257	553
” de Buenos Aires	254	167	421

Total	3,063	2,820	5,883

Canton de Cañas.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Cañas (Centro)	179	222	401
Barrio de Colorado	434	207	641
” de Sandillal	147	134	281
” de Hotel	124	132	256
” de Santa Rosa	91	65	156
” de Buenaventura	94	80	174
” de Bebedero	102	61	163
” de Javia	46	47	93

Total	1,217	948	2,165

Canton de Bagaces.

Barrios, etc.	Males.	Females.	Total.

Villa de Bagaces (Centro)	180	239	419
Barrio de Bebedero	112	77	189
” de Agua Caliente	52	48	100
” de Tamarindo	85	37	122
” de Monte Negro	51	56	107
” de Montaña	68	59	127
” de Pijijé	68	54	122
” de Rio Blanco	63	48	111
” de Salitial	32	25	57
” de Joreo	26	18	44
” de Cofradia	38	40	78

Total	775	701	1,476